62 (Camacho also took on the Spanish pronunciation, losing the “sh” sound represented by the .) The name Xavier became gallicised or Frenchified in pronunciation, with the sounding like /z/ instead of the “sh” sound (as in Teixeira). Portuguese surnames can be recognized and identified by the following spellings, especially diphthongs, and also where Spanish has . These are among many others not listed here (e.g., some names beginning with and ): • as in Madeira and Pereira; • as in Lourenço and de Sousa/Souza (the Spanish equivalent, where applicable, is , e.g., Sousa and Sosa); • <ão> as in Brazão and Serrão; • <ç>, as in Gonçalves (which became Gonsalves, but the is now pronounced as /z/ instead of /s/) and Mendonça; • as in Carvalho and Coelho; • as in Farinha and Pinheiro (equivalent of Spanish <ñ>); • as in Teixeira and Xavier ( in Portuguese has the “sh” sound in English); • as in Cabral and Quintal; • as in Fernandes and Nunes (where there are equivalents in Spanish, the Spanish spelling is usually , although Portuguese has had the spellings as well), and , as in Affonso and Dias; • as in d’Andrade, da Costa, and dos Santos (da and dos both mean ‘of the’). Some spelling differences have to do with changes in Portuguese orthography over the years. For example, Souza belongs to the older spelling system, and Sousa belongs to the newer system. Vasconcellos and Ornellas are the older forms and Vasconcelos and Ornelas are the newer. The older forms survive in the Americas, including Trinidad and Tobago, and elsewhere. They tell a story of the related era of arrival. Portuguese surnames are mentioned in various calypsos, such as those mentioning (J.J.) Ribeiro, (Eduardo) Sá Gomes and (Albert) Gomes. Sá Gomes was born in São Pedro, Madeira and was a pioneer of calypso recordings, and Gomes was a Trinidadian who staunchly defended calypso and steelpan, and freedom for the Shouter Baptists. Calypso, of course, was in Patois and in English, later English Creole and English. Portuguese characters with their Portuguese names and surnames also appeared in skits and plays, for example, the 1905 “Portuguese Shop in George Street”, and the 1992 “Ah Wanna Fall”, which featured Pharoah’s 1948 “Portuguese (or Potogee) Dance”, an imitation of Portuguese speech. Portuguese in the Home Historically, the picture of Portuguese language use in Trinidad was quite different from today’s scenario. The language was in regular use both inside and outside of the home in the latter half of the 19th century up to the first half of the 20th century. In most Portuguesedescended families today, very little of the Portuguese language is remembered. In the Trinidadian Portuguese community, especially in the second half of the 20th century, acquiring Portuguese had become difficult for children, especially where the only fluent speaker of Portuguese was an immigrant father who worked almost 12 hours each day outside of the home to support his family. The women spent the most time with their children at home, so acquiring Portuguese was somewhat easier if mothers or other female family members were Madeiran-born and fluent Portuguese speakers. Luso-Trinidadian or Portuguese Creole mothers themselves who spoke more English often only had partial competence in Portuguese (“semi-speakers”). In such cases, mothers were unable to pass on their parents’ language to their children, but many passed on aspects