Dissertation on encouraging privatisation in higher education) good for india’s future

Is Market Driven Educational Model (Encouraging Privatisation in Higher Education) Good for India’s Future?

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Abstract This paper examines the need for encouraging market driven higher education higher education model in India. In this context, the present study is focussed on privatisation in the Indian higher education wing, the regulations of the government and the intricate issues underlying within the same. Hence, the present study analysed the perceptions of educational pioneers in India and their views towards privatisation of higher education in India.

Methods- The present study is a qualitative research conducted with former vice chancellors, former Higher Education Minister, State of Karnataka and the administrators of private and public higher education institutions.

Findings- The findings of the study revealed that a majority of respondents claimed privatisation to bring better prospects as the country‘s Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) needs to be improved. Majority of participants belonging to public higher education institutions stated the significance of privatisation in the educational sector.

Conclusions and Implications- Privatisation in Indian higher education should be encouraged; however, there is a need to connect Indian universities with industries to mitigate job crisis which is prevalent with increased human capital.

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Table of Contents Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 2 List of Table ............................................................................................................................... 6 List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ 6 CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 8 1.0 Background................................................................................................................................. 8 1.2 Research Objectives ................................................................................................................ 15 1.3 Research Questions ................................................................................................................. 15 1.4 Scope of the study.................................................................................................................... 15 1.5 Chapter scheme ........................................................................................................................ 16 CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................ 17 2.0 Encouraging privatisation in Indian Higher education ....................................................... 17 2.1 Defining the terms ................................................................................................................... 18 2.2 Relationship between Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation ............................. 22 2.3 Privatisation in the educational sector .................................................................................. 23 2.4 Privatisation of higher education in Global context ............................................................ 26 2.5 Privatisation in the Indian educational sector ...................................................................... 29

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2.6 Indian government policies on privatisation of Higher education .................................... 36 2.7 Issues in Privatisation of higher education in India ............................................................ 41 2.8 Need for Privatisation in higher education ........................................................................... 42 2.9 Political economy of higher education in India ................................................................... 44 2.10 Previous studies ..................................................................................................................... 47 2.11 Research Gap ......................................................................................................................... 49 CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................................... 50 3.0 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 50 3.1 Research design ....................................................................................................................... 51 3.2 Research philosophy ............................................................................................................... 52 3.3 Research Approach .................................................................................................................. 52 3.4 Target population and sample size ........................................................................................ 53 3.4.1 Sampling technique ................................................................................................. 55 3.5 Data collection ......................................................................................................................... 55 3.5.1 Data collection methods .......................................................................................... 55 3.5.2 Interviews in educational research .......................................................................... 55 3.5.3 Procedures for preparing for the interviews ............................................................ 56

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3.5.4 Validity and reliability in interviews ....................................................................... 57 3.6 Analysis of the interview ........................................................................................................ 58 3.7 Summary ................................................................................................................................... 58 CHAPTER IV: RESULTS ....................................................................................................... 59 4.0 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 59 4.1 Participants ............................................................................................................................... 59 4.2 Role of privatisation in higher education development in India ....................................... 63 4.3 Perceptions of stakeholders towards choosing higher education institutions .................. 66 4.4 Views of Indian Government on privatisation ..................................................................... 69 4.5 Encouraging privatisation in India ........................................................................................ 71 4.6 Private Universities and high standards of higher education in India .............................. 74 4.7 Role of privatisation in maintaining equity and accessibility ............................................ 77 CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ............................................................. 80 5.0 Role of privatisation towards satiating the ever-growing need for higher education in India 80 5.1 Effects of privatisation in Indian higher education ............................................................. 85 5.2 Governmental regulations and privatisation ........................................................................ 86 5.3 Governmental regulations and privatisation ........................................................................ 88

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5.4 Implications .............................................................................................................................. 89 5.5 Conclusions .............................................................................................................................. 91 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 93 Appendix ................................................................................................................................ 113

List of Table Table 1: Semi-structured interviews conducted with vice-chancellors and XXX of private institutions

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List of Figures Figure 1: World higher education enrolment rate .................................................................... 10 Figure 2: Private Enrollment and Institutional Share in Higher Education in Selected Asian Economies, 2002– 2009.......................................................................................................................................... 28 Figure 3: Total number of Private aided, unaided and government higher education institutions in India (Statewise) ......................................................................................................................................... 31 Figure 4: Total number of Private aided, private unaided and government higher education institutions in India (total) ........................................................................................................................................ 33 Figure 5: Procedure to establish a private university ............................................................... 39

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Figure 6: Participants in the study ........................................................................................... 62 Figure 7: Word cloud of Role of privatisation in higher education development in India ...... 64 Figure 8: Word cloud of Perceptions of stakeholders towards choosing higher education institutions Figure 9: Word cloud of Views of Indian Government on privatisation ................................. 70 Figure 10: Word Cloud of Encouraging privatisation in India ................................................ 72 Figure 11: Word Cloud of Private Universities and high standards of higher education in India

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Figure 12: Word Cloud of Role of privatisation in maintaining equity and accessibility ....... 78 Figure 13: Estimated 18-23 year old population in India- 2030 .............................................. 81

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CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1.0 Background The purpose of higher education in all developed and developing economies is very simple- to deliver professional education which equips students the knowledge of practicality to succeed in their life. Success in this context relates to achieving a considerable role at work, at communities and so on. To satiate the ever increasing need for education and knowledge empowerment, educational institutions all around the world evolve continuously. In a global context, higher education is under constant pressure with the following requirements- to meet the expectations of education, increase student enrolment, increase workforce needs of the nation which in turn affects economic development positively (Educause, 2010). To meet the needs of higher education, developed and developing countries have begun embracing the concept of ‗Privatisation‘.

Privatisation is defined as the initiation of private ownership with the authoritative power and management power resting within the control of private individuals. The control in privatisation is in terms of administration of money and decision making. In education, privatisation is considered as the expansion of private control over public good ‗education‘ (Jonaki & Prasenjit, 2016).

Though it is claimed that privatisation has its role in higher education all over the world, factors such as globalisation and liberalisation have combined effects on higher education (Vlk, 2006). Over the past decades, private higher education in the world has witnessed remarkable progress with more than 30 per cent of private enrolment globally. By the year 2012, the number of student enrolment in higher education institutions reached 196 million whereas the same in the year 2000 was just below 100 million (Kassim et al., 2015). Private

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education has been in existence in many countries for years and is the traditional mode of higher education in many Asian countries such as Korea, Japan and Philippines. Many private higher education institutions in the world are basically ‗on quasi for-profit‘ or ‗for-profit institutions‘. Countries such as Japan, Indonesia and the Republic of Korea witness 70% private enrolment and almost half the student population in nations such as Brazil, Mexico, and Chile are educated under private higher education institutions (UNESCO, 2014). The impact of private sector could also be envisioned in the eastern European as well as the African countries.

Developing economies such as India and China are no longer an exception and embrace private sector higher education. Researchers argue that privatisation in the higher education sector is the cause of neo-liberal policies, the limited funding of National Governments for higher education, the increasing costs and the economic requirements of nations which include increasing technologically and practically empowered workforce (Rena, 2010).

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Figure 1: World higher education enrolment rate

Higher education student enrolment rate 250 200 150 Number of students (in millions)

100 50 0 2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

2012

Source: Adopted from UNESCO (2016) The expansion of higher education in India is in a rapid pace and the increase in progress of higher education institutions in India discerns the growing knowledge requirements of student population in the country. Private sector plays a predominant role in delivering knowledge to the youth population in the country.

A dire need for professional education always exists in the country and the participation of private sector is deemed to be more important. Privatisation in the Indian higher education sector has emerged in several types and forms over the years (Tilak & Varghese, 1983a). Privatisation takes place in the following forms-

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introduction of self-financing courses in public higher education institutions, transformation of a public higher education institution in to private institutions, and private institutions with and without recognition. Institutions which operate for the purpose of profit are termed commercial private higher education institutions. Private individuals play ownership role in setting up private universities, deemed universities and foreign collaboration universities (Jonaki & Prasenjit, 2016). The economic reforms which were implemented in the year 1991, led the nation to adopt several changes. Open markets and liberal environments led to the emergence of private higher education institutions in the nation. In the year 1995, legislations were introduced for setting up private universities in India but the act is yet to be implemented. Lack of proper legislations for private universities eased state governments of the nation to set up private universities. According to the University Grants Commission (UGC), by the end of 2015, there were 43 central universities, 312 state universities, 115 deemed universities and 183 private universities in the country (Dhanuraj & Kumar, 2015).

The increase number of enrolment in private sector higher education institutions and the number of private institutions in India increasing every year positively define the success of privatisation in the higher education sector. Education in this regard is considered to be a tool to establish individual status in the community; hence the need for higher education is increasing in India. With better quality of higher education delivered through privatisation, developing countries are positively regulated to benefit from knowledge based economic developments (World Bank, 2000).

Several challenges necessitated the need for privatisation in the higher education sector of India. Firstly, the population of students (age group: 15-35 years) in the nation in the year 2010 was around 350 million and Altbach and Jayaram (2010) predicted that the numbers will peak at 485 million in 2030. The previous

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researchers argue that the Government will tremble to meet the needs of higher education only with public sector institutions and meeting quality education needs for such huge numbers is a complicated task. Secondly, there occurs an unequal balance in the number of urban and rural higher education enrolment in the country.

Ernst and Young (2009) report states that the Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) in urban regions of the country is around 24 per cent whereas the same in the rural counterparts is 7.5 per cent. Thirdly, the quality of education delivered by public institutions is so poor which is attributed to reasons such as lack of infrastructure, out-dated curriculum, less research innovations and practical empowerment. Lack of skilled workforce emerging from public institutions demotivates organisations to employ such candidates. However, only a few public higher education institutions such as Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) and Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs) satisfy the needs of corporate organisations by delivering quality manpower resources (Sudarshan & Subramanian, 2012). Indian government (both state and central) suffer from serious monetary allocations to fund higher education which could be balanced through private sector. The enrolment of students in higher education institutions in India has grown phenomenally wherein the number of enrolment is 25.9 million in 2011-12 and the same in the year 1970-71 was 2 million (Ernst & Young, 2012).

In the same context, Patel (2012) elucidates the advantages of privatisation in Indian higher education.

The previous researcher claims five advantages of privatisation in Indian higher education which are as follows: 1. Resource allocation- The resources allocated by the state and central government to public higher education institutions does not facilitate the proper management of these institutions. On the contrary, private owners may fund considerable amount to maintain private institutions.

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2. Sensitivity- Private sector institutions adopt changes flexibly whereas the same is not possible in public sector institutions.

3. Quality- Better quality of education is provided in private sector institutions rather than public sector institutions.

4. Accessibility- With more number of educational institutions, private sector serves to cater the educational needs of all citizens in India.

5. Reduced burden- Governments may concentrate allocating resources to other sectors (Patel, 2012).

Though it is claimed that privatisation has its role in higher education all over the world, factors such as globalisation and liberalisation have combined effects on higher education (Vlk, 2006). Globalisation has impacts on the higher education system of India. The reforms of education in India, especially with the liberal motives of the Government to allow private participation in the higher education sector underline the perception of the government to enhance the utilisation of information technology resources thereby emphasising the economic productivity of the country through quality workforce. Indian higher education is lacking autonomy, funds and suffers from the burden of affiliation. On the contrary, globalisation will bring development in education through technology, communication and knowledge. Due to privatisation, the quality of education delivered becomes industry oriented and the increase in globally acknowledged higher education institutions transforms India into a knowledge hub (Naik, 2015).

Though privatisation in Indian higher education is a boon, many researchers claim that the advent of private sector in education sector tends to be hazardous as the equity to educational access is affected. A study

by Chougle (2014) on understanding the perceptions of college teachers towards privatisation in Indian higher

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education revealed several weaknesses. The perceptions were ranked wherein the cost of private higher education acquired the first rank. With the increased cost for higher education services by private sector, the economically weaker sections may suffer. Other factors in the raking include fear of unethical practices or no ethics, commercialisation of education and lack of social commitment (Chougle, 2014).

There are contradictory ideas regarding the feasibility of private sector participation in the Indian higher education sector. Though different researchers claim the devastating role of privatisation in the sector, the economy of the country necessitates such participation. The ideologies on equity and accessibility are questioned since privatisation has both positive and negative effects on the factors. While private sector institutions aid in meeting the ever-growing demand for higher education in a highly student populous nation, the cost of acquiring private higher education is not within the reach of poor economic class who form a predominant part of the population in the country. However, the Government lacks allocation of funds to public institutions to create opportunities for youngsters to pursue higher education as feeble resources are allocated for higher education purposes of the country. These inferences act as the premise to the present study which is based on the analysis of private participation in Indian higher education sector. Privatisation poses both advantages and disadvantages; however analysing the same leads to a clear understanding of the impacts of privatisation in the higher education sector. Hence, the present study analyses whether the market driven approach of Indian higher education is advantageous for the future of the nation.

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1.2 Research Objectives 1. To determine the effects of privatisation in Indian higher education 2. To examine the role of privatisation towards satiating the ever-growing need for higher education in India 3. To analyse and interpret the perceptions of educational pioneers towards the market driven higher education market.

1.3 Research Questions 1) What are the effects of privatisation in Indian higher education?

2) Does privatisation in Indian higher education satiate the ever-growing needs of student population in the country?

3) How do educational pioneers in India view privatisation of higher education?

1.4 Scope of the study The scope of the present study is bound within the limits of examining the effects of privatisation and market driven model in Indian higher education. Hence, the present study focuses on the regulations regarding privatisation in different states of the country wherein the laws are varying for each state in the nation.

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1.5 Chapter scheme The first chapter covers the introduction of the study wherein the background of the study, the research objectives and the scope are elucidated.

The second chapter is the literature review in which the knowledge which is previously discussed relevant to the present topic of the research will be identified and analysed. The chapter further elucidates the findings of various researchers who devised researches similar to the context of the present study.

The third chapter covers the research methodology. The different methods of data collection, and the analysis techniques used will be elucidated following which the type of research methodology used in the present study will be explained The fourth chapter will cover the results. Different techniques are used to analyse the variables of the study. The results of the study will be analysed, examined and summarised.

The final chapter will be discussions and conclusions. The findings of the study will be discussed elaborately and the conclusions will be stated. Additionally, future studies in the same context will be recommended.

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CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Encouraging privatisation in Indian Higher education The present chapter of the dissertation is dedicated to understanding the different literatures on the subject of privatisation of higher education and India since its independence in 1945. Ever since India attained the status as a ‗republic nation‘, education in the country is based on the principles of empowering the citizens of the nation and the responsibility of the state is to create an environment which enables all its citizens to be empowered. In this regard, the Government of India adopts strategies to maintain the growing population and increasing rate of youth through the creation of capacities. Over the years of development in the Indian educational sector, the Government is enlarging its capacities by investing more on enhancing the existing institutions. During the year 1950-51, there were around 28 universities and 578 colleges in the entire country while the scenario of today is widened. India is now the hub for a number of educational institutions, especially institutions satiating higher education needs. In 2014, there were a total of 36,812 colleges (20,390 colleges private institutions and 6,768 public colleges) in the country which transforms India as the knowledge spot for more than 20 million students enrolled in these institutions (Shankar, 2016). However over the last two decades, the need for skilled labour and practical expertise is increasing wherein companies demand for expertise, education and skilled manpower. In order to meet the growing needs for manpower in an ever-evolving economy, privatisation aids with complementing the public educational institutions. Over the past decades, the factor called ‗capacity creation‘ is steered with the aid of private institutions. The emergence of higher education in India began in the mid-1980s which is to subsidise the investment reduction of the Government and the states towards education. The share of the private unaided institutes is 43 per cent in 2001 and the

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percentage of students is 33 per cent. However, the percentage rose and in the year 2006, the percentage share of private institutions was 64 and the percentage of students rose up to 52 per cent (Sudarshan & Subramanian, 2012).

Privatisation has always been a hot topic of debate and the country has been witnessing resistance.

Though in the beginning when privatisation is a part of the economic liberalisation scheme, the nation was dormant; however, much resistance arose when the intricacies in privatisation were found (Kapur & Ramamurti, 2002). However, previous researchers also argue the benefits of privatisation of Higher education in India wherein previous studies and reports claim privatisation in other developed and developed countries to be a great success. Feith (2012) projected the market for international higher education and claims that the demand for higher education will surpass China. The previous researcher argues that market driven policies can only meet the increasing demands of higher education in India. Hence, the present section intends to analyse the present status of privatization in a broad context envisioning the role of privatisation all over the world and its impact in the educational system. Further narrowing the topic towards the impact of privatisation in educational system of India, previous literatures pertaining to the context of the present study will be reviewed and analysed.

2.1 Defining the terms Privatisation Privatisation is the fundamental part of the public reforms and is the core theme towards enhancing the efforts of the private sector. For most countries in the world, privatisation is the key to development in all

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aspects; however, the objectives of the countries differ based on the capabilities and the need for privatisation in these companies. Though the privatisation objectives of each country differ based on the needs and capability, depending on the development and the social goals of the country, the following factors are considered and the private sector should operate to serve the cause: improve efficiency, improve customer/ consumer choice, increased competition, mitigation of public debts and budget deficits, and extending the share ownership in the private sector. However, all these factors on the whole should aid with enhancing the productivity and efficiency of a nation, thereby acting as the growth engine of a nation‘s economy (Ddumba-Ssentamu & Mugume, 2001).

Furthermore, Privatisation is also defined as the process of increasing the productivity and efficiency of the private sector thereby fostering the development of the private sector (Naya, 1990). However, in simple economic terms, privatisation is the transfer of the activities of the state to the private sector which occurs in partial or whole, or by the sales of assets which is followed by liquidation (Ddumba-Ssentamu & Mugume, 2001). In terms of higher education in India, privatisation is the only feasible way to increase the Gross enrolment ratio (GER) of students in higher education wherein a minimum of 30 per cent GER could be achieved with the establishment of additional 800 universities and 40000 private colleges within 2020 (Gupta & Gupt, 2012). Hence, privatisation especially in higher education in Indian is seen to provide better accountability and quality of educational experience for the students therefore these institutions are more sought after for admission by students than government run institutions

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Liberalisation and privatisation Liberalisation is defined as the transformation of market structures which is facilitated by the responses of companies and new entrants into open/ free market. In a liberal economy, the shares of the market transform are liable to change rapidly, and the competitive scenarios between small and large scale firms determine the growth of this market, whether the concentration will be more or less (Kambhampati & Kattuman, 2003). Over three decades, developed and developing economies have been witnessing privatisation of public sector services. The recommendations of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank are towards the privatisation of public owned enterprises which is a suggestion to increase revenue, enhance the health of public finance, increase the productivity and efficiency, thereby reducing the intervention of government (Megginson & Netter, 2001). Among the different aims of privatisation of public enterprises and services (Villalonga, 2000; Sheshinski, 2003), the predominant goal of privatisation is to increase the efficiency and productivity of the economy (Kilicaslan et al., 2008).

Globalisation The process of Globalisation is still in stages of integrating the nations all across the globe and is related with the concepts of privatisation. Following several changes in the pace of technological developments, economic liberalisation, and the importance of international laws, national economies are evolving continuously and globalisation has delivered these countries into a state of competition which is very different before liberalisation in developed and developing economies. The term ‗Globalisation‘ is not a sudden trend in the global market. It is the sustainment of developmental activities in the economies of different nations and is still

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in its developmental stages. Liberalisation of economic activities in a country differs from one another with economic agents which are connected on marginal basis and are resistive towards failure in the neighbourhood nations. Immediately after the post-World war-II period, the rapid growth in the developments of foreign trade is embraced by developed nation in the 1950s and 1960s; however, Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) in developing economies paved way for globalisation. Over the past two decades, trade and economic liberalisation improved the economies in the world, thereby integrating the world into a highly integrated system. Following are the three predominant features of globalisation steering the integration of global economies. i) Product internationalisation with changes in the production structure ii) International trade expansion iii) Expansion of international capital flows (Mrak, 2000).

The Article 25 of the Companies Registration Act defines the establishment of educational institutions in India which can only be set up by trusts and charitable organisations. However, the act lacks clarity about foreign universities setting up in India. The government of India is adopting liberalisation policies to allow foreign investors establishing private educational institutions in the nation (Amandeep, 2016). Similar to the studies by Kilicaslan et al., (2008) and Megginson & Netter, (2001), the government of India attempts to liberalise its policies on foreign investment and privatisation in order to improve the economy.

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2.2 Relationship between Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation There is specifically a relationship existing between the three factors: Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation (LPG). Boubakri et al. (2011) argues that there exists a relationship between liberalisation and globalisation, and privatisation. The researcher argues that privatisation has profound effects on globalisation as increasing the participation of private sector in foreign investments thereby promoting capital inflow, technology and management skills of the company. Since globalisation turns the market environment more competitive, the GDP growth is also enhanced. In the same context, Goyal (2006) investigated the role of globalisation on developing countries with special reference to India. Over the years, the integration of societies and economies has been a debatable topic. Developing economies like China and India witnessed tremendous growth after adopting the model of Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation and the rate of poverty in these nations declined steadily (LPG). However, globalisation has been controversial since a number of oppositions internationally were generated based on inequality and degradation of environment. This necessitated the study of impacts of globalisation in developing nations from the perspectives of FDI. After the foreign exchange crunch which dragged the economy to loan defaults, India opened up its market in the early 1990s. As a response to the economic liberalisation, a number of foreign investment companies established their businesses in the nation. The policy changes invoked a more open market economy. Goyal (2006) further argues that the Government of India should analyse the best opportunities within the globalisation and privatisation schemes since the target of the world is towards developing countries such as India and China. The US and the countries of Europe are defined economies, hence economic experts argue that India and China may overtake the US and European countries thereby becoming a major economic power in the forthcoming decade

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(Goyal, 2006). The technological revolution which is coupled with the processes of liberalization, privatization and globalization (LPG) has transformed knowledge as the key basis for nations to compete in the global environment. The emergence of the knowledge based society has further accomplished several economic benefits of developed and developing countries for which researchers claim the reason to be the LPG model.

Education and globalisation are mutually dependent terms. Globalisation is the process of imparting efficiency and competitiveness and in the educational sector, it means transforming knowledge into an ‗accessible to all‘ resource (Rani, 2010) . Ray (2015) states that with the new policy reforms associated with the liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation schemes, the science and technology wing of India has witness rapid growth, enabling increased enrolment in higher education thereby increasing the knowledge base for IT and skilled labour force.

According to Gautam et al. (2015), the LPG model has influenced almost all the sectors in India and the higher education wing is no longer an exception. The Government of India claims privatisation as the most feasible mode to satiate the growing need for higher education in India. This will be reflected in the following sections wherein the role of privatisation in educational sector both in developed and developing countries are elucidated following which the context of LPG in Indian higher education is expatiated.

2.3 Privatisation in the educational sector In broad terms, privatisation in the educational sector is referred to as the policies which promote liberalisation and deregulation thereby establishing a market in education or creation of a competitive

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environment between private and public education providers (Lubienski, 2006). Different countries identify privatisation to increase the efficiency of the educational system in two ways. i. Delivering education to the inaccessible communities ii. Improving the quality of education thereby nurturing competition Though the governing bodies of countries view education as a public good to the population, privatisation of the education sector enables the equilibrium between the education provider and the choice of the consumer. In a private institution, the type of product offered and the fee for these products are fixed by the private education providers. In a privatised educational setup, the consumers of the education as good (parents and students) will possess the option to decide the type of education and the charge that they wish to spend.

Instead of standardising education through free state education, private owners feel the need to satisfy the educational needs of the consumers. Additionally, the profit motives are set by these private education providers. An implication of privatisation is that there will be a remarkable growth in the generation of quality assurance and national assessment systems which seek to enhance the information quality thereby creating better choices for consumers (Benveniste, 2002).

Privatisation in the educational sector is unfolded in three ways. The three ways are: i. Outsourcing state specific activities and operations to private education providers. ii. The introduction of self-regulatory and market-based regulations which forms the deregulation of the education sector

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iii. Provisions for educational institutions which are either funded by the state with the regulations of the public or independently.

All the aforementioned approaches could be considered either simultaneously or balancing each other or may even on one of the three modes. Some approaches are independent; however some complement each other.

For instance, the emergence of more private educational institutions and at the same time these institutions offering more choices for enrolment in these institutions. In developed countries, privatisation of education sector is encouraged for the growth of education in these countries. These countries offer vouchers to encourage student enrolment in private institutions, and tax credits to parents (Belfield & Levin, 2002). However, this is not feasible as in the case of developing countries wherein there will be no possibility for the Government to fund and encourage private education which limits the philanthropic scope of privatisation in developing countries (PedrĂł et al., 2015).

The Global education 20/20 report (Economist Intelligence Unit, 2009) claims the role of private sector in education. In this regard, 211 respondents were surveyed wherein 123 respondents belonged to the private sector companies and 88 from educational sector. The survey was conducted by Economist Intelligence Unit in February 2009 which discerned the role played by the private sector and analysed whether the same regulates positively or negatively the traditional education. The survey covered questions regarding the importance of privatisation in the educational sector wherein 70 per cent of the respondents revealed such privatisation to be important. However, the role of the private sector varies from country to country. The survey further revealed the success of voucher-system wherein the system increases the performance of the schools (The Economist, 2007). In Sweden, higher education for students belonging to the EU nations and Switzerland is provided free

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of cost which is facilitated by tax revenue (Swedish Institute, 2013). In Portugal, the United States and Japan, private institutions are funded by the state and mostly serve as not-for profit organisations. In Japan, around 77 per cent enrolled in private institutions delivering higher education (Varghese, 2012). However, not all countries allow the privatisation of educational sector, and not all corporations aspire to do so. The report further reveals the emergence of private corporations taking care of the education sector all around the world.

Based on the results of the survey, it is deemed that privatisation in the education sector is important since the idea of the respondents is privatisation brings better education (Economist Intelligence Unit, 2009).

2.4 Privatisation of higher education in Global context A shining example of a well-established system of higher education that is both qualitative, diversified and available to all sections of society is the one prevailing in the U.S. The private sector is a major contributor to the system at various levels. But the private sector's role is generally limited management and philanthropy.

Though there is great diversity among universities and colleges, the fees of students constitute lesser than 50% of the total capital budget and operating costs. Donations, royalties, research grants, licensing, and auxiliary services account for the remaining (Sunder, 2010).

Many nations (for instance, the United States) have a chequered past of development of the private sector. In most of the other nations (for instance, Latin American nations), the private sector came on the scene more than five decades ago but significant growth was achieved during the very end of the 20th century. In various regions of the world (for instance, African and post-communist European nations), the private education sector is relatively new. Proprietary institutions, for-profit and non-profit organisations comprise the private

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sector. Institutions that are proprietary —characterised by profit-seeking behaviour and driven by the market driven, with centralized and business like management systems, in addition to a weak academic culture—can be defined as the pure form of privatization (Holzhacker et al., 2009). In the United States there have been many private, not for profit higher education institutions for many years like Stanford University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology etc. On the other hand, the University of Phoenix in the U.S. is private and for profit.

There are many private providers in the UK higher education which function on a not for profit basis (Shankar, 2016).

The share of higher education in the entire world accounts to 31 per cent with the highest share of 35 per cent of students enrolled in the private higher education institutions of Asia and the pacific. About 50 per cent of the institutions in most of the regions of Asia and the pacific belong to the private sector. When compared with the number of enrolment in the public institutions, the growth of enrolments in the private education sector is phenomenal. Countries all across Asia enacted regulations and policies to manage private higher education institutions; however the issues based on quality of education, the equitability towards education access and the affordability of students towards paying for private institutions are challenging for developing countries (Asian Development Bank, 2012).

Three stages of private sector emergence into the educational sector are elucidated by Geiger (1986).

The three stages are peripheral private, parallel public and private education sectors and the extensive private higher education sector. In the peripheral private stage, a country‘s public higher education sector will dominate and the role of private higher education institutions will be peripheral. Developing countries normally adopt the peripheral private model where the countries are deeply rooted in socialistic principles. Developing countries

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such as Viet Nam and the Central Asian republics fall into this category. Secondly, the parallel public and private higher education sectors are a reflection of higher education institutions operating in parallel. The examples of countries adopting such system are Hong Kong, China, Malaysia, and Thailand (Chealy, 2006).

Thirdly, the extensive private higher education sector is the combination of more number of private educational institutions and the high degree of enrolment in private higher education institutions. The Republic of Korea and Japan are the leading countries with high share of private higher education enrolment in the East Asia (more than 77 per cent of enrolment shares and 90 per cent of institutional shares), following which Indonesia and Philippines with 70.9 per cent and 60.9 per cent shares in private higher education enrolment and 97.3% and 72.2% shares in private institutional number respectively (Asian Development Bank, 2012).

Figure 2: Private Enrollment and Institutional Share in Higher Education in Selected Asian Economies, 2002–2009 120

Percentage

100 80 60 40 20 0 0.0 0.0

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28 enrollment Private percentage of total higher education Private percentage of total Higher education institutions

Source: Adopted from Asian Development Bank (2012) From Figure 1, it is evident that the number of private educational institutions and the share of private higher education enrolment in India are somewhat not in line with the developments of other countries. Though India is the second populous country, the number of enrolments is lower than the other Asian nations such as China, Phillipines and Korea. However, the Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for higher education (in general to both public and private sector institutions) has doubled over the decade wherein the GER is 9 per cent in the year 2002-03 and the same is 24 per cent in 2013-14. Shankar (2016) relates such enrolment to be associated with the emergence of private higher education institutions which remarkably increased the higher education enrolment rate of students.

2.5 Privatisation in the Indian educational sector Despite the fact that many nations including the United States view private sector as philanthropic, the same cannot be stated in the context of India. In sharp contrast to the definition, genuine not-for-profit colleges or educational institutions in India obtain nearly 100% of their total income from fees collected from students, since income from other avenues is less. Whereas in educational institutions/colleges that are set up as forprofit; either by overt admission or discreet actions; the total fees collected from students is enough to cater to all the overheads and also generate a return on investment. Since very little benefits are available for innovation, research, and doctoral education, the financial model comes in the way of improving the quality of education that has been provided by institutions comprising a major part of the increase in admissions (Sunder, 2010).

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In terms of number of students, the Indian ranking in higher education system is number three, behind China and the United States. However, the advantage in India is that English has primacy as the main language for higher education and research. Comparatively 11 per cent of India youth complete higher education against 20 per cent in China. The important governing body with overall regulatory control of universities is the University Grants Commission (India), which ensures compliance of standards, acts as an advisor to the government, and liaises between the centre and states. Higher learning in India is accomplished through Universities and constituent colleges. As on 2011, around 227 Universities are available in India that is recognised by the Government which includes 11 Open universities, 109 deemed Universities, 20 Central varsities and 87 state universities. A majority of the varsities in India have colleges affiliated to them where undergraduate courses are conducted (Singh, 2009).

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Figure 3: Total number of Private aided, unaided and government higher education institutions in India (State-wise)

West Bengal Uttar Pradesh Telangana Sikkim Punjab Odisha Mizoram Manipur Madhya Pradesh Karnataka Jammu and Kashmir Haryana Goa Daman & Diu Chhatisgarh Bihar Arunachal Pradesh Andaman & Nicobar Islands 0 total total private

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

35000

government private aided

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Source: Adopted from Ministry of Human Resource Development (2015) Elementary and secondary education is imparted in schools in India, while the third level i.e. higher education is provided in colleges and universities. The education sector has two types of providers - private and public. Private institutions are classified into two types - aided (partly bankrolled by the government) or unaided (self-funded). Public institutions are setup, bankrolled and entirely managed by the concerned department of the government. Whenever the government's efforts to impart education in a manner so as to be accessible to all, falls short of the planned target, the private sector steps in to fill the gaps. The generally accepted norms is that motivation for the private sector is profit, however, when the private sector is involved in education, profit should not be the driving force. Experts opine that particular private sector players in the education sector lower the standards of education as they do not adhere to the laid down norms, and preclude certain categories of students due to the inexorbitant fee structure. But, the contrary view held by few experts is that private sector involvement is a necessity to improve quality with added investment, to encourage competition in higher education (Shankar, 2016).

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Figure 4: Total number of Private aided, private unaided and government higher education institutions in India (total) Indian Higher education colleges

Private Un-Aided Private aided Government

Source: Adopted from Ministry of Human Resource Development (2015) Despite the progress made in education after decades of independence, higher education in India requires to perform better in the crucial areas of Access, Equity and Quality. Sudarshan & Subramanian, (2012) are of the view that imparting qualitative, higher education that matches global standards at a reasonable cost is one of the most important issues before the nation. They further state that if India does not take appropriate steps on a war footing, then the situation would turn grim wherein a large number of youngsters would be looking for higher education and the system will be unable to accommodate all of them. People in the age group

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of 15-35 years estimated in the year 2010 to be more than 350 million, is projected to peak at around 485 million in 2030 (Altbach & Jayaram, 2010). To complicate matters further, the higher education Gross Enrolment Rations (GERs) shows disparity among states, urban areas, rural areas, gender and communities. As per statistics of Ernst and Young (2009), urban areas have a GER of 23.8 per cent whereas in rural areas it is a dismal 7.5 per cent. Delhi has a GER of 31.9 per cent while Assam is at the bottom rung with 8.3 per cent. The rich–poor and the rural–urban gap witnessed in India has serious detrimental effects. The best way to narrow the gap would have been to utilise education to bridge the divide. But, as can be witnessed from the statistics, the disparities are pronounced when it comes to uniform access to education to all, which only ends up highlighting the divisions seen in society. The main reasons for the sorry state of affairs is an outdated curriculum, undue emphasis on theory, diluted focus on research and social sciences, indifferent attitude towards innovation, low morale and lack of motivation among teachers and researchers and the lack of a proper monitoring and regulatory mechanism. Therefore, when the National Association of Software and Service Companies, (2005) tabled the facts that only 25 per cent technical and 10 per cent non-technical graduates were of employable standards, it was not far from the truth. One more fact in support of this report was the practice in most companies that recruited fresh graduates, trained them to bridge the gap between the requirements of the industry and the actual output passing out of educational institutions. This was done at heavy cost to the industry, pointing to the disconnect between education industry standards.

It is not feasible for the government to cater to all the higher educational requirements of India. This could be because the allocated public expenditure on higher education as a percentage of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is a mere 0.6 per cent (Ernst & Young, 2009a); this is quite lower than what developed nations like the United States (US), the United Kingdom (UK) and China allocate on a per-student basis. In order to

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fulfil the demanding needs of a dynamic economy, private entities have established institutions to supplement public educational institutions that are beset with problems of meeting capacity. Professional or higher educational courses like engineering and Master of Business Administration (MBA) has attracted a lot of privatisation efforts, constituting a majority of the total courses on offer. The courses and institutes of private sector in pharmacy and engineering are a staggering 90 percent of the total institutes and courses. The data is ample proof that private enterprise in education is now a vital part of the education scenario which cannot be reversed. Critics who hold the view that education is a social necessity best handled solely by the Government will be unable to offer a solution to the challenges faced by higher education, in the context of the scale and complex nature, which cannot be handled by the government alone with the resources at disposal(Sudarshan & Subramanian, 2012).

Reformist policies of Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization (ins short - LPG) ushered in sweeping changes resulting in the emergence of India as a powerhouse of educated manpower with more than thirty thousand institutions imparting education to around twenty million enrolled students (Gautam et al., 2015). Since then, the government has attempted investments to increase capacity and to improve the existing infrastructure. The time has come to credit the private sector with the supporting and at times leading role played in the phenomenal success in higher education in India, since a vast majority of students are presently undergoing courses in private institutions.

With the Government of India, UGC and AICTE welcoming private enterprise in the education domain, high and sustained growth can be predicted. The government needs to encourage privatization of higher education by concentrating on the qualitative aspect of colleges. Visible changes are observed in higher

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education in India, and the perception of private sector participation has changed from one of suspicion to an accepted and appreciated facet. The Program of Action, 1992 and the National Policy of Education (NPE), 1986 are policies that control higher education in its present form. The National Policy of higher education in India was framed on the basis of the Radhakrishnan Commission Report (1948‐1949) and the Kothari Commission Report (1964‐1966) (Partima & Singh, 2014).

2.6 Indian government policies on privatisation of Higher education The augmentation of higher education has been viewed sceptically and the rationale has been questioned, viewed in the context of related academic and social costs. However, the government is refusing to budge from its earlier assurance, considered as the fulfilment of nationalist ideals and as an intrinsic part of its fundamental responsibility as a welfare state. View prudently, government recognition of the people's desire for higher education means that restricting access would be detrimental. This is also influenced to a large extent by the desire to have enrolments comparable to that in North America and Europe. This desire is lent support by the repeated reports of World Bank that highlight the benefits of higher education. It also conforms to the government view that by enhancing profile of its populace, the disillusionment in society as a result of underemployment and unemployment can be contained. But, in the face of public demand and the pressures of politics seeking the accomplishment of standardisation of primary school education (which should have been achieved before the end of the Second Five Year Plan, in the year 1961), the government has concluded that continuation of subsidisation of higher education which has been the practice for last 5 decades is no longer tenable. Simultaneously, one segment of the population can afford prohibitive costs of higher education facilities offered by a few private institutions and by foreign universities. Hence, the government is regarding

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privatization. But, it is apprehensive on two counts. The first and foremost is that there would be disparity among those can afford to pay more and those who would not be able to afford. The second is that commercialisation of higher education could progress to a level where it transforms itself into one that is entirely market driven.

Hence, the government intends to extend the system that is in practice in many states for the last ten years. A vast number of institutions of higher education have been established and managed by private entities.

A sizeable proportion of such institutes are run with funds from the government, classified as ―aided‖ and these funds take care of maintenance and operational costs. Irrespective of their status as aided or unaided, private institutions without exception charge fees identical in structure and amount. Additionally, in all matters pertaining to administration and academics, all institutes are regulated by the rules of the government and university. In accordance with the system followed in a few states, as mentioned earlier, a chosen few and new private unaided institutions are permitted to fix a fee structure that is substantially higher than others. But, the fee structure can be fixed only after approval by the appropriate authority in government. The chosen institutions are granted leeway in certain matters pertaining to administration. However, overall, they are administered in similar manner as other institutions. It is inappropriate that India is contemplating acceptance of this type of privatization; where flexibility, space, and academic liberty for the progress of knowledge, quality and relevance are not encouraged, but stifled (P. G. Altbach & P. M. Petersoneds. , 1999).

Privatisation of higher education in India takes several forms (Tilak & Varghese, 1983b): i. Government introduces self-financing courses within the public institutions

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ii. Public government institutions converted into private institutions iii. Government allows self-financing private institutions with and without recognition/ allowing commercial education institutions The feasible form for private players in the field of education is to engage in the establishment of private universities, deemed universities and academic institutions (Jonaki & Prasenjit, 2016).

Establishment of private universities A university should be a trust or society. It should not be an entity for profit or it should not be run by a trust for profit. There are two ways to establish a private university. It can either be set up by an Act of Parliament (central university) or by an Act of a state legislature (state university). Till today no private university has been set up by an Act of Parliament. In the other method a university is being declared a deemed university. There are currently 229 privately managed universities in India. Different states may have different land norms and other procedure for setting up a private university. The analysis of such laws in the states such as Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat shows that these requirements are more or less similar across states (Shankar, 2016).

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Figure 5: Procedure to establish a private university

• Project report/proposal with five years expected cash flow Statement, Letter of Intent and Initial sum of money submitted to the Government.

Project report or Proposal

• Proposal Contains: Objectives of the University, types of Programmes of study, deed of the Institution (Which is a Trust/Society/Non-Profit entity under Section 25 of the Companies Act, or is being run by one), fee Structure, admissions format Composition details of board of Governors, Availability of academic research and Training facilities, building plan and land deed, etc.

• Once the Proposal is Approved, the State Government Tables the Bill of the Establishment of the Private University, for Passage by the State Legislature.

Setting up the University

• The university shall maintain standards as prescribed by the relevant regulator (UGC, Except in the case of technical, professional courses: AICTE or other councils).

Regulation

• It shall get accredited by a body such as the National Assessment and Accreditation Council, within a Stipulated Period of Time.

Source: Adopted from (Shankar, 2016)

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Regulations The UGC reserves the powers regarding the recognition, functioning and de-recognition of deemed universities. It also has the powers to distribute grants to other universities for their maintenance and development and regulating fees charged by the universities. If colleges or universities fail to comply with UGC standards their grants may be withdrawn or their affiliation may be terminated. Such disciplinary actions will be taken of a college or university does not comply with fee other regulations (University Grants Commission, 2002). Private universities which offer technical courses like engineering, town planning, management and which receive funds from AICTE should adhere to its academic standards and regulations (MHRD, 2016).

In order to give recommendations on building a knowledge base in India the National Knowledge Commission (NKC) was set up in 2005. The reforms required in the education sector were also considered while setting it up. Educational institutions for profit were not encouraged by NKC. 3 In 2008 the Yashpal committee was set up in order to recommend changes in the higher education sector. The important suggestion of the committee was that higher education should not get fascinated by the motive of profit. 4 Both NKC and Yashpal committee recommended private investment in higher education to extend educational opportunities. It is further discussed in detail with regard to the issue of access under fee structures.

Private providers always have a profit motive associated with them. The Supreme Court of India, lately, interpreted that the nature of educational institutions to be charitable and not for profit. Hence, by providing education supernormal or illegal profits cannot be made. If surplus revenue is generated it should be used for expansion of the institution and for education development.

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2.7 Issues in Privatisation of higher education in India The major developments in the higher education wing of Indian education sector started in the early 1990s with the laws enacted to enable open/ free market. Tilak (1999) states that there is a need for higher education to be privatised and the public funding for such education should be reduced. The Government of India in the year 1997 distinguished the two categories of education in India- elementary education as ‗meritgood‘ (Musgrave, 1959) and ‗higher education‘ as non-merit good. However, the Ministry of Finance classified higher education as a ‗merit II good‘ and which needs no subsidisation as the same level as the ‗merit good‘.

In India, privatisation of higher education had always been controversial. In the year 1992, the Supreme Court which is the highest judicial court in the country banned ‗Capitation fee colleges‘ stating that charging fee is unfair. However, the court reversed the judgement in the year 1993 stating that these colleges could be named self-financing colleges. This led to the emergence of private self-financing capitation fee colleges all across the country and the proliferation led to more number of private institutions established in the nation. It is evident in the states of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka that the number of private colleges (engineering and management) outnumbers the public educational institutions. In recent years, the number of private educational institutions and the enrolment of students in these institutions have increased wherein the share of private enrolment in 2000-01 is 32.89 per cent and the share rose up to 58.5 per cent in 2011-12 (Jahan & Selvarani, 2015). During the 11th plan, India witnessed a predominant growth in the number of private institutions wherein the number of private state universities is 98, 17 private deemed universities and 3581 private diploma institutions and 7818 private colleges. Even the number of private arts and science colleges has increased in the recent years (Jahan & Selvarani, 2015). However, such enormous proliferation rate in the number of private institutes poses serious

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doubts on the quality of education rendered by these institutes (Kaul, 2006). Aleem et al. (2016) claims that commercialisation and privatisation in higher education will pose serious threats to the development of human resources in two ways- expensive cost of education leading to unequal deliverance of education, and determination of education priorities. While privatisation in education sector have been allowed in countries like China and Singapore with flourishing higher education stats, the same should be feasible even in the Indian context which is the premise of the present study.

2.8 Need for Privatisation in higher education There are several requirements, which could be mapped with the privatisation of higher education in India. Less than 1 per cent of the nation‘s GDP is funded by the central government of India for education. The capacity building strategies of the government could not satiate the needs of higher education in the nation. By the year 2013, the number of students enrolled for higher education is 14.6 million and the FICCI-E&Y report FICCI (2011) states that in order to achieve 30 per cent GER in the forthcoming decade, the country would require building a capacity of 25 million seats. However, predicting the extra capacity building cost, by 2020, an additional 10 lakh crores (in Indian rupees) will be required for the government with a funding requirement of Rs. 4 lakhs per seat. In the current Indian context, such allocation of resources for higher education would be infeasible. Hence, private sectors play a vital role in bridging the gap between the requirement and the budget.

The positive contribution of private sector players towards higher education is evident from the success of economies like Japan, the US and Malaysia. The GER of the US increased from 71 per cent in 1999 to 83 per cent in 2008 whereas in Japan, the rate increased from 45 per cent to 58 per cent. In Malaysia, the rate increased from 28 per cent to 32 per cent (Tiwari et al., 2013).

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In India, Liberalisation, Globalisation and Privatisation play significant role in improving the quality of India corporates. The economic reformation allows foreign players into the nation, thereby creating a competitive environment between the foreign private players and the indigenous players. The low cost of living and India being the large English speaking base next to the US enable the country to act as the higher education hub in the Asian continent (Tiwari et al., 2013).

While researchers argued several needs for privatisation in the education sector, Jonaki and Prasenjit (2016) combines all the need factors which are as follows: i. Increasing the efficiency of the public sector by enabling competition ii. With the rapid growth in the population, the country‘s ever-growing needs for education could be satiated with the aid of private sector institutions. iii. While Government funds were considerably allocated to the higher education wing, private sector institutions may reduce the financial burden on the government. iv. Reducing the decentralisation of educational institutions v. Improved quality of education and training which aids in nurturing youth of the nation thereby sufficing the local, national and global manpower needs.

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vi. need for skilled and expertise man-power is increasing day by day. Since the country adopts the LPG model (Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation), the global needs for manpower should also be met vii. Facilitation of technological developments and economic developments in India.

With the new economic policies (LPG policies) that emerged in the early 1990s (Tilak, 2009), privatisation has been given predominant importance. However, privatisation has affected the poor communities in India drastically since there is an inequity in the deliverance of education across all the levels of the society and the openness and diversity of the knowledge providers are questioned which includes the quality and price of the product (education and knowledge) (Jonaki & Prasenjit, 2016).

2.9 Political economy of higher education in India The tightly controlled structure of the Indian higher education sector was analysed by Kapur and Mehtaa (2007). The paper has a two-fold key argument. The first argument is that higher education in India is de facto privatized on a large scale.2 This privatization did not happen because of the changing preferences of the key factors like the state, the judiciary or the propertied classes in India. Instead, this privatization took place from a breakdown of the state system. Consequently, ideological and institutional underpinnings are very weak in this form of privatization. Much of the private initiative remains within the bounds of the discretionary actions of the state instead of being a part of a comprehensive program of education reform. As a result, the education system is stuck between over-regulation by the state and a discretionary privatization which is not able to mobilize private capital in useful ways. Any policy intervention will have to change this political economy

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equilibrium if it has to succeed. Irrespective of the fact whether an institution is public or private, there are vicious circles of interest which hamper reform.

Since some of the most renowned modern universities in India are established by some of the dedicated individuals with private financial help, the private initiative in higher education is not a new concept in India.

This sort of public private partnership was unique in India (Levi, 1994, p313). In the initial stage the concept of private institution was meant to be arbitrary. It was also a comparative category to express various classes of educational institutions. In the domain of philanthropy such an arbitrary term gained image from its inception without much complexity and became a normative language (Cotton, 1999, p566-567). The fact that the public supported private institutions made the understanding of philanthropy easy. The policy of grand-in-aid system was made operational during British rule with the instructions of East India Company to encourage private institutions. Three types of private institutions- nationalist, sectarians and caste communities. They were functioning with the support of individual philanthropist and local notables before independence. Private sector continued to be a major domain in shaping higher education system in the post-independence India with the constitutional provision. Such strong support from the history led to the substantial growth of private higher education institutions which constitute three-fourth of the total education institutions. Private institutions are of two types- aided and unaided. Aided institutions are privately managed and publicly funded, whereas unaided institutions are both privately managed and funded colleges. In the initial stages of independence the role of private initiative in higher learning education has been very crucial. Many of the private educational institutions were reported to be non-viable and mediocre. The poor quality of delivery in their services and inadequate enrolment rates of students largely caused such an outcome (Garg, 1977; Kulandaiswamy, 2005). The private aided educational institutions were to strictly abide by the statue of the concerned universities. Since they

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regularly received aid financial aid from the state, private aided institutions did not have a significant role in sharing the cost of education (Tilak, 1992). Though the state has authority over affiliation, pattern of aiding and regulation of education it failed to keep the constitutional promises of social justice. The managements executed and enjoyed their local/estate power with knowledge governing power and the dominant culture was silently reproduced in the educational institutions.

Consequently these managements continued to remain as sectarian and partisan organization of their own locality, community and organs of political parties. Besides this, these institutions were instrumental in local politics to circulate among the party cadres and supporters. Due to their affiliation with local political power structures, these managements received under patronage and partisan prestige. The political elites, at the same time, make governing rules of the system flexible. Combining local politics with governing power on education institutions was, in a way, beneficial to both parties through nepotism, benefaction and influence. A much more relaxed UGC rule made the process worse (Kumar, 2004; Rudolph, 1972). Most of the private agencies had drawn from the elite sections of society. The state of education continued to be governed by education itself. In the backdrop of mixed economy in India system of education caused the growth of capitalism. Besides this, there were 20 fake universities in India which were illegally operating in the country.

The highest number of fake universities was found in Uttar Pradesh (9) and Delhi (5) stood second (University Grants Commission, 2006). The logic behind the emergence of these universities is clear in the sense that there was a demand for the creation of new institutions. The fact that they expanded private players in the education sector was not considered much. This trend, probably, made the middle class indispensable in the private education sector since only the middleclass can afford to buy education by paying a huge fee (Kapur & Mehta, 2007, p.35). In the post-reform period the outgrowth of self-financing institutions saw a paradigmatic shift in

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the higher education sector in India. By this trend the attention is drawn towards the complexities of pedagogic practices and its wide range of social consequence. The discourses on the privatization of higher education mainly among the developing nations suggest that their commercial interest nearly tries to reduce education to a sheer commodity. In such a context the state of education in India must be critically examined taking in to consideration the political economy in general and education policy adjustments in particular (Babu, 2011).

2.10 Previous studies Singh (2015) studied the effects of privatisation in the Indian higher education sector and the issues and challenges associated with privatisation are investigated. India is one among the largest countries in terms of population, geographical extent and the educational system. The country‘s educational system has grown rapidly over the year after its independence. The number of educational institutions in India is also growing every year. People in India could be generally classified into two categories: the ‗haves‘ and the ‗have-nots‘.

Singh (2015) argues that with a majority of people in India living below the poverty line, privatisation of educational system is not a viable option. However, private players can establish their role in the country with the country‘s regulations serious about the welfare of its people and the equity in education reaching all levels of the people living in the nation. The increasing size of the demand and the growth in population clearly necessitates the need for new private institutions which may provide quality education.

In the same context, Chougle (2014) analysed the perceptions of college faculty members towards privatisation of higher education in India. The emergence of privatisation was initiated in the year 1991 with the new policy enactment on Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization (LPG). Over the last two decades, the

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policy changes have reflected both positively and negatively on the welfare of people in the country. On a positive note, the targeted change of increasing the number of higher education enrolment in India is achieved with the support of the government. The country witnesses increased number of private unsupported courses and the Government of India had been supporting privatisation. However, privatisation is severely affecting the weaker section of the society wherein the affordable population can pay for education and the ‗have-nots‘ struggling to pursue higher education. This increases the gap between the literate and the illiterate thereby increasing the gap between the rich, middle class and the poor. In the previous study, teachers were survey to understand their perceptions towards privatisation in Indian higher education sector. The findings of the study revealed that the teachers believe in improved quality of education delivered by private sector institutions; however, their concern towards the economically backward students further revealed some part of the respondents stating their negative intent towards privatisation. The previous study revealed that with privatisation, the educational status of the country will be incremented to global standards.

The study

recommended that with privatisation, the government should also look for additional measures to support the economically backward communities without which inequity in education will increase (Chougle, 2014).

Kumar (2014) investigated the role of privatisation of higher education in India with special emphasis laid upon the Meerut, a city in Uttar Pradesh, India. The reality, as stated in the previous study is that public resources are used for the expansion of private sector organisations in India. In India, the laws revolving around the privatisation of higher education sector have aided private owners in increasing their wealth. Additionally, privatisation has aggravated the conditions of student belonging to poor communities. The study revealed the problems faced by poor students in Meerut and western UP wherein corruption and bribery are found to be associated with privatisation in the higher education sector of India. Furthermore, the study resembles the global

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context of education being converted as a commodity of sales with private players taking control of education which is the right for all the citizens in the country.

Partima and Singh (2014) studied the impacts and importance of higher education privatisation in India.

After independence, the goal of the nation is to educate all the citizens of the nation. In this regard, the country aspires to capacity building and creation in colleges which significantly affects the educational status of the country. However, the funds allocated by the central government of India is less than 1 per cent of the nation‘s GDP, hence meeting such goals becomes impossible for public institutions. Private sector bridges the gap in the allocation of funds and requirements. The study predicts the future of India towards increase in the number of private educational universities all across India. The previous paper concludes with the statement that privatisation of higher education in India should take into account the maintenance of quality and academic standards in these institutions.

2.11 Research Gap A number of studies conducted previously on the role and impacts of privatisation in Higher education sector of India discerned generally the various aspects and the need for privatisation in the higher education sector. While other developing economies such as China, Philippines and Malaysia are evolving in a rapid pace, India lags behind in the overall number of private sector universities and the number of enrolment for higher education in these universities. This intrigued the researcher to conduct a study on privatisation in the education sector and to analyse the perspectives of various public and private education pioneers about privatization and its effectiveness in the future of India.

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CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction The research methodology was defined by Leedy (1997:5) as it is the systematic process of gathering and analysing of data due to higher the understanding of research phenomenon. As per the above definition of Leedey, the present chapter gives an elaborate description of procedures, which were adopted in this study due to accumulating the information needed to attain the objectives of the study. Hence this chapter was categorized into different sections. The first section describes the research design examining the advantage of using a particular method, the qualitative approach as a means of permitting the respondents to provide many precious answers and valuable insight to the research questions. Next section describes the research philosophy and research approach. The target population and study sample size were identified in section 4. Later, the section covers the sampling technique which is suitable for selecting the target population of the study. The sixth section includes the data collection procedure in particular to the method which is applied to data collection in this study. This section mainly describes the reasons for executing semi-structured interviews in this research rather than using any other methods. Further, this section covers the procedures which involved for preparing the interviews. Section seven describe the issues of validity and reliability were considered in the account in overall research method. Further section eight dealt with the analysis of the interview and finally ended with a summary of the chapter.

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3.1 Research design This research design is an essential step in any research to get an idea of data collection as well as limitations of the study such as time constraints and resources. According to (Easterby-Smith et al., 1994, 84), research design is about the structuring the research activity includes the data collection in ways which are most likely to obtain the research objectives. In order to achieve the research objective, a suitable method should be selected for gathering the required data. Survey on research methods (Creswell, 1994; Bell, 1996; Punch, 2005) classifies the research into two main methods, qualitative and quantitative as it comes under the primary type of data collection. Merriam (2009) explained qualitative research as an approach in which several people are involved along with their perceptions of research that were assigned distinct meaning on the basis of the experience of individuals and covers non-numerical data (Saunders et al., 2009). Creswell (2011) expressed quantitative research as any data procedure or collection for data analysis that employs numerical data. As the present research aims to explore a novel phenomenon via answering open-ended questions, a qualitative methodology is a suitable method (Saunders et al., 2012, p.163) to obtain the study objective. Whenever a social phenomenon is to be examined, a qualitative research methodology could be used which aims to understand the implications in the society and the manner the social world operates (Hancock et al., 2009) .

Since the present study is based on the implications of higher education in India, a qualitative approach is suitable.

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3.2 Research philosophy The research philosophy in general helps to gather and examine the adopted primary data. Still, selecting the right philosophy is essential as it guides the investigator to move into the exact direction of research. In addition, the philosophy also gives the idea of how the world is perceived and in which way the problem is to be identified (Saunders et al., 2012, pp. 126-129). There are two kinds of research philosophy used in research of social science considering the social reality such as positivism and interpretivist (Perry, 1995). The positivism views the social world as an external to individuals and interpretivist views the objectives of thought as words independent of external factors (Bryman & Bell, 2011, p. 22). The first approach is based on the beliefs of universal laws and neglects the subjective interpretations. This method involved quantitative approach as a result of the test theories and also try to find a casual relation between control and predictor (Holloway & Wheeler, 2002, p. 5). Therefore, the present study adopted interpretivist method, which is suitable philosophy for qualitative research as the knowledge is personally experienced

3.3 Research Approach The relationship between research and theory can be approached in a distinct way which was explained

by Saunders et al. (2012, p.144). There are two kinds of research method used in research- deductive and inductive approach. In the deductive approach, a hypothesis is created by past studies and tested by using survey method and it is called as a top-down approach (Saunders et al., 2009; Gabriel, 2013). The inductive approach is involved in generating theory on the basis of observations and results obtained via data collection which is called as a bottom-up approach (Bryman & Bell, 2011, 4). According to Bryman and Bell (2011,

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p.13), an inductive approach was applied in qualitative research and a deductive approach for quantitative research. In this case, the present study attempts to explore privatisation in the higher education sector and also analyse the perspectives of various public and private higher education pioneers about privatization and its effectiveness in the future of India. Hence inductive approach is more appropriate to this research.

3.4 Target population and sample size Selecting the target population is an essential part of the research (Gay & Airasian, 2003). A study population is a group to whom the researcher plans to apply her or his research results i.e. the target population of the study whose members are the people to be researched. In this study, the target group consists of top management personnel of private higher education institutions in India in order to acquire the study objective.

Hence vice-chancellors,deans and administrators of private and public higher education institutions were selected. Further, the sample size of this study was chosen as 19. Vice-chancellors serve as the leaders of higher education institutions and as per the norm, he/she should be a good academician and an eminent administrator (Rao & Singh, 2016) . Deans serve as the next higher authority in the University hierarchy and are appointed by the Vice Chancellor (Ipu, 2016) . Furthermore, the former education minister of the State of Karnataka is also interviewed The below table represents the number of vice-chancellors and deans of private institutions involved in this research.

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Table 1: Semi-structured interviews conducted with vice-chancellors and XXX of private institutions Region

Role

Public/ Private

Karnataka Karnataka Karnataka

Former Higher Education Minister, Government of Karnataka Former vice-chancellor of Karnataka State Open University Treasurer of FVCK & Former Vice Chancellor of Karnataka Veterinary, Animal and Fisheries University, Bidar.

Delhi Former Vice Chancellor, IGNOU, New Delhi Mangalore Former Vice-Chancellor, Mangalore University Bangalore Former Vice-Chancellor, University of Agricultural Sciences Bangalore Vice Chancellor of CMR University Bangalore Former Vice-Chancellor of Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences Nashik.

Former Vice Chancellor of Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open University Bangalore Vice President of FVCK & Former Vice Chancellor of Bangalore University Mysore Vice President of FVCK & Former Vice Chancellor of KSOU Karnataka Executive Director, Karnataka State Higher Education Council, Government of Karnataka Bangalore Regional Director, IGNOU Bangalore Trustee of BMS & Former Additional Chief Secretary of Government of Karnataka Bangalore Principal St. Aloysius College Mysore Administrator, Teresian College Karnataka Former Scientist, IISc & CEO and Managing Director of Karnataka Hybrid Micro Devices Ltd. Ropar Director Indian Institute of Technology, Karnataka Former Dean Academic of Karnataka State Open University and Academic Advisor GEMS B School

Public Public Public Public Public Private Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Private Private Private Public Public, private

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3.4.1 Sampling technique The sampling technique is taken on the basis of strategy, access, and representativeness (Bryman, 2012).

As per Patton (2002), sampling technique relies on four questions which include what an investigator needs to examine, why she or he needs to examine, what kind of sources he or she wants to research and how the results would be utilised (Cohen & Manion, 1994). Based on the above queries, purposive sampling technique is used in the present study. This type of sampling would enable the researcher to cross check whether they meet the criteria for eligibility on the basis of objectives (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012, p. 228).

3.5 Data collection 3.5.1 Data collection methods There are two kinds of data collection which include primary and secondary data (Creswell, 1998). In this research, interview method is used as primary data collection method. The following section reveals the interviews in educational research and their procedures.

3.5.2 Interviews in educational research As per the statement of McKernan (1996), interviews are one of the most efficient methods for collecting the data because it is carried out through face to face and requires direct verbal association between respondent and researcher. The interviewing technique is easy to follow as discussion flows in an informal, conversational style from one to another topic. According to Kumar (1999), the interview is a popular technique for gathering data from participants. Likewise, Wragg (1994) states that interviewing has been

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classified into three types such as semi-structured, structured interviews and unstructured interviews. The structured interview has predefined questions; unstructured does not have predefined structure and semistructured interview comprise of flexible questions (Yin, 2009; Myers & Newman, 2007; Creswell, 2014 Denzin and Lincoln, 2011). In the present study the semi-structure interview method is used. This technique is used to explore the unique experience of vice-chancellors and education minister. The questions are designed in the semi-structured interview in such a manner to support extending the interview with further questions on the basis of conversation made at the time of interview and the interest level of respondents.

3.5.3 Procedures for preparing for the interviews As the interviews are conducted efficiently and smoothly, the procedures were executed in two main stages, firstly interview question preparation and selection and secondly the preparation for conducting interviews.

Selecting interview questions The interview questions are chosen on the basis of collected past studies with respect to the privatisation of higher education. This was decided to design interview questions on the organisation of the interview and shape of the data collection. Once questions are designed, approval from the supervisor is obtained from more discussions and advice. After confirmation from a supervisor, an interview guide is developed which consists of a list of topics covered relying on the context of literature.

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Conducting of the interviews The final step is to conduct the interviews, after preparation of interview questions; the semi-structured interview was done through a face-to-face interview via prior appointment.

3.5.4 Validity and reliability in interviews A successful research relies on valid methods, and the two chief features researchers typically look for are validity and reliability. In order to validate the trustworthiness and credibility of the interview guide as well as the complete research, the study followed the criteria of evaluation as described by Lincoln and Denzin (2005). It helps to check the credibility, dependability, transferability and confirmability of semi-structured interview guide (Lincoln and Denzin 2005). The following steps are taken to make sure the above criteria.

Firstly, the interview guide was prepared on the basis of past researches previously conducted (Labuschagne & Brent, 2006; Taylor, 2008; Anon, 2006; Gareis et al., 2009; Turner, 2010; Silvius & Schipper, 2009; Silvius et al., 2010). Secondly, those studies were cross-checked with supervisors. Thirdly, to increase the validity of the research, the pilot study may be conducted among 1-2 respondents (Quinlan, 2011). In order to examine the accuracy of the data obtained, member checking was done with participants, where the interview themes are summarised and further requests whether they agreed with summarizing statements.

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3.6 Analysis of the interview One of the crucial components of any research is data analysis. For the main reason is that the chief goal of data analysis is as per Merriam (1998) is to end with reasonable generalisations and conclusions on the basis of the predominance of data, data analysis in interviews needs to be clear on the first steps of collected data. Hence after data collection, recording and notes have been transcribed on the same day and further analysed whether the data is up-to-date (Merriam, 1998; Marshall & Rossman, 1989). The present study made thematic data analysis where the future steps were conducted. Firstly, data is transcribed by 3.7 Summary The present chapter has discussed the adopted methodology and the field work procedures. Further, this chapter explains the reason for executing a qualitative approach to gather and analyse the research data. A semistructured interview was conducted to achieve an in-depth understanding of the participant‘s views on private higher education in India. The interview was conducted over a period of months in India with respect to gaining cooperation and rich and elaborated data from respondents. The collected data are represented and discussed in upcoming chapters four and five.

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CHAPTER IV: RESULTS 4.0 Introduction The present study is a research based on the analysis of the perceptions of educational pioneers in India towards privatisation in the Indian higher education sector. After careful analysis of previous literature works which were discussed in the Literature review section (Chapter 2). Previous literature brought both advantages and disadvantages of privatisation in the Indian higher education sector; however, certain prospects of privatisation in foreign higher education intrigued the researcher and became the premise for the present study.

As aforementioned, the present study imparts the collection of primary data from educational leaders and pioneers in India who are former vice-chancellors and administrators (Deans, Principals and administrators) of private and public higher education institutions in India. Face-to-face interviews are conducted and questions were put forth to obtain their perceptions regarding privatisation of higher education in India. Primary data was also collected from former higher education minister, State of Karnataka, India. All the collected data are analysed in the following section.

4.1 Participants 17 participants were interviewed in the study. The study acquired the perceptions of 1 former Higher education Minister of Karnataka, India, 8 former vice-chancellors, 7 administrators (Directors, Deans, Principals) of higher education institutions, and 1 former scientist. The participants were denoted as follows: PAR_1: Participant 1 (Higher education minister)

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PAR_2: Participant 2 (Vice chancellor- Public institution) PAR_3: Participant 3 (Vice chancellor- Public institution) PAR_4: Participant 4 (Vice chancellor- Public institution) PAR_5: Participant 5 (Vice chancellor- Public institution) PAR_6: Participant 6 (Vice chancellor- Private institution) PAR_7: Participant 7 (Vice chancellor- Public institution) PAR_8: Participant 8 (Vice chancellor- Public institution) PAR_9: Participant 9 (Vice chancellor- Public institution) PAR_10: Participant 10 (Administrator- Public institution) PAR_11: Participant 11 (Administrator- Public institution) PAR_12: Participant 12 (Administrator- Public institution) PAR_13: Participant 13 (Administrator- Private Institution) PAR_14: Participant 14 (Administrator- Private Institution) PAR_15: Participant 15 (Administrator- Public institution)

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PAR_16: Participant 16 (Administrator- Public and Private) PAR_17: Participant 17 (Former Scientist- Private Sector) In the study, 8 vice chancellors of Indian higher education institutions were interviewed and among them, 7 vice chancellors (PAR_2, PAR_3, PAR_4, PAR_5, PAR_7, PAR_8, and PAR_9) served public higher education institutions whereas 1 served for private higher education organisation (PAR_6). Similarly, among the 7 administrators of higher education institutions, 4 belonged to public sector governmental institutions (PAR_10, PAR_11, PAR_12, and PAR_15), 2 of the 7 administrators belonged to private higher education institutions (PAR_13 and PAR_14), and 1 participant (PAR_16) belonged to both private and public institutions as the participant is former dean of a public higher education institution and at present serves as an advisor to a private management based higher education institution. Former higher education minister was also interviewed and the responses of the same are denoted by ‗PAR_1‘. One former scientist (PAR_17) was also interviewed.

It is to be noted that the number of participants belonging to public higher education institutions is higher than private institutions. This is the strategy to acquire the perceptions of public players so as to define the role and importance of privatisation of higher education in India. To maintain neutrality, the views of former higher education minister, a former scientist and an administrator who served both public and private institutions were obtained and analysed.

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Figure 6: Participants in the study

Public higher education participants

Private higher education participants

Neutral participants

Source: Author (2016) The face-to-face interviews were conducted and questions were put forth in the following themes for which the responses of the participants were acquired and analysed. Following are the themes1. Role of privatisation in higher education development in India 2. Perceptions of stakeholders towards choosing higher education institutions

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3. Views of Indian Government on privatisation 4. Encouraging privatisation in India 5. Private Universities and high standards of higher education in India 6. Role of privatisation in maintaining equity and accessibility There had been a lot of responses which were contradictory to one another. Following is the results of textual data analysis of responses.

4.2 Role of privatisation in higher education development in India Majority of participants stated the role of privatisation in Indian higher education is crucial towards increasing the economic status of the country. 5 Participants claimed that the increase in the number of private universities all over the country has discerned the importance of private participation in the Indian higher education sector. 4 of the 17 participants revealed that privatisation in the Indian higher education aids improve the economic status of the country as the economy of a nation is integrated with the generation of human capital. 2 participants responded that there is a limited access to higher education in India which led private sector educational institutions to create new opportunities for students within the age limit of 18-23 to get benefitted. 2 participants stated the need for excellence in the higher education sector as India, which is a country possessing vast human capital should be properly empowered. However, other respondents had views regarding higher enrolment rate, coexistence of public private mix and the legacy of private players. One respondent claimed the need for coexistence of both private and public as both may benefit each other. One respondent stated that privatisation has vast benefits, one such being the increase in the number of higher

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education enrolment in the country. One respondent stated that the increase in the number of private players in Indian higher education is ultimately related to the legacy that they had built in the education sector in various countries, which led them to begin institutions in India. However, only one respondent had contradictory ideas about the role of privatisation in higher education in India since the credibility is doubted.

Figure 7: Word cloud of Role of privatisation in higher education development in India

“…The role of Private sector in Indian higher education is increased significantly over the last decade.

With the majority of students currently enrolled in these private institutions. the role will only increase

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considering the substantial investment required in this sector…[PAR_1]… 370 private universities in different part of states. You can understand the importance of state private universities in the higher education scenario of education… [PAR_2] … should have some peaks of excellence and private universities can play very important role… [PAR_3] … the younger people specially of age 18-25 would very much like to have higher education but we know the access is limited because of number of institutions and also quality of education that is available both are important and this gap needs to be filled… [PAR_4] … 5

It is not just the role of

private institutions in higher education but private and public should co-exist… [PAR_5]… private universities in Karnataka meet the socio-economic obligation as well as contempt to gross enrollment ratio… [PAR_6] …

There are no long term goals for the Government to improve public institutions. Ultimately this leads to giving more importance to private higher education institutions … [PAR_7] … 98% private participation in higher education is limited to engineering, medical, management and education… [PAR_8] … 9 Private

higher

education institutions increase the number of higher education enrolment in the country… [PAR_9] …To increase the Gross enrolment ratio of the nation towards higher education, there should be atleast 1500 universities in India. Only with the increase in the number of private players a 50 per cent GER could be achieved… [PAR_10] … there is a lot of freedom for private universities which brings them academic excellence… [PAR_11] … Private universities don‟t have a legacy as such but the founders of the university who have started it have a certain reputation, track record, so while choosing the university students see, how sound is the reputation and legacy… [PAR_12] … The role of private higher education institutions is crucial in uplifting the economic status of the country… [PAR_13] … Privatisation in Indian Higher education is an important factor that satisfies the nation‟s human capital needs… [PAR_14]… I doubt the credibility of private higher education institutions in India over the years… [PAR_15]… I believe the role of private universities is

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very significant and they are going to be with us… [PAR_16]… the number of employed person in the country, especially higher education graduates have increased. This is the success of privatisation in Indian higher education… [PAR_17] ”

4.3 Perceptions of stakeholders towards choosing higher education institutions The major stakeholders involved in higher education are students, parents and teachers. When the participants were questioned about the perceptions of stakeholders towards choosing the university, a majority of 5 participants revealed quality of education to be the foremost when students and parents choose a university.

Apart from being a private or public university, stakeholders look for quality of education provided the opportunities for employment are also checked. An equal number of 5 participants claimed that stakeholders look for the various features of the university such as infrastructure, hostel facilities and safety. Participants discern the fact that stakeholders view universities as sellers of education and hence, they require what they actually pay for. However, 2 of the participants had a much generalised view denoting the increased enrolment of students in private higher education institutions which is evident from the number of private higher education institutions. However, some participants had other viewpoints. One respondent stated that within the age group of 18-23, students are more inclined towards joining private sector higher education institutions. One respondent claimed the increase in the enrolment of students in private higher education institutions which offer courses such as agricultural and veterinary sciences. One respondent states that parents look for international level institutions for their children to get exposed to global culture and hence foreign private universities are sought. One respondent elucidated that certain private institutions nurture entrepreneurial capabilities in

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students, hence they are inclined to join in private universities. However, only one respondent stated the legacy of universities which attracts students.

Figure 8: Word cloud of Perceptions of stakeholders towards choosing higher education institutions

“between 18 to 23 yrs of age group total enrolment in higher education regard less of age express as a percentage to the eligible official population of 18-23. Students are inclined towards enrolling in private sector universities for higher education… [PAR_1]… Students choose private sector higher education universities even for courses such as agricultural science and veterinary courses. This is a good start…[PAR_2] … Students

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and parents choose higher education in private institutions since the quality of education in private institutions is better… [PAR_3]… poverty and unemployment to be the national crisis which students think to gain a job is to study in a qualified higher education institutions. Private universities specialise their ways to fulfil the needs of the stakeholders… [PAR_4] … perceptions of students and parents to enrol in private higher education as the number of private institutions is increasing and the enrolment rate is also increasing… [PAR_5] … to integrate the industry perception, interest in knowledge, emerge in knowledge, emerge in technology into the curriculum and the part of the credit goes so that they become not just qualified people, they become more relevant to the industry and more skillful to the industry… [PAR_6] … Students, parents and teachers look for more prospective features in educational institutions. Factors such as infrastructure, hostel facilities and safety are considered… [PAR_7] … In MBA, 41% employability, only 41%. In B.A, arts stream, it is 19%. In B.Com, it is 26%. In B.Sc. It is 41%. In MCA, Computer application, it is 43%. ITI, you will be surprised to know the figures… All these numbers posit the increase in the number of students, their perceptions towards private higher education as most institutions in these sectors are privatised… [PAR_8]… Stakeholders such as students look for job opportunities after their graduation. They opt for universities which cater such requirement…[PAR_9]… private universities are playing a significant role in fulfilling the franchise for the demand of the quality education and at least 60% of the students are going to colleges in India and private institutions… [PAR_10]… Students look for colleges with basic amenities and infrastructure. Then education…

[PAR_11] … also choosing the university from the supplies side, who are the faculty. Hence, choosing the right university becomes very important… [PAR_12]… Students have different perceptions. Some state their family legacy that poses them to join a university, others claim the infrastructure to attract them make an admission…

[PAR_13]… Quality of teachers or quality of the academic programs and infrastructure, campus safety,

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especially for women, cost and location was the criteria… [PAR_14]… Excellent infrastructure in teaching, learning environment, creating research, administration, and also the emphasis for student life… [PAR_15]…

Very few private universities come up to the level of international level, which is targeted by stake holders, students and parents all put together… [PAR_16] …Private universities nowadays nurture entrepreneurial capabilities. For example, innovation centers, incubation centers, makers‟ space are left for students to learn…

[PAR_17]”

4.4 Views of Indian Government on privatisation 3 of the 17 participants stated the view of Indian government over privatisation of higher education as an act to increase the Gross enrolment ratio (GER). An equal number of 3 other participants claimed the liberalised rules of the government which makes way for the emergence of private higher education institutions in India. 3 participants discerned that there is a lack of proper regulations to monitor private higher education institutions in India. However, 3 other respondents specified that the Government is supporting privatisation of higher education in India which will integrate human capital with jobs thereby improving the economic status of the country. 2 of the participants had a viewpoint that in terms of education in India, the government looks for three aspects- access, equity and quality. To achieve these factors in Indian higher education, the government supports privatisation. However, 3 respondents did not respond to the question.

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Figure 9: Word cloud of Views of Indian Government on privatisation

“…The government views privatisation of higher education as a move to support three fundamental challenges that is access, equity and quality… [PAR_1] … all private universities all over the country should get recognised by University Grant Commission. If it is not, probably they will not only put penalties for any activities of the private universities, and they also publicise in the whole country that these courses run by suss and such private university is not recognised… [PAR_2] … The views of government towards privatisation are mostly liberal without any sort of control and UGC regulation is not accepted and implemented at all…

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[PAR_3] … The government sees privatisation in higher education sector as a tool to increase the Gross enrolment ratio of higher education… [PAR_4]… The regulations of the Government are not implemented properly. This shows lack of interest of governmental bodies to manage private higher education sector in India… [PAR_5]... There are complex state and central government policies on privatisation of higher education… [PAR_6] … Government looks at factors such as equity and access to higher education by students. Hence, the views of Government are open to privatisation… [PAR_7] … Government views the opportunity to create an integrated economy with the human capital and jobs… [PAR_9] … The Government of India is on a vision to increase the number of universities to achieve a GER of 50 per cent… [PAR_10]…

Government has liberal regulations towards privatisation… [PAR_11] … Government views privatisation as a strategy to increase GER … [PAR_12]… The government is open to private universities with less regulation to control. This is an act to increase the GER of the nation… [PAR_13] … Government of India is ready to start at the higher rate at the later stage, which is to me looks all very, saturated now in terms of refunding, in terms of resources in terms of man-power... [PAR_15] … Government see privatisation as a means to increase the employability status of higher education graduates… [PAR_17]”

4.5 Encouraging privatisation in India A majority of 6 respondents stated privatisation to be encouraged in India wherein they claim privatisation to be good for the nation. Similarly, 5 participants stated privatisation to be necessary in Indian higher education as it brings more prospects. However, 4 out of 17 respondents argue that privatisation may not be successful in all cases and depends on the institution. One respondent stated privatisation to be encouraged

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for Indian higher education provided the educational services delivered by these institutions should be philanthropic. However, one respondent stated privatisation to be hazardous to Indian higher education.

Figure 10: Word Cloud of Encouraging privatisation in India

“… Privatisation of higher education in India increases the higher education enrolment rate in India.

Hence it is a good motive… [PAR_1]… Not in all cases… [PAR_2] … With the increasing number of student enrolment, it is necessary for private institutions to emerge in the country. However, I would suggest that there should be some sort of collaboration between UGC and the state council and the education department of the

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state to oversee private participation in Higher education... [PAR_3] … I would state privatisation to be a good option only if such institutions are philanthropic … [PAR_4]… 5. I would state if national quality of excellence, social justice, inclusion and regional and social disparity could be achieved, then privatisation in Indian higher education is a benefit… [PAR_5] … the perception of students towards education is whether they gain relevant knowledge for what they pay as a fee. In this regard, I claim private universities penetrate the knowledge into the students so that they become more relevant to the industry sector… [PAR_6] … profit making would be the motto and the charitable educational institutions that is always temptation of commercialization and profit making. Privatisation may prove hazardous at times… [PAR_7]… If we analyse certain reports of the government, it is revealed that private institutions produce industry centric manpower, human capital, and the 50% of them are not employable. Then how will privatisation be good… [PAR_8]… the rate of unemployment is high. This intrigues the role of privatisation as the nation is still suffering from unemployment… [PAR_9] … Quality of education is a primary concern. In Karnataka, a joint programme is conducted to exchange students and teachers within the public and private universities. This led new things to be learnt… [PAR_10] … Privatisation is a good concept if in case the professional degree is job-oriented…

[PAR_11] … Obviously when there is a need to increase the GER, then we should go with the strategies to increase private higher education institutions as the funding for higher education by Government is very low...

[PAR_12] … There is a need to revamp our education system on one hand and exposing the teachers to timely changes in knowledge levels of their respective disciplines. This is how stakeholders perceive higher education offered by private universities… [PAR_14] … There is a question on how to satisfy the increasing demands and needs and aspiration of people of the country, especially the talented young people has got this opportunity to study in various schools, internet and various other resources available, aware of the higher education benefits.

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So now with this background, it‟s very clear that days to come that private universities are going to play the role… [PAR_15] … Some private institutions have played important bringing quality inputs concentrating on the rural areas that will bring this paradigm shift… [PAR_16] … Yes, it brings out more potential workforce…

[PAR_17]”

4.6 Private Universities and high standards of higher education in India Among the 17 participants interviewed, 12 participants stated that high standards of higher education are met in private universities. The responses specified the fact that with increased funding, private universities are emerging as standard institutions of higher education. However, one participant claimed that higher standards would be met if flexibility, diversity of force skill based, competency based curriculum, innovative programs, processes and procedures, courses and then creation of new knowledge by research are all satisfied. Two participants stated ‗cannot say‘ as there are issues in higher education privatisation. On the contrary, two participants stated the higher standards are not met by private higher education institutions.

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Figure 11: Word Cloud of Private Universities and high standards of higher education in India

“… The existence of private universities not only improves the quality of education but also provides the social responsibility. The success of self-financing private universities can be attributed there will be a healthy competitions among the several players, innovations in the curriculum which will benefit student community…

[PAR_1]… I cannot clearly state the significance of privatisation of Higher education in India with so many issues revolving around the regulations for private institution approval… [PAR_2] … I think in terms of private universities, the great hope is, that freedom that these institutions have, enables to run any number of good

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programmes and course which are futuristic. Hence, the higher standards of higher education are met…

[PAR_3]… Private universities definitely bring higher standards in the delivery of education; however recruitment training should also be provided… [PAR_4]… I think the standards have not been met since the enrolment rate of students in some private higher education institutions is relatively low. This creates an imbalance... [PAR_5]… Yes … [PAR_6] … Privatisation may provide higher standards in Indian higher education if academic flexibility, diversity of force skill based, competency based curriculum, innovative programs, processes and procedures, courses and then creation of new knowledge by research and then collaboration of international and national repute, of course quality student enhancement, transparency and accountability and social accountability are all addressed… [PAR_7] … There is a new standard being adopted by private universities which is known as flipped classroom. In this learning mode, faculties guide students on how to proceed their career with the selected professional degree. Very little focus is on classroom environment and students look for practical knowledge. In this regard, I view privatisation to bring benefits in higher education… [PAR_8]… May be. Funding for higher education is large as these institutions collect fee and are private players. Hence, the quality of education delivered would be good… [PAR_9] … I view internationalisation as a part of privatisation of higher education in India… [PAR_10] … Most private universities embrace technological concepts in all activities. These act as high standards for students to learn more effectively… [PAR_11] … Though private universities burden students with fee, the collected funds are used for the development of the institutions‟ infrastructure… [PAR_12] … 2 kinds of education are possible.

One is for employment, while the other one is for social transformation… [PAR_13] … Private universities in this global era are transformed in term of curriculum, in quality and standards… [PAR_14]… Excellence in Private Universities that is not so good especially the standards are so slanting perhaps in my opinion it is

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different… [PAR_15] … Universities are even established in rural areas which aid students belonging to that region to be empowered. Additionally, the standards of higher education and the access to the same are increased… [PAR_16] … Private funding are vast, hence the standards of education are maintained …

[PAR_17]”

4.7 Role of privatisation in maintaining equity and accessibility Among the 17 participants interviewed, 9 participants responded that there is discrimination in the higher education service offered to students. Respondents claimed that equity in delivering higher education to all classes in the society is affected by fee based structure hence privatisation in their views does not maintain equity and accessibility. However, 5 of the respondents claimed privatisation increased equity and accessibility of higher education services in the country. 3 of the respondents stated that discrimination is generated by private higher education not because of equity issues but issues related to unemployment due to increased number of graduates.

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Figure 12: Word Cloud of Role of privatisation in maintaining equity and accessibility

“…No. The only issue with privatisation is the increase in the number of unemployed graduates…

[PAR_1]… Discrimination may occur since students trained in some private institutions with poor quality of education are affected… [PAR_2] … Discrimination may occur since students belonging to poor families suffer.. [PAR_3]… Privatisation indeed generates discrimination. The present kind of a strength what is reported on Government agencies, 70% of graduates are unemployable they state except the special fields like medicine, the need for quality workforce is increasing... [PAR_4] … I clearly view the lack of social inclusion in higher education sector… [PAR_5] … In the state of Karnataka, 40 % of seats in the professional courses

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are surrendered to the government which is an act to prevent discrimination... [PAR_6] … I do not perceive more good traits about privatisation in Indian higher education. Moreover, private educational institutions are mostly commercialised… [PAR_7]… To me privatisation has not created discrimination in the equity of higher education but inequity in employment… [PAR_8]… Skill development is something I think that is lacking in both private and public sector higher education institutions. This creates employment inequality… [PAR_9]… I could not completely oppose privatisation as it has merits too. However, I fear the factors of inaccessibility and inequity in higher education… [PAR_10]… Social inclusiveness is lacking in private higher education institutions. I would suggest revision of fee structure to create social equity… [PAR_11]… no stable financial model for private higher education institutions in India. These are generally diverse among different states.

Hence equity could not be maintained… [PAR_12]… it is good for the nation, however there are doubts about the quality of education delivered… [PAR_13] … I find discrimination in the employability status of students studying in different universities. It is the quality of education delivered no matter private or public universities… [PAR_14]… private universities must have a central role, a philanthropic role for commercial purpose. Since such a role is lacking, there will be no basis for equity… [PAR_15] … Private institutions are extending to rural parts of the nation. The gap is getting bridged nowadays with new private institutions…

[PAR_16] … I don‟t find discrimination. Access to higher education is increased; standards are maintained…

[PAR_17]”

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CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The world today is evolving rapidly and the higher education wing globally is witnessing remarkable rate of change. Six factors attribute to the spread of privatisation in the higher education wing and are as follows-i) technological advancements, ii) demographical changes, iii) increased public examination, iv) information based economy, v) increase in knowledge based organisations, and vi) decline in public trust in government (Levine, 2001). All these factors necessarily provoke the need for private participation in higher education. In the present study, responses of educational pioneers of India were acquired and are analysed based on the objectives of the present study. In this context, questions were framed and put forth to the participants to analyse their perceptions regarding market driven educational model.

5.0 Role of privatisation towards satiating the ever-growing need for higher education in India Since the independence of India in the year 1947, there had been drastic changes in the education sector.

The responsibilities of the nation and its governing bodies were built to educate all its citizens, which led the educational authorities over the decades to create capacities for educational enrolment. New capacities were created and existing educational institutions were enhanced. This led the nation to transform its higher education structure from 28 universities and 578 colleges in the year 1950–51 to 500 universities and more than 25,000 colleges in the nation by the end of 2012. More than 20 million students enrolled in higher education institutions in the country (Sudarshan & Subramanian, 2012).

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The aforementioned facts discern the role of private participation in Indian higher education. Over the years, the number of higher education universities and colleges has increased with the purview of satisfying the educational needs of the increasing student numbers in the country. Forecasted statistical data reveals the population of 18-23 year old will increase to 142 million by 2030 which will comprise 10 per cent of the total population of the India at that time (Ficcci, 2013). Hence meeting the higher educational needs of the country is impossible without private participation in India as public funding to education is restricted especially for higher education (Sudarshan & Subramanian, 2012).

Figure 13: Estimated 18-23 year old population in India- 2030

18-23 year old population 144 142 140 138 136 134 132 130 128 2010

2015

2020

2025

2030

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Source: Adopted from Ficcci (2013) Participants of the study were selected based on their experience in the higher education sector over the years in India. Majority of the participants belong to the public and government higher education institutions in India so as to analyse the perceptions in an unbiased manner. When the role of privatisation in Indian higher education sector was questioned, a majority of respondents stated the significant role of private universities in India. There is an increase in the number of higher education institutions in India with more number of private universities in the nation. Some participants claimed the success of privatisation in Indian higher education which is evident with the increase number of student enrolment in higher education institutions in the nation.

Ernst & Young, (2009a) report asserts that Indian government will suffer to cater the higher educational requirements of the country as the public expenditure allocated on higher education as a percentage of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is 0.6 per cent. This is a very low percentage when compared with other nations such as China, United Kingdom and the United States. To fulfil the demands of the nation, private players have established a number of educational institutions to support the growing higher education requirements of India (Ernst & Young, 2009a).

The views of certain participants regarding the role of higher education privatisation in India were toward increasing the economic status of the nation. Human capital is an important asset of a nation which is associated with the nation‘s economic growth and development. A country‘s competitive advantage over other nations is defined by human capital. In this regard, certain aspects such as investment in science, education, and technology, and labour market competitiveness should be improved (Matovac et al., 2010). In this regard, the perceptions of participants are towards increasing the economic status of the nation with increased enrolment in

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higher education. According to the participants, the role of privatisation is towards economic integration. Some participants clarified the limitations of access to higher education as the funds allocated by the government for higher education were less. In order to create opportunities for all students within the age limits of 18-23, participants reported the need for private higher educational institutions in the nation. The Gross enrolment ratio of higher education was also emphasised which is steered only if more higher education institutions are established. In this regard, Singh (2009) argues that India requires more than 1500 universities to compete in the global market. However, there were some other reasons stated by the respondents which revealed the causes for the growth of higher education institutions in India. Participants stated the need for improving the GER of the nation which led government to open private participation in the higher education sector of the nation (Kumar & Ambrish, 2015). Legacy of the private players also play a key role for the growth of private higher education universities in the nation. Some foreign universities which are recognised globally set up educational institutions in India. Students are inclined to these institutions as these players are known in the field of higher education. However, only one respondent overall doubted the credibility of higher education in India.

The study necessitated the need to analyse the perceptions of stakeholders in choosing universities. In the context of higher education, the stakeholders involved are students, parents and teachers. Participants were questioned on how students select higher education institutions. Quality of education is stated as the predominant need for students as majority of participants stated the same. Students and parents look for private education institutions as the quality of education delivered by private sector institutions is better (Shaguri, 2013). However, participants, mostly administrators of private universities claim that stakeholders look for specialisation in degree as traditional generalised degree courses are not chosen nowadays. In a study by Otieno and Ndayambaje (2015) which is based on students‘ enrolments in undergraduate degree programmes by

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platform in Public Universities in Kenya, the researcher revealed the existence of positive relationship between course specialisation and enrolment. Since education is commoditised, students require exploitation of the commodity so that they get what they actually paid for. All these inferences specify the need to deliver quality of education in higher education institutions. Some respondents stated that the perceptions of students are towards joining private higher education institutions as they think the quality of education delivered is better.

This led students to enrol in courses such as veterinary and agricultural science in private universities though these courses are offered at a relatively low fee in public higher education universities.

However, some respondents stated the views of stakeholders to be focussing on the features of the educational institutions. Certain factors such as infrastructure of the institution, hostel facilities and safety are considered while enrolling in a higher education institution. The increase in the number of educational institutions in the nation by default specifies the stakeholders‘ inclination towards private universities.

However, internationalisation could not be neglected in this context as parents look for recognised institutions to enrol their children. Such perceptions of stakeholders increase the number of private foreign higher education universities in India. However, there is also a viewpoint which lets students to enrol in institutions that nurture the entrepreneurial capabilities of students. Many private universities deliver entrepreneurial training classes which aid students bringing out their entrepreneurial capabilities thereby beginning own businesses once their professional courses are completed.

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5.1 Effects of privatisation in Indian higher education The high standards of privatisation in Indian higher education were questioned which revealed supporting responses for privatisation. Majority of respondents discerned the fact that high standards of higher education are met in private universities. With the increase in the number of players in higher education sector, healthy competitions arise within these institutions. In this manner, universities may improve and enhance the quality of education delivered thereby continual improvement in the higher education sector will be delivered.

Another important aspect of privatisation in higher education is the freedom of operations in the higher education institutions. When educational institutions are bound to the Government, then uniformity of certain aspects such as syllabus and curriculum should be maintained. The autonomy of private higher education institutions enables private players to design their own state of the art syllabus and curriculum which enables students to perceive latest advancements. New technologies are adopted by private universities and practical knowledge is imparted for the benefits of the students (Pandey, 2014).

In India, private universities collect fee from students. Though it is deemed that delivering education for money could turn hazardous, the collected fees are used for the development of the institution‘s infrastructure.

Hence, the quality of education delivered should also be better. India demands competent workforce hence the quality and standards of private higher education are important to cater the needs of the nation. However, several issues revolve around the prospects of privatisation in Indian higher education sector. There are different state and central regulations and the regulations vary from state to state. In such a case, the standards of private higher education are questioned (British Council, 2014). One participant discerned the reason for the lack of standards in private higher education institutions as the enrolment rate of some colleges is relatively low.

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Privatisation brings the concept of internationalisation in higher education. More technological concepts are adopted by private universities thereby meeting high standards of higher education.

The effects of privatisation on educational discrimination were also questioned. The responses of the participants revealed the existence of discrimination in the higher education sector for which some participants claimed privatisation to be the major cause. Private higher education institutions offer courses for fee which is not accessible to students belonging to economically backward classes in the society. This affects the equity and accessibility of education delivered. Respondents fear the factors of social inequity and the lack of inclusiveness in the private higher education institutions which creates a human resource imbalance. However, some of the participants claimed privatisation to have increased equity and accessibility of higher education services in the country as private universities are also set up in rural regions of the nation to satisfy the higher education needs of students. However, respondents argue that apart from equity in the deliverance of higher education, an intricate issue lurks within increased private higher education institutions, which is ‗unemployment‘.

Respondents state that discrimination is generated by private higher education not because of equity issues but issues related to unemployment due to increased number of graduates.

5.2 Governmental regulations and privatisation The high standards of privatisation in Indian higher education were questioned which revealed supporting responses for privatisation. Majority of respondents discerned the fact that high standards of higher education are met in private universities. With the increase in the number of players in higher education sector, healthy competitions arise within these institutions. In this manner, universities may improve and enhance the

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quality of education delivered thereby continual improvement in the higher education sector will be delivered.

Another important aspect of privatisation in higher education is the freedom of operations in the higher education institutions. When educational institutions are bound to the Government, then uniformity of certain aspects such as syllabus and curriculum should be maintained. The autonomy of private higher education institutions enables private players to design their own state of the art syllabus and curriculum which enables students to perceive latest advancements. New technologies are adopted by private universities and practical knowledge is imparted for the benefits of the students (Pandey, 2004).

In India, private universities collect fee from students. Though it is deemed that delivering education for money could turn hazardous, the collected fees are used for the development of the institution‘s infrastructure.

Hence, the quality of education delivered should also be better. India demands competent workforce hence the quality and standards of private higher education are important to cater the needs of the nation. However, several issues revolve around the prospects of privatisation in Indian higher education sector. There are different state and central regulations and the regulations vary from state to state. In such a case, the standards of private higher education are questioned (British Council, 2014). One participant discerned the reason for the lack of standards in private higher education institutions as the enrolment rate of some colleges is relatively low.

Privatisation brings the concept of internationalisation in higher education. More technological concepts are adopted by private universities thereby meeting high standards of higher education.

The effects of privatisation on educational discrimination were also questioned. The responses of the participants revealed the existence of discrimination in the higher education sector for which some participants claimed privatisation to be the major cause. Private higher education institutions offer courses for fee which is

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not accessible to students belonging to economically backward classes in the society. This affects the equity and accessibility of education delivered. Respondents fear the factors of social inequity and the lack of inclusiveness in the private higher education institutions which creates a human resource imbalance. However, some of the participants claimed privatisation to have increased equity and accessibility of higher education services in the country as private universities are also set up in rural regions of the nation to satisfy the higher education needs of students. However, respondents argue that apart from equity in the deliverance of higher education, an intricate issue lurks within increased private higher education institutions, which is ‗unemployment‘.

Respondents state that discrimination is generated by private higher education not because of equity issues but issues related to unemployment due to increased number of graduates.

5.3 Governmental regulations and privatisation One important view of government towards privatisation of Indian higher education is to increase the Gross enrolment ratio (GER). The rules of the government are so liberalised that setting up private universities in India had been facilitated. The impact of liberalisation and globalisation has improved higher education sector in India in a relatively fast pace. Government views privatisation of higher education as an act to create opportunities for young students in India so that education is delivered to all the classes of the society (Amandeep, 2016). Some of the participants claimed that the government is supporting privatisation of Indian higher education so as to integrate human capital with jobs thereby improving the economic status of the country. In India, three aspects of education are viewed by the government. They are equity, access and quality (Goel, 2013). In order to achieve all the three factors in Indian higher education, the government should support privatisation.

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However, need for encouraging privatisation was questioned for which participants had contradictory viewpoints. Some of the respondents claim privatisation to be necessary since it brings more prospects in the higher education sector. The perceptions of some participants relate privatisation to be not successful in all cases and the success to be solely depending on the institution. Additionally, inferences were provided revealing the need for philanthropic private higher education in India thereby provoking the hazards in fee based higher education.

5.4 Implications The study had mixed responses when it comes to encouraging privatisation in Indian higher education.

However, the significance of privatisation in Indian higher education could not be neglected. Majority of participants in the present study belonged to public sector institutions and very few participants belonged to private universities and higher educational institutions. The main factor that participants claim to be driving privatisation in the Indian higher education sector is the rate of enrolment in higher education. The total number of student enrolment in Private and Government Colleges of India till 2015 is found to be around 22 million wherein the number of enrolments in private educational institutions is found to be 14 million (Ministry of Human Resource Development, 2015). The fact reveals the increased number of total student enrolment in private higher education universities in India. The GER of Indian higher education was found to be 19.4 per cent in the year 2010-11 and the enrolment rate of different states vary. Comparing the GER of India with other countries, it is revealed that the country is lagging behind developed and developing economies such as China (23 per cent), Brazil (34 per cent), UK (57 per cent) and the US (83 per cent) (Nandi, 2014). India Brand Equity Foundation (IBEF, 2015) reveals a requirement of approximately 200 billion USD to achieve the target of 30

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per cent GER by the year 2020. In this regard, the Government of India has allowed 100 per cent foreign direct investment in the country for the education sector. The GER in Indian higher education is 23.6 calculated for the age group of 18-23 years. In this regard, it is evident that with the growth of number of private universities, the targeted 30 per cent GER could be achieved. Hence, there is a pressing need to increase the number of private universities with the growing student population (18-23 year old) projected to reach 142 million by 2030 (Ficcci, 2013).

Secondly, the quality of education and the types of services offered by institutions are concerned and hence the perceptions of students and parents were analysed. In the present study, it is revealed that stakeholders look for quality of education and the features of the educational institution. Since education itself is commoditised, stakeholders view the quality and features of the product. In this regard, students are inclined towards private higher education institutions since according to them, the quality of education and service is better. Parents are also inclined to private higher educational institutions which are internationalised. From the perceptions of the government, it is deemed that the open market scenario in the Indian higher education wing will create competitive atmosphere in the nation wherein the native Indian private players and public higher education institutions will improve the quality of education thereby benefitting all the stakeholders involved in higher education. Internationalisation in this context will improve the key indicators such as curriculum, administration, research, faculty salary and so on (Tiwari et al., 2013).

Thirdly, Indian higher education is witnessing regulation based complexities. The government of India lacks clarity in monitoring private higher education institutions in the country with different regulations existing with the central government and the regulations differing across various states. In some cases, judgements are

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imposed which even aggravate the conditions of private universities in India. This poses challenges for higher education universities to achieve the targeted GER (Joshi & Ahir, 2013). Participants of the interview stated that the laws of the government are liberalised to set up and manage private universities in India; however the confusion that lies within the implementation of regulations for private higher education institutions will always be a threat.

5.5 Conclusions The market driven educational model of Indian higher education has better prospects. The country has witnessed successful privatisation in the educational sector and the higher education wing is no longer an exception. It is discerned from the study that by conducting interviews with educational pioneers, it is deemed that participants are inclined towards the good prospects of privatisation in the higher education sector; however, some fear the complications that arise out of the fee based model of education.

Private education in the beginning emerged as a concept of delivering education for charity and philanthropy. Privatisation in the education sector is also to aid the government spread education. Educational institutions are set up by private owners and are maintained based on the regulations of the government though funding is acquired from private parties. During the emergence of privatisation in education sector, education is served as a public good. Till date, many educational institutions in Europe and North America provide philanthropy based educational services. In many developed nations, their government supports private sector players for the educational services they offer. In India, privatisation of higher education is doubted for its fee-

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based and profit motive structure. Hence, the equity and access to higher education becomes the topic of hot debate.

Though the number of higher education institutions has increased over the years, participants belonging to public sector institutions fear the equity to higher education. One participant belonging to private higher education institution stated the fact that private participation and increased international/ foreign private higher education institutions in India is serving the economically stable classes and the poor communities are devoid of such services. In the state of Karnataka, specific percentage of seats is shared with the government which is a good motive to create access and equity. The present study recommends all the states of India to implement such seat sharing facilities in order to improve equity.

Overall, the perceptions of the participants both private and public sector administrators and vicechancellors encourage privatisation in Indian higher education sector without which the targeted GER could not be achieved. However, the present study recommends the need to close the gap between higher education institutions and industries so that Indian manpower is utilised to the core.

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Appendix Questions/ ParticipantParticipant 1

Participant 2

Participant 3

Participant 4

Participant 5

Participant 6

Participant 7

Participant 8

Participant 9

Participant 10

Participant 11

Participant 12

Participant 13

Participant 14

Participant 15

Participant 16

Participant 17

1. In your view what is the role of private universities in the development of higher education?

1.

There are as many as 370 private universities in different part of states. You can understand the importance of state private universities in the higher education scenario of education.

1.

Higher education should have some peaks of excellence and private universities can play very important role.

1.

It is the government whose centre in the state is not in a position to cater the means of higher education, the younger population , the younger people specially of age 18-25 would very much like to have higher education but we know the access is limited because of number of institutions and also quality of education that is available both are important and this gap needs to be filled you know through philanthropic enterprises and private enterprises that means private enterprises have to become philanthropic.

1.

It is not just the role of private institutions in higher education but private and public should co-exist & they have both of them, they have their own advantages they have their own disadvantages.

1.

The private universities in Karnataka are the only state wherein we at private universities in Karnataka meet the socioeconomic obligation as well as contempt to gross enrollment ratio. I feel privatisation is crucial in higher education.

1.

There are no long term goals for the Government to improve public institutions.

Ultimately this leads to giving more importance to private higher education institutions.

1.

Private higher education institutions increase the number of higher education enrolment in the country.

1.

To increase the Gross enrolment ratio of the nation towards higher education, there should be atleast 1500 universities in India. Only with the increase in the number of private players a 50 per cent GER could be achieved.

1.

I would state that there is a lot of freedom for private universities which brings them academic excellence.

1.

Private universities don‘t have a legacy as such but the founders of the university who have started it have a certain reputation, track record, so while choosing the university students see, how sound is the reputation and legacy that they are going to be part of.

1.

The role of private higher education institutions is crucial in uplifting the economic status of the country; however, the role is limited to a specific class.

1.

Privatisation in Indian Higher education is an important factor that satisfies the nation‘s human capital needs.

1.

I doubt the credibility of private higher education institutions in India over the years.

1.

I believe the role of private universities is very significant and they are going to be with us.

1.

I would state that the number of employed person in the country, especially higher education graduates have increased. This is the success of privatisation in Indian higher education.

2.

Students choose private sector higher education universities even for courses such as agricultural science and veterinary courses. This is a good start.

2.

Students and parents choose higher education in private institutions since the quality of education in private institutions is better.

However, private sector institutions need improvement such as specialisation within a degree which is lacking in many private universities and colleges.

2.

Education has already been commoditized, and this commodity needs to be well exploited, so that we provide people who are innovative, we provide people who can think in different directions, we provide people who think for the good of the society. We provide people who can bring India‘s stature up, lift the living stands up, who can also think in terms of how do we reduce the poverty in the country, we do we produce more employment at different levels. In such a case, we envision poverty and unemployment to be the national crisis which students think to gain a job is to study in a qualified education 3. How has the 3.

The government 3.

According to 2003, all 3.

The views of 3.

The higher government sees government viewed views privatisation of private universities all over the government towards privatisation in higher education privatisation of higher higher education as a country should get recognised privatisation are sector as a tool to increase the education? move to support three

by University Grant mostly liberal Gross enrolment ratio of higher fundamental challenges Commission. If it is not, without any sort of education. But these institutions that is access, equity and probably they will not only put control and UGC should be given adequate freedom quality. I believe that our penalties for any activities of regulation is not to manage themselves such as the country cannot ignore the private universities, and accepted and syllabus. private educational they also publicise in the whole implemented at all. institutions as they are country that these courses run This poses problems currently attracting a large by suss and such private such as inadequate number of students at university is not recognised. In quality of education least initially efforts this manner, the Government is served to students. should be made to imposing rules to manage encourage the senior private higher education private institutionsofalso to universities.

4. Is encouraging 4.

Privatisation 4.

Not in all cases. One issue 4.

With the 4.

I would state privatisation to privatisation of higher higher education in India is one of the state private increasing number of be a good option only if such education good for increases the higher university started agriculture student enrolment, it institutions are philanthropic.

India? education enrolment rate programs last year. In this is necessary for in India. Hence it is a agriculture program, as we all private institutions good motive. know it was not given to private to emerge in the people earlier. It was all run by country. However, I Government universities. Now, would suggest that the last year or the present year there should be some the private organisations can sort of collaboration take up agriculture courses, between UGC and veterinary courses and similar the state council and to that. One of the private the education university in the state, has department of the started agriculture programs state to oversee taking 100s of students and private participation running the program. Now, the in Higher education. students were already admitted in the government agricultural colleges, they have started saying that particular university which started agriculture program no water, necessary infrastructure, faculty and other 5. Can private 5.

Institutions like Birla 5.

I cannot clearly state the 5.

I think in terms 5.

Private universities definitely universities bring Institute of Technology significance of privatisation of of private bring higher standards in the higher standards in and Science, Pilani have Higher education in India with universities, the delivery of education; however the delivery of been maintaining the so many issues revolving great hope is, that recruitment training should also be education? standards in engineering around the regulations for freedom that these provided. on par with IITs the private institution approval. institutions have, current opinion of public enables to run any private universities and number of good institutions may be programmes and justified to some extent. course which are The existence of private futuristic. Hence, the universities not only higher standards of improves the quality of higher education are education but also met. provides the social responsibility. The success of self financing private universities can be 6. Will privatisation of 6.

No. The only issue 6.

Discrimination may occur 6.

With increase in 6.

Privatisation indeed generates higher education with privatisation is the since students trained in some the number of private discrimination. The present kind of create discrimination increase in the number of private institutions with poor institutions, there is a strength what is reported on in the distribution of unemployed graduates quality of education are a need to maintain Government agencies, 70% of higher education? and postgraduate who affected. quality. graduates are unemployable they acquire new skills and Discrimination may state except the special fields like innovate their quality of occur since students medicine, the need for quality higher education that belonging to poor workforce is increasing. With becomes extremely families suffer. In increased number of graduates important. such cases, emerging every year, there is a scholarships and discrimination in the job enrolment

2.

The sector of higher education is expanding.

Private institutions and private public partnerships are also increasing. All these statements attribute to the perceptions of students and parents to enrol in private higher education as the number of private institutions is increasing and the enrolment rate is also increasing.

2.

Students and the parents question educational institutions, ―What is the value I derive from the money I paid for this program?‖. The point here I‘m making is, try to integrate the industry perception, interest in knowledge, emerge in knowledge, emerge in technology into the curriculum and the part of the credit goes so that they become not just qualified people, they become more relevant to the industry and more skillful to the industry because ultimately in the current emergence of the industry the services sector are, it is the sharp dealing of what knowledge you have acquired and what you 3.

Fortunately or unfortunately in the Indian system, in universities there is more of administration and less of governance. There are complex state and central government policies on privatisation of higher education.

2.

Students, parents and teachers look for more prospective features in educational institutions. Factors such as infrastructure, hostel facilities and safety are considered to the core.

Some private institutions provide quality features which stakeholders require.

1.

I would like to share with you that, the private sector contribution, into this stream of engineering, you will be surprised to know that, among all the private sector participation, in the higher education sector, 66% share is of the engineering stream, 24% share is of the medical stream, 4% management, 4% education. So, if you put together, you will come to know, that almost 98% private participation in higher education is limited to engineering, medical, management and education.

Therefore, whatever problem we are facing employability, is the 2.

Inof MBA, 41% employability,

2.

Stakeholders such as students look for job opportunities after their graduation. They opt for universities which cater such requirement.

2.

The private universities are playing a significant role in fulfilling the franchise for the demand of the quality education and at least 60% of the students are going to colleges in India and private institutions but there is a big disparity in the quality.

2.

Students look for colleges with basic amenities and infrastructure. Then education. However, their perceptions may vary when students belong to poor communities. They may not be able to join private universities which cost them high fee.

2.

The primary stakeholders are the students themselves followed by their parents, as they have seen it as a joint perception on their part and then there is also choosing the university from the supplies side, who are the faculty.

Hence, choosing the right university becomes very important.

2.

Students have different perceptions.

Some state their family legacy that poses them to join a university, others claim the infrastructure to attract them make an admission.

2.

Quality of teachers or quality of the academic programs and infrastructure, campus safety, especially for women, cost and location were the criteria used by stakeholders that is the primary stakeholders, the students, the parents, to choose the institution.

2.

Excellent infrastructure in teaching, learning environment, creating research, administration, and also the emphasis for student life

2.

Very few private universities come up to the level of international level, which is tagetted by stake holders, students parents , etc all put together.

2.

Private universities nowadays nurture entrepreneurial capabilities. For example, innovation centers, incubation centers, makers‘ space are left for students to learn. Students even look for universities delivering such opportunities.

3.

Government views the opportunity to create an integrated economy with the human capital and jobs.

3.

The Government of India is on a vision to increase the number of universities to achieve a GER of 50 per cent.

Further, the state of Karnataka is playing key role in bringing public and private universities together.

3.

Government has 3.

Government views liberal regulations privatisation as a strategy towards privatisation; to increase GER. however, in the future, when new regulations are imposed on the private institutions, it should not affect their freedom to education.

4.

Private sector participation is deemed important. As previously mentioned, the perception of students towards education is whether they gain relevant knowledge for what they pay as a fee. In this regard, I claim private universities penetrate the knowledge into the students so that they become more relevant to the industry sector.

4.

Privatisation is nothing but plain commercialisation. profit making would be the motto and the charitable educational institutions that is always temptation of commercialization and profit making.

Privatisation may prove hazardous at times.

4.

I don‘t necessarily think that with increased private players in higher education, the nation‘s economic prospects will grow. If we analyse certain reports of the government, it is revealed that private institutions produce industry centric manpower, human capital, and the 50% of them are not employable. Then how will privatisation be good.

4.

In India, there is no bridge between industries and universities. Very few private institutions try to bridge the gap. However, the rate of unemployment is high. This intrigues the role of privatisation as the nation is still suffering from unemployment.

4.

Quality of education 4.

Privatisation is a 4.

Obviously when is a primary concern. In good concept if in case there is a need to increase Karnataka, a joint the professional degree is the GER, then we should programme is conducted job-oriented. go with the strategies to to exchange students and increase private higher teachers within the public education instiutions as and private universities. the funding for higher This led new things to be education by Government learnt. However, I do not is very low. see only the contribution of the private sector as both private and public sector are concerned.

5.

There is a new standard being adopted by private universities which is known as flipped classroom. In this learning mode, faculties guide students on how to proceed their career with the selected professional degree. Very little focus is on classroom environment and students look for practical knowledge. In this regard, I view privatisation to bring benefits in higher education.

5.

May be. Funding for higher education is large as these institutions collect fee and are private players. Hence, the quality of education delivered would be good.

5.

We view internationalisation as a part of privatisation of higher education in India, especially in the state of Karnataka.

2. What are the stake holders (students , parents, employers) perception of choosing universities?

1.

As per the latest published data of human resource research development India has 754 Universities, State Government Universities are 372, Private Universites are 245 Deemed Universties are 137. The role of Private sector in Indian higher education is increased significantly over the last decade. With the majority of students currently enrolled in these private institutions. the role will 2.

In the higher

education sector in India this is calculated between 18 to 23 yrs of age group total enrollment in higher education regard less of age express as a percentage to the eligible official population of 1823. Students are inclined towards enrolling in private sector universities for higher education.

3.

The regulations of the Government are not implemented properly. This shows lack of interest of governmental bodies to manage private higher education sector in India.

4.

I would state if national quality of excellence, social justice, inclusion and regional and social disparity could be achieved, then privatisation in Indian higher education is a benefit.

5.

There is no real quality 5. education fed to students enrolled in higher education sector (both private and public). I think the standards have not been met since the enrolment rate of students in some private higher education institutions is relatively low. This creates an imbalance.

Yes

only 41%. In B.A, arts stream, it is 19%. In B.Com, it is 26%. In B.Sc. It is 41%. In MCA, Computer application, it is 43%. ITI, you will be surprised to know the figures. It is only 46%. Most of us feel that people who do the trades and all, they get the job, but no. That‘s what the reality is. Even in Polytechnic, it is just 11%, means, 89% students coming out of polytechnic, they are not employable. This is a very serious issue we have to look at. And in pharma, it is 54%. The best in the country, the stream, which you can have a highest percentage of employability, that is only pharma.

3.

Government looks at 3. factors such as equity and access to higher education by students.

Hence, the views of Government are open to privatisation.

5.

Privatisation may provide higher standards in Indian higher education if academic flexibility, diversity of force skill based, competency based curriculum, innovative programs, processes and procedures, courses and then creation of new knowledge by research and then collaboration of international and national repute, of course quality student enhancement, transparency and accountability and social accountability are all 6.

I clearly view the lack of 6.

In the state of Karnataka, 40 6.

I do not perceive social inclusion in higher % of seats in the professional more good traits about education sector. My views courses are surrendered to the privatisation in Indian are towards the public government which is an act to higher education. private mix which can only prevent discrimination. I suppose Moreover, private close the gap. this should be implemented in all educational institutions the states of the country. are mostly commercialised. I don‘t see the good prospects of private higher education in India.

6.

To me privatisation has not 6.

Skill development is created discrimination in the equity something I think that is of higher education but inequity in lacking in both private employment. and public sector higher education institutions.

This creates employment inequality.

3.

The government is 3. open to private universities with less regulation to control. This is an act to increase the GER of the nation.

No idea

3.

Government of India 3. is ready to start at the higher rate at the later stage, which is to me looks all very, saturated now in terms of refunding, in terms of resources in terms of man-power. In this manner, the government adopts privatisation in the higher education sector.

–

4.

Universities cannot be for employment, they are for life. That is why the primary role of universities is to increase the knowledge, build up the attitude and skill is also a part of it. But I think you must consider all these things important; generating knowledge, skill development as well as the large social concern that must be a part.

4.

There is a need to revamp our education system on one hand and exposing the teachers to timely changes in knowledge levels of their respective disciplines.

This is how stakeholders perceive higher education offered by private universities.

4.

There is a question on how to satisfy the increasing demands and needs and aspiration of people of the country, especially the talented young people has got this opportunity to study in various schools, internet and various other resources available, aware of the higher education benefits. So now with this background, it‘s very clear that days to come that private universities are going to play the role.

4.

Some private 4.

Yes, it brings out institutions have more potential played important workforce. bringing quality inputs concentrating on the rural areas that will bring this paradigm shift.

5.

I think 2 kinds of education are possible.

One is for employment, while the other one is for social transformation. I think corporate universities and private universities have been busy. Looking at everything as rightly said, in terms of corporate context, personal attitude development, skill development, but if they forget about the larger context of intervention to the society to a social transformation, that 6.

I could not 6.

Social inclusiveness 6.

There is no stable 6.

Private institutions completely oppose is lacking in private higher financial model for private nowadays are towards privatisation as it has education institutions. I higher education increasing the merits too. However, I fear would suggest revision of institutions in India. employability of the the factors of fee structure to create These are generally nation- it is good for the inaccessibility and social equity. diverse among different nation, however there are inequity in higher states. Hence equity doubts about the quality education. could not be maintained. of education delivered.

5.

The mounting demands of higher education require competent human resource. Private universities in this global era are transformed in term of curriculum, in quality and standards.

5.

Excellence in Private Universities that is not so good especially the standards are so slanting perhaps in my opinion it is different. Excellence is not used these days talking about the institutions especially regarding credibility.

5.

Universities are 5.

Private funding even established in are vast, hence the rural areas which aid standards of students belonging to education are that region to be maintained. empowered.

Additionally, the standards of higher education and the access to the same are increased.

6.

In some way or another, students are enrolled in higher education either in public or private institutions.

However, I find discrimination in the employability status of students studying in different universities. It is the quality of education

6.

The private universities must have a central role, a philanthropic role for commercial purpose.

Since such a role is lacking, there will be no basis for equity.

6.

Private institutions are extending to rural parts of the nation.

The gap is getting bridged nowadays with new private institutions.

5.

Most private universities embrace technological concepts in all activities. These act as high standards for students to learn more effectively.

5.

Though private universities burden students with fee, the collected funds are used for the development of the institutions‘ infrastructure.

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3.

Government see privatisation as a means to increase the employability status of higher education graduates.

6.

I don‘t find discrimination .

Access to higher education is increased, standards are maintained and so on.