Local Development and Food Security in Northern Malawi
Research Lauren Durnwald Report Author Rebecca LeBouef, Calvin Mwalwanda Household Nutrition: A Baseline Survey Matt Schubert, Thoko Gondwe Community Gardens: A Village Approach to Nutrition Morgan Day, Kettie Nkhonjera Permaculture Gardening: A Sustainable WayForward Josh Segalawitz, Lameck Nyasulu Men’s Fishing Culture: A Deeper Dive Marigrace Moses, Memori Chavula Fish Farming: An Innovative Approach
Table of contents Food Security in Malawi 2019 Malawi Research Practicum Household Nutrition: A Baseline Survey Community Gardens: A Village Approach to Nutrition Permaculture Gardening: A Sustainable Way Forward Men’s Fishing Culture: A Deeper Dive Fish Farming: An Innovative Approach A Path Forward
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Food Security in Malawi In Malawi, a country rich in natural resources but economically poor, food security is a prevailing issue. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2003) defines food security as when “all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.” The agricultural sector accounts for approximately 30% of Malawi’s GDP and 90% of employment.¹ Eight out of ten Malawians rely on subsistence farming - the practice of producing food for the farmer’s or household’s own consumption.² This type of farming does not yield a wide crop variety, with the staple crops being maize, groundnuts, beans, cassava and sweet potatoes.³ In 2010, 50% of the caloric intake in Malawi came from consuming maize (corn), making for a diet high in carbohydrates and low in many vital nutrients.⁴ Increased agricultural diversity in Malawi has been hindered by climate change, causing delayed rains and droughts, and shortened growing seasons.³ Decreased biodiversity has resulted from changes in the rainfall pattern, making it more difficult to grow indigenous crop varieties, which require a longer growing period.⁵ A lack of dietary and nutrient diversity can cause micronutrient deficiencies, resulting in stunting, characterized as low-height-for-age, and anemia, characterized by low levels of hemoglobin.⁶ Both of these conditions were cited as significant malnutrition struggles in Malawi by the 2018 Global Nutrition Report.² Anemia is often felt most intensively by
children and pregnant women.⁶ In 2017, 37% of children aged 6-59 months were moderately or severely stunted and 5% of those children were also wasting, or too thin for their height.⁶ Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 2, Zero Hunger, seeks to “End hunger, achieve food security and improve nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.” Threading through all the SDGs is an emphasis on combating climate change, which is felt deeply in countries like Malawi which rely heavily on the land and water as sources of sustenance and livelihood. In accordance with food access being designated a priority area in the SDGs and the African Union Agenda 2063, the government of Malawi has made Agriculture and Food Security one of its key priority areas in the Malawi Growth and Development Strategy (MGDS). The MGDS states that: “Every person has the right to food security and a standard of living adequate for health… Government will provide distinctly targeted safety nets cautious of the need to avoid creating dependency and negative impacts…to enable the vulnerable to gradually build up their assets so as to escape the threat of poverty in a sustainable way and to increase their resilience to shocks.”⁷ Further, the right to adequate food and freedom from hunger is embedded in international human rights norms including the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), and the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR), to which Malawi is a state party.
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2019 Malawi Research Practicum With food security recognized as a critical development issue in Malawi, especially in its Northern Region, University of Dayton undergraduates undertook research on this topic as part of the 2019 Malawi Practicum. The Practicum is a collaboration between the University’s Human Rights Center and Determined to Develop (D2D) - a grassroots NGO based in Sangilo village within the Chilumba catchment area of the Karonga District, Karonga being the largest city and capital of the Northern Region. Agriculture and fisheries are of the most prominent industries in the Karonga District. Much of the region relies on smallholder farming for sources of food and income. From 2008-2012, 60% of animal protein in Karonga was supplied by fish.⁸ The third-largest freshwater lake in Africa, Lake Malawi is an important geographical feature of the country,
making up one fifth of its area. Containing 15% of the world’s freshwater fish species, it is recognized as one of the most biodiverse lakes on the continent.⁹ Located roughly 80 kilometers (~50 miles) from Karonga, Sangilo village is a particularly rural site within the north. Due to their location on Lake Malawi, residents of Sangilo village are substantially dependent on the lake as a source of income and food. In this context, the 2019 Practicum focused on the themes of household nutrition, agriculture, and fishing as they relate to food security in Chilumba. This report provides an overview of the findings of student research studies on food security and offers recommendations for local development work, particularly for D2D programming to better address food security challenges in Northern Malawi.
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Household Nutrition: A Baseline Survey BACKGROUND The World Health Organization recommends a diet rich in fruits and vegetables, legumes, nuts, and whole grains.¹⁰ Malnutrition in Malawi is largely attributed to a lack of dietary diversity, with staple crops making up a carbohydrate- and starch-heavy diet.⁴ Maize is largely consumed in the form of nsima,⁴ a “stiff porridge made from maize flour.” Nsima, which makes up the largest portion of meals, is served with a vegetable or protein relish.¹¹ Nutrient-dense foods such as fruits, vegetables, meat, and fish are often acquired through market purchases, and consumed in smaller quantities than subsistence crops.⁴ Gender plays a role in household meal practices, with men having financial decisionmaking power and women being responsible for agricultural production and meal preparation.¹² Families often rely on children to help with food production, which sometimes results in their removal from school.¹³ This study addresses household food insecurity and familial malnutrition by investigating: How do households obtain food? Who in a household is responsible for food production and meal preparation? What are the most commonly consumed foods? And how do household members understand nutrition?
METHODOLOGY Interviews were conducted with 248 heads of households in five villages in the Chilumba catchment area, using an adaptation of the Nutrition Baseline Survey (2015) originally conducted in Southern Malawi.¹⁴ Heads of households were asked about sources of food, household food consumption, household meals and familial responsibilities, and nutritional knowledge and resources. To further capture individual experiences pertaining to meal diversity, food access, consistency, and gendered relationships, food journals were also distributed to high-school-aged D2D-sponsored youth to track daily meals and foods consumed in households over a three-week period.
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TAKEAWAYS Subsistence farming is critical to household food security, with most households being involved in the practice of growing food for the family’s own consumption. Commonly grown crops include cassava, maize, sweet potatoes, and rice, reflecting the staple crops grown throughout the country. Additionally, local markets serve as an important supplemental food source, providing crops that were not grown by a household. Livestock such as cows, goats, and chickens served a twofold purpose for families, providing a source of protein as well as a potential symbol of status and wealth. The most commonly consumed food group by far was starches, followed by vegetables. Less commonly consumed food groups included plant- and animal-based proteins and fruits. During interviews, an overwhelming majority of heads of households reported being worried about their household not having enough to eat, not having healthy or nutritious food, having to skip a meal, and having run out of food. Over half of households reported consuming two meals per day. This finding classified 123 of 248 households as severely food insecure. Female heads of households were most frequently identified as being responsible for meal preparation. They were also more likely than other household members to be responsible for garden upkeep. Nutritional counseling was received by the majority of respondents. Health Surveillance Assistants (HSAs), agricultural extension workers, and volunteer groups provide counseling in villages. HSAs are health workers who “carry out promotional, preventive, or curative health services” and who are “the first point of contact at the community level.”¹⁵ Some people reported not having knowledge of nutritional counseling, even when it was offered in their village.
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Community Gardens: A Village Approach to Nutrition BACKGROUND A community garden is a type of agriculture-focused initiative in a localized area in which members of the community share stakes in the garden and share ownership of its produce, either legally or functionally.¹⁶ Though access to adequate nutrition cannot be achieved solely through this form of food production, community gardens in southern African countries have been found to improve nutritional consumption within the communities in which they are based.¹⁷ Further, community gardens have been found to be associated with intangible benefits, such as improving social capital, which can be helpful in facilitating cooperation and decreasing competition among community members.¹⁶ Community gardens are sometimes established at schools, where their yields are used directly for feeding programs or indirectly, generating profits for the purchase of school supplies.¹⁸ When implemented in schools, community gardens can also enhance students’ nutritional education.¹⁹ This study sought to answer questions about community gardening in the context of northern Malawi: What makes community gardens succeed? What are common barriers to success? How are they governed, and what are the gendered implications of existing leadership structures?
METHODOLOGY Focus groups and individual interviews were held with community gardeners in the Chilumba catchment region, with questions focusing on four main issues: types of crops grown, techniques and technologies of production, sources of knowledge and support, and structures of governance. The gardens identified produced crops for distribution and consumption among garden members or for sale, with profits being reinvested in the gardens.
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TAKEAWAYS All community garden groups had formal governance structures in place. Each group was composed of a committee of nine or more members who owned and made all major decisions for the gardens. While rules and delegation of responsibilities differed across these groups, they were managed similarly, with committees controlling the work schedule, meeting times, and rules for operation. Gender plays a key role in how garden groups are governed. The majority of community garden groups had participation by both men and women. Most groups reported sharing responsibilities equally, regardless of gender. Many of the groups included one or multiple chairwomen, allowing women to play a role in decision making. Six community gardens consisted of only women. These groups reported that their goal was women’s empowerment and financial independence. Five groups reported that men tended to be domineering and more likely to misuse profits for personal benefit. Gardens receive support through their local community and NGOs. Gardens connected with schools were the most likely to receive and accept community support, as the products directly benefited the community’s children. The support of NGOs had both benefits and drawbacks, as it allowed for greater provision of resources yet led to overreliance on external support and a loss of autonomy among gardeners.
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Permaculture Gardening: A Sustainable Way Forward BACKGROUND Permaculture gardening is “a system of agricultural and social design principles that synergistically and adaptively centers upon natural ecosystems.” This involves “consciously designed landscapes which mimic the patterns and relationships found in nature.”²⁰ Permaculture promotes organic methods of gardening because synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides damage the soil, other species, and human health.²¹ Permaculture systems can include integrated aquaculture for irrigation development programs. Additionally, this form of gardening focuses on crops that are easy to grow in a particular locale and that do not depend on irrigation or synthetic inputs.⁸ Permaculture’s strength is that it promotes a localized and sustainable approach to development. It emphasizes collaboration with traditional producers and the assets of the local environment,²² making permaculture designs “ideal [...] for many situations in developing countries and for development projects to relieve poverty and accomplish food security.”²¹ Although it can mitigate some of the issues identified in traditional farming, permaculture presents its own obstacles. The resources required for the initiation and maintenance of permaculture production, e.g. generators, treadle pumps, and irrigation systems, can be costly. To date, permaculture has not been widely adopted across Malawi. This study seeks to answer the questions: What are best practices of permaculture farming? What are the common challenges to traditional farming and permaculture farming? What are the strengths of permaculture farming? What are the barriers?
METHODOLOGY Interviews were held with people who fell into one of four different categories: traditional subsistence farmers, traditional commercial farmers, authorities (which includes government officials, academic and organizational leaders), and permaculture farmers (both Malawians and expatriates). The information sought from permaculture farmers concerned their best farming practices, key challenges to permaculture farming that they have faced, how they were educated about permaculture, and what successes and failures they have had in promoting it to their neighbors. Traditional subsistence and commercial farmers were asked about their current risk mitigation techniques and what deterred them from adopting permaculture techniques.
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TAKEAWAYS Challenges to permaculture farming are multi-faceted. They include reliance on rainfall, with over half of the traditional farmers interviewed depending on rain as a water source. Many farmers indicated having insufficient resources, including fertilizer, seeds, tools, personnel, and land. While not labeled as such, twelve of the thirteen traditional farmers practiced one or more permaculture techniques in their gardens. But acquiring new materials and resources could create jealousies, with farmers fearing repercussions from neighbors seeking to prevent them from experimenting with new gardening techniques and approaches. More permaculture education and demonstration gardens are critical. While formal education opportunities through agricultural colleges and agricultural extension workers exist, most farming techniques practiced by traditional farmers had been passed down by family members. Many agricultural authorities attested that there is a need for education in the successful practice and promotion of permaculture. The most successful strategy
for promoting the adoption of permaculture was found to be demonstration gardens, which allow the benefits of permaculture to be exhibited without the need for more formal education initiatives. Reciprocity is essential for permaculture gardening to work. Permaculture gardening requires reciprocity, best pursued at the community, rather than the individual, level. According to one permaculture farmer, “People cannot learn alone. You need guilds or communities. You should teach groups, not house by house.� Successful permaculture farming depends on healthy relationships between the growers and the land, as well as among farmers. Reciprocal information exchange can help sustain those relationships. This concept of reciprocity was exhibited in permaculture systems that included fish ponds, or aquaculture. These gardens add an additional layer of mutually-beneficial exchange to the process. This was seen in one farmer who used crop residue from maize to feed the fish and profits from the fish to purchase fertilizer.
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Men’s Fishing Culture: A Deeper Dive BACKGROUND Fish from Lake Malawi account for more than 70% of the total animal protein supply in the country.⁹ Aside from being a primary source of protein for Malawians, fish are an important source of other micronutrients like iron, iodine, zinc, calcium, vitamin A, and vitamin B.²³ Widespread dependence on fishing for nutrition paired with recent population increases has led to a dramatic decrease in fish in the lake.²⁴ Fishing provides a source of income for rural populations whose alternative opportunities for employment are few. While traditionally a male-dominated livelihood, it also provides some jobs for women in fish processing.²³ Globally, small-scale fisheries are often divided by gender, where men do the fishing while women perform specific supporting tasks.⁹ Men’s role in the fishing industry is linked to concepts and behaviors of masculinity. In Malawi, one way in which masculinity is constructed is through man’s role as “the provider.”²⁵ Because men are often expected to support their extended families, a man who does not earn an adequate income is considered not “man enough” to start a family. This study explored the questions: How does fishing relate to food security? How does the role of men as providers manifest itself within the fishing industry? What other gender roles and representations are reflected within the fishing industry?
METHODOLOGY Interviews were conducted from a convenience sample of fishermen in Sangilo and surrounding villages. The researcher also accompanied fishermen on a fishing boat to gather firsthand observations about the fishing experience. Women married to fishermen were interviewed separately to gather their perspectives on the fishing industry and the roles their husbands played in it.
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TAKEAWAYS
Fishermen collaborate in groups, though those who own supplies make the most income. Income generated from lake fishing is an indication of how well fishermen perceive themselves to fulfill the role of the provider. The fishermen reported fishing in groups with five to eight members, with fish and profits divided among the group. It was found that income varied greatly within these groups, with those who owned fishing supplies retaining the largest share of the profits. While a majority of fishermen said they brought home fish every time they went fishing, others indicated only bringing home fish some of the time. These fishermen reported that their family only needs to eat fish two or three times each week, so bringing home fish every day is unnecessary. Many fishermen said there were times when they were unable to make a sufficient income to support their families, reporting that this made them feel like less of a man. The drinking culture in the fishing industry remains understudied. Fishermen acknowledged that a drinking culture exists within the fishing industry, and pointed to other fishermen they knew who spent their money on drinking. Many wives of fishermen reported that their husbands go out drinking at least twice per week, at which times they would spend almost half of their earnings. Overfishing is leading to increased competition and requires policing. Fishermen were aware of the territorial restrictions on fishing during certain parts of the year as a means to combat overfishing. They followed these regulations to prevent their tools from being confiscated, rather than out of concern for the ecological effects of overfishing. Fishing remains highly male dominated. None of the individuals interviewed in the northern Chilumba region said they knew of women who fished, though they reported women fishers in fishing hubs south of Chilumba like Nkhata Bay and Mangochi. Reasons cited for the absence of women among local fishers included women’s lack of necessary knowledge, fear of the lake, or insufficient strength. Some men indicated that women had the potential to be good at fishing if properly taught, but they reported not having the time to teach the women. Women play a distinct role in the processing and selling of fish, where earnings are lower.⠸
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Fish Farming: An Innovative Approach BACKGROUND With Malawi’s rising population, overfishing has become a significant issue. The number of fishermen working on the lake has risen 124% in one decade.²⁶ The most prevalent type of fish is Oreochromis species, commonly known as chambo or tilapia. This species has seen one of the largest declines in Lake Malawi in recent years.⁵ Women’s participation in fishing is limited by social norms, labor roles, and cultural beliefs. Traditionally, women participate chiefly in the processing and selling of fish.⁹ In these roles, women earn less money than male members of the fishing industry. Fish farming is the fastest growing industry in Malawi.²⁷ By 2025, fish pond production is estimated to climb 52%.²⁸ Fish farming has created an entrypoint for women in the fishing industry, allowing them to attain financial independence and land ownership.⁹ This study sought to answer the questions: What are the obstacles to fish farming? What roles have women taken on in the fish farming industry? Is fish farming a feasible strategy for alleviating the stress on lake fish populations in Malawi?
METHODOLOGY Interviews were held with fish farmers, members of the Department of Fisheries, and lecturers at Mzuzu University in the capital city of Malawi’s Northern Region. Of the fish farmers interviewed, there were 19 from group ponds, having more than one owner, four from community ponds, maintained by the community, and six from individual ponds, having one owner with support from other members.
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TAKEAWAYS Fishing farming aims to generate an income, supply a food source, contribute to community development, and slow overfishing. While there is an awareness of the consequences of overfishing and the need for alternative methods of fishing, barriers exist to fish farming. The Department of Fisheries supplies materials and education, but the department is not well-funded. Fish farmers have difficulty acquiring resources such as construction tools, personnel, and fish feed. Additional barriers exist for women’s entry to fish farming. Of the female fish farmers who were interviewed, many expressed that they were often left out of training sessions conducted by the Department of Fisheries, giving them a disadvantage in their knowledge of fish farming practices compared to their male counterparts. Another complaint was
that women were more likely to be taken advantage of by having their fish stolen. Women’s empowerment is possible through fish farming. For example, Laness Chavula of Mzuzu dug her first pond in hopes of supplying a source of food and income for her family. Her pond has since expanded to include several more ponds, a breeding station, and integrated farming, with crops and livestock. Wanting other women to find success as she had, Chavula started a women’s group, open to women in her community wanting to start a fish farm of their own. The women’s group now has 65 active members, many of whom are widows looking to provide food and school fees for their children. In exchange for a small fee, women can join the group and receive a cow in return so they can practice integrated farming, using the cow’s manure in the ponds.
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Health and Nutrition at the Community Level: A Path Forward There are a range of potential ways to enhance food security through better health and nutrition at the community level in Northern Malawi. Notable actors on the issues of food security are Health Surveillance Assistants (HSAs), the Department of Agriculture’s Agricultural Extension Workers, and the Department of Fisheries, each of which plays a role in regulations, educational initiatives, and distribution of supplies. As a grassroots NGO grounded in education as a primary means for breaking the cycle of extreme poverty, D2D is well positioned to help alleviate food insecurity through educational initiatives and community partnerships. D2D takes a collaborative approach to its project implementation, involving community members in decision making. D2D participates in regular community needs assessment meetings, with actors including village headmen (chiefs), village development committees (VDCs), women’s groups, and civil society leaders. All new initiatives are vetted through these actors as well as other community members to ensure community ownership and respect for cultural values and traditions. Grounded in this collaborative model, D2D has the potential to work with its community partners to develop creative solutions for food insecurity. Consideration should be given to the following: Provide nutritional education at the community level. Baseline nutrition findings show that additional education on nutrition, including nutrient variety, portion sizes, and food diversity, could be of benefit to households in Chilumba. HSAs play a critical role in collaborations on educational initiatives with community members at the village level. The HSA at the Sangilo health clinic reported having conducted programs including treatment of malnourished children, supplemental food programs, and nutritional education and counseling. Many of the community members appear unaware of nutritional education programs in their area, so partnering with HSAs to create a greater awareness of these programs could be of benefit. Here there is the potential for collaboration between D2D and HSAs. Together, they could plan educational forums for sponsored youth and offer a Training of Trainers for teachers, who would then help spread awareness of nutritional education. Promote community gardens by increasing cooperation and collaboration among community gardeners, and supporting new school based community gardens. This could be accomplished, in part, through a community forum in which gardening groups, local farmers, and Agricultural Extension Workers (AEWs) discuss local assets for and barriers to gardening. Forums could also provide and enable education about permaculture techniques facilitated by AEWs and farmers with experience in permaculture. Training in permaculture techniques should include fish farming, particularly for women, in collaboration with practitioners and experts in the fish farming industry within proximity, such as university professors and female farmers like Laness Chavula. Local education partnerships are one of D2D’s ongoing programs, having undertaken construction projects including school blocks and sanitary latrines and provided teacher trainings and supplies to local schools. These partnerships serve as an avenue for the implementation of community gardens at schools
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Provide educational initiatives for about permaculture. Sustainable fish farming could be included youth through D2D’s programs. D2D’s in teaching permaculture techniques to primary beneficiaries are its sponsored youth. Fish ponds were noted as beneficial youth, who the organization supports assets in the observed permaculture through school tuition sponsorships farming systems in which they were and non-formal education initiatives. present. As an innovative solution to Specific programs provide entry points overfishing in the lake, fish farming for increasing food security. Girls Club is creates an entryway into discussions a group for primary school (grades 5-8) about environmental preservation and and secondary school (grades 9-12) girls the detriments of overfishing. A fish with the mission to promote their life skills pond could be included in a permaculture development and educational attainment. demonstration garden at D2D, which Additionally, D2D hosts two annual Leadership Workshops for all its sponsored creates the potential for an income generating activity (IGA), such as those youth focusing on leadership skills, goal that D2D has previously founded. In this setting, health, and safety. Wasambo Boys IGA, youth would play an interactive role in High School was founded by D2D through fish farming, acquiring the practical skills the Wasambo Education Foundation with which they could then implement later in a mission “To deliver the highest quality their lives and disseminate throughout their education at an international standard but communities. accessible to all, where students can thrive Conversations about gender roles, while reaching their fullest potential.” These stereotypes and women’s representation programs could serve as entry points for could encourage youth to think about educational initiatives on the following gender norms and how they play a role topics: Nutrition and environmental preservation. in their lives, especially as related to food Nutritional education encompasses security. For example, alcoholism in the topics at the household level, such as the fishing industry remains a taboo topic importance of food diversity, portion sizes, and engaging youth, particularly young and nutrient variety, as well as broader men, in conversations about substance implications such as environmental abuse and financial responsibility could preservation and climate change. Moreover, be influential in deterring them from the unmet need for increased formal engaging in irresponsible behaviors agricultural education calls for teaching influenced by gender norms. Creating innovative and sustainable farming holistic programming around food security techniques, including permaculture. The as it relates to youths’ present lives as well implementation of a demonstration garden as their futures and how it interplays with at D2D could be a useful hands-on approach gender dynamics could be advantageous in for youth and community members to learn enacting upstream change. PAGE FIFTEEN
Endnotes ________________________________________________________________________ ¹ Kaczan, D., Arslan, A., & Lipper, L. (2013). Climate-Smart Agriculture? A review of current practice of agroforestry and conservation agriculture in Malawi and Zambia. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/economic/esa ² Malawi: Nutrition profile. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/ files/documents/1864/Malawi-Nutrition-Profile-Mar2018-508.pdf ³ Aberman, N. (2019). Moving Beyond Maize: The evolution of Malawi’s agriculturenutrition policy dialogue. Retrieved from https://www.ifpri.org/publication/movingbeyond-maize-evolution-malawis-agriculture-nutrition-policy-dialogue ⁴ Aberman, N., Meerman, J., And Benson, T. (2018). Agriculture, food security, and nutrition in Malawi: Leveraging the links. Retrieved from https://www.ifpri.org/publication/ agriculture-food-security-and-nutrition-malawi-leveraging-links ⁵ Environmental Affairs Department Ministry of Natural Resources, Energy, and Mining. (2015). National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan II 2015-2025. Retrieved from https:// cepa.rmportal.net/Library/government-publications/national-biodiversity-strategy-andaction-plan-ii-2015-2025/view ⁶ National Statistics Office. (2017). Malawi Micronutrient Survey Key Indicators Report, 2015-16. Retrieved from https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR319/FR319m.pdf ⁷ Government of Malawi. (2006). Malawi Growth and Development Strategy 2006-2011. Retrieved from https://www.mitc.mw/images/downloads/other-documents/MalawiGrowth-and-Development-Strategy-August-2006.pdf ⁸ Republic of Malawi. (2013). Karonga district socioeconomic profile 2013-2018. ⁹ Nagoli, J., Binauli, L., and Chijere, A. (2019). Inclusive ecosystems? Women’s participation in the aquatic ecosystem of Lake Malawi.” Environments 6(3):1–13. Retrieved from https:// www.researchgate.net/publication/329973935_Inclusive_Ecosystems_Women’s_ Participation_in_the_Aquatic_Ecosystem_of_Lake_Malawi ¹⁰ Malnutrition. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/ detail/malnutrition. ¹¹ Katungwe, P., Mwangwela, A., & Geresomo, N. (2015). Dietary adequacy of rural school children among bambara groundnut growing farmers in Ntchisi district of Malawi. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development, 15(1), 9620-9634. Retrieved from http://www.bioline.org.br/abstract?id=nd15003&lang=en ¹² Ene-Obong, H.N., Onuoha, N.O., & Eme, P.E. (2017). Gender roles, family relationships, and household food and nutrition security in Ohafia matrilineal society in Nigeria. Maternal & Child Nutrition, 13, e12506. Retrieved from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29359436/ ¹³ Smallholders and family farmers. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/ templates/nr/sustainability_pathways/docs/Factsheet_SMALLHOLDERS.pdf ¹⁴ Evang, E., & Kuchenbecker, J. (2015). Nutrition baseline survey. Retrieved from https:// www.careevaluations.org/wp-content/uploads/NBS_Malawi-Baseline-Report-FNSP-underSEWOH.pdf ¹⁵ Chikaphupha, K. R., Kok, M. C., Nyirenda, L., Namakhoma, I., & Theobald, S. (2016).
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Motivation of health surveillance assistants in Malawi: A qualitative study. Malawi Medical Journal, 28(2), 37-42. Retrieved from https://www.ajol.info/index.php/mmj/article/ view/141305 ¹⁶ Bernard, C., Cephas, M., & John, B. (2013). Community gardens and food security in rural livelihood development: The case of entrepreneurial and market gardens in Mberengwa, Zimbabwe. Russian Journal of Agricultural and Socio-Economic Sciences, 13(1). Retrieved from https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/community-gardens-and-food-security-in-rurallivelihood-development-the-case-of-entrepreneurial-and-market-gardens-in-mberengwazimbabwe ¹⁷ Vibert, E. (2016). Gender, resilience and resistance: South Africa’s Hleketani community garden. Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 34(2), 252-267. Retrieved from https:// www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02589001.2016.1202508 ¹⁸ Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). (2007). Garden-based learning for improved livelihoods and nutrition security of school children in high HIV-prevalence areas in Southern Africa. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/tc/tce/pdf/ Regional_Gardens_Workshop_Report_Part_I.pdf ¹⁹ Laurie, S. M., Faber, M., & Maduna, M. M. (2017). Assessment of food gardens as nutrition tool in primary schools in South Africa. South African Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 30(4), 80-86. ²⁰ Rivett, M. O., Halcrow, A. W., Schmalfuss, J., Stark, J. A., Truslove, J. P., Kumwenda, S., ... Kalin, R. M. (2018). Local scale water-food nexus: Use of borehole-garden permaculture to realise the full potential of rural water supplies in Malawi. Journal of Environmental Management, 209, 354-370. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.12.029 ²¹ Leahy, T. (2015). Permaculture, food security & development projects. Retrieved from http://gifteconomy.org.au/permaculture/permaculture-food-security-and-developmentprojects/ ²² Ferguson, R. S., & Lovell, S. T. (2013). Permaculture for agroecology: Design, movement, practice, and worldview. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development. doi:10.1007/ s13593-013-0181-6 ²³ Béné, C., & Heck, S. (2005). Fish and food security in Africa. NAGA, WorldFish Center Quarterly, 28(3-4), 8-13. ²⁴ Hara, M. (2011). Community Response: Decline of the Chambo in Lake Malawi’s Southeast Arm. In Poverty mosaics: Realities and prospects in small-scale fisheries (pp. 251273). Springer, Dordrecht. ²⁵ Barker, G., & Ricardo, C. (2005). Young men and the construction of masculinity in subSaharan Africa: Implications for HIV/AIDS, conflict, and violence (p. 27). Washington, DC: World Bank. ²⁶ Dey, M. M., Paraguas, F. J., Kambewa, P., & Pemsl, D. E. (2010). The impact of integrated aquaculture–agriculture on small-scale farms in Southern Malawi. Agricultural Economics, 41(1), 67-79 ²⁷ Lynch, A. J., Cowx, I. G., Fluet-Chouinard, E., Glaser, S. M., Phang, S. C., Beard, T. D., ... & Cooke, S. J. (2017). Inland fisheries–invisible but integral to the UN Sustainable Development Agenda for ending poverty by 2030. Global Environmental Change, 47, 167173. ²⁸ World Bank. (2013). Fish to 2030: Prospects for fisheries and aquaculture. http://www. fao.org/3/i3640e/i3640e.pdf
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Acknowledgements Determined to Develop (D2D) and Maji Zuwa Matt Maroon, Executive Director Geoff Mzembe, Relations & Sponsorships Manager Chimwemwe Munthali, Girls’ Empowerment Initiatives Manager Ofwa Sibakwe, Special Projects Manager Zika Mkandawire, Community Liaison Officer Taleka Nyasulu, John Phiri, Clement Munthali, John Kondwe, Nashion Nyasulu, Bright Ngwira, Edwin Tchali, and Wisdom Mayuni D2D Sponsored Youth University of Livingstonia for this partnership University of Dayton Youssef Farhat, Malawi Practicum Coordinator, Political Science and Human Rights Center Dr. Diana Cuy Castellanos, Health and Sport Sciences Dr. Natalie F. Hudson, Human Rights Studies Dr. Grant Neeley, Political Science
FLIPBOOK DESIGN Bridget Graham PHOTOS CREDIT Youssef Farhat and 2019 Practicum Cohort
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