Harvesting Structure

RIBA Studio: Diploma in Architecture T7a Technology – Project Related Report

HARVESTING STRUCTURE:

Parabolic Adaptations Using Reeds

TIMOTHY PHILIP GENTRY | 14/2/138 Word count: 1555 26th October 2017

‌‌ Contents Abstract 1 1 Introduction 3 2 Wetland Reeds 3 2.1 Reed types and habitat 8 2.2 Sustainability 8 2.3 Basic Anatomy 13 2.4 Physical & mechanical properties 16 2.5 Traditional construction techniques 18 2.6 Limitations 19 3 The Hyperboloid 19 3.1 What is a Hyperboloid?

24 3.2 Architectural application 32 3.3 Loading tests 37 4 Standards 37 4.1 Building Regulations 39 5 Conclusion 41 Bibliography 45 Image List 49 Appendix A - Envirograf coating 50 Appendix B - Extract from Spatz et al, 1997

‌‌

Abstract

The significance of the impact that the waters of the river Itchen, and associated water meadows they run through, have had on the city of Winchester cannot be understated. In the re-imagined world of the horticultural city they play as important a role in defining the stories of the city and its inhabitants now as they did when the city was first established in Roman times. The holistic strategies and philosophies adopted for realising the Winchester Horticultural City Head Quarters at Wolvesey Castle dictate that the architecture, architectural components and landscape of the project should read as a unified whole.

The water meadows, having long been a source of reeds and associated agriculture, are put back to use in the project masterplan, whereby the reeds not only filter and cleans polluted water for farming, but also present a useful source of farmed construction materials for the building and local infrastructure projects. As such, the use of reeds is an essential contributing factor for creating closed-loop systems of city development management. They form an important part of the technological as well as philosophical

strategies adopted for the brief, and reinforce the concept of imagining both the city and castle ruins as contemporary walled gardens; one a microcosm of the other.

Reeds have long been used in various guises to build shelters as either thatch for roofing, a composite material for walls/ reinforcement, cladding / solar shading, as water treatment more predominantly in contemporary times, and structurally. The latter of these examples remains an ancient vernacular form of construction in the Iraqi Mudhif and the floating villages of the Uru people on Lake Titicaca, Peru. These methods have changed little for centuries, with methods having been used to create single storey dwellings and community buildings for time immemorial. These ancient methods, though largely unsuitable as a solution for the construction of the Castle HQ, may be partnered with more contemporary thinking around structural parabolic forms in an attempt to develop a more efficient use for the material and facilitate construction of the higher structures needed for the building. Through the combination of traditional and modern methods a contemporary, expressive use of the material that speaks of the place may be possible.

1: Sketch plan axonometric showing the intent to use collumns, made of reeds, as a supporting structure for the east hall in amongst the castle ruins.

1 ‌‌ Introduction

This report assesses how reeds farmed from fields within the Winchester Horticultural City may be used as a construction material for building the project Headquarters. The use of reeds in the building’s construction is intended as a poetic inference reinforcing the holistic design strategies and phenomenological experience of the structure, building on the sights, smells, sounds and tactile qualities that frame the stories of people and place. It is also an easily worked material that offers-up opportunities for open-sourced design development for city infrastructure, enabling the local population.

Although reeds have been employed as a construction material for centuries in various parts of the world, it is believed that their full potential has not been properly exploited in contemporary practice.

Existing methods, though finely crafted, employ the material in a fairly rudimentary way and do not necessarily test it to the limits of its capability. Where used structurally as a beam or column, they

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are often bulky, numerous and used exclusively for building singlestorey dwellings. Yet the material properties suggest a strength beyond current expectations. One possible method of using them more effectively may be in parabolic forms. This report tests that theory and shows how traditional methods may be employed in new forms expanding their application.

2. A central hyperboloid column made of bamboo at The Green School in Bali by IBUKU

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2 ……

Wetland Reeds

Reed construction can be traced back to ancient Egyptian building methods using semi-circular columns formed from bundles of reeds, but contemporary uses have their roots in Iraq and Peru (Dabaieh and Mamdouh, 2015). Existing examples provide the main point of reference for analysing the application of parabolas in the headquarter’s supporting structure.

2.1

Reed types and habitat

A few studies have been conducted on the giant reed Arundo donax, as well as the more common Arundo phragmite. Although these reeds may not be currently found in the Winchester water meadows, they may be used as a point of comparison for related species (Spatz, Beismann, Brüchert, Emanns and Speck, 1997).

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3. The Iraqi Mudhif is made entirely from reeds, including columns, beams, walls, roof and cladding.

4. The lattice work of the wall cladding provides natural ventilation as well as stability

Wetland Reeds

REED TYPE

HABITAT

LOCALE

Arundo Donax (Giant Reed)

Grows near/ along: • wetlands • rivers • ponds • sand dunes • verges of agricultural fields.

Native to Eastern Asia but also grown in the Middle East, North Africa and southern Europe.

Arundo Phragmite

Grows in: • swamps • creeks/ rivers • ponds • Resilient to moisture and salts - sea water environments.

(Considered by some to be superior to Arundo Donax for these reasons).

Found in Egypt and other temperate and tropical regions of the world

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Table 1. Information sources - Dabaieh and Mamdouh, 2015; Reinhardt, Salahi and Schatz, 1997; Wikipedia C., 2017.

Considered as pests in some countries, their habitat is confined in areas around Winchester and seen as being easily manageable if other viable species were to be introduced. Harvesting normally occurs in winter when the stem wall interior is dry.

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5. Reed beds in the Winnall Moors, Winchester. Hurricane Brian hit a couple nights before this photo and the sample were taken.

6. Example of Arundo Donax L. Notice the extremely thick stems. (Barreca, 2012, p.48)

7. Section through the stem wall of the Arundo Donax.

(Spatz, Beismann, BrĂźchert, Emanns and Speck, 1997)

Wetland Reeds

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Winnall Moors Nature Reserve

Site

8. Location plan of the city of Winchester. The water meadows and their flood plains are clearly visible to the north and south as their waters pass through the city center.

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2.2 Sustainability • Reeds are a fast-growing, easily available and cheap resource that can be grown locally with minimal transportation costs.

• They are a carbon catcher and filter pollution out of both the water and air broadening the variety of crops that can be farmed.

• Being a natural material, the embodied energy in their production is significantly lower than man-made materials such as brick, concrete, steel and glass.

• High thermal insulation with a thermal conductivity of k = 0.063W/mK (Barreca, 2012, p.48).

• Can be composted and recycled in city anaerobic digestion power plants and / or as planting compost.

2.3

Basic anatomy

Reeds are hollow structures. The stem wall can be broken down into two general sections: i) an outer Hypodermal Sterome layer where some photosynthesis occurs; and ii) the thick inner Parenchymatous tissue.

Stem diameters and thicknesses narrow from the base to the top and vary depending on species (table 2). Lengths are divided

Wetland Reeds

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where nodes appear from which the leaves grow and are generally speaking a structural weak point.

Reed Type

Diameter Range (mm)

Wall Thickness (mm)

Stem Height (m)

Arundo Donax

10 - 50

1.8 - 5.6

4-6

Arundo Phragmite

2 - 25

0.9 - 1.8

>2

0.5 - 1.5

> 1.8

Winnall Sample 4 - 7 (partial)

Table 2. Information sources - Dabaieh and Mamdouh, 2015; Reinhardt, Salahi and Schatz, 1997; Winnall Moors Sample.

9 & 10. Sample taken from the moors snapped off 11. Stem section cut. The outer hypodermal at the node, where individual leaves spur off from. sterome and inner parenchyma layers are clearly distinguishable.

Freshly cut, the hydrated parenchyma is relatively thick. The vascular bundles are also clearly visible at this point. The woody lignification (depostis of lignin on the cells) of these bundles is part of the reason for the extreme strength of giant reed.

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12. The examined sample was taken from the Winnall Moors in Winchester.

Wetland Reeds 11

13. Reed disected into component parts ready to test. Leaves stripped from stems to reveal white hypodermal sterome. Nodes separated from internodal lengths. Numbered from 1 (base of reed) to 6 (top of reed). Note it does not neccesarily follow that internodal lengths are always shorter than the length below on the stem. This stem had recieved damage, in some instances significant, to all stem lengths sampled. It is assumed this was due to the recent hurricane Brian, rather than from the instant it was sampled.

14.

15.

16.

14. Single node with leaf stripped; 15. Node section. Most likely place for a stem to snap; 16. A stem bears fractures along its length from tangential compression, assumingly from recent severe winds.

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17-22. Reed diameters from 1 to 6 in mm - 7, 6.3, 5.9, 5.8, 5.2 and 5 respectively.

23. Reed lengths from 1 to 6 in millimeters - 149, 140, 136, 112, 114 and 101 respectively. Note the reed sample was incomplete, with sections from both the top and bottom missing. The reed section was thought to be from the upper mid-part of its length, and was probably not fully grown yet judging by other reeds in the vicinity.

Wetland Reeds 13

2.4

Physical & mechanical properties

Reeds, although individually they can be weak, when combined their tensile, compressive and bending strength can be enhanced.

The stems also have natural elastic limits that snap sequentially (Appendix B) enabling them to limit damage, in high winds for example, before failing completely (Spatz, Beismann, BrĂźchert, Emanns and Speck, 1997).

This characteristic could be used

advantageously in the curving forms of a hyperboloid.

Reed Type

Mean Tensile Strength (MPa)

Mean Compressive Strength (MPa)

Mean Bending Strength (MPa)

Arundo Donax

33.46

69.16

135.2

Arundo Phragmite

87.1

41.5

54.6

Table 3. Information sources - Dabaieh and Mamdouh, 2015; Reinhardt, Salahi and Schatz, 1997. Stated values are inclusive of nodes within stems

The tensile strength of arundo phragmite is more than double its compressive strength, while the opposite is true of the arundo donax. Lignification of the inner parenchyma layer in the donax contributes to its great strength. The compressive strength of the donax is even more impressive when compared with green timber materials as their tensile strengths are comparable (Spatz et al, 1997). The properties of a proposed reed species will need to be considered on a case-by-case basis when defining their best application. In this case donax would appear most suitable for compressive loads, while phragmite more for tensile loads.

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24. The not-exactly-scientific method: Flour divided 25. Not possible to test the strength of the stem by into incremental weights for testing compresssive balancing weights directly on top, so a ‘seesaw’ rig strength: 50g, 100g, 200g, 500g, 1.5kg. was set up.

26. Fairly impressively, the base stem (no.1), held 27. The upper most stem sample, no.6, also held all all of the weights to hand, a total of 7.41kg, as a of the weight with no problems. moment.

28. Damage previously incurred by the no.6 stem is more evident once dry, but made no difference to the test for the weight used.

Wetland Reeds 15

29. The most severaly damaged stem no.5, taken 30. The stem failed with the extra 1.3kg placed from the upper part of the reed, withstood a load of on top. A basic test, but fairly promising to know 6.06kg without breaking. that even a badly damaged reed can hold a fairly substantial weight. Would have been useful to have had a more accurate weight range for its failure.

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2.5

Harvesting Structure

Traditional construction techniques

The traditional, vernacular Mudhif of Iraq are built using reeds to form columns, cladding, reinforcement and roofing. There are two main typologies: i) a large free standing structure as in the Mudhif; ii) a group of units enclosed by a fence.

The proposal is to amalgamate both of these into a new, potentially more efficient, supporting structure.

The first considers lattice work of small reed bundles used to form walls and roofs. These are malleable forms, the structure of which can be curved round a wall or translated into a hyperboloid.

The second is in the dense reed columns of the Mudhif.

By combining these two traditional elements of construction, a more efficient use of the reeds may be envisaged.

31. Small bundles of reeds are combined in a lattice mesh, or ‘net’, that can be bent to suit the curve of a wall. In this case they are also rendered. This lattice work is seen in the construction of the Iraqi ‘Al Aesh’ as well as the ‘Sheibika’ and ‘Al Saddad’ methods (Dabaieh and Mamdouh, 2015, p.7-9). This lattice work replicates that employed in making a hyperboloid, discussed later, and thus is a transferable technique. (Dabaieh and Sakr, 2015, p.10).

Wetland Reeds 17

32.

33.

34.

32-34. Illustrations showing how reed bundles are handled. 32. Making nodes and ties; 33. Sawing reed bundle to length; 34. binding two reed columns/ beams together (Dabaieh and Sakr, 2015, p. 13). Could be adapted by alternating the orientation that the reeds are bound into a bundle/ columns are bound together to create a consistent width across long lengths.

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2.6 Limitations If not properly treated before use or harvested in the wrong season, reeds may become unusable through rot, fungi and insect pests.

They are also a highly flammable material with individually weak compressive or tensile strength depending on the species (Dabaieh and Mamdouh, 2015).

35. These are malleable columns bent over and connected at the peak to form a barrel vault. Columns are usually placed at reasonably close intervals to each other, with reed lattice work filling in the gaps.

By joining reed bundle lengths together their application resembles the vascular bundles within the reeds themselves, only in a larger scale.

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3 ‌‌ The Hyperboloid

3.1

What is a hyperboloid?

A hyperboloid can be broken down into 3 component parts.

The basis of the shape starts as a parabola, which is a single plane curve with 1 line of symmetry.

By mirroring this curve from the base, a hyperbola is created with 2 lines of symmetry.

Rotating both of these curves about their axes creates the 2 primary surface definitions - an elliptic paraboloid, and a hyperboloid.

A further surface definition, and one which shares properties with both these shapes, is a hyperbolic paraboloid. The shape looks a bit like a pringle, or saddle, and when looked at in section contains many hyperbolas as well as parabolas.

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36. Left - Elliptic paraboloid: only one axis of symmetry with no centre. Elevation shows the parabola.

Right - Hyperboloid: never cylindrical and has 3 different central axis/ planes of symmetry. Elevation shows the hyperbola.

The Hyperboloid 21

34.

35.

36.

37.

34 & 35. Cylindrical form with straight strands spanning top to bottom.

36 & 37. Twisting the tops creates a curved form, but the strands remain straight.

This called a hyperboloid of revolution.

41. Tetrahedron frame built as a base, 42. Second layer of stright strands fixed then staight strands glued across over the top spanning opposite direction. struts with equal spacing.

A hyperbolic parabola lattice is the result.

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43. This hyperbolic parabola can be 44. A section taken through the upper curves of the shape reveals thought of as a segment taken from a hyperbola. two hyperboloids of revolution. If it were rotated about a central axis the same shape would result.

45. Perpendicular sections taken through the curve reveal two separate instances of a parabola.

The Hyperboloid 23

A Chinese finger trap is an example of a familiar item that behaves a bit like a hyperboloid. The puzzle works by exploiting the hyperboloid’s behaviour.

46. The base shape is cylindrical, fingers are inserted with ease as the shape squashes and widens (Brown, unkonwn). Here, the author is speculating about the use of hyperboloids in the field of medicine.

47. (Brown, J., unkonwn) Action of the tube as it is stretched: • When pulling your fingers apart, the material grips on your skin and the shape changes from a cylinder to a hyperboloid.

• As you pull your fingers apart further, the internal column diameter narrows and the strands begin to straighten, clamping down on your fingers as they do.

• To release you have to squash the form back into a cylinder, widening the internal diameter and thus releasing.

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3.2

Harvesting Structure

Architectural application

The interest in the form lies in how it behaves depending on the material used. The shape is formed by straight members arranged in a cylinder and then twisted to create the curved hyperboloid of revolution. By joining this with another layer spanning the opposite direction, a stable yet malleable structure is created.

To create a cylindrical column using reeds, each individual strand needs to be bent to form individual parabolas, similar to the Chinese finger trap.

This should create a more economically stable column than a reed bundle column of equal diameter, and one which could be extended higher. Structural properties of the reed can be used in symbiosis with the form function.

Structural testing of the maquette revealed where likely advantages may be seen. The way the shape naturally deforms could be combined with a reed’s tensile strength to enhance these properties.

Material compressive strength is enhanced with a bound, latticed structure employing both traditional and contemporary methods.

Better bending strength may even make it possible to use the reed in structural beams.

The Hyperboloid 25

48.

50.

51.

49.

48. 19 pairs of skewers counted out. Clear hairbands for tieing together; 49. Pairs tied together in the middle; 50. 10 pairs twisted to form an ‘X’ and overlaid with each other to create a distinct inner and outer layer; 51. Corresponding ends of first pair and tenth pair tied together, then continue tieing other ends off sequentially.

52: Once all ends are fixed, a hyperboloid is formed from all the straight strands. With the only fixing points being at the end of each skewer and in the middle, although maleable, the form has a tendency to slump. This is termed as a ‘negative tangent stiffness’, and is resolved with further fixing and bracing of the structure at nodal points and with tension rings around the diameter (Estrada, Bungartz and Mohrdieck, 2005).

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53. Hyperboloid can be squash to form a column. To form a cylinder the strands will need to be braced internally and bent around a former.

54. Pingpong ball used as a former to pull the strands around internally. Structure is very stiff when braced like this. Bracing will need securing to prevent it being dislodged when pressure is applied to the struts.

55. Two layers of straight strands can be seen spanning the width / height of the hyperboid. The inner and outer layers are hyperboloids of revolution moving in opposite directions to one another..

The Hyperboloid 27

56 & 57. Detail shots of the hyperboloid. Ping-pong ball acts as an internal bracing compression ring. It is a beautiful and expressive form difficult not to like. Reed columns formed in this way would be a fitting celebration of the material and manifestation of the horticultural city project’s produce.

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58. (ArchDaily, 2013) Kontum Indochine Café by Vo Trong Nghia Architects. The fanned bamboo cladding of the columns forms a hyperboloid.

59. (ArchDaily, 2013) The supporting column bracing reinforces this perception of the hyperboloid, as when used in numerous multiples rotated about the centre they form the same shape as the maquette tested. The central column will be in comression, but the bracing of the hyperboloid will be in both tension and compression. The cladding likely functions as a brace against bending moments yet is not integral to the structure, the compression rings compensate for the ‘negative tangent stiffness’.

The Hyperboloid 29

60. (Unkown, c2013) A central column of the Green School’s main building has tension rings formed from (probably steamed) bamboo itself which also provide support for cross members.

61. (IBUKU, unkonwn) Central column in the kindergarten Classroom is supported on foundations that follow the path of the forces coming from an individual bamboo strut.

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62. (Unknown, c.2016) Former Commonwealth Institute by RMJM. The building is famous for its hyperbolic parabola roof forms. A beautiful structure now home to the London Design Museum.

63. (OMA, unknown) Just the base points of the central hyperbolic parabola touch the ‘ground’. The upper edges form a bearing for the adjacent hyperbolic parabola roof forms and contain the clerestorey.

The Hyperboloid 31

64. King’s Cross Station by John McAslan + Partners. The supporting structure for the roof is a vast sheet of tubular steel formed as a partial hyperboloid. The front face of the base of the column is slightly flattened.

They have also had to introduce further bracing to the form by trianglating the structure properly to prevent individual sections of the hyperboloid from spreading under the loads. Triangulation and stiff joints are an alternative to tensile bracing to eliminate the ‘negative tangent stiffness’. Tensile bracing here was likely not as viable an option as the form is only a small section of a hyperboloid rather than the full rotation. It should also be noted that all precedents illustrated have expressive forms as thier insulated volumes are contained within separate structures underneath. The same will be true of the project headquarters as it is a working garden, hence the majority of the structure does not require insulating.

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3.3

Harvesting Structure

Loading tests

The column/ beam was tested for two compressive loads, one applied vertically, the other to the shape’s middle.

65 & 66. Table tennis balls were inserted into the hyperboloid as a former to bend the strands of the hyperboloid (skewers) around and create a cylindrical shape. These provided compressive bracing within the column. This was combined with tensile bracing using cable ties around the exterior of the column. Although the resultant shape was close enough, one half of the post maintained a slight hyperboloid deformation.

The Hyperboloid 33

67. Test 1: A compressive load test of the hyperboloid was fairly straight forward. The diameter to length ratio was roughly 1:5. A 50mm wide column and 260mm long. The result was not surprising. The weight was applied gradually but no deformation was observed and the full 7.41kg was supported with ease (the pot was 3kg and lid roughly 1.3kg, flour was 3.11kg total. It was also stable without any bracing needing to be added. Testing it until failure was not possible as more industrial equipment would likely be needed to do so.

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68: 3kg

74: 5.5kg

69: 3.5kg

6kg - beam beginning to sag

70: 4kg

6.5kg

66. Test 2: A rig was set up for the beam using cardboard to allow weights to be hung off of it. There were not alternative materials available to hand that could be shaped into a suitable cradle for the beam, hence using the cardboard. Weights were hung starting with the 3kg of the pot, then increased in 50g increments intially. When the beam was seen to be performing well this was increased to 100g increments until some significant deformation could be observed.

The Hyperboloid 35

Compressive bracing deformation

71: 4.5kg

5kg

77: 6.6kg

6.7kg

6.8kg

80: 6.9kg

7kg

7.1kg

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83: 7.2kg

86: 7.36kg

84: 7.26kg

87: 7.41kg

85: 7.31kg The beam withstood the loading with ease and had only just begun to deform towards the end of the test. The hyperboloid half of the beam was beggining to tighten as it began to flex more. Seems a reasonable conclusion that if the beam were formed in a similar manner then it would be very strong at this short span. A longer span would be tested ideally. The longer the span then the more important to have beams formed with a curvature so they are flat when carrying the dead load.

88. Upon closer inspection, the central ping-pong ball acting as internal compressive bracing is seen to be deforming under the load. When the load was removed the ball returned to it’s previous spherical shape.

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4 ……

Standards

4.1

Building Regulations

There is no guidance in building control documentation regulating the use of reeds for construction purposes and hence data on them is hard to come by. However, compliance may be inferred by due consideration of the contributing elements.

Part A – Compressive strength analysed on a case by case basis depending on reed type. Both reed types discussed have mean compressive strengths in excess of 10MPa. Tensile strengths are also more than adequate.

Part B - Reeds are a highly flammable material, hence a retardant/ intumescent layer such as Envirograf with be needed (see appendix A). Columns to be installed with intumescent fire-breaks around internal bracing to close ‘chimney’ in event of fire. Sprinkler systems to be installed both during (the highest risk phase) and

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after construction for further protection.

Part C - The damp, temperate climate of the UK dictates columns will need to raised up off ground level. Creased tile plinths with DPC’s can be used to protect columns bases from damp.

Part L – Excellent insulating qualities of reeds reduce the potential for thermal bridging between structural and thermal elements (Barreca, F., September 2012).

Structure may remain exposed

and expressed with isolated building functions insulated where necessary.

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5 ‌‌ Conclusion

Although it is not possible to test the true potential of employing the methods discussed for building the supporting structure of the headquarters due to the scales involved, enough information is available in existing precedents and material analysis to make reasonable assumptions. The hyperboloid is a favourite method of form finding in modern practice and continues to be employed in numerous projects as a means of creating efficient but expressive structures. Tests on the strength of the reed and hyperboloid maquette, and compatibility of traditional construction methods, indicate a viable and workable solution to employing the locally farmed reeds within the architectural language of the building and place. This solution reinforces the sense of symbiosis between landscape and architecture and sets the scene for new local narratives to weave themselves into the fabric of the site and city.

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89. Diagram of proposed reed column design.

41

Bibliography Books Bohn, K.; Viljoen, A., August 2015. Second Nature Urban Agriculture: Designing Productive Cities. London: Routledge.

Elizabeth, L. and Adams, C., 2005. Alternative Construction: Contemporary Natural Building Methods. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Jackson, P., 2011. Folding Techniques for Designers: From sheet to form.

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Pelsmakers, S., 2015. The Environmental Design Pocketbook. 2nd ed. RIBA Publishing.

Journal Articles Barreca, F., September 2012. Use of giant reed Arundo Donax L. in rural constructions. Agricultural Engineering International: CIGR Journal, 14(3), pp.

46-52.

Roberts, D., September 2011. Country practices. Architecture Today, (221), pp.

1, 46-93.

Reinhardt, H.W., Salahi, M.H., Schatz, T., 1997. Strength of Reed from Egypt.

Materials and Structures, (28), pp. 345-349.

Spatz, H.-Ch., Beismann, H., BrĂźchert, F., Emanns, A. and Speck, Th., 1997.

Biomechanics of the Giant Reed Arundo Donax. Philosophical Transactions of The Royal Society of London B, (352), pp. 1-10.

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Websites/ Online Resources/ PDFs ArchDaily, 13th October 2010. The Green School / IBUKU. [online] Available at: <https://www.archdaily.com/81585/the-green-school-pt-bambu> [Accessed 24th October 2017] Bouteba, M., 1st December 2016. The seven wonders of the new Design Museum, [online] Available at: <https://www.timeout.com/london/art/the-sevenwonders-of-the-new-design-museum> [Accessed 25th October 2017] CIBSE, September 2011. Carbon, Energy and Cost Assessment - to Refurbish/ Rebuild Aging Resident Blocks. [online] Available at: <http://www.cibse.org/ knowledge/knowledge-items/detail?id=a0q20000008I74S> [Accessed 22nd October 2017] Dabaieh, M., Sakr, M., 6th November 2015. Building with Reeds: Revitalising a building tradition for low carbon building practice. [PDF online] Available at: <https://lucris.lub.lu.se/ws/files/6135559/8408751.pdf> [Accessed 28th August 2017].

Dent, A., 13th February 2013. The Green School: Think Hogwarts But in the Jungle [online] Available at: <http://thefoxisblack.com/2013/02/13/the-greenschool-think-hogwarts-but-in-the-jungle/> [Accessed 24th October 2017] Estrada, G.G., Bungartz, H.-J. and Mohrdieck, C., 2005. On Cylindrical Tensegrity Structures. [pdf online] Available at: <https://www5.in.tum.de/pub/ estrada05cylindrical.pdf> [Accessed 25th October 2017] Gonzalez, M.A.O., 21st October 2016. How to make a Hyperboloid of revolution. [video online] Available at: <https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=xAPzJBxoZ7k&index=4&list=PLEYUOx6I7poTr8cDE3ksYg_ Mzu7M2Gcho> [Accessed 25th October 2017] Ikhlas Abbis Photography, (unkown). Marsh Architecture. [online] Available at: <http://www.abbis.photo/portfolio/architecture/> [Accessed 25th October 2017]

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Image List All images by the author unless where stated below.

Figure 2: PT Bambu, 2010. The Green School / IBUKU. [image online] Available at: <https://www.archdaily.com/81585/the-green-school-pt-bambu> [Accessed 24th October 2017] Figure 3: Iraqi Civil Society Solidarity Initiative, 28th November 2013. The muddhif is a reed structure where the tribeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sheikhs gather to discuss issues of importance to the community. [image online] Available at: <http://www.iraqicivilsociety.org/ archives/948> [Accessed 25th October 2017] Figure 4: Abbis, I., (unknown). 04_IRQ_Marsh_Architecture_ABB. [image online] Available at: <http://www.abbis.photo/portfolio/architecture/> [Accessed 25th October 2017] Figure 6: Barreca, F., 2012. Arundo Donax L. Reproduced in: Barreca, F., September 2012. Use of giant reed Arundo Donax L. in rural constructions. Agricultural Engineering International: CIGR Journal, 14(3), pp. 46-52.

Figure 7: Spatz, 1997. Cross-section showing part of the stem wall of an internode from the middle part of the stalk. Reproduced in: Spatz, H.-Ch., Beismann, H., BrĂźchert, F., Emanns, A. and Speck, Th., 1997. Biomechanics of the Giant Reed Arundo Donax. Philosophical Transcations of The Royal Society of London B, (352), pp. 1-10.

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Figure 31: Dabaieh, M. and Sakr, M., 2015. A crudely applied mud mortar. Reproduced in: Dabaieh, M., Sakr, M., 6th November 2015. Building with Reeds: Revitalising a building tradition for low carbon building practice. [PDF online] Available at: <https://lucris.lub.lu.se/ws/files/6135559/8408751.pdf> [Accessed 28th August 2017].

Figure 32: Al Najar, I.I.I, 2015. Sketch showing how to make nodes and ties. Reproduced in: Dabaieh, M., Sakr, M., 6th November 2015. Building with Reeds: Revitalising a building tradition for low carbon building practice. [PDF online] Available at: <https://lucris.lub.lu.se/ws/files/6135559/8408751.pdf> [Accessed 28th August 2017].

Figure 33: Al Najar, I.I.I, 2015. Cutting the reeds with saws based on the length needed.

Reproduced in: Dabaieh, M., Sakr, M., 6th November 2015. Building with Reeds: Revitalising a building tradition for low carbon building practice. [PDF online] Available at: <https://lucris.lub.lu.se/ws/files/6135559/8408751.pdf> [Accessed 28th August 2017].

Figure 34: Al Najar, I.I.I, 2015. Connecting two reed columns together. Reproduced in: Dabaieh, M., Sakr, M., 6th November 2015. Building with Reeds: Revitalising a building tradition for low carbon building practice. [PDF online] Available at: <https://lucris.lub.lu.se/ws/files/6135559/8408751.pdf> [Accessed 28th August 2017].

Figure 35: Abbis, I., (unknown). 19_IRQ_Marsh_Architecture_ABB. [image online] Available at: <http://www.abbis.photo/portfolio/architecture/> [Accessed 25th October 2017].

Image List 47

Figures 46 and 47: Brown, J., (unkonwn). An innovative design for a scaffold for an artificial tendon.

When stretched it pulls tight, like a Chinese finger trap. [image online] Available at: <http://www.kurzweilai.net/how-to-engineer-a-better-synthetic-tendonreplacement> [Accessed 24th October 2017].

Figure 58: ArchDaily, 27th June 2013. 113KIC05. [image online] Available at: < https:// www.archdaily.com/392710/kontum-indochine-cafe-vo-trong-nghia-architects> [Accessed 26th October 2017].

Figure 59: ArchDaily, 27th June 2013. Detail. [image online] Available at: < https://www. archdaily.com/392710/kontum-indochine-cafe-vo-trong-nghia-architects> [Accessed 26th October 2017].

Figure 60: Unkown, c2013. GreenSchool. Reproduced in: Dent, A., 13th February 2013.

The Green School: Think Hogwarts But in the Jungle [online] Available at: <http://thefoxisblack.com/2013/02/13/the-green-school-think-hogwarts-but-inthe-jungle/> [Accessed 24th October 2017].

Figure 61: IBUKU, unkonwn. IBUKU_GS-Kindergarten_2008_kindergarten-sec. [image online] Available at: <http://ibuku.com/kindergarten-classroom/. [Accessed 25th October 2017] Figure 62: Unknown, c.2016. Image. Reproduced in: Bouteba, M., 1st December 2016.

The seven wonders of the new Design Museum. [online] Available at: <https:// www.timeout.com/london/art/the-seven-wonders-of-the-new-design-museum> [Accessed 25th October 2017]

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Figure 63: OMA, unknown. commonwealth_institute_180308_1. [image online] Available at: <https://www.e-architect.co.uk/london/commonwealth-instituteredevelopment> [Accessed 26th October 2017] Figures 64: Hufton and Crow, c2012. stringio. [image online] Available at: <https://www. archdaily.com/219082/kings-cross-station-john-mcaslan-partners> [Accessed 26th October 2017]

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Appendix A - Envirograf coatings

TECHNICAL DATA SHEET

ENVIROGRAF® TD042-HW EXCEL CLEAR-04-2015

Product Number: 42 HW Excel Clear Top Coat Description: A solvent based product to apply over HW02/E – no need for an undercoat. Available in Matt, Satin or Gloss finishes. Gives an easy to maintain clear finish to all types of timber substrate.

For internal use.

Coverage: HW Excel Clear is supplied ready for use and does not need thinning.

For internal use apply 1 coat at 10 – 12m² per litre (Ensure end grain is treated with each coat) VOC Content: High VOC content: 25 – 50% EU limit value for this product (Cat A/d): 500g/l (2007) / 400g/l (2010) This product contains max 400g/l VOC Ordering references: HW Excel Clear + size required (available in 1 litre, 2.5 litre and 5 litre containers) Can be supplied to RAL colours on request (extra charge applies). Please call technical department for further details.

ENVIROGRAF HOUSE, BARFRESTONE, DOVER, KENT, CT15 7JG, TEL: 01304 842555, FAX: 01304 842666

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Appendix B - Extract from: Spatz, Beismann, BrĂźchert, Emanns and Speck, 1997, p. 2 + 6.

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Notes:

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RIBA Studio: Diploma in Architecture T7a Technology â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Project Related Report Timothy Gentry