Notes Overview 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
UNDP 2013a. Stiglitz and Kaldor 2013a. See, for example, World Bank (2013c). UN General Assembly 2013b, p. 9. UN System Task Team on the Post2015 UN Development Agenda 2012b. FAO, IFAD and WFP 2013. ILO 2013d. UNDESA 2009. WHO 2011b. CRED 2013. UNDP 2011a. World Bank 2010. UNDP 2013c. Cornia and Stewart 1993. UN System Task Team on the Post2015 UN Development Agenda 2012b. ILO 2012b. ILO 2010c. Stiglitz and Kaldor 2013a.
Chapter 1 1 2 3 4 5 6
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UNDP 1990. Chambers 2006. Choudhury 2013. United Nations Global Pulse 2012; Conceição, Mukherjee and Nayyar 2011. Stewart 2013. Social competences are defined as what social institutions can be or do; they are in a sense the capabilities of institutions, as against those of individuals. See Stewart (2013). UNDP 1994, p. 3. UNDP 1994; Ogata and Sen 2003. Macfarlane and Khong 2006. As per UN General Assembly 2012 resolution 66/290 “the notion of human security includes the following: (a) The right of people to live in freedom and dignity, free from poverty and despair. All individuals, in particular vulnerable people, are entitled to freedom from fear and freedom from want, with an equal opportunity to enjoy all their rights and fully develop their human potential; (b) Human security calls for people-centred, comprehensive, context-specific and preventionoriented responses that strengthen the protection and empowerment of all people and all communities; . . .”. Stiglitz and Kaldor 2013a. Dutta, Foster and Mishra 2011, p. 1. UN 2012a. Based on available data from 91 countries. Sundaram 2013. Based on available data from 104 countries for 2000–2012, representing 5.4 billion people (Human Development Report Office
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calculations based on data from the World Bank’s PovcalNet (http:// iresearch.worldbank.org/PovcalNet/, accessed 15 February 2014). Data are available for eight countries. ILO 2010c. Sundaram 2013. Sundaram 2013. Stiglitz and Kaldor 2013a. IPCC 2013. UNDP 2011a. La Trobe 2002. UN General Assembly 2013c. Kaul 2014. Stiglitz and Kaldor 2013a. Horizontal inequality is inequality between groups. See Stewart, Brown and Mancini (2005). Minorities at Risk Project 2014. Swiderska and others 2009. WHO 2011b. UNDESA 2009. IPU 2013; Munyaneza 2013. See Liem and Rayman (1982), Darity and Goldsmith (1996) and Muqtada (2010), among others. See Burgard, Brand and House 2007; Sullivan and von Wachter 2009; Cutler and others 2002; Brand, Levy and Gallo 2008. Zaidi 2014; Hardgrove and others 2014; Young 2014. Nussbaum 2005. Boudet and others 2012. ILO n.d. IMF 2014. IMF 2014; ILO 2013e. O’Sullivan, Mugglestone and Allison 2014. Stiglitz and Kaldor 2013a. Ismi 2013. Østby 2008b; Stewart 2008. Stewart 2008. Stewart 2013. Kelly and others 2008. Fitoussi and Malik 2013. Sen 1992. Kant 1781. Sen 1999, p. 8. Sen, Stiglitz and Fitoussi 2009, p. 4. The 1993 HDR (UNDP 1993) defines jobless growth as when output rises but increases in employment lag behind. World Bank 2012. HelpAge International 2013. Ninth World Trade Organization Ministerial Conference (2013) website, https://mc9.wto.org. Revkin 2012. Polanyi 1944.
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Chapter 2 1 2
UNDP 2013a. Sen, Stiglitz and Fitoussi 2009, p. 7.
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Developed countries are not included in regional aggregates, but they are included in the human development aggregates. Some caveats: Since the HDI is bounded to a maximum of 1, it might be subject to declining marginal improvement; because the income component (a flow) is often more volatile than the health and education components (stocks), short-term changes might be driven mainly by income (particularly during an economic crisis); and the lack of recent data (especially on education and for the poorest countries) may hide overall progress. Nonetheless, the magnitude of the changes and the fact that the conclusions are fairly robust to different cutoff points (for instance, 2005 instead of 2008) suggest that more- meaningful factors are at play. The smaller sample (compared with the 187 countries that have an HDI value for 2013) is due to the lack of a sufficiently long time series for several countries. For instance, better access to skilled antenatal care and birth attendance contributed to sharply reduced maternal mortality in Nepal. Free universal access to education enhanced human development in Sri Lanka. And cash transfer programmes in several Latin American countries helped reduce poverty. See also the 2013 HDR (UNDP 2013a) for key drivers of progress. UNDP 2010. In some regions this might be due to the difficulty of raising educational attainment beyond a certain level— such as primary education in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. UNDP 2013a. These data are not directly comparable with those in figure 2.4 since these data refer to the number of countries that experienced a specific trend in inequality (rather than providing a measure of inequality at the regional level) as well as having a longer timeframe. UNDESA 2013b. Lakner and Milanovic 2013. The authors adjust previous estimates— which pointed to a recent decline in global inequality—to address the likely underreporting of the highest incomes in surveys. Milanovic 2012. The share of the richest 1 percent might be severely underestimated, given the difficulty of estimating their incomes. Fuentes-Nieva and Galasso 2014. Stiglitz 2012a.
16 The Economist 2013b. 17 Atkinson 2013. 18 Refers to 2000–2012 and is expressed
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in 2005 purchasing power parity terms (based on World Bank 2014a). Refers to 2005–2012 (based on HDRO calculations). UNDP 1993. The International Labour Organization suggests that if the current trends in labour markets persist, employment rates will return to precrisis levels in 2015 in developing countries but only after 2017 in developed countries (ILO 2013e). ILO 2013c. Sen 2013. UNDP 2011a, 2013. The 2011 HDR defined sustainable human development as “the expansion of the substantive freedoms of people today while making reasonable efforts to avoid seriously compromising those of future generations” (p. 18). UN 2013b. See Rockström and others (2009) and Fitoussi and Malik (2013). UNDP 2013a. Pineda 2013. UNCTAD 2012b. ILO 2013a. Kim and Conceição 2010. Molina and others 2014. An HDI downturn is defined as a slowdown in HDI growth with respect to its longrun trend. The study also finds that the nonincome components of human development are more resilient to shocks than the income component is (perhaps because the income component is a flow rather than a stock). There is also evidence that capital account liberalization leads to a persistent increase in inequality (see Furceri and Loungani 2013). World Bank 2013c. This naturally depends on the source and type of economic growth. Stiglitz 2012a. For instance, in the United States the stagnation of real wages for workers at the bottom of the distribution scale—when combined with easy credit—contributed to the housing bubble of the early 2000s. At the global level macroeconomic imbalances contributed to greater economic instability, which also played an important role in the global economic crisis. Berg and Ostry 2011b. Naylor and Falcon (2010) argue that commodity price variations in the 2000s were similar to the extreme volatility that was observed in the 1970s—and thus considerably larger than in the 1980s and 1990s.
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