Cultural Landscapes - History of Landscape Architecture 2020

Cultural

Landscapes Toby McCarney Sketchbook for ABPL90265 2020

This sketchbook explores the relationships cultures have with their landscapes and how that influences the generation of form and meaning. I have chosen cultural conceptions of landscape that challenge common notions of landscape architecture, in order explore alternative avenues of design.

Whilst producing the sketches in this book, I have been mindful of cultural sensitivity and have ensured that I have not inappropriately reproduced sacred imagery or removed them from their cultural context.

Sacred Forests Shintoism and Ecology

Shinto is an ancient Japanese animistic religion that regards every element of nature as containing spiritual energy and divinity. Divine spirits, or Kami, inhabit forests, mountains, and oceans, as well as individual trees and rocks. There are over 80,000 Shinto shrines across Japan, which allow worshipers to summon the presence of Kami and to ask for their blessing1.

I have sketched Keta Taisha, and subsequently Meiji Shrine, to analyse how Shintoism promotes the protection and creation of self-generating forest groves in urban locations. Shinto forests often forbid human intervention and instead favour natural ecological expression, something landscape architects often aspire to create but fail to achieve.

Keta Taisha is a sacred grove (chinju no mori) in the city of Hakui of Ishikawa Prefecture and is believed to be over 2,000 years old. Its name was recorded in the earliest known anthology of Japanese poetry, featuring in a poem written by Otomo-no-Yakamochi after a he visited the shrine in 748. The shrine is devoted to Onamuchi, the original ruler of the terrestrial world and a deity of love2.

This sketch of an aerial view of Keta Taisha situates it within the landscape. The shrine is surrounded by a sacred primeval forest that has been left undisturbed through Japan’s history of industrialisation, juxtaposing the highly managed neighbouring farmland.

To the left of the shrine is a Buddhist temple complex. Shintoism and Buddhism are intertwined in Japan; shrines buildings are a relatively recent component of Shinto derived from Buddhism3, however the sacred grove long predates the surrounding buildings.

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The approach to Keta Taisha begins with passing through a torii gate. Torii symbolically separate the sacred space of the shrine from the external world.4

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Visitors must then pass through the Shinmon gate, constructed in 1584, to access the central shrine5.

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The Haiden is the central shrine where visitors make offerings and prayers, as they are forbidden to enter the Kami’s actual dwelling6.

The sacred grove of Keta Taisha is an ‘untrod forest’ (Irazu-no-mori), which visitors are forbidden from entering.

The gate appears to be an invitation into the forest, however the barrier says otherwise - only the head priest may enter the forest to visit the innermost shrine. The forest is protected as the dwelling place of Onamuchi, who in turn provides protection to the local community7.

When sketching Keta Taisha, I noticed the prevelance of many Buddhist symbols. Buddhism and Shintoism have similar perspectives on life and death, both recognising life as a cycle of energy that passes from form to form. The introduction of Buddhism to Japan from China resulted in Shintoism adopting compatible Buddhist symbols, and therefore the two spiritual cultures are often combined into a single faith8.

The sacred grove is virtually untouched by humans, allowing nature to develop uninterrupted. This is an intriguing phenomenon - nature reserves are often prized by communities for their recreational value, as they provide a green space for exploration and relaxation, and therefore flora and fauna must adapt to some human activity. The sacredness Keta Taisha means that no ecological studies have been undertaken, however we could imagine that the forest likely contains a unique ecology which has reached a steady state of succession.

Komainu, or lion-dog, statues ward off evil spirits. They are often in pairs, and in Buddhism they represent the beginning and end of all things9.

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Stone toro lanterns line the paths of Shinto shrines, however they were originally considered offerings to Buddha. Their form represents elements of Buddhist cosmology and express the idea that after death we return to an elemental form10.

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Although many sacred groves in Japan are primeval forest, this is not always the case. Meiji Shrine in Tokyo was established in 1920 to memorialise Emperor Meiji (1852-1912) and Empress Shoken (18491914), and is surrounded by 170 acres of constructed sacred forest. The forest was designed to mirror untouched forests like Keta Taisha, and therefore was required to be pristine and completely self-generating; a difficult task in one of the world’s most densely populated cities.

Uehara Keiji, the project’s head landscape architect, believed in the creation of ‘solemn’ landscapes which presented nature in its immutable and full form, an idea core to Shinto forests and Japanese gardens. This idea manifests in the Meiji Shrine forest through its unbroken canopy and lack of maintenance, which encourages the growth of fungi and therefore the presence of a complete ecosystem.

The replication of primeval forests required skilled long-term ecological planning. Hongo Takanori, a forestry expert who studied in Germany, drew up a 200 year plan for the forest, divided into four 50 year stages. Fast growing pines and other conifers were intended to establish the forest and then be subsequently replaced by slower growing broad-leaf evergreens.

A recent study shows the success of the forest design, with it having completed its second stage and passing onto the third. The forest supports various ecosystems and has a high biodiversity, a testament to the adept planning of those involved11.

Although Japan does not have a perfect environmental history, Shintoism has lead to the protection and creation of landscapes that do not attempt to control natural generation.

The Keta Taisha forest shrine is fascinating as an ‘nonhuman’ landscape, which provides value to the community as an inaccessible space. Allowing uninhibited growth within an urban context is an interesting alternative to highly controlled parks.

Meiji Shrine is an inspirational case study for long-term planning and an uncompromising vision. It’s easy to compare it to central park in New York, however its unique character is evident through its ‘solemn’ design, which channels serenity and a reverence for nature.

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While sketching Meiji shrine I found myself struck by how strongly it contrasts the Tokyo skyline. The shrine aptly memorialises Emperor Meiji’s legacy of transforming Japan from a feudal empire into a modern state.

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Hongo Takanori’s 200 year succession plan. 100 years later, the park has entered the 3rd stage.

Angkor Wat

The imposition of concentric form Angkor Wat, an ancient temple in Cambodia, is the largest religious structure ever built. It was constructed by the Khmer empire under the reign of King Suryavarman II in the 12th century, and is a Hindu temple devoted to Vishnu, ‘the protector’.

The temple was not a site for religious congregation, rather it was intended to literally be the home of the gods. For this to be achieved, Angkor Wat’s axes were aligned with celestial movements and the structure was arranged according to a mandala, a diagram of the universe1. The form of Angkor Wat is therefore a concentric pattern comprised of abstract geometry.

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In this chapter I’ve explored how the design of Angkor Wat is generated through the superimposition of iterated geometric forms upon the landscape.

This method of design has been often used throughout the history of landscape architecture, with the belief that it will achieve cosmological harmony through beauty and perfection.

An aerial view of Angkor Wat reveals its geometry and repeating structure.

The galleries, and the empty spaces between them, are the mountain ranges that surround Mount Meru, and the visitors’ passage through them symbolises the obstacles that must be overcome to reach enlightenment3.

The towers of Angkor Wat represent the peaks of Mount Meru, the home of the Hindu gods and the centre of all reality2.

The use of mandalas in Asian architecture create spaces for human habitation and worship which are in harmony with the universe.

Vastu Shastra is a traditional Indian system of design which greatly influenced Angkor Wat. A design is laid out in accordance to a mandala that is based on the body of Vastu Purusha, which ensures the structure’s harmony with the divine4.

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Today Angkor Wat is surrounded by dense jungle, however it was once the centre of a sprawling city.

Archaeologists have founded evidence that it was part of a cityscape covering 1,000km2, the size of Greater Melbourne.

It is believed that dramatic climate shifts led to city being abandoned and the population resettling along the coast. All but the temples were constructed from wood, and so the city rotted away and was reclaimed by the jungle, however the home of the gods remains5.

Angkor Wat is enclosed by a 200 metre wide moat, which represents the cosmic sea; “the source of creative energy and life, the starting point for the journey towards salvation�6.

A statue of Vishnu once sat in the centre of Angkor Wat. The temple’s perfect alignment allowed Vishnu to physically inhabit his representation - there is no abstraction or intermediary, the god was manifested on earth7.

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The mandala which generates Angkor Wat’s form is three dimensional, adding to the complexity of its alignment.

The statue of Vishnu resided in the central tower, exactly at the intersection of the temple’s three axes. Here, the pilgrim’s journey aligns on the horizontal axis and the god’s dwelling on the vertical axis, connecting the two worlds and uniting earthly existence with the divine at the centre of the universe8.

For a ruler to achieve such perfection was to bring the universe and salvation to his people.

Borobudur, a Buddhist temple in Indonesia, combines the forms of the stupa, Mount Meru, and the mandala in its design9. Its magnificent shape apsires to a similar conception of perfection as Angkor Wat.

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The design of Angkor Wat intends to situate the temple at the centre of the universe through a mastery of religious practice, astronomy, cosmology, and geometry. I find it interesting that the use of a mandala as a basis of design means that a site does not need to have pre-existing siginficance to become the intersection between the earthly and the divine; the realisation of a perfect ideal form is needed to generate this singularity.

It seems apt that such mastery of the sciences and design is required to declare a monument as the centre of existence. The construction of Angkor Wat allowed King Suryavarman II to assert the undeniable glory of his empire by drawing on the labour of largest city in the world and its extensive philosophical and scientific knowledge. The awe-inspiring perfection of Angkor Wat is timeless; countless tourists visit the monument every year nearly 900 years after its construction. Although the original city is all but forgotten, Angkor Wat remains as a testament to the majesty ofthe Khmer empire and its kings.

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The superimposition of the mandala onto the landscape illuminates the intention of landscape architecture designs that generate ‘perfect’ forms based on mathematics and science. This method of design often achieves a form that unequivocally beautiful, and hence has been repeated time and time again by civilisations throughout history. It is interesting to contrast Angkor Wat with Shinto sacred forests; both intend to create the home of the divine, however Shinto achieves this through organic generation, whereas Hinduism generates a new form that is unachievable in nature, and therefore asserts the exceptionalism of divine form.

The Seven Sisters Encoding meaning upon the land

To navigate Australia you must be prepared to traverse vast landscapes. Over tens of thousands of years, Aboriginal Australians were able to travel through hostile environments safely through songlines that spanned the continent, an oral tradition which also allowed them to pass on cultural memory and coordinate rituals and meetings with different tribes.

Songlines are paths across the landscape that are followed through reciting a detailed song, which uses story-telling to make sense of an unbounded environment. Stories from the dreaming explain landmarks, sources of food and water, cultural laws, and history1.

The Seven Sisters is one of the most well known songlines, which follows the pursuit of seven mythical sisters by an ancestral being across Australia, passing through many different language groups and environments. In this chapter I have explored how dreaming tracks create meaning in the landscape by sketching Walinynga, a significant Seven Sisters dreaming site, and the events of the story which unfold upon the landscape.

The Walinynga cave has been used by Aboriginal people for thousands of years4. The shelter offers safety and a place to rest, and therefore contains many cave paintings that detail the story of the seven sisters and the surrounding landscape.

The Seven Sisters were digging near the waterhole at Walinynga when Wati Nyiru, a shape-shifting sorcerer, began to chase them with desire. The sisters hide in the cave to escape his lust, and then dig a small hole which they slip out of unnoticed2.

The cave paintings at Walinynga bring the dreaming story to life, as well as pass on knowledge of the surrounding environment. This painting depicts Wati Nyiru, recognisable from his eight toes, who is an intimidating figure that teaches moral lessons.

Cave paintings are not static, but are continuously changed and added to. They enable Aboriginal people to encode knowledge directly onto the landscape, passing on lessons and information to those who navigate the same songlines, generation after generation3.

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Walinynga, or Cave Hill, is on the land of the Anangu, Pitjantjatjara and Yankunytjatjara people in central Australia. The hill offers protection from the heat and wind of the surrounding landscape and marks a semi-permanent waterhole; an invaluable landmark in a harsh desert5.

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In some retellings of the Seven Sisters, the lustful sorceror is of a skin group that is forbidden to marry the skin group of the sisters6, in others he is depicted as impulsive due to blindly following the desire of his phallus7. Songlines do not only provide a means of navigating the landscape, but also contain lessons of cultural law and survival, which are slowly recounted and reinforced with the singing of dreaming stories8.

I sketched the view from the cave entrance to help me understand the landscape this songline is traversing.

The environment is desolate and harsh, and highly detailed information would be needed to distinguish significant landmarks from insignificant ones, such as identifying particular boulders, and the ability to locate reliable water and food sources is essential.

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The seven sisters were warned of Nyiru’s approach by the twittering of finches at the waterhole.

Wati Nyiru appears in hybrid form as two boulders at the entrance to the cave, where he waits for the sisters to emerge.

This is an example of the dreaming becoming a physical manifestation, interweaving cultural memory with the landscape. Retelling the story directs travelers to the cave entrance through landmarks that double as mnemonic cues9.

Finches are adept at finding water in the desert and their behaviour changes in anticipation of heatwaves. Aboriginal people used this knowledge to locate water and take shelter during heatwaves, thus the inclusion of finches in the songline encodes and teaches this vital information10.

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The night sky plays a central role in the countless songlines that cross the Australian landscape. The different stars and constellations identified in dreaming stories orientate one within the landscape and the lessons they contain are reinforced every night. The night sky becomes another landscape encoded with cultural knowledge, a mnemonic for the storyteller and a visualisation for the listener11.

Through my visual exploration of the Seven Sisters songline, I have gained a deeper appreciation of how Aboriginal people understand the environment around them.

Cultures such as the Khmer, who built Angkor Wat, created meaning in the landscape through the superimposition of abstract forms, whereas Aboriginal Australians generate meaning through encoding narratives directly onto the landscape as it is. This comparison illustrates the difference between how the landscape is used by sedentary and nomadic societies. Landscape architecture often prioritises imposing a new form onto an existing landscape, however Aboriginal songlines point to an alternate form of design that arises from continuous movement, shaping how the landscape is perceived rather than its physical form.

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This 1994 painting of the Seven Sisters songline by Josephine Mick tracks its movement across the Australian landscape and illuminates some of the more complex aspects of songlines. Mick’s paths show that songlines do not merely direct travelers along a straight line akin to a GPS, but rather they ebb and flow with their stories and branch off as they are retold by different groups. A songline is composed of many different smaller stories and events, told differently by different people12.

The emphasis is not on the path, rather the sacred gathering spaces and lessoare encoded into the journey. Ironically, many Australian highways, such as the route between Adelaide and Perth, follow the songlines Aboriginal people took the early explorers along, transforming songlines from cultural practices into pure functionalism13.

The story of the Seven Sisters ends with the sisters launching themselves into the sky, with their pursuer close behind. The sisters become the stars in the Pleiades constellation, and their pursuer is the base of the Big Dipper14.

This scene repeats every evening when the stars rise from the horizon, which is why the dreaming is not composed of historical stories (which is suggested by the term ‘dreamtime’), but rather it is the observation of repeated creation.

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The Bandiagara Escarpment The hostile landscape as a refuge

MALI

The Bandiagara Escarpment is 150 kilometre sandstone outcrop surrounded by a sandy plain that divides Mali, in western Africa. Despite being an inhospitable landscape with no surface water and temperatures reaching 47 °c, the Bandiagara Escarpment has been a refuge for multiple successive civilisations that adapted to the harsh conditions1.

The earliest known inhabitants were the Toloy who lived along the cliff during 5th century BCE to the 6th century CE, the Tellem then created villages along the cliffs from the 11th to 15th centuries CE, who were then pushed out by the migration of the Dogon people during the 15th century CE2. The towering escarpment offered protection to these people, who built on the infrastructure developed by the previous inhabitants.

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This chapter explores how cultures respond to the opportunities and challenges of an extreme landscape. African landscapes are often omitted from landscape architecture studies, likely because they lack documentation and do not easily conform to the elements of Western and Eastern landscape design. However, I want to demonstrate that landscape and culture are heavily intertwined along the Bandiagara Escarpment, which makes restricts the distinction of landscape architecture from other cultural practices.

Banani

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Toloy sturctures can be found throughout the most inaccessible caves along the cliffs.

Niongono

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Tellem villages that branch up into surrounding caves sit at the top of the sandstone rumble and at the base of the cliffs. These villages were later inhabited by early Dogon people.

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The Toloy built structures high up in the cliffs of the Bandiagara Escarpment, thought to be either granaries, tombs, or both. The structures are built from coiled clay which is merged with the rocky cave to create an enclosed space.

During the time of the Toloy, Mali had a much wetter climate, and so the caves were likely used for protection from flooding and looting3.

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The Tellem arrived at the escapment in the 11th century CE and created sprawling villages along the cliff face. The Tellem farmed the fertile land of the plain, but lived and stored grain along the cliffs and in caves for protection from raiders and the harsh weather4.

Tellem villages were utilised by the Dogon people after the 15th century, when they were seeking refuge from religious persecution. After colonisation, the Dogon could safely settle on the more fertile plain, however they still use the Tellem villages for rituals and burying their dead5.

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The Dogon people settled along the Bandiagara Escapement to escape slave traders and warriors that sought to convert them to Islam. The cliffs and tabletop mountains were easily defensible and allowed unobstructed views for spotting raiders. However, the difficult conditions of the escarpment meant the Dogon people had to adapt their living to the landscape6.

I have sketched the Dogon village layout of Niongono, which is situated on a rocky sandstone outcrop surrounded by farmable land. The village clearly responds to the landscape; buildings are cell-shaped, as additions are organically added to a central structure. This style of development doesn’t attempt to impose a preconceived design onto the landscape, rather the natural conditions determine how the structures are formed. Niongono is now one of last original Dogon settlements still inhabited, as most Dogon villages have moved closer to water and fertile land. However, Niongono remains populated because it is more economical to retain the fertile plain as farmland and live on the less arable outcrop, however water must still be transported from wells to the village7.

The Dogon village of Banani was once confined to the Tellem structures along the cliff, however over time it has spilled out onto the plain where water is more readily available. Sketching this view of Banani revealed how lush the surrounding trees are compared to on the escarpment, as it is clearly in a depression with a reliable water source. The village granaries are identifiable from their thatched roofs; the more prominent a village’s granaries are, the more prosperous it is. Banani also doesn’t share Niongono’s organic layout, as the open plain places less restriction on the development of new structures8.

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It is difficult to find examples of ‘landscape architecture’ along the Bandiagara Escarpment, despite thousands of years of inhabitation. This could be partly contributed to the difficulty in generating a food surplus due to a arid landscape, as well as the lack of a central bureaucracy. However, I would argue that rather than shaping the landscape, the people have instead shaped their societies to advantages presented by their environment. The Toloy granaries are formed in a way which merges them with the surrounding landscape, and the Dogon village of Niongono organically develops in response to its topography. Many African societies haven’t developed a separation from their landscape similar to the state-based societies of Europe and Asia, rather their settlements are the landscape. The mud-based structures along the escarpment can be better understood as works of landscape architecture rather than traditional architecture; their form must be regularly shaped from the landscape’s matter, lest they slowly crumble and return to the land.

The people of the Bandiagara Escarpment would not be considered nomadic like many Aboriginal Australian groups, however their settlements feature a degree of latent ephemerality which allows them to adapt to the environment and its most advantageous opportunities at a particular time. I believe these ideas provide a unique lens for understanding African landscape architecture, rather than searching for examples of gardens and parks that conform with European and Asian landscape design.

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References Sacred Forests

Angkor Wat

The Seven Sisters

The Bandigara Escarpment

1. Alliance of Religions and Conservation. “Shintoism.”

Faiths and Ecology. Accessed November 2020. http:// www.arcworld.org/faiths.asp?pageID=117

1. Rod-ari, Melody. “Angkor Wat.” Khan Academy.

Accessed November 2020. https://www.khanacademy. org/humanities/ap-art-history/south-east-se-asia/ cambodia-art/a/angkor-wat

1. Malcom, Lynee. and Willis, Olivia. “Songlines: the Indigenous memory code.” Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Published July 8, 2016. https://www.abc. net.au/radionational/programs/allinthemind/songlinesindigenous-memory-code/7581788

1. UNESCO. “Cliff of Bandiagara.” World Heritage Centre.

Accessed November 2020. https://whc.unesco.org/en/ list/516/

3. Ibid.

3. Foundation Dogon Education. “Conservation Toloy.” Project Proposal. Published June 2015. http://partnerspaysdogon.nl/wp-content/ uploads/2017/05/150610_Proposal-Toloy-_compriversion.pdf

2. Noto Regional GIAHS Executive Committee. “Keta Taisha Shrine.” Accessed November 2020. http://notosatoyamasatoumi.jp/detail_en.php?tp_no=240

2. Mark, Joshua J. “Angkor Wat.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. Published February 13, 2020. https:// www.ancient.eu/Angkor_Wat/

3. Manabu, Toya. “Nature Worship in Old Shinto.” Nippon. com https://www.nippon.com/en/views/b05213/ 3. Approach guides. “Cosmology Shapes Design of Angkor Wat Temple.” Accessed November 2020.

4. Cartwright, Mark. “Shinto Architecture.” Ancient History https://www.approachguides.com/blog/cosmologyEncyclopedia. Published June 7, 2017. https://www. shapes-design-of-angkor-wat-temple/ ancient.eu/Shinto_Architecture/ 4. Vaastu International. “Vastu Shastra.” Accessed 5. Ishikawa Prefecture Tourism League. “Keta Taisha November 2020 http://www.vaastuinternational.com/ Shrine.” Accessed November 2020. https://www. vastu/Vastu_Purusha.html ishikawatravel.jp/en/spots/keta-taisha-shrine/ 5. Lawrie, Ben. “Beyond Angkor: How lasers revealed a 6. Ibid. lost city.” BBC News. Published September 23, 2014. https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-29245289 7. Ibid.

8. Alliance of Religions and Conservation. “Shintoism.”

9. Jinja Honcho Association of Shinto Shrine. “About Shrines.” Accessed November 2020. https://www. jinjahoncho.or.jp/en/shrines/index.html 10. Schumacher, Mark. “Five-Tier Pagoda.” Onmark Productions. Accessed November 2020. http://www. onmarkproductions.com/html/5-elements-pagodagravestone.html 11. Isoya, Shinji. “Creating Serenity: The Construction of the Meiji Shrine Forest.” Nippon.com. Published July 8 2020. https://www.nippon.com/en/japan-topics/g00866/ Figures 1. Trip Advisor. [Aerial view of Keta Grand Shrine precincts]. 2019. Photograph.

6. Approach guides. “Cosmology Shapes Design of Angkor Wat Temple.”

7. Ibid.

8. Ibid.

9. Encyclopedia Britannica. “Borobudur.” Accessed November 2020. https://www.britannica.com/topic/ Borobudur Figures 1. Garnhum, Peter. Aerial view. Photograph. Khan Academy.

2. Delso, Diego. Angkor Wat. 2013. Photograph.

Wikimedia Commons.

3. Vastu International. Vastu Purusha Mandala. Diagram.

2. Trip Advisor. [When you get off the parking lot, you will see the Nino Torii]. 2018. Photograph.

4. Sharp, Charles. Angkor Wat from the air. 2005.

Wikipedia.

3. Trip Advisor. [Aerial view of Keta Grand Shrine precincts]. 2019. Photograph.

5. Jain, Chandru. Hindu God, Vishnu, Angkor Wat. 2012.

Photograph. 500px.

4. Trip Advisor. [Haiden of Important Cultural Properties].

2020. Photograph.

5. Trip Advisor. [Forbidden forest]. 2020. Photograph.

6. Trip Advisor. [Bear?]. 2016. Photograph.

2. Mayor, Anne. “History of settlement in the Dogon Country over the last 2000 years.” Ounjougou, 2. National Museum Australia. “Songlines: Tracking the Université de Genève. Accessed November 2020.

Seven Sisters.” Online exhibition. Published September http://www.ounjougou.org/en/projects/mali/archaeology/ 15, 2017. https://songlines.nma.gov.au/walinynga-rockhistory-of-settlement-in-the-dogon-country-over-theart/ last-2000-years/ 4. Ibid.

5. Ibid.

6. Wroth, David. “Seven Sisters Star Dreaming.” Japingka 4. Wilke, Thomas. “Living and Spiritual Worlds of Mali’s Gallery. Published 2015. https://japingkaaboriginalart.

Dogon People”. Focus on Geography. Accessed com/articles/star-dreaming-seven-sisters/ November 2020. https://focusongeography.org/ 7. National Museum Australia. “Songlines: Tracking the publications/articles/mali/index.html Seven Sisters.”

5. Ibid.

8. De Silva, Nilmini. “Songlines and Cultural Narratives.”

6. Lauber, Wolfgang. Klimagerechte Architektur in den Medium. Published March 27, 2019. https://medium. afrikanischen Tropen [Climate-friendly architecture in com/ecovillage-journeys/songlines-and-culturalthe African tropics]. Universität Kaiserslautern: 2003. narratives-ff14c23deaee https://kluedo.ub.uni-kl.de/files/1390/Klimagerechte_ 9. Norris, Ray P., and Bill Yidumduma Harney. “Songlines Architektur_in_den_afrikanischen_Tropen.pdf and navigation in Wardaman and other Australian 7. Ibid.

Aboriginal cultures.” arXiv preprint arXiv:1404.2361 (2014). https://www.atnf.csiro.au/people/Ray.Norris/ 8. Ibid. papers/n315.pdf 10. Bayly, IAE. “Review of how indigenous people managed for water in desert regions of Australia.”

Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia 82 (1999):17-25. https://www.rswa.org.au/publications/ Journal/82(1)/82(1)bayly.pdf

Figures 1. Haan, Herman. Location of the Toloy Cave. 1965.

Diagram.

2. Wikle, Thomas. Location of the Bandiagara 11. Norris, Ray P., and Bill Yidumduma Harney. “Songlines Escarpment. 2016. Map. Research Gate. and navigation in Wardaman and other Australian Aboriginal cultures.”

3. Bedaux. Cross Sections of Toloy Cave. 1996. Diagram.

12. Wroth, David. “Seven Sisters Star Dreaming.”

4. Haan, Herman. Toloy Cave. 1964. Photograph.

6. Hidden Architecture. Cross Section. Diagram.

13. Common Ground First Nations. “Songlines.” Accessed November 2020. https://www.commonground.org.au/ learn/songlines

5. Reus, Ferdinand. Bandiagara Escarpment. 2006.

Photograph. Wikimedia.

7. Wikimedia. Angkor Wat. 2008. Diagram.

14. Wroth, David. “Seven Sisters Star Dreaming.”

8. Harding, Robert. Aerial view of Borobudur. 2004.

Photograph. Alamy.

Figures

7. Shutterstock. Ornamental Lantern Outside a Japanese Shrine. Photograph.

1. Bourke, Paul. Walinynga. 2016. Photograph. Paul Bourke Photography.

8. Nippon.com. Creating Serenity: The Construction of the Meiji Shrine Forest. 2020. Photograph.

2. Skipsey, Barry. Wati Nyiru. Photograph of Painting.

National Museum Australia.

9. Takanori, Hongo. Development manual illustration.

Drawing.

3. National Museum Australia. Cave Hill. Photograph.

4. Wiley, Chris. Zebra Finch. 2010. Photograph. Ebird.

5. McClure, Bruce. Pleiades. 2019. Photograph. EarthSky. 6. Micks, Joesphine. Seven Sisters Songline. 1994.

Painting. Ninuku Arts.

6. MAPS Geosystems. Niongono. 1996. Topography map.

7. Boncompain, Rene. Village Dogon. 2009. Photograph.

Wikimedia.