Making public organizations work

M A K I NG P UB LIC ORGANIZATION S WORK

To my fellow public management scholars, I hope I have done our work justice.

MAKING PUBLIC ORGANIZATIONS B E RT G E O RG E

WORK

INTRODUCTION

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D EFI N I N G P U B LI C M A N AG EM ENT

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STRU C TU R E O F M P OW

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C A S E : N O R T H AT L A N T I C T R E AT Y O R G A N I Z AT I O N ( N AT O)

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PART 1.

MACRO -LEVE L: MANAGING RE FORMS, PE RFORMANCE A N D VA L U E S CHAPTER 1. PUBLIC MANAGEMENT REFORM

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1 1

O L D P U B L I C A D M I N I S T R AT I O N O R W E B E R I A N B U R E A U C R A C Y

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1 2

N E W P U B LI C M A N AG EM ENT

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1 3

P O S T- N E W P U B L I C M A N A G E M E N T

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1 4

A M U LT I L AY E R R E A L I T Y

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1 5

C A S E : T H E O E C D ’ S P R O G R A M F O R I N T E R N AT I O N A L S T U D E N T A S S E S S M E N T

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CHAPTER 2. PUBLIC SECTOR PERFORMANCE

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2 1

A H I G H LY C O N T R O V E R S I A L C O N C E P T

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2 2

A M U LT I D I M E N S I O N A L , M U LT I S O U R C E C O N C E P T

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2 3

I N P U TS - O U T P U TS - O U TCO M E S A N D S U B S EQ U E N T PERFORMANCE DIMENSIONS

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2 4

R E S P O N S I V E N E S S , D E M O C R AT I C A N D G O V E R N A N C E O U T C O M E S

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2 5

C A S E: T H E WO R L D BA N K ’ S P U B L I C S EC TO R P E R FO R M A N C E G LO BA L EXPERT TEAM

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4

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3 1

P U B L I C VA L U E V E R S U S P U B L I C VA L U E S

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3 2

P U B L I C VA L U E S P L U R A L I S M

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3 3

M A N A G I N G P U B L I C VA L U E S P R E F E R E N C E S

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3 4

M A N A G I N G P U B L I C VA L U E S A S S E S S M E N T

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3 5

C A S E : T H E W O R L D VA L U E S S U R V E Y

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PART 2 .

M E S O - L E V E L : M A N AG I N G P U B L I C O R G A N I Z AT I O N S AND NETWORKS

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C H A P T E R 4 . P U B L I C O R G A N I Z AT I O N S A N D T H E I R E N V I R O N M E N T

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4 1

PUBLICNESS

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4 2

S I Z E , B U D G E T, D E P R I VAT I O N A N D D I V E R S I T Y

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4 3

R E D TA P E A N D A D M I N I S T R AT I V E B U R D E N S

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4 4

PREVIOUS PERFORMANCE

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4 5

C A S E : T H E R E D TA P E R E D U C T I O N U N I T O F T H E W E S T E R N C A P E G OV E R N M E N T (S O U T H -A F R I C A)

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C H A P T E R 5 . P U B L I C S T R AT E G I C M A N AG E M E N T

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5 1

S T R AT E G Y I N P U B L I C O R G A N I Z AT I O N S

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5 2

P R O C E S S : S T R AT E G I C P L A N N I N G A N D M A N A G E M E N T

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5 3

C O N T E N T: S T R AT E G I C S TA N C E O R P O S I T I O N

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5 4

B E H AV I O R : B E H AV I O R A L P U B L I C S T R AT E G Y

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5 5

C A S E : T H E A N I M A L S A S I A F O U N D AT I O N ( H O N G K O N G )

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

C H A P T E R 3 . CO M P E T I N G VA L U E S A N D G OA L S

CHAPTER 6. PUBLIC PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT

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6 1

S T R AT E G I C A L I G N M E N T

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6 2

P RO C E S S: P ER FO R M A N C E M E A S U R EM ENT A N D M A N AG EM ENT

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6 3

C O N T E N T: G O A L A M B I G U I T Y

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6 4

B E H AV I O R : B E H AV I O R A L P U B L I C P E R F O R M A N C E

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6 5

C A S E: TH E KO R E A N M I N I S TRY O F P ER S O N N EL M A N AG EM ENT

C H A P T E R 7. P U B L I C N E T W O R K M A N A G E M E N T

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7 1

I N T E R - O R G A N I Z AT I O N A L V E R S U S I N T R A - O R G A N I Z AT I O N A L M A N A G E M E N T

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7 2

P RO C E S S: N E T WO R K M A N AG EM ENT A N D G OV ER N A N C E

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7 3

C O N T E N T: G O A L A M B I G U I T Y

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7 4

B E H AV I O R : B O U N D A R Y S PA N N I N G

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7 5

C AS E: TH E EU ROCITIES N E T WORK

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PART 3 .

M I C R O - L E V E L : M A N AG I N G S T R E E T- L E V E L B U R E A U C R AT S , POLITICIANS AND CITIZENS

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8 1

S T R E E T- L E V E L B U R E A U C R AT, W H O A R T T H O U ?

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8 2

P RO C E S S: M A N AG I N G P OW ER L E S S N E S S

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8 3

C O N T E N T: M A N A G I N G M E A N I N G L E S S N E S S

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8 4

B E H AV I O R : E N F O R C E M E N T S T Y L E

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8 5

C A S E: TE AC H ER S ’ S TR I K E AC ROS S S O U TH A M ER I C A

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C H A P T E R 8 . P U B LI C M A N AG E R S A N D S T R E E T- L E V E L B U R E A U C R AT S

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9 1

T H E P O L I T I C O - A D M I N I S T R AT I V E R E L AT I O N S H I P

9 2

P RO C E S S: M A N AG I N G P O LITI C I A N S

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9 3

C O N T E N T: M A N A G I N G A P U B L I C VA L U E N A R R AT I V E O R S TAT E M E N T

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9 4

B E H AV I O R : P O L I T I C A L A S T U T E N E S S

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9 5

C A S E : T H E P U B L I C VA L U E S TAT E M E N T O F T H E R E A D T O A DOG PROGR AM IN MAINE (US)

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CHAPTER 10. PUBLIC MANAGERS AND CITIZENS 10 1

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T H E C I T I Z E N A S A C L I E N T 145

1 0 2 P R O C E S S : M A N A G I N G C O - C R E AT I O N 147 1 0 3 C O N T E N T: M A N A G I N G C H O I C E 148 1 0 4 B E H AV I O R : B E H AV I O R A L P U B L I C A D M I N I S T R AT I O N 149 1 0 5 C A S E : T H E C O V I D S A F E A P P O F T H E A U S T R A L I A N G O V E R N M E N T 151

CONCLUSION

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REFERENCES

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 9. PUBLIC MANAGERS AND POLITICIANS

P R E FAC E ‘Making Public Organizations Work’ (MPOW) offers an overview of public management activities that help public managers manage reforms, performance and values; manage public organizations and networks; and manage street-level bureaucrats, politicians and citizens. It is the go-to book for anyone searching for an introduction into the why, how and what of public management.

Why the need for a book centered on making public organizations work?

Over the past couple of decades, public management as a field of study has expanded tremendously. Due to the expansion of the field, there is more and more empirical evidence being produced by public management scholars that can help explain how one can make public organizations work in different contexts. We have our own journals, our own associations, and many professors worldwide are proud to label themselves as public management scholars – me being one of them. So, what is missing?

Despite the expansion and presence of more and more empirical evidence on public management, there is somewhat of a great divide between practice and research. Indeed, some academic journals have paywalls not allowing practitioners to access academic articles, and academic articles tend to follow scientific standards concerning rigor and reporting (and should!), which sometimes makes it hard for practitioners to read these and understand key takeaways for their practice. This book seeks to bridge this great divide and present anyone interested in public management with an approachable introduction to this fascinating field based on actual work being conducted by public management scholars worldwide.

In doing so, this book hopes to encourage practitioners to engage more with public management research.

I have had the pleasure of teaching public management-related courses to students and practitioners from Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Austria, Suriname, Scotland, Finland, South-Africa, Hong Kong and the US. While there are some books on public management, these are

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The structure of the book focuses on explaining core public management themes at the macro-, meso- and micro-level, which helps readers understand the multilevel reality underlying the management of public organizations as well as come to grips with important public management concepts. Each chapter includes boxes in which seminal works in public management research are discussed , in addition to boxes presenting more recent studies . This provides readers with a starting list of foundational and contemporary works and scholars in our field.

Each chapter concludes with a real-life case study and questions for reflection to embed material into the reader’s learning process . These cases demonstrate the international nature of public management and seek to offer the reader insights into how public management is applied in practice throughout the world. The beginning chapter of each section also highlights important managerial implications, containing activities that public managers need to be able to do in their daily practice .

So, who is the audience of MPOW? This book is aimed at anyone who wants to learn more about how we can make public organizations work. Importantly, as the field of public management is international in nature, this book seeks to adhere to this core characteristic of our field. It is not a book on public management in one specific context, but rather looks at evidence and cases from across the globe to speak to a wide audience. This book can also be used to support introductory courses in public management at the higher education level.

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PREFACE

often not geared towards practitioners. Some books are research-oriented edited volumes that do not necessarily have the homogeneity in structure required for broad dissemination, other books are centered on one core public management theme that is elaborated on in-depth and some books on public administration more broadly introduce public management in one or a couple of chapters. Of course, all of these books have made a massive contribution to the field but are not necessarily fit for the purpose of guiding practitioners through public management research and ideas.

This book seeks to address this caveat and is ideally placed to (a) introduce practitioners to this amazing field of study and (b) support courses on public management.

Importantly, I have found that many public managers look for answers in management or business books and tend to look at more generic management models. These models have not always been useful to public organizations and have even inhibited public organizations from achieving their purpose. This book argues that public organizations require other approaches to management that are not centered on maximizing shareholder value and financial profit, but rather on creating public value and contributing to the common good.

Wicked times call for great public management It goes without saying that public organizations and public management are more important than ever. I am writing this preface in the midst of the worldwide COVID-19 pandemic. If we ever needed proof of the importance of a high performing healthcare system, well-organized policing, flexible education institutions and responsive local governments to name a few, we have clearly received it now. These wicked times have shown that stereotypes of public servants are far from correct, as they are – literally – putting their life and wellbeing on the line to ensure the provision of public services. They also show that a great deal of effort is needed to ensure that our public sector has the capacity to deliver public services in an effective, efficient, equitable and responsive manner. All of this requires great public management and public managers. Hence, I dedicate this book to you, public managers. You have chosen an honorable profession with great responsibility. Public management makes things happen and I hope that this book can support you in contributing to the common good and creating public value. You are needed, now more than ever.

Bert George

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INTRODUCTION What do police and fire departments, schools and hospitals, museums, local and regional governments, the military and federal government agencies have in common? The core business model of these organizations does not center on generating shareholder value and financial profit, but rather on delivering public services and thus generating so-called public value. This is why we label these organizations as public organizations.

Their task is vital to the wellbeing of our societies, imagine for instance that there would be no police enforcing our laws, no firemen helping us deal with calamities, no schools offering us education or no museums safeguarding our cultural heritage. These public organizations are typically funded, at least in part, by taxpayers’ money and their performance is often scrutinized, directly or indirectly, by political leaders. The people running these public organizations are called public managers and can have diverse educational and professional backgrounds, some having moved up from inside the organization whereas others might have been recruited from different public or non-profit organizations or even from the private sector. Box 1. demonstrates this diversity specifically for top public managers in central governments across Europe.

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MANAGERS ACROSS EUROPE The COCOPS project (Coordinating for Cohesion in the Public Sector of the Future) was a research project that took place from 2010 to 2014 and involved 11 European universities This project included a mapping of the top public managers in central governments across 17 European countries Based on a survey among 6,701 of these top public managers, the project leaders found that most of them are higher educated, with about 25% having a degree in business, management or economics, 24% in law, 23% in engineering and natural sciences, 13% in political science and 15% in social sciences Moreover, 21% of the respondents have worked at least for five years in the private sector and 18% in the non-profit sector. There is thus clearly not one ‘mold’ in which public managers fit. This is also a demonstration of the diversity one finds in public management scholarship. Wellcited public management scholars have diverse backgrounds ranging from public administration, management, economics, political science, urban planning, sociology and other fields such as engineering.

The importance of these public managers cannot be underestimated. While they might not be the teachers or police officers who are directly offering public services to citizens, they are responsible for organizing public service delivery in order to make sure that public services are delivered to the right people, at the right time, with the right quality and at the right price. In order to do this, public managers need to think about which tools and systems are most relevant for their context, what ‘good’ performance entails in their context, and which values they need to uphold. Moreover, they need to understand their public organization and its environment, set a strategy based on this understanding, follow-up the achievement of the said strategy and work with partners and other collaborators if and when needed. Finally, they need to be able to manage their employees, which include the people actually delivering public services to citizens (i.e. street-level bureaucrats), as well as their political leaders (i.e. politicians) and the people benefiting from their services (i.e. clients). In other words, public

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INTRODUCTION

BOX 1. HAMMERSCHMID ET AL. (2016) – TOP PUBLIC

managers need to be good at public management. Indeed, research shows that public management matters. See for example Box 2., which focuses on public management in local government.

BOX 2. WALKER AND ANDREWS (2015) – LOCAL GOVERNMENT MANAGEMENT AND PERFORMANCE Richard M Walker (City University of Hong Kong) and Rhys Andrews (Cardiff University), two leading professors in public management, did a systematic literature review and meta-analysis of quantitative studies focusing on the relationship between public management and performance in local government They investigated 86 studies and concluded that several management practices have a strong impact on performance in local government, including recruiting (and sustaining) a high-quality staff, ensuring stability in terms of personnel and planning for the future These are typical activities performed by public managers The authors do note that most of the investigated studies focus on effectiveness as a dimension of performance, and attentive readers might already ask whether effectiveness is enough of a measure to grasp the full complexity underlying performance in the public sector A fun fact to know: Richard M Walker is also the current president of the Public Management Research Association – one of the leading research associations in our field.

1.

D E F I N I N G P U B LI C M A N AG E M E NT Having introduced the importance of public managers and the need for them to be good at public management, the following question now pops up: What exactly is public management? Figure 1. shows the intersection of activities that are all part of public management. Importantly, notice the usage of the gerund-form ‘manag-ing’ among each of these activities.

This is a deliberate choice that needs to be clarified at the very beginning of this book. Indeed, this book focuses on public management as a practice, something public managers do as opposed to only something public organizations have. The book thus puts the public manager at the forefront of public management, and seeks to provide insights to future

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MACRO-LEVEL: MANAGING REFORMS, PERFORMANCE AND VALUES

MESO-LEVEL: MANAGING PUBLIC ORGANIZATIONS AND NETWORKS

PUBLIC MANAGEMENT

MICRO-LEVEL: MANAGING STREET-LEVEL BUREAUCRATS, POLITICIANS AND CITIZENS

Figure 1. Public management activities Public management is defined as the practice of managing macro-, mesoand micro-level activities that enable or constrain public organizations from achieving their core purpose and creating public value.

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1. DEFINING PUBLIC MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION

(and current) public managers on how they can enhance the performance of their public organization through the usage of specific public management tools and systems tailored to the needs of their own context. Th is also implies that the book does not provide any ‘step-by-step’ models or ‘off-the-shelf ’ solutions to public managers. Rather, the core assumption of the book is that public managers need to be capable of understanding core public management theory and concepts, and contextualize these based on the needs and characteristics of their own organization.

Let us dissect this definition into five critical components of public management: •

•

•

•

•

The practice: Public management is very much something public managers do; and how they do it based on their own context and experience is what matters most in explaining public management’s impact. It is thus not just about having specific tools or systems in place but rather about the activities underlying these tools and systems.

Macro-, meso- and micro-level activities: Public management is not only about public organizations, it is also about broader reforms, performance expectations and values that cross organizational boundaries, about networks clustering several organizations and about individuals delivering, enjoying or steering public services.

Enable or constrain: Public management is all about balancing enablers and constraints at different levels as well as across levels. Public managers need to stimulate macro-, meso- and micro-level activities that help their public organization perform as well as inhibit macro-, meso- and micro-level activities that potentially reduce performance.

Public organizations: What makes an organization public is not always clear, but we assume that these organizations at least partially rely on public funding, do not have financial profit as their core aim but rather focus on creating public value, serve a specific public purpose and experience direct or indirect scrutiny from political leaders.

Core purpose and public value: The core purpose of a public organization is the reason why it exists, and why it does what it does. This core purpose is closely tied to public value; by fulfilling their core purpose, public organizations offer a specific service to the public and thus create public value.

It is important to emphasize that this definition of public management adopts the perspective of practitioners engaging with public management. Public management is also a field of study, with its own academic associations, journals and conferences (see Box 3. for a description of

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B OX 3 . I R S P M A N D P M R A – R E S E A R C H A S S O C I AT I O N S O N P U B L I C M A N AG E M E N T IRSPM The International Research Society for Public Management (IRSPM) has grown out of a highly successful series of annual conferences At the ninth conference, held at the Bocconi University in 2005, the conference attendees agreed that a proposal would be developed to formalize this emerging network of researchers and to establish IRSPM This idea was unanimously accepted at the tenth conference held at the Glasgow Caledonian University in April 2006 The Society’s mission is to develop and support research about public management and public policy implementation amongst the international research community and to facilitate the creation and dissemination of new knowledge and understanding across this community Public Management Review is IRSPM’s flagship journal. (IRSPM, n.d.)

PMRA The Public Management Research Association (PMRA) is a non-profit academic membership association that furthers research on public organizations which over the years has substantially increased in size and influence. The Public Management Research Association Conference has become the foremost gathering of leading public management scholars in the US and around the world In addition, PMRA now publishes the Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory (JPART), one of the premier journals in the field. A second journal, Perspectives on Public Management and Governance (PPMG), debuted in 2017 PMRA, JPART, and PPMG emphasize links between the study of public institutions, their management, and public policy (PMRA, n d )

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1. DEFINING PUBLIC MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION

two major public management associations). While public management as a field of study is not the explicit focus of this book, specific studies from public management scholars are engrained in the text throughout to provide the reader with an evidence-informed perspective on public management and discover its identity as a field of study.

2.

STR U C TU R E O F M P OW The earlier-mentioned definition of public management shows that any book on the subject needs to acknowledge its multilevel, practice-based nature. ‘Making Public Organizations Work’ (MPOW) incorporates these three levels of analysis and provides a per-level discussion of important concepts that shape activities at and between these levels (see Figure 2.).

MACRO

PUBLIC MANAGEMENT REFORM (CHAPTER 1)

PUBLIC SECTOR PERFORMANCE (CHAPTER 2)

COMPETING VALUES AND GOALS (CHAPTER 3)

MESO

PUBLIC ORGANIZATIONS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT (CHAPTER 4)

PUBLIC STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT (CHAPTER 5)

MICRO

PUBLIC PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT (CHAPTER 6)

STREET-LEVEL BUREAUCRATS (CHAPTER 8)

PUBLIC NETWORK MANAGEMENT (CHAPTER 7)

POLITICIANS (CHAPTER 9)

Figure 2. The structure of MPOW

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CITIZENS (CHAPTER 10)

The next four chapters really get into the organizational activities underlying public management, and include some discussion on the core characteristics of public organizations and their environment as well as important organization-wide management processes, namely strategic management, performance management and network management. The meso-level is the level on which most of the actual management takes place. Importantly, this level centers on the capability of an organization – including questions surrounding resource allocation and optimization, as well as the overall direction an organization wants to move in and how it does so (Moore, 2013). This section thus helps public managers understand their organization and the environment in which it operates, set a strategy for the future and implement said strategy together with core partners.

The final three chapters take a deep dive into the actual people underlying public organizations and important considerations for public managers to acknowledge when managing these people (including street-level bureaucrats, politicians and citizens). This micro-level fully acknowledges the human element, or better said, the behavioral side of public management (Simon, 1997). It aims to help public managers become better leaders and people managers by giving them an understanding concerning who exactly they are working for and with.

In the concluding case of this introductory chapter, we look at the North Atlantic Treaty Organization using our just developed public management lenses.

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2. STRUCTURE OF MPOW

INTRODUCTION

The first three chapters focus on the macro-level activities underlying public management and include a discussion of important public management reforms and movements that have shaped its practice, the different levels and dimensions of public sector performance as the main purpose driving public organizations, and how public organizations are often confronted with competing values and goals that they need to adhere to due to societal or political expectations. The macro-level is typically labelled as the authorizing and institutional environment of public organizations, and managing this environment is crucial for legitimacy purposes (Moore, 2013). Hence, this section aims to elucidate to public managers what is expected of them and why.

3.

C A S E : N O R T H AT L A N T I C T R E AT Y O R G A N I Z AT I O N ( N AT O)

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INTRODUCTION

N O R T H AT L A N T I C T R E AT Y O R G A N I Z AT I O N ( N AT O) A P O L I T I C A L A N D M I L I TA R Y A L L I A N C E Security in our daily lives is key to our well-being NATO’s purpose is to guarantee the freedom and security of its members through political and military means

Political – NATO promotes democratic values and enables members to consult and cooperate on defense and security-related issues to solve problems, build trust and, in the long run, prevent conflict.

Military – NATO is committed to the peaceful resolution of disputes If diplomatic efforts fail, it has the military power to undertake crisis-management operations These are carried out under the collective defense clause of NATO’s founding treaty − Article 5 of the Washington Treaty − or under a United Nations mandate, alone or in cooperation with other countries and international organizations

AC T I V I T I E S Decisions and consultations – Every day, member countries consult and take decisions on security issues at all levels and in a variety of fields. A ‘NATO decision’ is the expression of the collective will of all 30 member countries since all decisions are taken by consensus. Hundreds of officials, as well as civilian and military experts, come to NATO Headquarters each day to exchange information, share ideas and help prepare decisions when needed, in cooperation with national delegations and the staff at NATO Headquarters

Operations and missions – Afghanistan, Kosovo, Securing the Mediterranean, Supporting the African Union NATO takes an active role in a broad range of crisis-management operations and missions, including civil emergency operations NATO’s crisis-management operations are carried out under Article 5 of the Washington Treaty or under a United Nations mandate

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3 . C A S E : N O R T H AT L A N T I C T R E AT Y O R G A N I Z AT I O N ( N AT O)

Partnerships – 40 non-member countries work with NATO on a wide range of political and security-related issues These countries pursue dialogue and practical cooperation with the Alliance and many contribute to NATO-led operations and missions NATO is also cooperating with a wide network of international organizations Partner countries do not have the same decision-making authority as member countries

Developing the means to respond to threats – NATO has always innovated and adapted itself to ensure its policies, capabilities and structures meet current and future threats, including the collective defense of its members (NATO, n d )

QU ESTIONS FOR REFLEC TION Is NATO a public organization?

Who are the public managers at NATO?

What is the core purpose of NATO and how does it create public value?

What are macro-level activities influencing NATO (reforms, performance expectations, values)?

What are meso-level activities influencing NATO (organization-wide management processes, organizational and environmental characteristics)?

What are micro-level activities influencing NATO (individual politicians, citizens, street-level bureaucrats)?

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PA R T 1

Macro-level: Managing reforms, performance and values

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CHAPTER 1. PUBLIC M A N AG E M E N T R E F O R M As was discussed in the introductory chapter, the macro-level of public management is where the rules of the game are determined for all public managers – in all domains and at all levels of government. This is not about any one public organization but, rather, it matters for the entire public sector and for anyone taking up managerial responsibilities in this sector. Importantly, all three chapters of this section build on each other: first we discuss public management reforms, which resulted in expectations that are measured via public sector performance, which in turn influenced the need to balance competing public values and goals (see Figure 1.). To start off this section, let me take you through over 100 years of history on public organizations and the reforms they are and have been tied to. As you will see throughout this chapter, public organizations have been shaped and formed by political preferences and core beliefs on how societies and economies should be organized. Consequently, public management has strongly been impacted by theories and models coming from other fields of study – perhaps most importantly here are the fields of law and political science, economics and management, and sociology and psychology.

In this chapter the three major reform movements are discussed, namely Old Public Administration or Weberian Bureaucracy, New Public Management and Post-New Public Management, and each reform is tied to specific fields of study as well as political preferences and core beliefs (see Figure 1.1. below). I conclude with a discussion of the practical reality underlying these reforms in contemporary public organizations and present the OECD’s Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) as an interesting case study tied to the content of this chapter.

It is important to note that this chapter might give the reader the idea that public management popped up in the early 1900s. This is not true.

Running vast empires like those of Alexander The Great or Genghis Khan, planning and organizing massive military campaigns like those of Napoleon, providing water services and organizing taxation in Ancient

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Rome – all required public management activities fit for purpose. But, much has already been written about these historical events by brilliant historians, so let us kick off the public management reform tale in a more recent time.

P A

OLD PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

POST-NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENT

• EARLY 1960S • MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMICS • RUN GOVERNMENT LIKE A BUSINESS

• EARLY 2000S • SOCIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY • MOVE FROM GOVERNMENT TO GOVERNANCE

Figure 1.1. Public management reforms, fields of study and core beliefs

1.1.

O L D P U B L I C A D M I N I S T R AT I O N O R W E B E R I A N B U R E AU C R AC Y Imagine a government where being a public servant might only be a parttime job that does not require much training or education. A government where promotions of public servants are mostly the result of being well connected as opposed to performing optimally. A government where politics and administration are not really separated, and where public servants are far from neutral. A government where citizens might receive

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1 . 1 . O L D P U B L I C A D M I N I S T R AT I O N O R W E B E R I A N B U R E A U C R A C Y

R T

1 MACRO-LEVEL

NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENT

• EARLY 1900S • LAW AND POLITICAL SCIENCE • ESTABLISH A NEUTRAL AND FAIR GOVERNMENT