Historian - by DU History Society Trinity College Dublin by Trinity College Dublin - Student Societies

historian.

Vol. 8

The Moon

Issue. 1

Contents 3

Letter From The Auditor

Meet The Committee of the 89th Session

88th Session in Review

Is this forgotten piece of Renaissance wisdom the key to our collective happiness? By Darragh Mckee Mathews

The HCUA investigations into communism in Hollywood by Mark Hogan

Count Cavour, Piedmont, and Italian Unification by Terence Donovan.

The Culper Spy Ring by Katie Sewell

Printing for Practicality: Women in the business in Early Modern Ireland by Maxine Boudway

Letter From The Auditor To returning friends and new faces, I’m delighted to be welcoming you to the 89th session of the Dublin University History Society, or DU History, as it is affectionately known by our members. On behalf of the entire committee, I think I can say that this society has been a highlight of many of our college experiences, and became a lifeline as those experiences were transformed by the events of the last year. It would have been impossible for the society’s founding members in 1932 to imagine that so many years later, DU History would be kept alive by Zoom pub quizzes and Discord game nights, that our main form of communication with our members would be through email and Instagram (@ duhistory if you want to keep up to date!) and that in person meetings and events, the very purpose of a college society, would be suspended. DU History aims to bring together students who share a common love of history, whether they have chosen to study it within their degree or not. If you are undertaking a different course, DU History is the perfect way to continue to explore your passion for history and widen your social circle beyond your classmates. For those who do study history, it offers the opportunity to expand your historical knowledge and interest beyond your course material. Our podcast, Many Moons Ago, exemplifies this, as members created episodes on Art History, Film History, and the History of Gaming, as well as episodes on more conventional topics such as the Spanish Civil War, the political history of Hong Kong and The Troubles. Equally important, of course, are our social events, which are always based around exciting historical themes, even as they act as a nice break from writing a history essay! More than anything, DU History aims to be an inclusive, welcoming and friendly space for all, irrespective of whether that space is physical or virtual. It’s impossible to say how the year will unfold, but DU History will be bringing you weekly events in whatever format available to us. Finally, I would like to thank all our contributors, our PRO Meghan, and Terence, our Librarian, for their incredible work on this issue of the historian. The magazine is always one of the highlights of the year for the society, and provides a perfect introduction to our committee and events. To discover more about DU History and our plans for the year, you can find us on Facebook, Instagram and Twitter, as well as in our weekly email if you sign up for membership. Whether you’re a first year, a returning member or just looking to get more involved, we hope you enjoy your time with us this academic year. Looking forward to seeing you, Máire Hussey, Auditor of the 89th session.

Meet The Committee Máire Hussey as Eleanor of Aquitaine: Máíre welcomed the responsibility of the position of Auditor and hopes to guide the society smoothly through the coming academic year. Like Eleanor of Aquitaine, who showed leadership when her indolent husband shirked from his responsibilities during the Second Crusade, Máire is unafraid of adversity and upon her election immediately set about getting on with the job. Máire shares her societal duties with her vocation-like dedication to stacking our beloved Berkeley library shelves, yet somehow manages to fit in the time to run events, chair meetings and organise sub-committees all of which is in the service to you, our beloved members. After nearly nine decades in existence, DU History will be ably served by Máire and the 89th session she leads.

Shane Macken as Sean O Casey Shane has returned to a senior committee role this year after serving as Auditor of the 88th session where he was instrumental in promoting our society podcast Many Moons Ago as a core event throughout the all-online 88th session. Like his historical counterpart, Shane has a passion for expanding historical intrigue to the voiceless who have been underrepresented ithroughout history. Shane has hones his skills through years of study in the Laidlaw programme which involved a deep-dive of Tony Kushner’s play in Angels in America which told the story of the AIDS crisis in late twentieth century New York. Shane remains absolutely committed to DU History since he joined on his first day as a first year many years and the 89th session would be all the worse for his absence.

Michelle Mee as Frances Chamberlaine A native of Cavan our new Treasurer Michelle has been entrusted with the society’s finances. Like her historical counterpart Michelle’s diligence and wealth of experience in the society make her an obvious choice for the role. Chamberlain and her husband Thomas Sherida were the inspired couple who constructed the famed artistic salon at the ‘Painted Parlour of Quilca House in Cavan. While no such feat is expected this year, we do indeed expect Michelle to contribute massively to helping the 89th session make a lasting impact as we enter our ninetieth year in existence!

89th Session Meghan Flood as Pythia/ Priestess of Delphi: Meghan, our Public Relations Officer, has a knack for predicting her fellow committee members’ future using her famed Tarot cards. Similarly, the Ancient Greeks relied on the Pythia to foresee the outbreaks of conflict, predict poor harvests and provide counsel for contemporary problems. Meghan is a cherished member of the 89th session with a kindness and creative flair which makes her perfect to promote the society. Meghan will be creating posters both digital and hopefully physical to highlight our events throughout the year. We are quite confident the future of DU History’s PR is in safe hands with Meghan!

Aisling Lynch as Queen Victoria: This year’s Social Secretary is our returning DU History regular Aisling Lynch who has just finished a year in Edinburgh. Aisling, like the regal monarch Queen Victoria, considers Killarney and its great views like a second home. Unlike the queen however, our Social Secretary is open to all people joining DU History and partaking in the array of events we have planned this year. Be they online or eventually in-person (fingers crossed), you can rest assured DU History is a better society with Aisling Lynch as part of its committee!

Terence Donovan as Aaron Burr: This years Librarian is Terence Donovan. Between being a year rep and secretary in the years before, he’s sure to be familiar face by now. Proving himself to be a solid character ready to help just like his historical counterpart Aaron Burr, Terence has lots of experience from his role last year as Secretary! This year you’ll be able to find Terence with a book, and sure he’s a great man for a chat so you’ll always leave learning something new! Make sure to head over to library hours for a chat and coffee!

Meet The Committee Aisling Rooney as Eleanor Roosevelt This year’s Fourth year Aisling Rooney is as friendly as she is kind. Like her historical counterpart, Aisling is proficient in a variety of multiple academic disciplines and a keen advocate demonstrating her persuasive abilities in debating. Aisling is a fine representative for this year’s final year cohort and will provide a classical perspective to our history-themed events as a History and Classics TSM student! We can’t wait to see what Aisling brings to the table for the 89th session!

Jack Fallon as Douglas Hyde Like the first President of Ireland, Jack is a newcomer to his position and to our committee but we are confident that our third-year rep will make up for lost time! Jack has already shown his can-do attitude on committee and he’ll be sure to leave an impact just as Hyde did. Him and Hyde also share their balanced outlook and passion for the political side of history, of which DU History will of course be happy to benefit!

Oisin Slattery as Nikola Tesla Oisin is returning for his second stint here with DU History! We’re lucky to have his undeniable intellect and passion for all things technology based as the society continues to navigate another year of pandemic activities. Oisin is known for having a skill with video games and passionate zeal for getting the better of his opponents, which is reminiscent of Tesla’s feud with his nemesis Thomas Edison. As the year progresses, we hope to see more of Oísin outside of the digital realm as he assists in re-introducing DU History to his peers and to the latest arrivals to our beloved Trinity.

89th Session Isabel Canalejo as Clara Campoamor Rodriguez Isabel, like her historical counterpart, is capable of multitasking across a litany of languages and timezones while completing demanding tasks. Isabel is no stranger to Spain, the USA or Ireland where she has quickly settled in despite a tumultuous first year in college. Isabel is already a much-appreciated member of DU History and we are greatly looking forward to another year of her help as the society continues to grow its presence amongst first and second-year students.

Seamus O’Neill as Hercules Mulligan: Seamus is our Social Media Officer and will be in charge of sharing with you our planned events throughout the academic year. Like his historical counterpart, Seamus is exceptional at relaying specific information and disseminating it accurately within a short timeframe. While born in America, Seamus has deep roots on our beloved island and can now count DU History as another place to call home.

Tim Murphy as Roger Casement: Tim is our Ordinary Committee Member but don’t let the title trick you into underestimating his abilities. Last year Tim was faced with the unenviable pressure of being elected after a sudden EGM, inheriting the challenging role of treasurer amidst a pandemic no less. He rose to the occasion and skilfully managed his duties with ease. His passion for Roger Casement is understandable given his hero’s notable successes in campaigns for human rights, and Tim will bring a similar insight and sense of justice to his role in DU History this year.

88th Session In Review The 88th session of DU History was one like never before…one could say that we made history last year! Facing a year of online learning and connecting, we looked for new ways to help students engage in our events and make sure our voice was heard. While it was a year of isolation and Zooms, DU History made sure we came out on top for one of the most successful sessions in the society’s history. Many Moons Ago If there is anything that a pandemic reveals, it’s how much people love podcasts. Last year, our committee decided to set up a podcast to make sure our members could hear from multiple guest speakers and tune in to all things DU History from the comfort of their own home, wherever they were! We launched our Episode 0 in the first week of Michaelmas Term and released 12 wonderful episodes with a new episode every two weeks during terms. When we combined our historical passions, we ended up with a wide-reaching series of episodes and were even nominated for a CSC Award for Best Virtual Production! What makes the podcast even better? You can relive the 88th Session on all major streaming services!

Trinity’s Hidden History A staple of DU History’s calendar has always involved walking tours and unearthing the history of Dublin and college for new students. This year saw a slightly different approach to what we were used to. In Week 5 of Michaelmas Term, we hosted a Zoom historic tour of Trinity campus. Hidden History explored the hidden tales from Trinity’s long history, including all the stories that most students never hear… Murder on campus, an anthropometric lab, historic student protests, what is not to love? This was one of my favourite events of the year as we got to show so many first years the unknown histories of Trinity and recreate the atmosphere of campus when everybody craved some time on the infamous cobblestones! DU History’s Famous Pub Quizzes Not even a global pandemic was going to stop our world-renowned pub quizzes in 2020! Despite no pubs being open, we still managed to host two quizzes last year. With great attendance and mighty craic, our members showed their excellent poker face via Zoom in the hopes of striking DU History gold. Accompanied by a Zoom green screen of Doyle’s, our teams battled it out in intense rounds from general

session in review.

knowledge, royal history, Irish history, music history, to sport. Nothing screams pandemic fun like a bit of friendly rivalry! Guest Speakers During the previous academic year, we welcomed several excellent guest speakers. Our first speaker of the year was Dr Rosie Lavan of Trinity’s School of English, who spoke to us in week 3 about where women fit in the intersection between history and literature. In week 9 of Michaelmas Term, we welcomed back DU History alumni Dr Maurice Casey to share the hidden story of a queer Irish American, Chester A. Arthur III. In Hilary Term, we welcomed Dr Shahmima Akhtar of Royal Holloway to speak on Irish exhibitions at International World Fairs. During week 4, DU History joined with Trinity Arts Festival to host Judith Finlay to enlighten us on the Irish AIDS Quilt. As we wrapped up a Zoom filled pandemic year, Dr Ida Milne spoke to the society on the Spanish Flu pandemic in 1918 (the parallels were shocking!). In week 11, we hosted a discussion with Orla O’Dwyer of TCD Careers Service to highlight the avenues available to History students’ post-graduation. Panel Discussions This past year saw DU History host two wildly successful panel discussions in collaboration with Trinity Women In Law and DU Gender Equality Society. In collaboration with TWIL, we welcomed Professor Kerstin Mey, President of University of Limerick, Professor Maggie Cusack, President of Munster Technological University, and sociology Professor Pat O’Connor to discuss gender equality in academia. Last year also saw the triumphant return of our Herstory salon, marking our fifth annual event. DUGES and DU History invited Herstory founder Melanie Lynch, Professor Lindsey Earner-Byrne, Dr Nata Duvvury and comedian Bláithín de Burca for a wonderful evening which celebrated some of the women who history has often forgotten.

Is this forgotten piece of Renaissance wisdom the key to our collective happiness? BY D A R R A G H M C K E E M AT H E W S BY D R Rare A G well H MC K E E M AT H EWS Many ofAus acquainted with the three-hundred-year period of European history which we in the 21st century refer to as the period of ‘rebirth’ or Renaissance, which followed the Middle Ages. The era began in Florence, Italy where it is largely agreed have occurred between the years 1300 AD to the 1600 AD. It was an age which witnessed the collective reversion to the modus operandi of the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations, particularly with regards to art, literature, and architecture. Many cultural beliefs and values were established and explored during this period including humanism, the undeniable significance of science and the philosophical debates concerning the task of living a life

Renaissance Architecture, Palazzo Vecchio, Florence

of considerable quality. Therefore, they believed the latter could be achieved in many ways, but one crucial way was through the creation of one’s immediate environment and surroundings, by utilizing an unmatched and unparalleled beauty aesthetic. Whether you have been lucky enough to visit or have only seen paintings or pictures of a Renaissance city such as Florence, one undeniable truth is glaringly obvious: the architecture of these cities is breathtakingly beautiful. Whilst one might guess that these buildings were constructed in this manner at random, or as a result of an architect’s personal taste without an apparent motivation. In reality, they were constructed with the intention of being so beautiful, that they inspire all those in their wake and promote order, harmony, and serenity. Why is this? Due to the great belief that the human mind is largely shaped by the characteristics of our surroundings. Thus, in theory, a chaotic environment creates a collective chaotic mind within the population. This alludes to the modern-day mantra which insists that ‘a tidy room is a tidy mind.’ This belief offers an intriguing explanation as to the extent of aesthetic

urbanism which dominated the Renaissance era which resulted in the construction of the Florence Cathedral, St. Peter’s Basilica, and the uncountable number of piazzas that boast breath-taking sculptures and fountains - they are undoubtedly uplifting and inspiring. Whilst the average individual cannot simply create an aweinspiring sculpture or an alluring piazza at an instant when we require a burst of uplifting energy or much-needed motivation, we do, however, have the power as we have learned during the last year of the pandemic, to change our immediate and most personal surroundings. For example, we have the option to redecorate our bedrooms and create our unique, dream space, and with the intention that it functions as a place in which we can retreat, relax, and reflect. We can establish a routine of keeping our homes in almost pristine condition to promote serenity and harmony, and if your home permits, you can create a beautiful oasis in your garden filled with your favourite flowers, a miniature fountain, or even a reading chair in order to allow the intentional beauty of nature to heal and inspire you just as the Medici’s did, without ever having to visit Venice. Whilst many young people have faced an undeniable slump in their mental health throughout the course of the Covid-19 pandemic, it is easy to view ourselves as powerless and feel that there

“beautiful room, beautiful mind, beautiful life.” is nothing, we can do to boost our motivation or happiness but wait for restrictions to ease, allowing us to go exploring and live our pre-pandemic lives again. However, something we can control is our immediate and personal environments, starting as small as our bedrooms. If we follow this Renaissance belief, we can create our environments to reflect our innermost selves and our personal aesthetic and exist as serene places that allow us to feel calm and harmonious but also happy and inspired. If you take anything from this article, I hope it is not the old mantra of ‘tidy room, tidy mind, tidy life’ but rather in keeping with the spirit of the renaissance era of ‘beautiful room, beautiful mind, beautiful life.’

The HCUA investigations into communism in Hollywood BY M A R K H O G A N

As fears of an increasingly active communist presence in American society began to develop throughout the 1940s, attention turned to the susceptibility of the film industry to be a refuge for communist infiltration. In response to this threat, the HCUA (House Committee on Un-American Activities) launched numerous investigations into the presence of communists in Hollywood, resulting in hundreds being fired and blacklisted from the industry. As part of these investigations, the HCUA was focused on ensuring that the public was aware of potential communist propaganda in films, and in turn to prevent further communist involvement in the industry. Due to this suspicion, members of the film industry who refrained from producing anti-communist films were also blacklisted. A prominent example of this was Joseph Losey, who was blacklisted after he declined to direct the less than subtle film, ‘I Married a Communist.’ Despite strong resistance towards these dismissals, there was also a clear support base for claims of communist infiltration within the industry as well. With such suspicion for the industry having been fostered by popular figures such as Cecil B. DeMille who had

concluded that: “Yes. There are communists in Hollywood. And some very dangerous ones, because they’re very brainy ones.” As a famous and respected figure in the industry, DeMille’s warning was taken seriously by many members of Hollywood for which he garnered widespread support. However, in contrast to this, many in the industry also opposed these claims advocating that while a number of communists were likely present, they lacked enough influence to have a drastic effect on the industry and shaping public thought. Moreover, those who co-operated with the HCUA did so mainly out of concern for their industries’ public image rather than wanting to defend suspected communists. Ronald Reagan highlighted this sentiment as although he was an informant for the FBI during the 1940s by

Joseph Losey

Ronald Reagan

reporting suspected communists, he disagreed with the methods of the HCUA, believing that they damaged the industries reputation and, in turn, its effectiveness. As part of a 1947 trial, Reagan defended the industry in stating: “I do not believe the Communists have ever at any time been able to use the motionpicture screen as a sounding board for their philosophy or ideology.” However, Reagan also did not deny the potential for communism to take root in the film industry, adding that Hollywood would remain safe while the industry remained “alert, conscious of it, and fighting.” Combined with the removal of numerous influential and successful figures from the industry, the HCUA’s investigations had unintended consequences for the industry and the HCUA, as their efforts highlighted the presence of more subtle anti-communist propaganda in American films. The effectiveness of anti-communist films produced by Hollywood was thus limited as reviewers frequently regarded such films as stylised propaganda pieces. Due

to the portrayal of Hollywood by members of the HCUA, such as the assessment by Rep. John E. Rankin as, “the greatest hotbed of subversive activities in the United States,” hesitancy developed among members of the public for watching a potentially communist produced film, and as a result, theatre attendance noticeably declined. As revealed by a 1947 Gallup Poll, the HCUA had succeeded in bringing closer attention to the presence of Communism in the film industry, with 80 percent of respondents stating they were aware of the investigation and followed it closely. However, there was a clear split in public opinion over the committees’ actions, with 37 percent approving of the HCUA while 36 percent disapproved. Ultimately, this split in opinion proved detrimental to the HCUA’s later efforts to propagandise anti-communism, the trial had accomplished one of the HCUA’s main aims with 61 percent of respondents now claiming that they believed Communists were present in Hollywood.

Cecil B Demille

Count Cavour, Piedmont, and Italian Unification. BY T E R E N C E D O N O VA N .

Count Camillo Benso di Cavour was a Piedmontese statesman and the chief architect of Italian unification. The term “Risorgimento” which meant the rising again movement and named after a paper founded by Cavour, described the decades of political movements which sought to unify the Italian peninsula under a single democratic system. Its leaders drew the scorn of the French, Austrian and Papal hierarchies each of whom controlled sizeable swaths of Italian territory. Piedmont-Sardinia, the wealthy kingdom, neighboured both French and Austrian territory which forced Cavour to foster productive working relationships with a myriad of European rulers. Cavour’s detractors derided the count as an unscrupulous individual whose endeavours principally served Piedmontese interests over service to the idealized Italian nation. Cavour’s entry into the Piedmont parliamentary system was partly due to his aristocratic upbringing, commercial connections, and his vehement refusal to finish his education at the prestigious Turin Military Academy. The longstanding French occupation of Turin left an indelible mark on Cavour’s formative years. Ironically, Cavour considered himself far more at ease speaking French than Italian which left the count open to immense vitriol and ridicule from republican peers during

his political career. The relationships with Napoleon III, Emperor of France and the House of Savoy, the monarchical rulers of Piedmont defined Cavour’s political career. The count proved adept at mitigating both monarch’s bellicose tendencies and provoking both monarchs when it was politically expedient for Piedmont. Cavour sought to develop the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia into an industrial powerhouse and founding member of the eventual Italian state, Cavour succeeded in having Emperor Napoleon finance massive infrastructure projects. Parisian bankers invested in the burgeoning Turin rail system and the regions’ agricultural output over time produced immense wealth for Piedmont. Napoleon’s terms included French ownership of some Piedmontese transportation firms. The strategy transformed FrancoPiedmontese relations from a former occupation to commercial partners. This alliance eventually extended beyond economic affairs as Cavour rose from the Ministries of Navy and Finance to become Prime Minister in Nov. 1852. Cavour astutely observed that Piedmont’s ascension challenged Austrian influence in the region and endeared himself with Emperor Napoleon by entering the Kingdom alongside the Franco-British alliance in

the Crimean War of 1855. Austria and Piedmont were for a time wartime allies but the eventual victory not long after their entry did not deprive the Piedmontese of a place at the post-war conference known as the Congress of Paris. These two developments complicated Austrian plans to isolate Piedmont which was viewed as the most viable threat to their Italian territory. The French protectorate garrison around the Vatican was the embodiment of their reviled status by leading Italian republicans such as Giuseppe Mazzini. Cavour’s cordial approach endeared him to the emperor who tacitly accepted his proposals as the most acceptable alternatives to addressing the ‘Italian Question.’ Cavour’s courting of Napoleon III’s endorsements faced an existential threat when a fringe revolutionary Giuseppe Orsini attempted to assassinate the French Emperor for the nation’s military presence in Italy. Instead of derailing Cavour’s efforts, the failed attempt emboldened the emperor who was now compelled to resolve the situation in Italy. The two leaders had a surreptitious meeting in Plombières -les-Bains where the single most consequential meeting of Cavour’s career occurred. Emperor Napoleon agreed to intervene on the side of Piedmont against Austria if the kingdom provoked its neighbour over its holdings in the Duchy of Modena. Secondly, the eventual Italian state would have to cede the County of Nice and the region of Savoy for

Count Cavour

French assistance. Nice, was the home of the eventual Italian military hero Giuseppe Garibaldi who considered Cavour’s actions as tantamount to treason and equally humiliating for the Piedmontese royal family who claimed Savoy as their ancestral home. Cavour the perennial pragmatist deemed a Franco-Piedmontese alliance the sine qua non for expediting unification and eradicating the Austrian presence in Italy. The Austrian mobilization centred around the sizeable proportion of troops led by Garibaldi in a new republican army which was comprised of soldiers from Lombardy and Tuscany, which made them Austrian subjects. The conflict against the Austrians in Italy proved a catalyst for further fighting across the peninsula which sought to join Cavour’s growing political entity. Austria lost far more than its influence over the Ducy of Modena as it abandoned, Emilia Romagna, Tuscany, and Lombardy in quick succession. The issue of the Papacy resurfaced as the Piedmontese troops neared Rome.

Cavour’s aforementioned secularism threatened Papal power and resulted in the Church’s longstanding opposition to a national Italian State. Sensing growing discomfort back in France where Catholics demanded the emperor retained the Papacy’s good graces, Napoleon III impulsively signed the Peace of Villafranca with Austria of 1859 which cemented Austria’s regional possession of Veneto. Cavour immediately resigned, which only led for a stronger return to office when his new parliamentary majority included the allowance of officials from the newly annexed regions of Romagna and Tuscany which solidified their status as members of the growing Italian state. The growing disdain for Cavour within France, The Papacy and Austria posed a threat to the embryonic Italian national project. In conjunction with diplomatic missions with the unpopular King Francis of Naples, Cavour and King Victor Emmanuel of Piedmont-Sardinia tacitly endorsed Garibaldi’s expedition known as the march of ‘The Thousand’ in May 1860. Before the end of July, Garibaldi had seized complete control over the island of Sicily. This sucess led to a breakdown in relations between the premier Italian politician and leading commander of the republican movement. Garibaldi advanced through the Kingdom of Naples while Cavour with Napoleon’s blessing overthrew Papal forces and travelled to meet Garibaldi’s army. In a bid to counteract the determination of Garibaldi’s forces to seize the entire Italian peninsula and create an Italian republican state, Cavour

utilized King Victor Emmanuel as the unifying figure whose commands would be obeyed Garribaldi who was once a member of the Piedmontese parliament, making him the monarchs subject. The two men met with their armies at Teano on 18 September 1860. Garibaldi relinquished his post and returned to his home in Caprera while Victor Emmanuel assumed his role as commander-in-chief of all military forces. Despite Garibaldi’s republican principles, Cavour’s political prowess had garnered an alliance with the French and now laid the groundwork for Victor Emmanuel to assume the position as King of Italy. The establishment of this political entity was passed in the Piedmontese parliament which accepted the invitation to unite with the southern regions. Cavour resigned as Piedmontese premier to become the inaugural Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. Whilst chided as overtly conciliatory to the French and more concerned with shaping an Italian state to suit Piedmontese interests, the peninsula was largely freed from external control. The Count died three months into his term in office and therefore did not live to see the Italian state expand to include Veneto and Rome which completed the unification project. Simply put, Count Cavour was aptly judged as the initiator of the successful Risorgimento movement and the Piedmontese premier wielded an influence which was omnipresent in shaping the formative years of the embryonic Italian nation.

Many Moons Ago

Last Year, DU History presented you with our first ever podcast. Each week we brought you a massive range of topics, and we aren’t stopping this year! Be sure to head over to our social media platforms in the following weeks to tune in for a whole new year of out of this world history.

First Year Reps!

Hey! That’s right first-year student reading this right now, this is for you!

Are you looking to get involved in society life but want to find people with similar interests to you? Want to get your year group involved in all the DU History fun? Well look no further, we have the position just for you! DU History are looking to elect two first year reps to complete the 89th session. In order to run for the position, you must be a member of the society and studying Single Honours History, History and Political Science, or History through the Joint Honours programme. Make sure to check out our socials for all the info! Feel free to send us a message too with any questions!

The Culper Spy Ring BY K AT I E S E W E L L

While captured spy Nathan Hale undoubtedly holds pre-eminence in the mythos surrounding the American Revolutionary War, the lesser-known Culper Spy Ring provided more military success for their Continental Army. Some members still hidden in obscurity, the Culper Spy Ring consisted of a variety of individuals, ranging from military men, a smuggler, a tailor, the wife of a local judge, a newspaper columnist, an enslaved African American, and an unknown woman known only as Agent 355. The spies operated throughout Long Island and Connecticut, from 1778 to 1783, following the Treaty of Paris. Throughout their five-year campaign, the Culper Spy Ring changed the course of the American Revolution by charting British military movements and uncovering British plots, such as Benedict Arnold’s plan to defect to the British army. In 1778, even after a series of British defeats and a newly formed alliance with France, the outcome of the American Revolution seemed bleak to General George Washington. In a 1778 letter, Washington warned that the Continental Army had, “not yet attained sufficient vigour and maturity to recover from any false step into which we may unwarily fall.” To attain the “vigour and maturity” that he desired, Washington turned towards using spies as a tool to defeat the British. He selected Major Benjamin

Tallmadge, a commander of the 2nd Continental Light Dragoons, as Chief of Intelligence in October 1778. Tallmadge convinced his childhood friend, Abraham Woodhull, a smuggler from Setauket, New York, to become a spy in his fledgling spy ring, along with Lieutenant Caleb Brewster, who was already providing intelligence to Washington. While disputed amongst historians, tradition dictates that Anna Strong, the wife of a Long Island judge, would facilitate meetings between Brewster and Woodhull by using her laundry line to relay a signal to Brewster through different coloured clothes. Brewster would then take the intelligence from Woodhull, smuggle it across the Long Island Sound to Connecticut, where he would meet with Tallmadge, who would carry the information to Washington. Some historians speculate that Strong was Agent 355, 355 meaning ‘lady’ in the code that Tallmadge created to encrypt their messages. However, other historians suggest that Agent 355 was more likely to be a woman living within New York City, rather than Strong who lived in Setauket. Other members of the ring included Robert Townsend, who wrote Loyalist newspaper columns as a cover, which allowed him to interact with British military leaders in New York City. Townsend made major discoveries during his time as a spy, such as a British plot that would inundate the

American colonies with counterfeit money, destroying the economy. Known only as Agent 723, Townsend’s identity was so concealed that even Washington never learned his name. Agent 723’s identity was unknown until 1930 when historian Morton Pennypacker matched the handwriting in his dispatches to Townsend’s. Another agent who aided the spy ring was Hercules Mulligan, an Irish tailor in New York City, who once saved Washington’s life after overhearing a British plot to capture him. His dispatches would not have reached the American army without Cato, an enslaved African American who carried Mulligan’s dispatches to the American troops. The most important discovery of the Culper Spy Ring was Benedict Arnold’s plan to defect to the British. Arnold rose to the command of Major General by 1777, the same year he led commands at the successful Siege of Fort Ticonderoga and Battle of Saratoga. However, despite his high rank, Arnold often felt underappreciated and passed

Robert Townsend

Benjamin Tallmadge

over by Washington. In 1778, after two leg wounds forced him out of battle, Washington elected Arnold as military governor of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. However, Arnold’s time spent in the city was fraught with conflict. Joseph Reed, a local politician, accused him of using his position to profit off the war after Arnold made a series of business deals revolving around the movement of army supplies. While he was only convicted on two minor charges, he felt betrayed by the army leadership and Washington, who reprimanded him. In 1779, Arnold married Peggy Shippen, the daughter of a prominent Loyalist family, who maintained ties with the British army. Using the Shippens’ connections, Arnold made contact with Major John Andre, a British spymaster, and plotted to defect to the British army.

In April 1780, Arnold learned that he was being considered for commander of West Point, which was an American military fortification on the Hudson River, which Washington called, “the most important military post in America.” Arnold was given command over the site and provided Andre with a map of the fort, which he promised would allow the British to capture it. As commander of West Point, Arnold drained the fort of supplies and often deployed its troops away from the fort, weakening it to allow for British capture. Arnold and Andre met in September near West Point to discuss the terms of his defection. However, the ship that was to bring Andre back to New York City was met with gunfire, which prompted it to retreat without Andre. Arnold furnished Andre with fake papers, which would allow Andre to cross by land back to New York City.

However, Andre was stopped by three militiamen, who turned him into their superior, Colonel John Jameson, after finding papers about Arnold’s defection in his boot. While Andre managed to convince Jameson to let him return to Arnold at West Point, Tallmadge, who was also present for Andre’s detainment, demanded that Andre be taken prisoner. Throughout 1780, the Culper Ring gathered intelligence on a high-ranking traitor in the American army but could not uncover the traitor’s identity. Upon Andre’s capture, Tallmadge realised that the traitor from the spy dispatches was Arnold. The intelligence gathered by the Culper Ring aided the discovery of Arnold’s defection plot and prevented the British from capturing an important American stronghold, changing the course of the American Revolution.

Culper Ring Code

George Washington

Printing for Practicality: Women in the business in Early Modern Ireland BY M A X I N E B O U D W AY

Today, women are more visible in business and corporate culture, in spite of glass ceilings and lingering biases. These biases are evident in the words of eighteenth-century upper-class socialite Mary Delany, whom the editor of her 1882 letter collection described as “admirable example of the most finished type of a Christian gentlewoman.” In 1751, Delany comments: “Women are designed by Providence to be more domestic; they are endowed with the proper talents and patience to train up their children." Despite this idea that women were best suited to care for the home and children, women also cared for businesses. The Dictionary of Irish Biography (DIB) sheds light on the working-class women who operated businesses in Early Modern Ireland. When the husband died and there was no man to replace him, many wives assumed control of the business. Although they operated their late husband’s printing businesses with the aid of men, it was their authority and skill supporting their families. Women like Sarah Harding did not create these businesses but were instead continuing them in lieu of a husband. Sympathies towards Harding’s husband and

her status as a widow show how the circumstances of women were dependent upon men. After the death of Harding’s husband in 1725, Jonathan Swift employed her services as a printer. Her output included both Thomas Sheridan’s Intelligencer (1728-1729) and A Modest Proposal (1729) and the impact of the latter lingers today as an important literary and political work. Yet, this employment was out of charity. Since her husband had faced imprisonment after he published Drapier’s Letters (17241725) for Swift, Swift likely felt indebted to the family. Sheridan wrote: “The widow, the printer of these papers […] must be enabled by charitable encouragements to keep a merry Christmas.” Although it is important to note that women had to run their businesses with the aid of men, this was not necessarily to their disadvantage. Mary Crooke and Benjamin Tooke’s informal collaboration shows how women used the resources at their disposal to adapt to their situation. In 1671, Benjamin Tooke and John Crooke jointly held the king’s patent. In actuality, they were serving as proxies for Mary Crooke, sister to Tooke and mother to John. When her husband had died in 1669, Tooke

National Print Museum Ireland Exhibit

gained official control of the patent and he held it for her family while she continued the business. Crooke’s actions demonstrated that women were not always resigned to their new roles but were often active participants in them. She could have easily handed the business to her brother and entrusted herself and her family to him. Instead, she commandeered the position to personally maintain the business and to support her family. Mary Crooke became the king’s printer in practice, held a monopoly on; printing, binding, and selling books in Ireland until her retirement. Although dependence and collaboration were necessary, this did not diminish a woman’s influence in her printing business.

Influence was integral to their success and exhibited confidence in their positions. Mary Crooke often asserted her rights with the king’s patent to protect and grow her monopoly. In 1671, she wrote petitions to the lord lieutenant against competitors which resulted in the competitor’s presses being ‘appropriated’ by the king’s printer in 1673. Women’s influence in the world of business also manifested in the opinions they expressed regarding their businesses. Despite perceptions about the female gender role, as presented by Delany, Alice Reilly was clearly confident about her own position in the business world. In 1766, she joined others to protest against unlicenced people in the printing and stationing trade.

Women also ran printing businesses with knowledge and skill of the field. In 1712, Elizabeth Ray gained sole control of the business, after her husband’s death was followed by her son. She did not simply retain her job out of familial duty, but because she was actually capable of bringing success to the business. She maintained it with genuine knowledge of the field by employing the right people. Her will proved how this skill secured the future of their business and their family. Ray bequeathed the family business which DIB writer Turlough O’Riordan called “considerable” to her foreman upon her death in 1713 or 1714. Although she left the business to him, further evidence of her success lay in the sizable profit she generated for her family. She left £1,200 to her four daughters, which is equivalent to £251,941 or €294,076 today. Despite rigid preconceptions, women’s care for their families extended beyond the domestic setting. Women who managed businesses navigated a biased world while displaying both authority and skill for the wellbeing of their families. Women of the past faced restrictions, but they were not entirely immobile. Mary Crooke adapted and used men’s privileges to her

advantage. The authority of Alice Reilly and others drove businesses forward and shows the space they occupied in the wider business world. Skills like Elizabeth Ray’s were necessary for the long-term wellbeing of the family. Sources like the DIB allow us to see beyond heavily documented women like Delany and into the lives of women who may not be singular but were still able to work with and supersede impressive obstacles when their lives demanded it.

Jonathan Swift