TropicalEdu_Magazyn_number1_ winter2020

MAGAZINE NO. 2 – WINTER 2020/2021

Fascinating discus Marine fish for beginners Algae in fish feeding

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Dear Readers, Our premiere edition was welcomed exceptionally warmly and with a number of positive reviews. This makes us believe that Tropical EDU Magazine is an important part of the educational platform we have created for you. We hope that you also use other materials published on tropicaledu.pl blog (tropicaledu.com for English) and our YouTube channel. If you haven’t checked it yet, I strongly encourage you to do so. Especially now, in the time of so many limitations and lack of aquarium events, it is important to stay active and present in our aquarium and terrarium world. That is why I am happy to follow numerous groups on Facebook and internet forums gathering passionate people, where you can not only find valuable advice, but also watch their breeding successes. Due to winter season and lack of other activities we have more time to observe life in our aquaria and terraria and develop our passions. So I believe you’ll have a nice time reading the second issue of TEM. You will find there an interview carried out by Paweł Czapczyk with Vitor Hugo Quaresma, an extremely interesting personality of the aquarium world and the founder of Santarem Discus. It is undoubtedly one of the world’s best recognized importers of wild discus. Fish from Santarem Discus win numerous competitions and are objects of desire of many aquarists. Hugo will tell you how he turned his passion into business.

He will also reveal the secrets of care and nutrition of wild discus. I believe this interview will be a real treat for all discus lovers.

In the second issue of TEM we will also continue the topic of biotope aquaristics. Kamil Hazy will tell you the history of his tank reflecting the fragment of Pantanal area biotope. Check for yourself if this branch of aquarium hobby can be really so absorbing. I believe more people will be willing to try biotope aquaristics after reading this article. And I invite you to continue to explore the secrets of feeding ornamental fish.

This time I will tell you more about using freshwater and marine algae in fish diet. This is a must-read for all herbivorous fish owners. From Bartek Stańczyk’s article you will find out which fish species are suitable for beginner marine aquarists.

But that’s not all. We have also prepared a double dose of terraristics for you. Stephan Ettmar, an expert in herpetology, and an enthusiast of turtles, geckos and predatory fish, will share secrets of breeding Claudius angustatus. Dawid Krótki in the second part of the article ”Snakes – sacred and cursed creatures” will present the anatomical features of snakes on the example of selected families from the Serpentes suborder.

In the new year I wish you all your dreams come true, including those related to aquarium and terrarium hobby, and many breeding successes. Above all, however, stay healthy and calm in this difficult time.

Aleksandra Kwaśniak-Płacheta Chief editor

Chief editor: Aleksandra Kwaśniak-Płacheta, PhD Leading editor: Paweł Czapczyk, PhD DTP: Marek Kantor Publisher: Tropical Tadeusz Ogrodnik Cover photo: santaremdiscusplus.com

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Tropical EDU Magazine

CONTENTS – TROPICAL EDU MAGAZINE NO. 2 My life with discus – Vitor Hugo Quaresma interviewed by Paweł Czapczyk Algae in ornamental fish feeding – Aleksandra Kwaśniak-Płacheta, PhD prof. Leszek Mościcki, PhD

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Marine fish for beginner aquarists (part 1) – Bartłomiej Stańczyk

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The Brazilian-Bolivian borderland closed in a glass – Kamil Hazy

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Small, but full of attitude: the narrow-bridged mud turtle – Stephan Ettmar

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Snakes – sacred and cursed creatures (part 2) – Dawid Krótki

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Vitor Hugo Quaresma interviewed by Paweł Czapczyk

WITH DISCUS

MY LIFE 4

Paweł Czapczyk, PhD For nearly 40 years a passionate aquarium and terrarium hobbyist, writer, editor and breeder; organizer of exhibitions and conferences on aquarium and terrarium hobby; author of many books and press articles, as well as radio broadcasts and screenplays for documentary films; nature photographer, editor-in-chief of “Aquarium Magazine”.

Tropical EDU Magazine

Every year we select fish for our clients to take part in the International Discus Championship, which we have been winning invariably for 6 years

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My life with discus

Vitor Hugo Quaresma An outstanding personality in aquaristics of the 20th and 21st century, a world-famous expert in the genus Symphysodon and one of the most experienced importers of wild fish from the Amazon. Since he founded Santarem Discus Company, the fish he catches an imports have won many prestigious awards in international competitions.

Paweł Czapczyk: You are a well-known and valued figure in the world of discus lovers. But how did your aquarium adventure actually begin?

Vitor Hugo Quaresma: I have always had a huge passion for animals. When I was a child, I kept and reproduced ducks, rabbits, parakeets and canaries for many years. My father had a huge twenty-metre long aquarium with cold water fish in one of his companies in the 1970s.

When I finished breeding canaries, I got it. I didn’t know anything about fish then.

A friend just explained to me the basics of preparing the water before letting the fish in. When I decided to buy fish for the first time and went to the pet shop, discus fish were the ones that got most of my attention. I remember that a vet was looking at them with me at the same time and he asked me if I had any experience with

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them. I said “No”, adding that I never even had an aquarium before. He looked at me surprised and said: “Then don’t buy them.

They are very sensitive fish. Mine died after a few weeks.” But I went back to the same shop after two weeks and bought my first two discus fish. It was 1980. Since then, I’ve been suffering from a pseudo virus called “discus”. And this virus led me to this place in my career where I am today.

What made you fall in love in Symphysodon, why do you still love them and do you have any other favourite species or groups of fish?

I think I was captivated by the tranquility that emanates from their smooth movements, their unusual colours and the way they manifest their health. And above all, their reproduction. I also have my other

Tropical EDU Magazine

Currently, the most sought-after fish on the world market are those with a visible middle bar, such as rare specimens of the ICA variety

favourite species of fish, such as Amazonia freshwater rays, especially leopoldi.

What do you think about aquarium hobby in your homeland – is aquaristics doing well in Portugal? And what are the main aquarium trends?

In Portugal, there are several stores exclusively for aquarium hobbyists. They usually sell good quality goods. As for the trends, aquariums with plants, fish living near the bottom and discus (from what I notice after 15 years living outside Portugal) dominate. Various social networks contribute to the popularization of our hobby. They also serve to exchange information and share experience with fish lovers around the globe. Online shops are the future of this hobby, as e-commerce (where physical presence is not necessary to buy food, medicine or fish) is becoming easier and

more convenient. Social networking sites provide support for everyone who wants to buy something online. Any exporter or shop offering poor quality services, for example, selling animals in poor physical condition, is publicly stigmatized in various social channels within minutes. That’s why people who want to buy fish, scrupulously check which company can provide them with the best quality products and animals.

What does professional ornamental fishing in the Amazon look like in practice?

It’s extremely complicated! Mostly because of logistics and bureaucracy, as detailed documentation is required to export fish from the heart of the Amazon, and we are talking about places where there is not even electricity, no telephone network... or

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Since the company entered European market, Portugal in specific (santaremdiscusplus.com), this 2000-litre aquarium has been the „showcase” of the quality of wild discus we have in stock

the Internet. My company has spent 12 years developing its own logistics. For this purpose, we purchased the #SantaremDiscus Boat equipped with 1000 litre plastic boxes and air compressors, which enable simultaneous transport of 800-1000 fish. In addition, in some locations where we fish for discus, we have large wooden boxes that we prepared for selection purposes. In others we have diving suits, because at night the temperature of the water drops significantly, and also masks, nets, etc. In practice, fish are caught by our fishermen, and all we have to do is quickly select the best specimens – and in the shortest possible time in over 10 remote locations.

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What time of year is it best to fish discus?

12 years ago, fishing started at the end of August or at the beginning of September and lasted until January, February. Climate change over the last five years has limited us to October and November. We had, for example, seasons 2018/2019 and 2019/2020, when the period between lowering and quick raising the water level lasted only one month, making it impossible to catch fish from different habitats and of different sizes. To illustrate it better, I’ll just say that this year the water level dropped by 4 meters in just a week. This has never happened before.

Tropical EDU Magazine

What should a customer, who wants to buy a wild-caught fish, pay attention to?

In general, if the fish has been properly quarantined and properly fed, it should be strong and robust. The customer must physically or in the pictures see the fish

from the front, check if it is wide and healthy. It’s the job of the companies that put them on the market. We don’t have fish with bar defects along the body, very common in “savages”, or other imperfections. We don’t have fish with incorrect shapes or patterns, because we scrupulously select each single one. The end customer must pay more attention to certain details, know the origin of the fish and the exporter. Quarantine should be carefully conducted to eliminate a whole range of internal and external parasites that wild discus fish import from their environment. Moreover, the end customer should only let the discus into their aquarium when the fish is well acclimatized in the exporter’s aquarium or in the shop. This process takes at least 6 to 8 months. In our company

The selection of wilds discus is done in more than 20 Amazonian communities. Our priorities include round shape, proportionality, small eyes and different patterns, without crooked bars or defects

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Specialist food for wild discus

Multi-ingredient food in the form of slowly sinking granules for everyday feeding of wild discus and other demanding species of wild-caught fish. high share of vegetable ingredients contains algae, krill and fruit fine texture 





www.santaremdiscusplus.com it is the standard for sales to end customers.

In the Amazon, we carry out a 2-3 month quarantine before selling fish to traders, shops and importers. This is one way to guarantee the quality of the fish we sell.

I often say that problems are unavoidable in our personal and professional life. However, we do not want to add them to our customers, and inadequate quarantine and malnutrition will surely lead to such.

We want aquaristics to bring only a lot of fun to our customers.

The customer should also know what kind of food the fish has been fed so far.

It is really important! More and more often I meet customers complaining that their wild discus eats only mosquito larvae or beef hearts. But it has been proven that the heart of beef increases the size of a fish’s liver, thus shortening its life. Today we have the possibility to feed fish exclusively with dry foods in the form of pellets and flakes. Just as with dogs and cats. We usually give Tropical food samples to our customers with the recommendation to continue this diet.

How to best prepare an aquarium for wild discus?

I strongly insist that the aquarium for wild discus fish should be at least 1.5 m long and equipped with sump. I think the way to prepare the tank should be as simple as possible. Discus should be introduced after 2 months. You need to pour water, start the filtration system, add fine sand and a few pieces of wood. And a very delicate light, because discus don’t like sharp light, as they live mainly under logs. And filtration based on highly porous filtration media, granulated peat and Ketapang leaves to give them the comfort they deserve. Wild discus fish live main-

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Tropical EDU Magazine

Bright coloration is the effect of good nutrition based on Tropical foods and quarantine. Wild discus reveal their colors after 6 to 8 months, provided the water is of good quality

ly in standing water with small currents.

Many aquarists provide strong currents in the aquarium that cause stress and discomfort for the fish. Peat releasing humic acids and lowering the pH level, for example thanks to the Ketapang leaves, help to slightly reduce water hardness, so that substances released from the leaves accelerate the regeneration of the epidermis, mucous membrane and fish fins. Wild discus with a good immune system will withstand a pH of 7.5 and high hardness, but we always recommend a pH between 6.5 and 7 or lower. If we want to reproduce them, we will need 300 microsimens and a temperature between 26 and 27ยบC, the conditions they have in the wild.

What and how to feed the fish?

Since leaving their natural habitat, our fish

only eat granules and flakes. It is important to try different types of food that Tropical offers. Their excellent quality is the effect of many factors. In the Amazon we offer mainly green food with spirulina, 3-Algae, because the basis of the diet of wild discus is algae. Apart from green foods, we also serve D-50 Plus, Astacolor, D-Vital Plus and Discus Gran Wild.

Already in Portugal, our discus react well to other foods than those mentioned above, such as Soft Line America or Pro Defence.

We consider these two foods essential in the daily nutrition. Wild discus fish have better coloration and grow faster. Most of the fish we brought in from the Amazon are 12 cm in size and grow another 3 cm in less than 6 months, and their beautiful colours are the manifestation of their excellent health. Feeding our fish with these

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so I like to joke that we domesticate them with Tropical foods!

two foods increased their immunity, and we also noticed a greater number of eggs.

The amount of food given depends on the number of animals kept in the aquarium, but the most important thing is to give different foods 4 to 5 times a day in smaller portions. Our fish are usually hand fed,

There are, of course, differences in rearing wild-caught and farmed fish. Can you name the most important ones?

Of course there are differences, and the most important is the approach of the Discus Selvagens to food and the zone they consider their territory in the aquarium. As far as food is concerned, wild discus are more aggressive and possessive than farmed animals. Perhaps because in their natural environment they struggle with difficulties in finding food, they have to cope with food shortages and attacks from predators. Discus living in the wild are not always well nourished.

In the aquarium, where the food falls to them several times a day, they fight for

The aim of the project „Reproduction 2021” – the first of its kind in the world – is to select couples from the same population. We will let them reproduce once or twice and then sell the offspring

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Tropical EDU Magazine

Amazonian pics show the magic of nature untouched by the trace of civilization

every granule and flake. After a few days in the aquarium, they define their territory, and they eat there, driving other fish away from the zone. They live and sleep in a space they choose and they let there in only a male or a female for reproduction purposes. Discus Selvagens are, in my opinion, much more resistant to diseases than farmed animals. On the other hand, wild discus are more stressed and it takes them many months to reveal their fabulous coloration. The evolution of coloring lasts for over 12 months in wild discus, and this phenomenon is not observed in the farmed animals.

Can wild discus be kept in a general aquarium – together with other fish and companion animals?

Yes, I don’t see any problem. But my observations show that many customers are completely giving up farming forms for the benefit of wild-caught fish. Wild discus is the last stage of initiation for an aquarium hobbyist. I remember my dis-

appointment when I imported fish from Brazil 20 years ago. They were in poor condition. They did not undergo adequate quarantine. They were poorly fed for months, which led them to deep anorexia. It was impossible to keep them alive even for a few weeks.

Many customers say that over the last decade we have changed the world of wild discus and they are right, because everything we do is done professionally, methodologically and we plan everything accordingly and scrupulously. We’re not in a hurry to sell our fish until we think it’s time. Therefore, the excellent quality fish awarded in recent years at championships all over the world is no accident. How important it is for us to maintain this level is confirmed by continuous successes of our customers in various corners of the world. Even in the case of the quarantine that we carry out in the Amazon and then again in Portugal, we always recommend the customer to place the fish first in a separate aquarium for observation and,

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if necessary, administer medication before introducing them into the aquarium.

Finally, what is the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on wild discus fishing and its transport to Europe and aquaristics in general?

As far as Brazil is concerned, there is no impact on fishing. We felt it, yes. But there aren’t many companies that do it.

And there’s plenty of fish to catch. The only limitation is the appropriate facilities.

On the other hand, some exporters are going through a difficult period from an economic point of view. The lack of export possibilities from Brazil in the period from March to August caused a huge drop in sales. The main reason was the closure of airlines and public institutions responsible for preparing the necessary export documents. Therefore, there are fewer exporters looking for new fish this season.

At Aquariophilia, sales in the EU have in-

creased since May, compared to what they were like during the summer months.

The main reason was locking people in their homes, where they had time to take care of their hobby. However, airlines that have returned to work and sometimes already transport live fish have increased the price of transport, which will increase the final price of fish.

Photos by: santaremdiscusplus.com

For the Reproduction Project 2021 we are looking for wild discus with horizontal bars and vivid colors

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Tropical EDU Magazine

FOOD FOR FISH AND FRY with probiotic

Tiny granules

0.5 mm

Probiotic added to the foods contains viable Bacillus subtilis endospores, which stabilize gut microflora, facilitating utilization of nutrients, and this in turn reduces contamination of water with fish’s feces.

The synergic effect of probiotic, beta-glucan, vitamins and carotenoids significantly improves overall condition and immune system of fish and fry.

Pro Defence micro size fry food contains as much as 60% protein.

BENEFITS FOR FISH FROM THE USE OF FOODS WITH PROBIOTIC increased resistance to pathogens

faster growth and greater fertility

stronger and bigger offspring

better utilization of food

better survival rate of the fry

increased resistance to stress

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ALGAE

IN ORNAMENTAL FISH FEE

Tropheus moorii Katoto, photo by Łukasz Szewczyk

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Tropical EDU Magazine

EDING

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Algae in ornamental fish feeding

Aleksandra Kwaśniak-Płacheta, PhD Hydrobiologist, expert on feeding and breeding of ornamental fish, aquarium enthusiast.

A highly recognized speaker of many aquarium training courses and symposiums.

Author of articles published in domestic and foreign magazines including ”Nasze Akwarium”, ”Magazyn Akwarium”, ”Planeta Zwierząt”, ”Tanganika”, ”Fauna & Flora”, ”Pet Market”, ”Aquafeed Magazine”, ”Pet Worldwide” and various publications of Wrocław Aquarium Association.

Prof. Leszek Mościcki, PhD The development of aquafeed produc-

from the wild on an industrial scale. The

tion is followed by the growing inter-

most popular microalga used for aqua-

est in raw materials which are to be

feed production is spirulina (Arthrospira

interesting, attractive and valuable,

platensis). Its content in aquafeed usu-

not only in terms of their properties.

ally ranges from several to even tens of

There’s no doubt that algae are one

percent. Its properties are well known

of them. Feeds with the addition of

among aquarium fish keepers when

algae are perceived as premium prod-

compared with other species such as

ucts. This can result from the fact that

Chlorella,

algae evoke certain associations with

Ascophyllum, Undaria, Ulva etc. Super

healthy food for humans. Animal food

Spirulina Forte, Tropical’s food with 36%

with algae must then trigger the same

share of Arthrospira platensis, has been

positive associations. Moreover, spe-

one of the best-selling fish food on the

cially processed algae or feeds with

market for many years. The changing or-

the addition of algae offered by the

namental fish market and new emerg-

producers allowed for keeping popular

ing species of fish and invertebrates

algae-eating freshwater and marine

made it necessary for us to develop and

fish.

introduce new foods. Thus the offer of

Scenedesmus,

Laminaria,

products for herbivorous and algae-eat-

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ALGAE USED IN THE PRODUCTION OF

ing fish has been enriched with a new

AQUAFEED FOR ORNAMENTAL FISH

food 3-Algae based on three species of

It is virtually impossible to provide orna-

algae: Chlorella vulgaris, Ascophyllum

mental fish with algae from their natural

nodosum and Laminaria digitata, the

environment so aquafeed manufactur-

last two referred to as kelp algae. It is

ers use cultivated algae or algae taken

available as flakes, granules, adhesive

Tropical EDU Magazine

Tropheus sp. Ikola, photo: TROPICAL’s archives

and sinking tablets. It is intended for

Alga is a difficult dietary component

everyday feeding of herbivorous fresh-

to be substituted without risk to fish’s

water and marine fish, for which algae

health. Despite the fact that various

is a valuable dietary component, and as

species of algae differ in the content of

a supplementary food for omnivorous

protein and its composition, it seems

species.

that they generally contain all amino acids necessary for fish. This makes al-

ALGAE AS A SOURCE OF PROTEIN

gae even more valuable component of

In farm fish feeding algae are mostly

fish foods compared with other plant

used as an alternative source of pro-

materials used as the source of protein.

tein. In case of aquarium fish they are

The nutritional value of protein is deter-

so much more than the source of pro-

mined by two main factors: the quan-

tein. They provide other valuable ingre-

tity of essential amino acids in a given

dients such as unsaturated fatty acids,

protein together with their relative pro-

carotenoids and dietary fibre, which of-

portions, and digestibility of the pro-

fer benefits such as health, good over-

tein ‒ the extent to which amino acids

all condition, resistance to diseases and

are released and absorbed during di-

coloration improvement. Algae share in

gestive processes taking place in the

aquafeed can be high as a great num-

gastrointestinal tract. It is the content of

ber of freshwater and marine fish kept

digestive protein that informs us about

in popular aquaria eat algae in the wild.

the quality of a given raw material. Why

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is the nutritional value of protein so

vironments. They have been indenti-

important? To fully exploit the genetic

fied in fresh, salty and brackish waters

potential of fish of all ages, especially

as well as in soil, sand and even in hot

farm raised. Only an adequate content

springs. Due to the specific conditions

of highly nutritional protein can ensure

of water bodies from which spirulina

proper growth in fish and enables their

(which is a common name of Arthros-

reproduction. Using poor quality animal

pira platensis) is collected, it has also

protein or replacing animal protein with

become a dietary component of peo-

plant protein such as soya makes it nec-

ples living in the vicinity of Lake Chad

essary to enrich the feeds with synthet-

and Texcoco. Green mats collected and

ic amino acids, first of all with cysteine,

then dried contained almost exclusively

methionine and lysine.

cells of Arthrospira platensis or Arthros-

It should be noted, however, that our

pira maxima. The formation of these

knowledge on the ornamental fish’s

monocultures has been strictly corre-

demand for essential amino acids is re-

lated with chemical parameters of wa-

ally poor. Dietary research carried out

ter (high salinity and pH level ‒ about

on farm raised fish proved that the de-

10 pH). These are perfect conditions for

mand for essential amino acids can vary

the development of spirulina and inhi-

from one species to another. Hence, for

bition of other blue-green algae, which

the purpose of ornamental fish feeding

can be dangerous to health and life of

it seems important to use high quality

humans and animals.

protein which provides all essential ami-

In the beginning the main reason why

no acids. This way one can fulfil dietary

spirulina gained such interest was its

needs of a large number of species kept

exceptionally high content of protein,

in aquaria.

which ranged from 62 to 68%. This is

Table below presents the content of

an impressive value when compared to

protein in popular species of algae used

meat (15-25%) or soya (35%). Moreover,

for aquafeed production.

protein from spirulina turned out to be more valuable than protein from plants,

ARTHROSPIRA PLATENSIS

even legumes and only slightly worse

Organisms belonging to Arthrospira

than milk or egg protein.

genus can be found in numerous en-

Further tests conducted on spirulina

Species

Average protein content [% DW]

Arthrospira platensis

65.0

Chlorella vulgaris

53.0

Laminaria digitata

8.5

Ascophyllum nodosum

9.0

Average content of protein in algae used for the production of feeds for ornamental fish

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Tropical EDU Magazine

Tropheus duboisi, photo by Paweł Czapczyk

continued to reveal even greater num-

of free radicals, some are the source of

ber of outstanding qualities. It turned

vitamin A, which is beneficial for fish’s

out that these tiny, twisted cells are rich

growth, they promote maturation and

in assimilation pigments such as chlo-

reproduction, and finally protect skin

rophyll, carotenoids, and phycobilipro-

and eggs from UV radiation.

teins. Spirulina is a leading source of

Spirulina also contains other beneficial

chlorophyll (1.7% DW). The bacteriostatic

pigments such as phycobilins. These in-

properties of this green pigment and its

clude blue phycocyanin and allophyco-

favourable effects on the human body

cyanin, and red phycoerythrin. Similar

have been used in cosmetic and phar-

to carotenoids, they are antioxidants.

maceutical industries.

They effectively protect fatty acids and

Spirulina contains about 0.5% of carot-

other valuable substances against free

enoids (DW), mostly beta-carotene and

radicals.

xanthophylls. The carotenoids are an es-

Apart from these pigments, spirulina

sential component of fish food, not only

contains other active substances such

for their colour-enhancing properties.

as amino-acids, nucleic acids and lin-

Carotenoids play a number of other im-

oleic acid Its content of iron, magnesi-

portant roles in fish’s bodies. They stim-

um, calcium, copper, phosphorus, and

ulate immune system, protect valuable

selenium is also significantly high.

cell components (such as nucleic and fatty acids) from the harmful activity

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Tropheus moorii Katoto, photo by Łukasz Szewczyk

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CHLORELLA VULGARIS

average about 2% of dry weight, howev-

Chlorella is a genus of unicellular algae

er one may achieve higher concentra-

belonging to green algae (Chlorophy-

tion of this green pigment by adjusting

ta). The most popular species is Chlorel-

growing conditions. Chlorophyll facil-

la vulgaris, which can be found in fresh

itates digestion, reduces the number

waters and moist habitats. Similar to

of decay bacteria in the gastrointesti-

spirulina, Chlorella firstly owed its pop-

nal tract, acts as an antioxidant, helps

ularity to the high content of protein,

to detoxicate and when used external-

which could be used for human and

ly as a bath it supports treating injuries

livestock consumption. Chlorella may

and skin infections (as aquarists claim).

contain from 45 to 57% of protein rich in

Apart from that, it facilitates the regen-

essential amino acids (DW). Moreover,

eration of cells and increases the con-

chlorella contains large amounts of pro-

centration level of haemoglobin in the

vitamin A (just like spirulina), folic acid

blood.

and iron.

Chlorella vulgaris, similarly to spirulina,

Chlorella is also said to have health-pro-

is a very rich source of carotenoids. In

moting properties owed to natural im-

its dry weight one will find about 0.4%

mune stimulator ‒ beta-1.3-glucan and

of these pigments, 80% of them in red

high concentration of chlorophyll pres-

shades. The concentration of carote-

ent in its cells. Adding beta-1.3-glucan

noids in chlorella cells can be increased

(responsible for the activation of mac-

by a strict control of growing conditions.

rophages) to fish foods increases fish’s

Chlorella is effectively used for the color-

natural specific and non-specific im-

ation enhancement in koi and goldfish.

mune response. The concentration of

The role of carotenoids in fish’s bodies

chlorophyll in chlorella cells reaches in

is complex and the demand for these

Tropical EDU Magazine

pigments is ongoing. Fish cannot syn-

rich in minerals, including easily assim-

thesize carotenoids de novo, hence one

ilable organic iodine compounds, vita-

must provide them in food. Colourful

mins, dietary fibre and pigments such

species of ornamental fish are particu-

as fucoxanthin and chlorophyll. Their

larly demanding. The minimum carot-

addition to the food facilitates diges-

enoid level in fish’s diet ranges from

tion and enhances overall condition of

species to species. Coloration improve-

fish. Dietary fibre in seaweed may even

ment in tetras, cichlids, gourami, gold-

reach 33 up to 50% of dry weight. It’s far

fish and danio has been observed when

more than in higher plants.

30 mg of astaxanthin has been added

There are two types of dietary fibre in

to one kilo of formulated feed In clown-

the seaweed: insoluble (cellulose, man-

fish (Amphriprion ocellaris, Premnas

nan, xylan) and soluble such as alginic

biaculeatus) coloration enhancement

acid, fucoidin and laminarin. Dietary fi-

has been visible after a week of provid-

bre performs many physiological func-

ing food with 100 mg/kg astaxanthin. At

tions, for instance it increases intestinal

the same time growth acceleration has

transit time, facilitates the development

been noted.

of valuable intestinal microbial flora,

Chlorella added to feed for Plecoglos-

binds bacterial toxins and heavy metal

sus altivelis reduced the excessive ac-

ions. This group of polysaccharides add-

cumulation of fat in tissues. The fats

ed to aquafeed allows for better food

were better utilised, which is proba-

utilization and growth. It also supports

bly the result of chlorella affecting the

detoxication. Even a small addition of

hormone system (lipolytic hormones

Ascophyllum nodosum (5%) improves

stimulation). Similar conclusions were

nutritional value of the food. However,

reached by other scientists as well, who

it should be noted that too high pol-

fed Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)

ysaccharide concentration in the diet

with chlorella. The content of chlorel-

can deteriorate assimilability of the nu-

la (not exceeding 50%) accelerated the

trients. Numerous research proved an-

growth in tilapia, reduced fat in tissues

ti-bacterial and antiviral properties of

and increased the concentration of pro-

algin acid, fucoidin and laminarin and

tein. These properties of chlorella seem

their positive effect on immunity.

particularly important in case of aquari-

Macroalgae contain an average of 1-3%

um fish, who often suffer from fatty de-

of fat, which is relatively small in com-

generation of internal organs caused by

parison to microalgae, which can con-

overfeeding or poorly balanced feeds

tain even up to 40%. Despite its small

for ornamental fish.

amount, the fat from macroalgae is very valuable thanks to Omega-3 acids. The

KELP ALGAE

demand for Omega-3 and Omega-6

Kelp algae are a mixture of seaweed be-

fatty acids is partly fulfilled by the fish

longing to green-blue algae, which are

themselves, as they can produce it from

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23

elements (iodine, iron, potassium, magnesium, calcium, selenium and phosphorus), most of which is in the form of easily assimilable organic compounds.

Laminaria digitata contains on average about 4 g of iodine per kg DW. This form of iodine is highly stable. A small L. digitata addition of 0.8% (providing 32 mg iodine/kg of food) into the fish food is Tropheus sp. Kiku, photo: TROPICAL’s archives

enough for the concentration of iodine in fish’s tissues to increase 4 times.

HUFAs provided in the food. However,

Similarly to chlorella, Laminaria digi-

the ability of carnivorous and marine

tata facilitated using fat as a source of

fish to transform HUFAs into Omega-3

energy, when added to the diet of Spon-

and Omega-6 is relatively small, hence

dyliosoma cantharus and Seriola quin-

one must supplement them additional-

queradiata, which indicates that one

ly with formulated fatty acids.

of the seaweed components affects fat

Seaweed is rich in vitamins A, B1, B2, B3,

metabolism.

B9, C and E, macronutrients and trace Components Protein Fats Carbohydrates including: Algin acid Fucoidin Laminarin Iodine

Ascophyllum nodosum Laminaria digitata [% DW] 5.0 5.0-12.0 3.0 0.5-2.0 30.0 50.0-65.0 22.0-30.6 32.0 11.4-11.8 2.3-5.9 14 0.065 0.5

Chemical analysis of popular species of kelp algae used for feeds for ornamental fish

CONCLUSIVE REMARKS In feeding of ornamental fish microalgae are first of all the sources of easily digestible protein, vitamins, unsaturated fatty acids and natural pigments. Numerous research indicate that the best results are reached when microalgae are added to food, rather than used separately. Macroalgae provide primarily macronutrients, trace elements and dietary fibre.

The beneficial effect on the ornamental fish is the result of the combined action of all the ingredients. Alga is not just another interesting and eagerly eaten by the fish ingredient of formulated feeds. Most of all, it is an effective agent to improve fish’s condition.

Regular using of feeds with algae ensures intense and bright colours and protects delicate, herbivorous species against digestive disorders.

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Tropical EDU Magazine

Foods with algae for freshwater and marine fish Tropheus duboisi – juvenile fish, photo: TROPICAL’s archives References Badwy T.M., Ibrahim E.M., Zeinhom M. (2008), Partial replacement of fish meal with dried microalga (Chlorella spp. and Scenedesmus spp.) in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) diets, 8th International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture.

Chronakis I., Galatanu A., Nylander T., Lindman B. (2000), The behaviour of protein preparations from blue-green algae (Spirulina platensis strain Pacifica) at the air/water interfac, Colloids and Surfaces A, Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 173(1-3), 181-192.

Dawczynski Ch., Schubert R., Jahreis G. (2006), Amino acids, fatty acids, and dietary fibre in edible seaweed products, Food Chemistry 103, 891-899.

Gouveia L., Rema P. (2005), Effect of microalgal biomass concentration and temperature on ornamental goldfish (Carassius auratus) skin pigmentation, Aquaculture Nutrition, 11, 19-23.

Gouveia L., Rema P., Pereira O., Empis, J. (2003), Colouring ornamental fish (Cyprinus carpio and Carassius auratus) with microalgal biomass, Aquaculture Nutrition, 9(2), 123-129.

Gupta S.K., Jha A.K., Pal A.P., Venkateshwarlu G. (2007), Use of natural carotenoids for pigmentation in fishes, Natural Product Radiance, 6(1), 46-49.

Jaspers M., Folmer F. (2013), Sea Vegetables for Health, Prepared for Food and Health Innovation Service, Department of Chemistry, School of Natural and Computing Science, University of Aberdeen.

Kraan S. (2012), Algal Polysaccharides, Novel Applications and Outlook, in Carbohydrates – Comprehensive Studies on Glycobiology and Glycotechnology, Chuan-Fa Chang (Ed.), http://www.intechopen.com/books/carbohydrates-comprehensive-studies-on-glycobiology-and-glycotechnology/algal-polysaccharides-novel-applications-and-outlook.

Lorenz R.T., Cysewski G.R. (2000), Commercial potential for Haematococcus microalgae as a natural source of astaxanthin, TIBTECH, 18, 160-167.

Nakagawa H. (1997), Effect of dietary algae on improvement of lipid metabolism in fish, Biomed & Pharmacother, 51, 345348.

Nematipour G.R., Nakagawa H. (1988), Effects of Dietary Lipid Level and Chlorella-extract on Ayu, Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi 54(8), 1395-1400.

Schmid S., Ranz D., He M.L., Burkard S., Lukowicz M.V., Reiter R. (2003), Marine algae as natural source of iodine in the feeding of freshwater fish – a new possibility to improve iodine supply of man, Revue Med. Vet. 154, 10, 645-648.

Sommer T.R., Potss W.T., Morrissy N.M. (1990), Recent progress in the use of processed microalgae in aquaculture, Hydrobiologia 204/205, 435-443.

Tang G., Suter P.M. (2011), Vitamin A, Nutrition, and Health Values of Algae: Spirulina, Chlorella, and Dunaliella, Journal of Pharmacy and Nutrition Sciences 1, 111-118.

Yone Y., Furuichi M., Urano K. (1986), Effects of dietary Wakame Undaria penatifida and Ascophyllum nodosum supplements on growth, feed efficiency, and proximate compositions of liver and muscle of red sea bream, Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Scientific Fisheries, 52(8), 1465-1468.

Zahira Y., Ehsan A., Afifi Z., Masita M., Mohd S.T. (2014), An overviev: biomolecules from smicroalgae for animal feed and aquaculture, Journal of Biological Research, 21:6.

Indispensable for feeding herbivorous fish Valuable dietary enrichment for omnivorous fish 

facilitate digestion improve immunity intensify fish’s coloration 



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25

MARINE FISH

FOR BEGINNER AQUARISTS – features and selection (part 1) Bartłomiej Stańczyk Marine biologist, graduate of the Department of Invertebrate Zoology and Hydrobiology at the University of Łódź. The author of Reefhub.pl, a popular blog about marine aquaristics.

Since 2018 Tropical expert on products dedicated to marine tanks – Marine Power.

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Tropical EDU Magazine

)

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27

MARINE FISH Anyone who has ever dived on coral reefs or at least watched any film showing a coral reef knows that fish are an integral part of this ecosystem. Hundreds of species and colors. Small, big and huge. The ones calmly resting at the bottom and the ones vigorously swimming among coral rocks. Without them the reefs wouldn’t be so beautiful, not to mention that they probably couldn’t exist in the forms we know... It’s no different with marine aquariums. We usually start them for fabulously colored fish.

The ocellaris clownfish (Amphiprion ocellaris), popularized by the movie “Finding Nemo”, can live not only in anemones

I’ll go even further and tell you that fish are often more important in making this decision than corals themselves. After all, marine aquariums with fish only are more common than those exclusively with the corals. However, the greatest satisfaction and fulfillment come with systems with both corals and fish.

A beautiful tank is often our visitors’ first contact with live reef animals, which often makes a big impression on them.

Experienced aquarists, who have had a marine aquarium for many years, generally have a broad knowledge of popular fish species and their requirements. Thanks to this, the fish in their tanks fit the type of reef and this way they are a complement to the whole ecosystem, and not nuisance to the corals and a source of troubles for aquarium owner.

Therefore, when we decide to have a marine aquarium at home, our question should be: what fish and corals do we want to keep in it?

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Unfortunately, probably the biggest mistake of beginner aquarists is to make such decisions spontaneously, not knowing much about the fish or corals. This often makes the fish aggressive to each other or bite corals, and in extreme cases can even pose a threat to the aquarium hobbyist himself. An example that I often refer to is the story of an aquarium hobbyist who bought a red lionfish in a pet shop, not being aware of its venomous spikes. He bought it because he liked it.

It was only at home that he found out about the threats it may pose. Not to mention the fact that the seller should have made sure if the buyer had adequate knowledge and was experienced enough. This seller did not do it, but luckily the aquarist returned the fish to the shop. There are many examples like this one, fortunately they are mostly less dramatic. Buying fish spontaneously, just because they are nice, is irresponsible and usually leads to losses in livestock and thinner wallet.

Before buying fish, you should consider a number of factors that will affect their condition in the aquarium. Well-chosen fish will feel good in the tank, hence live long and in excellent condition. Here are some aspects related to the selection of fish for the marine aquarium.

Size – an aquarium is a closed tank and the choice of specific fish should be based on how the fish will feel in it. Of course, large and

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Yellow tang (Zebrasoma flavescens) often turns out to be the biggest trouble maker in the aquarium

HIGH QUALITY GRANULATED FOODS FOR MARINE FISH

long tanks give more options. Consider how a particular species looks in the wild and to what size it grows up to. Even if we assume that in captivity fish do not reach their maximum natural size, use your common sense before you make a choice. Buying a young 4-5 cm long fish that grows up to 50 cm in the wild is not a good idea if you have a small tank. In this way you expose your fish to constant stress, diseases and even various types of deformations. I can give unicornfish such as Naso lituratus as an example.

Character – fish are like humans, each has its own personality and temper. Some are calm and swim in one corner of the aquarium, while other are more “crazy” and swim vigorously between the aquarium panes. This is also to some extent related to the size of the fish, because the smaller ones are usually calmer, and larger species are stronger and more energetic to fight the water current.

Small aquarium will be a torture for these fish, not to mention stress they will cause to other fish. The shape of the aquarium is important as well and we should not forget about it.

A thousand liter aquarium can be 1 m x 1 m x 1 m cube but it can also be 4 m long. However, I assume that most domestic tanks relatively small, where small and calm fish will feel great. Another example of a fish that grows large and swim energetically in the aquarium are surgeonfish such as Paracanthurus

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29

Pipefish, such as Doryrhamphus dactyliophorus, are picky when it comes to food and have small fins, so they can hardly cope with strong water currents

hepatus. Not only does this fish swim fast, but it can carry large pieces of rock or unattached fragments of corals.

Mixing fish with extremely different temperaments is another issue. For smaller aquariums (200-300 liters) try to select fish with similar temperament. Otherwise, calm fish will be dominated by the dynamic ones, which in extreme cases can cause death of the former

Popular Bristletail filefish (Acreichthys tomentosus), often used as a remedy for anemones of the genus Aiptasia sp., is often able to take an interest in LPSs

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from malnutrition. In larger tanks with more hiding places this issue seems less important.

However, it may not be a good idea to introduce shy and delicate pipefish Doryrhamphus dactyliophorus into a tank with a flock of crazy surgeonfish even in a larger aquarium.

Aggression – even small fish can be daring and shove the rest of the stock around. As a rule, the aggression is directed against fish of the same species or sex, but sometimes it is intensified by similarity to another fish in terms of shape or color. Sometimes the aggression in the aquarium increases under specific conditions for example during spawning. It is also important to remember that aggression is not always immediate. Often, just after introducing a potentially aggressive fish into the tank, the fish does not show any aggression for the first few days or weeks, and only after

Tropical EDU Magazine

sion towards new fish but finally let it go after a few weeks of harassment. If a new aquarium resident survives the first two or three weeks, there is a chance that the fish will live in harmony later. It is worth mentioning here that aggression has nothing to do with size.

Many small fish can be aggressive towards larger colleagues and even... bite the aquarium hobbyist’s hand.

getting used to the aquarium and getting to know the rest of the stock it begins to show its real nature. As an example I can give you a small and beautifully coloured Pseudocheilinus hexataenia, which is able to choose another fish and attack it very stubbornly, eventually even killing it. Another example would be surgeonfish (yes, surgeonfish again!).

Zebrasoma flavescens may show aggres-

Copperband butterflyfish (Chelmon rostratus) will clear rock from aiptasia, but also poses a potential risk to LPS corals and clams

Territorialism – it is largely linked to aggression, but it is so important that I would like to tell you more about it. Apart from aspects of territorialism such as access to the female or food, two mechanisms can be distinguished.

In the case of fish living in a specific location, for example an anemone, this will be a nest defense. The fish will not react when the adversary is far enough and the attack caused by the desire to defend the nest will take place only when a potential competitor gets too close to the anemone. This behaviour is characteristic of popular clownfish, for example. In a sufficiently large aquarium, two pairs of clownfish can live in two anemones. However, if we remove one anemone, the homeless fish can be attacked by those living in the anemone if they get too close to it. The second mechanism of territorialism is more related to the very presence of a competitor, regardless of location. The attack – or at least the fins’ tension alone – will take place as soon as the opponent is detected.

When it comes to the territorialism of fish, the sense of smell is also important. While in open reef waters it informs about an approaching enemy, in a limited space of the tank it is a constant source of stress. It is also worth mentioning that territorialism often results for example from occupying similar feeding grounds. An example is the previously mentioned six-line wrasse (Pseudocheilinus hexataenia), which feeds among rocks, eating small crustaceans. So do man-

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darinfish, like Synchiropus splendidus. The meeting of these fish among the rocks may end in a fight, which is often won by a six-line wrasse.

Habitat – in natural conditions, fish settle where there are suitable conditions for them to live and feed. Many fish hide at night in corners of rocks (anthias), among corals (chromis) or buried in the sand (some wrasses). When deciding to buy a fish, we must take into account its natural living conditions.

If we have a minimalistic aquarium with very few rocks, the amount of natural food may be insufficient to maintain a pair of mandarinfish, especially if they are not very interested in frozen food.

Diet is one of the most important aspects of keeping fish in an aquarium. Access to good quality food for fish is the basis of their good health and today this is not a problem. Much more challenging are the natural dietary instincts of fish. Although most fish will sooner or later learn to eat dry or frozen food, their innate dietary instincts can be often woken up even after a few years spent in an aquarium. Nature does not care about the beauty and appearance of corals like aquarists do. The latter ones look at their stock from the perspective of the cash spent. Therefore aquarists must be aware of natural diets of fish before they introduce them into the aquarium. There are many examples here.

Starting from fish from the genus Centropyge sp., biting on SPS polyps, through the

Banggai cardinalfish (Pterapogon kauderni) are fish threatened with extinction in nature, but they are quite easy to reproduce in captivity

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Tropical EDU Magazine

popular “aiptasia eating filefish”, eating feather dust worm, to the scavengers of unwanted aiptasia from the genus Chaetodon sp., which are very interested in LPS polyps.

I know a story of one tank, in which a Chelmon rostratus ate tridacna in several hours despite not touching it before for three years.

Predation should also be mentioned, as some fish, for example Pterois volitans, can simply eat smaller tank mates. When considering a diet, it is also necessary to take into account access to special (usually live) food for fish that are known to be reluctant to accept substitute food or frozen food. Such fish include not only the above-mentioned mandarinfish or chelmons, but also seahorses and deepnosed pipefish. These fish are known not to accept frozen food during the first weeks or

even months of their stay in the aquarium, and during this period they should be provided with live food that is not always available in the local pet shop.

Safety – apart from the obvious fact that an aquarium in a house means the obligation to take care of its inhabitants, we must be aware that some of them are potentially dangerous for humans. This is largely true of marine fish, many of which are venomous or poisonous. Luckily, only a few species are sold for aquaria, like the red lionfish mentioned above, but you can also come across other representatives of the Scorpaenidae family (many of which are venomous) in some pet shops. However, while these fish are quite characteristic and quite easy to recognize,

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there are also venomous or poisonous species on sale, which look like pretty nice fish.

The popular foxface Siganus vulpinus, often bought as an algae fighter, also has a venomous gland at the base of the fin rays. Other fish, for example some nice puffers and porcupinefish have tetrodotoxin in their organs, and some popular Lactoria cornut can release a neurotoxin into the water when under severe stress, which can be dangerous not only for humans but also for other aquarium inhabitants. Well, I guess I don’t have to convince anyone that it’s crucial to know the characteristics of a specific fish before buying it...

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Natural resources – marine aquaristics is a beautiful hobby and undoubtedly helps to discover the secrets of coral reefs. Unfortunately, it also has an impact on natural resources, which is why it is so important to buy aquarium inhabitants wisely. Let’s remember that many species of fish can be easily reproduced in captivity and even with a small amount of effort you can enjoy offspring at home. And buying fish reproduced in captivity protects natural resources and reduces fishing them from natural reefs.

Tropical EDU Magazine

* As you can see, there are many arguments for knowing the characteristics of a given species before making a purchase. Well-chosen fish will perfectly complement, not stress, each other in the aquarium. In the second part of this article, which will be published in the next issue of TEM, we will look at the characteristics of several species of fish most often kept in a marine aquarium.

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Photos by: Bartłomiej Stańczyk www.tropical-marinepower.pl www.tropicaledu.com

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Kamil Hazy A biotope aquarist with experience in international competitions. Advocate of systematization of environmental aquaristics.

Organizer – together with ”Aquarium Magazine” – of the Polish Biotope Contest. He offers services of consulting and arrangement of biotope, habitat and environmental aquariums. He believes that aquaria are primarily intended to meet the needs of their inhabitants.

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Tropical EDU Magazine

A small tributary of the Rio Guapore in a standard fifty-four litre aquarium

THE BRAZILIAN-BOLIVIAN BORDERLAND CLOSED IN A GLASS

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37

THE BRAZILIAN-BOLIVIAN

borderland closed in a glass – my first biotope story (part 1) I remember my first aquarium as clearly as if

and soon I will be setting up a third one for the

I had started it yesterday... I guess that each

purpose of Tropical EDU project. This is already

experienced aquarium hobbyist could start

quite a lot for a biotope aquarium hobbyist

their story this way. Most of us, especially at

who wants to keep his tanks on a long-term

the beginning of our adventure, are looking

basis in order to learn as much as possible

for ideas in one moment, and end up with

about the behavior of his animals. However,

several tanks at home in another. The longer

instead of sharing my concerns at this point

you are in this hobby, the harder it is to find

I’d rather tell you what I have been doing over

limits.

the last few years to get to know a certain region of the world. So far, I have got to know it in

I went through this first stage quite calmly,

a virtual way, however I hope to get a chance

because in the my “hottest” period I had only

to see it in real life as well. So how did it all be-

three aquariums. At the moment I have two,

gin?

Small pond project in the Pantanal region

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Tropical EDU Magazine

Apistogramma trifasciata harem, six Nan-

two most serious ones were incomplete veri-

nostomus eques and six Corydoras hastatus –

fication of information about the reproduced

a project of a small tributary of Rio Gua-

biotope and too much species diversity when

pore in a standard fifty-four litre aquarium.

it came to plants. The first mistake I made was

The aquarium was praised by Heiko Ble-

relying on only one, seemingly one hundred

her himself, and I – a fresh aquarist (status:

percent sure source of information. The most

fry) – was extremely pleased that I was no-

scientific book published so far about several

ticed by a “living legend”. A moment later,

dozen biotopes from all over the world turned

a tank of similar volume has been inhabited

out to contain information unconfirmed by

by Apistogramma borelli harem and six Nan-

anyone but the author. When I realized that,

nostomus eques. The project of a small pond

my approach to biotope aquaristics has be-

in the Pantanal region, thanks to which I was

come significantly more professional. With

able to meet the above-mentioned wildlife

this change, I also noticed a second mistake.

explorer and a group of excellent aquarists

Since we’re talking about mistakes, let me

from Europe, is one of my favourite until today.

make a small digression.

These two aquariums gave me a lot of fun and I spent a good few hundred hours with them

COMPETITIONS AND HUMILITY TOWARDS

both for learning and acquiring knowledge

THE ECOSYSTEM

about the recreated region and for improv-

After I had moved I started to participate in

ing my arrangement skills too. But it was still

various biotope aquarium arrangement com-

a small scale, and I wanted more.

petitions. I wanted to develop in this very direc-

The next step was changing my apartment

tion and ensure the best possible conditions

and moving everything I had into one tank.

for my animals. I have encountered various

I made a deal with my wife: only one perma-

challenges and obstacles along the way and

nent tank at home allowed. I managed to

it took me some time to solve them. But I was

convince her to have 180 x 60 x 32 cm one and

always consistent. At first I was motivated by

that’s where I created my first “serious” Panta-

the opportunity to occupy high positions, but

nal. The tank of this size gave me plenty of op-

I quickly realized that’s not what it is all about.

tions when it came to stock, new decorations,

With each competition, I was satisfied with

more plants, new fish species. And that’s what

something completely different. Thanks to my

aquarists love most. The fauna in this reservoir

tanks, many aquarium hobbyists have paid

consisted of Apistogramma borelli, Apisto-

attention to the area I was recreating. People

gramma trifasciata, Nannostomus eques,

were chatting with me, asking for advice, ma-

Corydoras hastatus, Corydoras sterbai and

terials, sources of knowledge... I was tempted

Nannostomus beckfordi. Flora included Hy-

by the vision of becoming biotope aquarium

drocotiles leucocephala, Pistia stratiotes, My-

“missionary”. Today I know I wasn’t ready then.

riophyllum aquaticum, Helanthium tenellum,

After all, I had only three years of experience in

Helanthium bolivianum angustifolius, Baco-

aquaristics, and I only started making a name

pa monnieri, Eichhornia crassipes, Cabomba

for myself, but I believed in my skills a little too

furcata. Over time, the aquarium started look-

much. I have fought some unnecessary Inter-

ing more like a plant aquarium than a biotope

net wars, learned a lot about myself and oth-

one and some mistakes became obvious. The

ers. Now I have the Dunning-Kruger effect be-

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39

“Pantanal” in the tank

hind me, a few not entirely successful projects,

carefully. Some fish have been with me all the

and a few very promising ones. I’ve verified the

time, since the beginning of my adventure.

people I have around me, and I’m still doing

Several species until now live in the tanks of

my job, as consistently as before. I know whom

my fellow aquarium owners and I can be sure

to respect, who expects my help and whom

they have the best possible care. It’s very im-

I can trust. As you can see, biotope aquaristics

portant to me. The changes in my tanks were

can develop humans on many levels, includ-

gradual and the “revolutions” took place in

ing non-aquarium territories.

such a way as not to destabilize the microbi-

The competitions, which I treated as a platform

ology acting in favor of the tank. I must point

to share my knowledge and work pushed me

out here that I consider ecosystem stability

to change the arrangement of my aquarium.

to be the most important thing in good bio-

However, I have tried to avoid changes in the

tope reservoirs. Such stability is usually built

livestock density or at least to make them very

for months, and along the way the tank goes

Reflection of a stream bend in the Rio Guapore basin

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Tropical EDU Magazine

through different phases of “maturation”. One

tope aquaristics, unlike in natural aquaristics,

of the most enjoyable aspects of our hobby

the owner has to shape much less, and leave

is watching this natural evolution and trying

more to the nature. This is what I learned from

to understand it as much as possible, so it is

my own mistakes and today I approach wild

worth being patient and in most cases simply

ecosystems with greater humility. And now

letting nature doing its job. Every rearrange-

I’m getting back to my story.

ment, shaping of the ground, cleaning of filters, water changes or lack of them affect the

RIO GUAPORE

tank and determine a different direction of the

Pantanal, and more specifically its northern

ecosystem development. The trick is to master

regions, made me look closer at the basin of

these activities in such a way that the ecosys-

a very interesting river – Rio Guapore, as the

tem develops roughly in the direction planned

inhabitants of Brazil call it, or Rio Itenez, as

by the aquarium hobbyist. However, in bio-

the Bolivians call it. I will not focus on the river

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41

The arrangement of the Rio Guapore basin’s “rooting area” with lush vegetation

itself today, and I will only mention that it is an

ata, Corydoras sterbai and Hyphessobrycon

interesting example of an atypical (according

eques. The Apistogramma borelli, Nannos-

to Harald Sioli classification) black water envi-

tomus eques and Corydoras hastatus, which

ronment. The river is similar to classical black

previously lived in this tank, were partly trans-

waters in color, but more like clear waters in terms of its chemical parameters. The main tributaries of the Itenez are a “mix” of rivers of different colous and relatively similar chemical parameters, which makes the underwater life in its river basin lush and it is largely the same as the entire Amazon basin, although there are places where we can also find endemic animals.

So, during the first revolution in the tank, I moved from a shallow pond on the northern outskirts of Pantanal to a bend of the stream, located in the Rio Guapore basin. The arrangement from a typical plant evolved strongly in the direction of a root arrangement, but I also left enough room for the development of plants. I gave the top of the roots, often sticking out above the water, to one of my favorite

Sixty-three litre tank reflecting the Pantanal region

plants – Hydrocotiles leucocephala, which quickly began to expand, also above the wa-

42

ter. Two plant species remained in the tank:

ferred to aquariums of other hobbyists and to

Helanthium tenellum and Helanthium bo-

an aquarium I had set up at work. This small,

livianum “angustifolius”. The latter has long

sixty-three litre opti-white tank led me back to

been the basis for the subsequent versions

Pantanal and was my last tank recreating this

of my tank, and its expansion has completely

amazing region. I guess I don’t have to write

changed the visual perception of my second

about the benefits of having a tank at work,

“big” arrangement. Changes also included an-

it is enough to say that people love to drop by

imal stock. It has been simplified and limited

to have a cup of coffee “in front of the glass”.

to only three species: Apistogramma trifasci-

While at work Apistogramma borelli harem

Tropical EDU Magazine

provided an interesting visual experience, in my home tank you could mainly admire the incredibly interesting layout of Apistogramma trifasciata. I could watch three males and six females of this species for hours and I think their fights for territory, domination and offspring breeding are something every aquarist should experience. The feeding school of a dozen or so Corydoras sterbai and several dozen Hyphessobrycon eques, sometimes

A unique composition of ingredients in the form of soft granules for omnivorous fish from South, Central and North America

grouping together and exploring the tank together, was an excellent “addition” to the cichlids’ behaviour. When changing the arrange-

ment I didn’t change the livestock density, and I limited plants to one species only, but you will learn about it in the next issue of Tropical EDU Magazine.

HERRING • CALANUS • KRILL • INSECTS • ALGAE Photos by: Kamil Hazy

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43

SMALL, BUT FULL THE NARROW-BRIDGED MUD TURTLE (Claudius angustatus Cope, 1865)

Juveniles of Claudius angustatus are fast growers. If you look closely, you will see the growth marks on the scutes of the carapax

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Tropical EDU Magazine

L OF ATTITUDE

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45

Stephan Ettmar A studied ecologist with a strong focus on herpetology and limnology (fish ecology). After obtaining his diploma, he has worked for 7 years in the pet trade, until in 2017 he started his own company ZooCon. Under this brand name, he works as a zoological consultant for private people and companies, writes expert opinions and publishes texts as a science and animal husbandry communicator.

His focus for private pet keeping are aquatic turtles, geckos and predatory freshwater fish.

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INTRODUCTION

Staurotypus, Claudius angustatus are placed

In many documentaries, snapping turtles

within a subfamily of the large chelonian fam-

(Chelydra serpentina) and alligator snapping

ily of mud and musk turtles – Kinosternidae

turtles (Macrochelys temminckii) are shown

(Reptile Database 2020). In 1888, Duméril &

as river monsters and vicious predators. Over

Bocourt published a beautiful drawing of the

the years this practice has created an image of

then previously undepicted chelonian.

these species that makes them desirable for

Narrow bridged mud turtles reach a maximum

keepers that are looking for unusual aquatic

size of around 18 cm SCL (Schilde 2001), but

chelonians. The big problem is their large size

most specimens will stay considerably small-

though: even small snapping turtles will easi-

er – more around 14 cm SCL. Data from litera-

ly outgrow a standard 150 cm long aquarium

ture suggest that males will grow larger than

and even though the alligator snapping turtle

females (Legler & Vogt 2013, Schilde 2001), but

is a slow grower after it reaches approximate-

in my breeding group of currently 1 male and

ly 30 cm straight carapace length (SCL), they

2 females, the male is smaller and way lighter

grow to be among the largest turtles around.

than both females. Being typical mud turtles,

Luckily, there exists a turtle species that does

their shell shape is typically compact and oval

not even belong to the family of the true snap-

with a beaked snout. Their vastly reduced plas-

ping turtles (Chelydridae), but combines all

tron and enlarged head makes them peculiar

traits a chelonian hobbyist with a knack for

and easy to recognize. In many specimens,

the unusual is looking for: the narrow-bridged

“vampire tooth” – like horn spikes are present

mud turtle (Claudius angustatus) shows the

on the upper jaw. This led to the sometimes

ferociousness and self-esteem of a snapping

used common name “vampire mud turtle”.

turtle, but only reaches the size of a razorback

Another common name used within their nat-

musk turtle (Sternotherus carinatus), making

ural range in Mexico is “Chopontil” or “Taiman”

it an ideal aquatic pet.

(Legler & Vogt 2013).

The species was described in 1865 (Tabasco,

Claudius hatchlings are just over an inch long,

Mexico) by Edward Drinker Cope, an American

but already have the fierce attitude of adults.

naturalist who scientifically described many

Therefore, I placed the first hatchling that I ac-

species of fish, reptiles and even dinosaurs

quired in late 2010 in its own 20 liter tank on my

in the 19th century. Together with the genus

desk, so I could watch it a lot while studying for

Tropical EDU Magazine

Like other mud turtles, Claudius likes to rest under logs or in caves under water

University. I was scared that this small turtle

states of Oaxaca, Chiapas, Tabasco, Campe-

(usually my hatchlings are about double the

che, Quintana Roo), Belize and Guatema-

size of a baby Claudius) could easily die when

la. There, they inhabit temporary ponds and

not fed regularly and that other hatchlings of

oxbows where they lead a rather cryptic life.

different species could harm it. This gave me

During the dry season, starting around March,

the opportunity to intensely study the behav-

they bury themselves in the mud and aesti-

ior of the species. It turned out that Claudius

vate over the summer. They only emerge after

angustatus are hardy, hungry and hostile –

heavy rainfalls, when resources are favorable

I loved every minute of watching it!

for feeding and mating. Therefore, scientific

As the years went by, the turtle became a fam-

data on natural history are scarce. The latest

ily favorite and I decided that giving it away, even for breeding purposes was not an option.

Instead, I enlarged the group and to make sure that nothing would happen to the individuals, housed each one separately. The baby I raised to be a nice-looking female hadn’t had laid eggs until 2016, but at the age of 7 years she appeared to be adult, because slowly her skin color changed to dark grey and the striking carapacial patterns it showed before started to dilute.

NATURAL HISTORY AND GENERAL BIOLOGY Narrow bridged mud turtles naturally occur in the lowlands of Mexico (in the federal

It helps to have the surface of the water covered with floating plants like duckweed to make Claudius angustatus feel more secure

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GEL FORMULA

synopsis of knowledge comes from Vogt & Legler (2013), but in 2020, Vásquez-Cruz and Reynoso-Martínez published further natural history notes regarding diet. Claudius angustatus are considered to be strictly carnivorous with a preference for crustaceans, aquatic in-

Not just for fish!

Food in the form of DIY gel.

sects and their larvae, but Vásquez-Cruz and

Excellent enrichment of predatory turtles’ diet.

in an adult male’s feces. From hobbyist lit-

Reynoso-Martínez (2020) even found remnants of another turtle species (Trachemys venusta) erature (Schilde 2001) we know that narrow bridged mud turtles will also gladly accept live and frozen fish, snails and even rodents.

In addition, they like dried food as well, like for example Tropical’s REPTILES CARNIVORE, BIOREPT W floating sticks or dried gammarus, crickets, etc… As a treat, AROWANA XXL floating sticks can be offered.

From personal observations, Claudius are not really active hunters, but rather sometimes try to lure in potential prey with their mouths gaping open under water over extended periods. They motionlessly observe their surroundings and when a prey item is within striking distance, they will quickly strike and catch it. Their ability to move their eyes (to a certain degree) independently of each other greatly helps them to monitor their surroundings and to detect food. They also recognize their caretaker and will beg for food or try to gain attention by behavior like frantic paddling or moving tank decorations around.

Due to the reduced shell of narrow bridged mud turtles, their defensive behavior is more pronounced than in other turtle species.

Schilde (2001) even mentions that Claudius angustatus is the only turtle species capable of jumping. Even fresh hatchlings will defend themselves with fierce bites when they are taken out of the incubator.

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Tropical EDU Magazine

KEEPING CONDITIONS

to co-habitate turtles with fish (Böhm 2014)!

For adult Claudius, I provide glass aquariums

The adults are fed mostly twice a week with

of 120 cm length with 200 l and 300 l gross

a wide array of feeding items: they readily ac-

volume. These tanks are not filled to the max-

cept fish in all forms, crayfish and shrimps

imum because I have built-in land areas for

(mostly frozen/thawed), snails, mussels, ro-

egg deposition and sunbathing or aestivat-

dents (f/t), but will also voraciously devour

ing. They are situated in my turtle room in my

pellets or gelatin foods containing a certain

basement, so artificial lighting is necessary.

amount of greens (like Tropical’s GEL FORMU-

Aquarium for female 1 has a conventional 36 W

LA FOR HERBIVOROUS FISH). Every now and

T8 tube for light, the other tanks for the male

then I offer some sepia bone for additional cal-

and female 2 have 35 W metal halide (HID)

cium intake for the female because they pro-

lamps with UVA/B spectrum. While there are

duce a lot of eggs for a small turtle. I noticed

plants in tanks of the females, no plants sur-

that narrow-bridged mud turtles are so fast at

vive in the enclosure for the male. Water qual-

begging for food and striking at moving things

ity is sustained by a direct connection to the

that they sometimes are not very accurate and

sewer system for easy change of water and

tend to be hard to feed with tongs because

a mat filter that is run by an air lift. This is a pop-

there is a serious threat for injury due to at-

ular filtration system among fish breeders and

tempts to swallow tongs or biting hard on the

is called “Hamburg mat filter”. I change about

metal.

50% of water every 7 to 20 days, but because of the efficient filter mats and their large ca-

BREEDING

pacity I can wait for over three weeks before

The male is introduced to the females at

doing a water change and at least optically no detrimental effects take place. The filter mats are washed once a year. All aquariums are decorated with a sandy bottom, some driftwood, occasional stones and plants. I co-habitate most of my turtles with other animals. I found out that above a certain size, Claudius won’t chase red cherry shrimp (Neocaridina davidi) anymore. Therefore, the aquarium for the male and the one for female 1 have dense populations of these small crustaceans to take care of organic detritus. Female 2 lives together with a school of Endler’s guppies (Poecilia wingei).

This is a more fragile combination, because fish seem to attract more attention of the turtles, but so far the guppies are also too small to be recognized as food. A good friend of mine who is raising another Claudius for me reports that all kind of fish he introduced disappeared sooner or later (mostly sooner). Careful precautions must be taken when attempting

When Claudius are picked up, they will immediately display their defensive behaviour that includes hissing and biting

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For copulation, males will mount females after a short courtship ritual

50

irregular intervals. Although other keepers told

fights, it is very important to monitor pairs.

me that continuous communal keeping of

After some weeks, females will start egg dep-

pairs can work (Schaffer, Schilde, pers. comm.),

ositions. Usually, clutches will consist of 5 to 8

I prefer to closely observe matings and let the

eggs, but small females will also lay fewer eggs

male stay in the female enclosure over night

per clutch (Klawonn 2019). Multiple clutches

as a maximum.

are produced each year and females can be

After a few seconds of orienting himself, the

real egg-laying machines, producing up to

male starts a courtship ritual of head bob-

63 eggs per season (Klawonn 2019)! However,

bing and waving his front legs towards the

it is not advised to force your turtles to such

female. He also starts to sniff around her anal

high numbers, because this will most certain-

and bridge region. Quite obviously, informa-

ly harm the female’s health long term. With

tion via hormone transfer through the water is

moderate feeding amounts and a seasonal cy-

exchanged in that way. After a few minutes of

cle including a phase of aestivation, Claudius

courting, the female usually stops in her mo-

females will produce an average of 3-4 clutch-

tions and lets the male get on her back. The

es per season, which still can be up to 25 eggs

actual mating lasts for about half an hour and

(own observations).

after copulation is complete, they disconnect

Incubation of Claudius eggs is a tricky pro-

and head their ways without any signs of ag-

cedure, as they take 5 to 8 months to hatch

gression. I then put the male back in his own

if incubation parameters are stable. Some

tank. All of this can happen at different times

breeders like Klawonn (2019) and Weber (pers.

of the day, so it seems like Claudius are not too

comm.) place eggs in cool conditions (18-20°C)

shy when it comes to mating attempts. Possi-

over the first four weeks of incubation to break

bly this is a result of rarely meeting in nature.

embryonic diapause and induce development,

When the female is not receptive to mating

but I just let the incubation substrate dry off

attempts, she will try to force the male away

a bit at ambient room temperatures to do so.

and severe bites can happen. Also, frustrated

While Claudius eggs may start to crack way

males will try to force copulation and bite fe-

before hatching, increased osmotic pressure

males. To prevent serious injuries from these

seems not to be a primary factor for the start of

Tropical EDU Magazine

hatching. Usually, babies from the same clutch

incubator to place it into a transport box. This

will not hatch all at the same time, instead it

attitude makes it easy to introduce them to

is common that several weeks pass between

different kinds of food. Their strong feeding

emergence of the first and the last hatchling.

response enables the keeper to offer almost

Therefore, there is an important rule in Claudi-

everything because they get used to feeding

us incubation: never dispose eggs unless they

rituals within days. Accepted feeding items

hatch or explode!

include, but are not limited to: chopped fish, shrimps, snails, chicken heart, chopped baby mice, dried gammarus, pellets (e.g. Tropical’s PRO DEFENCE size S, CICHLID GRAN or DISCUS GRAN D-50 PLUS) and even fish food flakes.

To avoid strong competition for food and to reduce stress, every hatchling is housed individually in a 28 x 19 x 14 cm plastic box filled with a bit over a 4 l of water. These grow-out tanks include one or two stones, a piece of tile to hide under and climb out of the water and some cork bark to hide. In some tanks, I have added floating live plants like Elodea or Cabomba, which are used to sleep in. But these get destroyed very fast. The water is changed every 5 to 7 days or if it gets messy after offering a certain type of food. There is no further filtration.

Under these described circumstances, the

Plastron view of a hatchling. Even at this small size, they will viciously defend themselves

animals show steady growth (table below).

As they grow, they will be placed in larger, individual enclosures.

RAISING HATCHLINGS After leaving the egg, narrow-bridged musk

DISCUSSION

turtle hatchlings are very mobile and are ever

Although it is clear that Claudius make great

ready to defend themselves. Stories of speci-

pets because of their personality and their rel-

mens that try to bite while still sitting in the

atively small size, they are not easy to breed.

egg are definitely trustworthy. I was bitten by

There are reports where males would kill fe-

one of the hatchlings while lifting it out of the

males or vice versa. In other cases, a great

Juvenile 1

Juvenile 2

Juvenile 3

Juvenile 4

Date

SCL (mm)

M (g)

SCL (mm)

M (g)

SCL (mm)

M (g)

SCL (mm)

M (g)

2017-02-16

31

5

30

5

29

6

29

6

2017-03-14

36

9

33

8

33

8

34

8

2017-04-14

37

9

36

9

36

9

37

10

2017-05-17

39

12

37

10

n/a

n/a

39

13

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Female

Male 1

Male 2

Date

SCL (mm)

M (g)

SCL (mm)

M (g)

SCL (mm)

M (g)

2016-12-22

145

760

125

463

118

460

number of infertile eggs are produced with

them to rely on more subtle courtship rituals

only little hatching success even though the

than the kinosternidae-typical “overpowering”.

pairs get along fine (Klawonn 2019). It seems

Another problem is the availability of (captive

like the size of the animals chosen to breed

bred) males in Europe. In many cases, keepers

does matter, since there are proven adult

don’t have enough males to swap through in

Claudius at the size of about 10 cm SCL and at

case they can’t bond with the female for mat-

about 18 cm SCL. In European literature (Schil-

ing. Many males are of wild caught origin, be-

de 2001) there is a differentiation between

cause there is a strong trend towards produc-

a small morph where both sexes hardly pass

ing more females in captivity among many

12 cm SCL only known from the northern bor-

European keepers. Keeping in mind that it is

der of their distribution and a large form with

proven that Claudius show genetic sex deter-

a maximum size of males of 18 cm and rough-

mination, the question of influencing the sex

ly 14 cm for females. Interestingly, my females

through incubation despite a genetic fixation

are way heavier and a bit taller than the males

arises. In Pogona vitticeps, sex determination

(see table above), which enables them to es-

can be influenced through extreme conditions

cape if they should be bothered too much by

during incubation (Quinn et al. 2007). Claudius

the male. Or put in other words: the males

eggs need to be exposed to extreme temper-

are more scared of the females, which causes

atures or dryness in order to break embryon-

The webbed feet of Claudius angustatus make them surprisingly good swimmers given that enough space is provided to do so

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Tropical EDU Magazine

ic diapause or incubation will take up to 229 days (Schilde, 2001). Here might be a link to

REPTILES CARNivore

a skewed sex ratio among hatchlings. Serious sex ID is possible in specimens above 7 or 8 cm SCL. Another fact that could possibly influence breeding success is the body condition of captive Claudius. I noticed that many Claudius live in considerably small enclosures with little water because people assume that since they are mud turtles, they don’t like to move much. In fact, I have noticed that my adults are strong swimmers and enjoy moving around the decoration of their enclosures. Still, I have a feeling that at times my female is a little overweight.

Due to their harsh environment in nature, they will devour food whenever there is a possibility.

Maybe breaks in activity by forcing captive animals to aestivate by reducing water levels and strict feeding protocols help to get non-producing Claudius into breeding condition.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I’d like to say thanks to Gerhard Dreiszker for providing me with the 2 males to start this breeding project, my wife Manuela Ettmar for encouraging me to pursue the project and Tropical for suggesting to write the article. Ole Klawonn, Gerhard Schaffer and Till Weber provided great insights into keeping and breeding Claudius and helped a lot during the journey.

Literature Böhm, S. (2014): Fische und Wasserschildkröten – geht das überhaupt? Schildkröten im Fokus 11(3): 3-23.

Klawonn, O. (2019): Die Großkopfschlammschildkröte (Claudius angustatus) – Pflege und Nachzucht einer ausgefallenen Art. Reptilia 139: 50-56.

Legler, J. and Vogt, R.C. (2013): The Turtles of Mexico. Land and Freshwater Forms. University of California Press. 416 pp.

Reptile Database (2020): Claudius angustatus COPE, 1865 https://reptile-database.reptarium.cz/species?genus=Claudius&species=angustatus. Last accessed: Oct 29th, 2020 Quinn, A. E., Georges, A., Sarre, S. D., Guarino, F., Ezaz, T. & Graves, J.A. (2007): Temperature sex reversal implies sex gene dosage in a reptile. Science 316 (5823): 411.

Schilde, M. (2001): Schlammschildkröten. Kinosternon, Sternotherus, Claudius und Staurotypus. NTV Verlag. 136 pp.

Photos by: Stephan Ettmar www.tropicaledu.com

FOOD FOR CARNIVOROUS AND OMNIVOROUS REPTILES Extruded soft sticks with dried crickets and meal worms For daily feeding of: bearded dragons, Chinese water dragons, frill-necked dragons, leopard geckos, red-footed tortoises, aquatic and semi-aquatic turtles, monitor lizards and other insect-eating reptiles and amphibians.

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53

Lampropeltis triangulum hondurensis freshly hatched from an egg

SNAKES SACRED AND CURSED CREATURES (PART 2) Dawid Krรณtki A graduate of the Faculty of Animal Breeding and Biology at the University of Agriculture in Krakow. Breeder of African and South American cichlids. An expert in the feeding and breeding of reptiles, amphibians and all kinds of invertebrates. Author of many aquarium and terrarium articles.

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Tropical EDU Magazine

Nearly 2700-3000 snake species live on Earth today. They can be found in almost all environments, both in the desert and in the humid equatorial forests. They live in or on the soil, as well as high in the tree crowns and in the sea. Contemporary classification is based on phylogenetics (if known), and in those groups where the knowledge of evolution is insufficient, it is complemented by a certain amount of theoretically based speculation or artificial groups are created. This article will discuss the anatomical features of snakes on the example of selected families from the Serpentes suborder.

LEPTOTYPHLOPIDAE – SLENDER BLIND OR THREAD SNAKES Leptotyphlopidae family includes 2 genera and about 90 snake species. The cranium and upper jaws consisting of maxilla, palatine bone and pterygoid are immobile, the teeth (4-5) are only found on a relatively large dental bone, the lower jaw consists of a huge quadrate bone lying horizontally, a small complementare, angular bone, coronoideum and spleniale. Pelvic gridle is vestigial, some African species have small external anal

Large, convex scales and the head vaguely separated from the trunk in Naja pallida

spurs. They do not have the left lung, tracheal lung and left ovary. Eyes are larger and better developed than in Typhlopida.

All Leptotyphlops species have a distinct pupil. They are usually beige or pink, and the majority is not pigmented at all, and their colour is the effect of visible blood vessels. The average length of Leptotyphlopidae does not exceed 15 cm. They are all egg-bearing and lay from 1 to 12 oblong eggs.

rostral plate that looks like a nail visible on the head. Eyes are vestigial and barely visible under the scales. They have upper jaw with teeth (several teeth on the maxillary bones) and toothless premaxillae bones.

The lower jaw is made up of a huge complementare, a large coronoideum and a small angular bone and a spleniale (small toothless dentary bone). In Typhlopidae, the left lung is usually absent or vestigial. The right lung is multi-cham-

TYPHLOPIDAE – BLIND SNAKES The family Typhlopidae comprises 7 genera and over 220 species. These are snakes adapted to living underground. The dorsal and abdominal parts are covered with fine, uniformly sized scales, with a large

ber with the exception of Xenotyphlops.

They do not have left fallopian tube and have only vestigial pelvic girdle. The total length of these snakes ranges from 10 to 95 cm, on average about 35 cm. The tail is short, 1-3% of the total length, often thick-

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55

Internal systems of the female Boa constrictor

er than the rest of the body and ending in

BOIDAE – BOIDS OR BOAS

a sharp spike. Some egg-bearing females

The Boidae family comprises 11 genera

may keep eggs in their reproductive tract

and about 38 species. The total length of

for longer periods. One species is proba-

these snakes ranges from 30 cm to 9 m.

bly ovoviviparous. Common blind snake is

They have vestigial pelvic girdle and ves-

parthenogenic.

tigial hind limbs in the form of claws on both sides of the cloaca. Males’ claws are

Arrangement of the tongue in the sheath and a fragment of the Boa constrictor’s trachea

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Boa constrictor’s liver

Tropical EDU Magazine

Internal systems of the male Boa constrictor

ample, the heart is located at 59th-66th ventral scale, right lung (64-129), left lung (66-98), liver (71-121), gallbladder (132-138), pancreas (134-136), right kidney (155-172), left kidney (161-174). Most Boidae have toothless premaxilla in the coronoideum.

Most Boas have infrared receptors located in labial scales. Their pupil is vertical.

Most boids are ovoviviparous, only Calabaria reinhardtii, Gongylophis muelleri and Eryx jayakari lay eggs.

PYTHONIDAE – PYTHONS

Boa constrictor’s internal stomach wall

The Pythonidae family comprises 8 gen-

usually larger and are often used to stimulate the female before copulation. They have the right lung but their left lung is well or moderately developed. There is no tracheal lung. Left and right ovaries are well developed. In boa constrictor for ex-

era and 33 species. The body length of these snakes ranges from 50 cm to 9 m.

In the skeleton, the vestigial shoulder girdle and two vestigial hind legs are larger in males and play a similar role as in boids.

Most of the species have infrared recep-

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57

tors in labial scales with the exception of both Aspidites species. Left lung is slightly smaller than right and there is no tracheal lung. Pythons differ from boids by an even anal plate and a few details in the cranium structure, for example, they have teeth on the premaxillary bones (the exception is the Aspidites). Pythons are egg-bearing, the number of eggs ranges from 4 to about 100. When the eggs are laid they are soft and sticky but in contact with air they stick together to form a lump around which the female is then wrapped.

COLUBRIDAE – COLUBRIDS Colubridae is a huge and quite diverse

Many boids lead a remarkably arboreal lifestyle.

They have a slender, laterally flattened body and a long, catchy tail

family, containing about 300 genera and over 1800 species. They are often called

cies have a developed Duvernoy’s gland,

“typical” snakes. The length of their body

an even gland located on both sides of

varies from several centimeters to 3.5 m.

the upper jaw in the postocular region,

Within individual subfamilies there are

which at the front changes into a supra-

both snakes without venomous teeth

labial gland. Although this gland is ho-

(Aglypha type of dentition) and with en-

mologous to the venous glands of elapids

larged back teeth (Opistoglypha). As

and vipers, it shows anatomical and func-

a rule, they are not considered venom-

tional distinctiveness. As a rule, there is

ous, but more than seven hundred spe-

no large internal venom tank, and venom

Pythons, like boids, have a lot of strong muscles adapted to suffocation. Here Python molurus bivittatus is eating a hen

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Tropical EDU Magazine

sionally. The top of the head is usually covered with enlarged scales. The pupil is round or vertical. The genus Cerberus has a unique salt gland.

ELAPIDAE – ELAPIDS Elapidae has two subfamilies: Elapinae, consisting of 18 genera and more than 150 species, Hydrophiinae from Australia Eggs of Lampropeltis triangulum hondurensis

and Melanesia, consisting of 30 genera and about 100 species and 16 genera and

is not transported through venom teeth

more than 60 species of sea snakes. They

equipped with an internal canal. Usually

are all venomous. Their venom is main-

these snakes also do not have specialized,

ly neurotoxic. Postsynaptic neurotoxins

jaw striated muscles, so venom cannot be

are present throughout the family and

injected into the victim’s body, but as a

some representatives also have cardiot-

result of a grip on the jaws it flows down

oxins. Some species of elapids are among

to the wound inflicted with teeth (only

the most venomous snakes in the world.

The eyes of Ahaetulla nasuta allow it to see very precisely

Dispholidus typus and representatives of

In the front part of the upper jaw there

the Mehelya genus have such muscles).

is a pair of fixed venomous teeth with

Venom is usually not a threat to humans,

a sheat pocket (Proteroglypha fangs). If

although fatal accidents happen occa-

a fang is lost, its function is taken over by

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59

Thermosensitive cavities between nostrils and eyes in Crotalus durrisus vegrandis

A rattle formed on the tail of Crotalus atrox

the next in line. The body of these snakes

million years ago and today there are over

is elongated and slender. The scales are

3000 species in the world. People have

large and overlapping. The head is usually

always been intrigued by these reptiles,

the width of the trunk. Its top is equipped

especially their original structure, biolo-

with large, clear scales.

gy, the way they move or hunt. This is due to numerous anatomical conditions that

VIPERIDAE – VIPERS

have developed in snakes through evolu-

Viperidae is the most specialized family,

tion. There has been a loss of extremities

comprising 35 genera and over 250 spe-

as a result of the regress and an increase

cies. These are venomous snakes, their

in the number of vertebrae, which (as in

venom is mainly hemotoxic. At the front

the case of Varanidae) have additional

of the upper jaw there are long fangs with

joint surfaces.

an internal venom channel (Solenoglypha

The construction of their internal systems

fangs). These teeth are fixed on movable

is different from that of their closest rela-

jaw bones and fold backwards when the

tives – lizards (Sauria). Most snakes have

snake is closing the jaw. The head is usu-

only one lung – right, the more primitive

ally triangular in shape, wide, with fine

ones also have a vestigial left lung. Fur-

scales on the whole surface, without heat

thermore, the even organs of these rep-

pits (except for Crotalinae). The body of

tiles have been displaced relative to each

these snakes is massive, often very thick,

other. The reproductive and excretory sys-

with a short tail. There are both ovovivip-

tem in males are as follows: the right tes-

arous and egg-bearing species. In some

ticle is located most cranially, then on the

Crotalinae from the New World there is

left side, in the middle of the right testicle,

a rattle at the end of the tail, formed from

there is the head of the left testicle. Each

the

segments

testicle has its own vas deferens, leading

formed as a result of succession of molts.

the semen to the hemipenis sac. Behind

remaining,

keratinized

the testicles caudally there is the right

60

SUMMARY

kidney, further behind it, in analogy to the

Snakes appeared on Earth more than 145

testicles, there is the left kidney. Along

Tropical EDU Magazine

each kidney there is a collective canal.

and fangs. The Viperidae family has the

Physiological processes related to me-

best venom apparatus. The vipers are the

tabolism are also worthy of attention, as

ones which most often cause death or

snakes swallow the victim in whole and

permanent damage to health.

digest all of his tissues perfectly, with the exception of epidermal products such as hair, claws. During the victim’s digestion, the stomach produces huge amounts of acids, the liver enlarges many times, as does the heart muscle. The whole body works at top speed. And it needs the right temperature for that. Snakes are cold-blooded, which means they do not maintain a constant body temperature, and that’s why they take sunbathing to regulate it. However, the greatest achievement in the evolution of this group of animals is the formation of venom apparatus, consisting of glands, venom channels

Literature Bruins E., Encyklopedia terrarystyki, Wydawnictwo Galaktyka, Łódź 2003.

Coborn J., Atlas węży świata, Wydawnictwo Muza S.A., Warszawa 1993.

Dobrowolska H., Gady, wydanie II – zmienione, Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Warszawa 1990.

Jaroniewski W., Jadowite węże świata, wydanie piąte. Wydawnictwa Szkolne Pedagogiczne, Warszawa 1992.

Marais J., Wielka księga węży, Wydawnictwo Książkowe Twój Styl, Warszawa 1997.

O’Shea M., Venomous snakes of the world, New Holland, London 2005.

Sura P., Encyklopedia współczesnych płazów i gadów, Wydawnictwo Fundacja, Nowy Sącz 2005.

Gumprecht A., Toenjes E., Die Tempelotter – Tropidolaemus wagleri, Natur-und-Tier-Verlag, Münster 2007.

Photos by: Dawid Krótki

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