Glossary

Affixes: Things that can be added to words at the beginning (prefixes, e.g., pre-, un-), end (suffixes, e.g., -ing, -ly, -s), or even internally (infixes) that add to or change the meaning of a word.

American Sign Language: (ASL) The sign language used by many in the Deaf community in the United States and the English-speaking parts of Canada. It is not a manual version of English, but rather, a distinct and independent language that naturally emerged and evolved within communities of Deaf people.

ASL: See American Sign Language

Atypical: Development that does not progress as anticipated based on general age expectations and milestones of typical development. Atypical development may have an identifiable cause, such as a developmental delay, but sometimes there is no known cause.

Atypical repetitive behaviour: Repetitive behaviour that is unusual in intensity, frequency, and/or function. This kind of behaviour may include repetitive movements with or without objects, or repetition of sounds, words or sentences. It may take many forms, but some common examples may include: rocking, flapping of the hands, lining up objects, strict adherence to order, repeating words or sentences out of context, playing with the same toy exactly the same way each time, or repetitive use and fixation on non-toy objects such as light switches, faucets, doors or the toilet flush handle. These activities may interfere with a child’s ability to engage in other activities, or may interfere with their ability to play socially.

Authentic questions: Questions in conversation where one person genuinely wants to know how the other will respond. With a child for example a parent could ask, “Do you want a banana?” Asking “What colour is a banana?” is not an authentic question but more a “testing question” because the person asking already knows the answer.

Baby sign: Individual signs (like isolated spoken words) mostly based on real signs in American Sign Language. Baby sign is not a sign language. In a real sign language, signs are part of sign sentences, not produced as isolated forms, and the sentences also have a structure that the child has to learn. Some families find baby signs helpful. Baby signs sometimes help a child communicate simple things before they can say words in a recognizable way. There is no evidence that baby sign helps children learn spoken language faster or that it interferes with a child’s learning of a spoken language.

Bilingual: Involves two languages and can be an adjective or a noun. There is no real definition of a bilingual person because there are many ways to be bilingual. In general this suggests that someone is comfortable communicating in two languages. Children can handle being exposed to two languages (or more) from the beginning of life.

Code-mixing/mix: Mixing forms from two or more languages or language varieties (e.g., dialects). Mixing can be accidental (for instance, while a child is just starting to learn their languages) or demonstrating mature competence (for instance, when a bilingual teenager mixes languages while engaged in a conversation with another bilingual).

Code-switching/switch: Switching between two or more languages or language varieties (e.g., dialects) in the same conversation (usually intentionally). See code-mixing.

Conversational input: The language and information a child gets from and through conversational interactions with the people around them. Conversational input is needed for learning conversational skills, varied sentence types, building vocabulary and general knowledge.

Critical thinking: Skills needed to help children (and adults) learn to think in an objective way so they can problem solve and make balanced decisions.

Cross-language transfer skills: The ability to transfer skills from a first language to another language. Parents who speak, tell stories and read to their child in their heritage language can feel reassured knowing that their child will be able to transfer the language skills they have learned in that language to languages they will later learn.

Expressive language/communication: The use of gestures, verbal communication or a sign language to communicate. Conversations include receptive language which means “listening” and expressive language which means “talking” or “speaking.”

First Language: The language, or languages, that a person learns first (if they are learning more than one at the same time). Usually a first language is learned in infancy.

Fluency disorder: Speech disorder where the ongoing “flow” or “smoothness” of speech is disrupted by repetitions of sounds, words, or phrases, sound prolongations, silent “blocks” or pauses, revisions, or interjections such as “um” or “uh.” Difficulties with fluency are often called stuttering. Stuttering can be developmental or persistent. Developmental stuttering is more common. It can start around 18 months to 5 years and can disappear without intervention in 6 months or less. Persistent stuttering, which lasts much longer, occurs in about 1 percent of children, generally boys (4:1 ratio of boys to girls).

Crying: When babies cry they are communicating. Sometimes parents learn to recognize the meaning of particular cries. There are many reasons why babies cry. One is “language practice.”

Cultural codes: Features that have meaning within a specific cultural group. These codes help people communicate among themselves and feel that they belong.

Cultural language differences: Linguistic and cultural groups often have distinct ways of using language that are different from what another group might consider acceptable or typical for that language.

Dysfluencies: The disruption of ongoing “flow” or “smoothness” of speech. Everyone has dysfluent speech sometimes. Many children will have periods of dysfluent speech, or stuttering, and then will “grow out of it” as a part of natural development. However, some children will maintain their dysfluent speech and have a persistent stutter, or fluency disorder (see Fluency disorder).

Friendly Sabotage: Also known as “communication temptations.” This involves creating communication opportunities for children. It may mean doing something silly or unusual and then waiting to see if the child will comment. Examples may include: giving a child a boot when they need their hat, their snack or drink bit-by-bit so they need to ask for more, or putting a favourite toy in sight but out-of-reach so the child needs to ask for help. After using friendly sabotage, it is important to wait for the child’s response.

Gaze alternation: Leads to joint attention. Describes the action of looking back-and-forth between a person and an object, possibly to direct the person’s attention to that object. When children shift their eye gaze from focusing on an object to focusing on a person, they are communicating. A preverbal child may look at a parent, then at a desired toy, and then back at the parent to signal that they want the parent to hand them the toy. When they demonstrate gaze alternation, children show they are developing joint attention.

Good errors: Some “errors” are good when they show that a child is understanding the pattern of a language. A child learning English has to learn that the past tense form of “go” is “went” but that there is also a pattern that applies to most verbs (-ed). When a child says “goed” instead of went, they are demonstrating that they’ve learned the pattern for how to say a past tense verb in English. They are simply over-applying the generalization to an exception.

Gross motor: Large muscle movements, such as moving the arms, legs, torso, or whole body. When children are young, gross motor movements include things like pushing up off their tummy, rolling over, or sitting without support. As children get older, gross motor movements may include things like walking or running, climbing, jumping, riding a bike or doing chores. Some very active children may find it difficult to learn while sitting still.

HealthLinkBC: https://www.healthlinkbc.ca/

Home Language: Also referred to as first language this is the language a parent naturally speaks at home.

Infant-directed language: See infant-directed speech (IDS)

Infant-directed speech: The exaggerated way people often naturally speak to infants. IDS tends to have a wider pitch range (voices go higher and lower in pitch) than adultdirected speech (ADS). IDS is slower, so many speech sounds are more distinct than in ADS. It often contains sound effects and baby-talk words (blankie for blanket). Infantdirected sign also exists. In IDSign the hand, arm, and facial movements are exaggerated and slower (instead of sounds).

Intentional, gestures, no words:  In this book, the communication stage where children use sounds or gestures directed to a person. See page viii.

Intentional, one-word:  In this book, the communication stage where children are using single words (verbal or signed) to communicate. See page viii.

Intentional, two + words to say a phrase:  In this book, the communication stage where children are using phrases (verbal or signed) to communicate. See page ix.

Intonation: The melody of speech, mostly carried by pitch. Intonation is used for many reasons, such as to convey emotions, and/or to focus attention (see Infant-directed Speech). It can also be an integral part of the meaning of an utterance, for instance, indicating that something is a “Yes/No” question.

Jargon: A form of babbling that consists of a long string of consonant and vowel sounds with sentence-like intonation. Often sounds like “nonsense conversation” in the family’s language, with rises, falls, pauses etc. Can be vocalizations or signs. Not real forms in the language. Jargon usually appears around 9-12 months or shortly before first words.

Joint Attention: When two people are jointly looking at the same thing, and they both know or understand that they are looking at the same thing. Can be demonstrated through gaze alternation, or through the use of gestures. A child may point at something and then look back to see if the adult received their message. An important skill for

communication and play development. It allows children to pay attention to objects and people at the same time, contributing to learning. Delays in developing joint attention can lead to delays in developing language.

Joint narrative creation: An aspect of storytelling that builds a child’s imagination. Pretend play where two or more children invent a story with or without an adult. They may or may not use props such as stuffed animals, toys or materials in nature.

Label: A word or sign referring to a single object (a name) or category (a word like “dog”). A preverbal child may use eye gaze or gestures to ask someone to label what they are looking at. Every response enriches the child’s language development. When children start to communicate using single words or signs they often name or label what they see to show what they have noticed. Labelling something is different from using a word to ask for something. When parents match words to their child’s experiences this helps build their child’s language skills.

Langue des signes du Québec: (LSQ) The predominant sign language used by Deaf communities in francophone Canada, especially in Québec.

LSQ: See Langue des signes du Québec

Match + 1: A language stimulation strategy where the adult matches the child’s interest or communication, and then adds onto it with something small. This strategy looks different depending on the child’s stage of development. It can be used to help children learn to match words to gestures, combine words into phrases, or increase the complexity of a sentence. (See the Match + 1 section in this book for a more in-depth description and examples.)

Milestones: The general age ranges at which experts expect to see certain skills emerge as children grow and develop. Based on patterns of learning of thousands of children. No milestones are exact, and the age ranges listed are guidelines only. Milestones are used to help monitor development and identify when a child might need a more in-depth assessment and support.

Mother Language: The language learned as a child in the home.

Mother Tongue: Older term for Mother Language.

Motherese: An old term for infant-directed speech.

Multilingual: Someone who knows more than one language (usually used for more than two languages).

Narrate/Narration: A strategy where caregivers talk about what they or the child are doing as they are doing it. Matching language to what a child is experiencing supports communication development, in particular, understanding and use of language.

Narrative structure: A narrative is a description of events that is longer than a sentence. Narratives have certain features that can differ by culture and genre. For instance, the opening “once upon a time” is typical of European and other Western cultures as is the tradition of having a beginning, middle and an end. The amount of background information that should (or shouldn’t) be provided, or the typical length of a narration varies within and between cultures.

Need for repetition: Very strong need for repetition sometimes referred to as atypical repetitive behaviour. All children love repetition and frequently demonstrate a need for it. The behaviour becomes atypical when a pattern develops where a young child cannot be distracted or an older child cannot be encouraged to change focus without great effort.

Mirror: Mirror neurons in the brain facilitate learning and attachment. When parents “mirror” – imitate and reflect their child’s facial expressions, feelings and body language – they are giving their child the opportunity to experience connection at a deep level. This contributes to their child’s emotional and language development and to their ability to form and maintain social relationships.

Parentese: Formerly called motherese. Another term for the modified way language is used with children. It acknowledges that it is not just mothers who speak/sign this way with children (see infant-directed speech).

Pre-intentional:  Communication that is not directed to another person. In this book, this is the first stage of communication that children experience as they develop. See page vii.

Pre-literacy: What children know about reading and writing before they can read and write. Parents can help their child from the start of life to develop these skills by: telling stories and creating a positive association with print materials; providing a rich vocabulary; listening to and playing with the smaller sounds of words (phonological awareness); giving their child opportunities to handle books; teaching that letters are different from each other, have names and sounds; asking questions that encourage their child to describe and predict events and practise narrative structure.

Productive or expressive vocabulary:Vocabulary items (words) that a person can produce spontaneously (without prompting), either in speech, sign, or writing. Productive (expressive) vocabulary is often smaller than receptive vocabulary (words a person can understand).

Prolongations: A type of dysfluency where sounds are involuntarily stretched out. For example, “Sssssssee the big truck?” or “I want an aaaaaaple.” Prolongations can be a sign that a child has a fluency disorder, or stuttering.

Prosocial behaviours: A key aspect of social and emotional development where children gradually learn to act in ways that benefit others, such as sharing, helping, co-operating and comforting others.

Protective childhood experiences: Also known as Positive Childhood Experiences (PCE’s). While a lot is known about the negative impact of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE’s), less is known about the ability of PCE’s to modulate the harm of

ACE’s. Research indicates that safe, stable and nurturing relationships in childhood lead to resiliency and improved mental and physical health outcomes in adulthood. Key factors include: loving, supportive and responsive parent(s)/caregiver(s) who listen to, talk with and read to their children; secure attachment; feeling protected by an adult in the home; a sense of belonging to a community; communication skills, including the ability to talk in the home about feelings.

Purple crier: A young infant who cries persistently. A developmental phase that occurs most often between 2 and 12 weeks of age where crying can last from 35 minutes up to several hours, most often in the late afternoon or evening. See Dr. Ron Barr http:// purplecrying.info/what-is-the-period-of-purple-crying.php

Recast: Naturally repeat back a child’s words or sentence, but in a corrected form with the changes highlighted. This is a strategy that can be used to indirectly support language or speech sound development. Children are not expected to repeat it back, but they might! For example, if a child says, “He brung the tar,” a parent could recast back, “He brought the car? That’s great!”

Receptive language/communication: The ability to understand the meaning of gestures, verbal communication or sign language. Occurs much earlier than expressive language. Receptive language abilities are typically greater than expressive language abilities.

Redirect: A valuable parenting strategy that helps parents avoid saying “no” and usually provides a positive outcome for parent and child. It involves replacing undesired or concerning behaviour with an acceptable alternative. If the child is holding a fragile object the parent can say, “That is not a toy. You can play with this instead” and enthusiastically present a toy to the child as a replacement, gently removing the fragile object. If it is consistently difficult for the parent to redirect their child it may be helpful to have input from a professional.

Reduplication: Very common in early babbling (ba ba ba). Repetition, of a syllable but can also be of a longer portion of a word. In some languages, reduplication is a way to change word meanings.

Register differences: Registers are ways of using language that vary according to the social setting, such as, formal versus informal language. Different registers can involve distinct pronunciations, words, or kinds of sentences.

Regression: When a child no longer demonstrates skills that were previously common. For example, if a child was previously using words, but seems to have “lost” the ability to use them. This is a reason to seek professional help right away.

Repetitive play: Play that is done repeatedly and/or in the same way each time for an extended period. Some examples might include a child completing and then dumping a puzzle many times in a row, or insisting on completing a play routine in the exact same way each time. Sometimes children may also focus on only one aspect of a toy, such as watching very closely as they spin the wheels of a car.

Responsive caregiver: Pays close attention to the child and responds in a nurturing way to meet the child’s needs and communication attempts. Has a positive impact on children’s social-emotional and communication development.

Self-care: Positive actions a parent can take to promote their own well-being and happiness, especially when feeling stressed.

Self-regulation: The ability to understand and appropriately manage emotions, the body, and behaviours based on the situation and environment. Self-regulation is important for overall development and learning. It allows children to focus, make friends and behave in socially acceptable ways, learn in school, and manage stress.

Self-soothe: Related to self-regulation. The ability for an infant or child to calm themself down. This is particularly helpful when a child wakes up at nighttime because selfsoothing helps them fall asleep again without outside intervention.

Sentence users:  In this book, the communication stage where children are using sentences (verbal or signed). See page ix.

SLP: A speech-language pathologist

Social and emotional: Related to self-regulation and prosocial behaviours. Children who are well-nurtured are on the path for social and emotional health. They are learning to form and maintain relationships, recognize and control their emotions, co-operate and help others. As adults they can communicate to resolve conflict, maintain personal and professional relationships and be contributing members of their community. They are responsible and respectful individuals who are able to reflect on their strengths and weaknesses and engage in lifelong learning.

Speech-language Pathologist (SLP): Provincially licensed professional with a Master’s degree. Has expertise in communication development and disorders, and swallowing. SLPs are trained to work with all ages to assess and treat communication and swallowing needs. Many SLPs will specialize in a particular age group, population, or area of practice.

Stutters/Stuttering: See dysfluencies, fluency disorder. The disruption of ongoing “flow” or “smoothness” of speech. Many children will have periods of dysfluent speech, or “stuttering,” and then “grow out of it” as a part of natural development. However, some children will maintain their dysfluent speech and have a persistent stutter, or fluency disorder, requiring professional help.

Successive single-word utterances:  Also called “Vertical Constructions.” It is common for a child to say something like “Duck. Big.” where each word is clearly its own utterance but also related to the other word. The word order is often incorrect as a single utterance. This provides an opportunity for informative recasting.

Serve and return: Similar to turn-taking. The essential aspect of conversation and relationships that can start from the beginning of life. Can take place between a parent and a nonverbal child when the parent comments on an action or sound the child makes. As the child grows, the back-and-forth interactions can last longer, deepening the connection between parent and child.

Temper tantrums: A form of communication that includes an emotional outburst. Often brought on by frustration if desires are not met. A child may not have the words to express what they are trying to say or the self-regulation to manage their emotions. Adults can provide the words to help the child feel understood. Everyone benefits if the adult can recognize the child’s genuine distress and comfort the child, trying to meet their underlying need.

Two-word utterances:  Children combine words to communicate in phrases. They typically start to do this when they have about 50 words in their vocabulary. See page ix.

Vocalizations: Sounds made using the vocal tract, whether or not they are language or language-like. Vocalizations include speech, babbling, cooing, and vocal play (such as screeches).