TBI TIMES SPRING 2025 by TBI Times

MOLECULAR CLUES BEHIND TBI

KETAMINE THERAPY FOR TBI

HOW TBI HAS SHAPED THE WORLD WE KNOW

STEM CELL THERAPY FOR TBI

BRAIN BUILDING BREAKTHROUGH

ELON MUSK’S NEURALINK — A POTENTIAL TBI GAME CHANGER

NATIONWIDE TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY & CATASTROPHIC INJURY ATTORNEYS

ABOUT BRIAN CHASE:

45 YEARS OF TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY & CATASTROPHIC INJURY EXPERTISE

BRIAN CHASE

OCBA Board of Directors Masters Division - 2023

Chair - OCBA Tort & Trial Section - 2023

Daily Journal Top Plaintiﬀ Lawyer - 2020–2021

President CAOC - 2015

Trial Lawyer of the Year OCTLA - 2014

Trial Lawyer of the Year

CAOC - 2012

Trial Lawyer of the Year

Nominee CAALA - 2012

President OCTLA - 2007

Product Liability Trial Lawyer of the Year OCTLA - 2004

Brian Chase is the Managing Partner and Senior Trial Attorney at Bisnar Chase. The law ﬁrm specializes in auto defects, trucking accidents, traumatic brain injury (TBI) & catastrophic injury cases, mass torts, and consumer and employment class actions.

Mr. Chase is a multiple Trial Lawyer of the Year winner and a Past President of both the Consumer Attorneys of California and the Orange County Trial Lawyers Association.

9 - FIGURES

Consumer Class Action

MULTIPLE 8 - FIGURES

Seatback Failure - Auto Defect

MULTIPLE 8 - FIGURES

Dangerous Condition - Govt. Entity

AUTO DEFECT, TBI, PERSONAL INJURY, EMPLOYMENT, CLASS ACTION & MASS TORT:

MULTIPLE 8 - FIGURES

Burn Injury - Product Defect

8 - FIGURES

MULTIPLE 8 - FIGURES

Negligence - Rehab Facility

8 - FIGURES

MULTIPLE 8 - FIGURES

Motorcycle Accident

8 - FIGURES

15-Passenger Van - Auto Defect

MULTIPLE 7 - FIGURES

Wage & Hour Class Action

MULTIPLE 7 - FIGURES

Door Latch Failure

Rollover - Auto Defect

MULTIPLE 7 - FIGURES

Wage & Hour - PAGA Class Action

MULTIPLE 7 - FIGURES

Caustic Ingestion - Premises Liability

MULTIPLE 7 - FIGURES

Dangerous Condition - Govt. Entity

MULTIPLE 7 - FIGURES

Tread Separation - Auto Defect

Roof Crush – Auto Defect

MULTIPLE 7 - FIGURES

Seat Belt Failure - Auto Defect

Airbag - Auto Defect

MULTIPLE 7 - FIGURES

Post-Collision Fire - Auto Defect

TOP-NOTCH LEGAL REPRESENTATION:

Bisnar Chase is a nationwide personal injury law ﬁrm that was founded 45 years ago. Our top-rated personal injury attorneys have found continued courtroom success since 1978 and recovered over $800M in verdicts and settlements.

Our ﬁrm has earned a national reputation as one of the nation’s toughest injury law ﬁrms. Call 800-561-4887 or visit www.BestAttorney.com.

Bisnar Chase has established oﬃces in Newport Beach, Los Angeles, San Diego, Riverside, and San Bernardino.

EMPOWERING VICTIMS OF AUTO DEFECT

Brian Chase of Bisnar/Chase, Personal Injury Attorneys, LLP, knew early on that he wanted to make a difference in people’s lives. “I admired doctors because they saved lives,” he says. “I remember thinking, what a great thing it is to use your own life’s work to positively affect other lives.” Chase did not pursue a medical career but took another route that eventually allowed him to realize this mission.

Throughout college, Chase admittedly was not a “library guy” — when he wasn’t attending classes, he surfed in competitions with Bob Hurley! However, a required research project lit the fire of intellectual stimulation in him. “This [research] project really drew me in, and for the first time in my life, I was enjoying an academic pursuit,” says Chase.

During this time, Chase was working with Bisnar & Associates, a personal injury law practice, and he recognized a correlation between the satisfaction he experienced doing research and the work he was doing at the firm. “Because I was working with the firm’s principal so closely, I gained first-hand insight into how research, debate and persuasion were such a significant part of personal injury law,” says Chase. This, combined with his knowledge of the

exploding Ford Pinto fire cases and learning how Ford placed profit over lives rather than fixing the defective gas tanks thoroughly, sparked an analytical excitement coupled with his deep desire to make a difference in people’s lives. This solidified his decision to pursue personal injury law immediately following his college graduation, a path taken by few in personal injury law firms. Chase went to law school expressly to be a personal injury trial attorney.

Chase completed his education and continued with Bisnar & Associates, taking on his first jury trial only six weeks after taking the Oath of Admission. He eventually entered into a 50/50 partnership with the firm’s founder in 1998 and finally took over the firm, rechristening it Bisnar/Chase, in which the firm had expertise in all types of catastrophic injury cases but specifically in auto defect litigation.

Today Chase is known affectionately as the “auto defect guy”, with tens of thousands of case hours devoted to representing clients against billion-dollar auto manufacturers in the areas of rollover, tire, fire, roof crush, seat belt, and airbag defect catastrophes. He was even involved in the largest automotive recall in United States history; the Takata airbag recall. “You could call it the ‘David and Goliath’ effect,” he says. “I love the challenge of representing clients against these large billion dollar international auto manufacturers.”

With Chase’s expertise in auto defect law comes a wealth of knowledge and specialization in the traumatic brain injury (TBI) space. Why? Because according to Chase, where there is auto defect, there is often TBI. Take, for example, one of the auto industry’s most publicized defects, vehicle front seats collapsing in rear end accidents. Chase explains: “If you get hit from behind at 30-40 miles per hour or more, your seat will lay down flat, and you’ll be projected back into the rear seat, potentially breaking your neck and sustaining a TBI. I see several of these cases every year.”

Chase is particularly proud of the outcome of one of these cases — that of a young college student who sustained a broken neck and a TBI because of her seatback collapsing after a collision. Not only did Chase win a $24.7M verdict for this client, which met all of her life-care needs, but his winning verdict was published after a failed appeal, creating a benchmark in the law for seatback cases.

Though Bisnar /Chase takes on cases nationally and across many practice areas; premises liability, wrongful death, class action, employment law, mass torts, and more — and has won over $800M in verdicts and settlements, auto defect is where Chase finds his fulfillment. He even wrote two books about it: Still Unsafe At Any Speed, a pick up where Ralph Nadar left off in his 1965 expose of the automobile industry’s disregard for consumer safety and his more recent book, The Second Collision, a follow up and update to his first book with added trial strategies.

“This is where I find that feeling of ‘my life work matters’ because I am helping those who have been devastated by an auto defect, from being paralyzed or from suffering a catastrophic TBI that requires lifelong care. These people are often breadwinners, who are no longer capable of earning a living to support their families,” he says. “I’m passionate about helping victims of auto defects get the support and care that they and their families need.”

For more information about Bisnar /Chase, visit them online at www.BestAttorney.com or call 800-561-4887.

THE PODCAST AT THE FOREFRONT OF PERSONAL INJURY

PUBLISHER

DR. NICHOLAS LOLOEE

CHAIRMAN

ERICA CHAVEZ, ESQ.

CREATIVE + EDITORIAL DIRECTOR

MICHELLE ST. HILAIRE

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INCREASING CASE VALUES WITH NONRECOURSE CAPITAL

Like many entrepreneurs during the COVID-19 pandemic, Brett Findler, President of Priority Responsible Funding, LLC, was faced with a dilemma; how to reach his audience and grow his business at a time when everyone was in quarantine. Luckily, Findler had forged valuable relationships with many educational platforms and so he leveraged these connections to sponsor webinars which aimed to educate the personal injury law community on the value of non-recourse funding.

What happened next could only be serendipity. Not only did Findler reach his audience in Florida, where the company was founded, he became somewhat of a national sensation in the funding space, reaching audiences across the country. “We were able to reach the West Coast because a majority of these education companies were based in California,” says Findler. “Now we are funding in 28 states.” In fact, to date the company has granted in excess of FOUR HUNDRED MILLION DOLLARS in funding, empowering attorneys and helping thousands of injured clients by levelling the playing field against powerful insurance companies. “Turning the ‘Davids’ of the trial lawyer universe into ‘Goliaths’ overnight has defined my career,” says Findler.

The inspiration for his company came early in Findler ’s career as a trial attorney. “I recognized very early on that I was not getting the kind of results I wanted,” he says. “We simply didn’t have the capital needed to put on the Broadway production required to bring home the big wins.” By Broadway production, Findler means hiring the best experts, commissioning the best visuals, and obtaining the latest technology, all of which bring a case to life. “It wasn’t that I was not a good attorney,” says Findler. It simply came down to the budget.” And to make matters even worse, Findler explains, as his case values dropped and capital decreased, so did his ability to acquire the necessary tools to enter into trial prepared for battle. “I thought, there has to be a way to empower trial attorneys by providing them with the capitol they need to win cases.”

Through his partnership, Findler has been able to source unlimited capital to help trial lawyers and their seriously injured clients take on powerful insurance companies and corporations. He is passionate about informing personal injury attorneys on how they can dramatically increase their case values using non-recourse funding. “I always stress to attorneys that they need to look at funding not as a cost but as an investment,” says Findler. He equates the investment of funding and its effect on the monetary outcome of a case to that of a kitchen renovation and its effect on the sale price of a home. “A home selling for $300k more than others in the neighborhood because the owners invested $100k in a new kitchen is comparable to an attorney investing in non-recourse funding and consequently tripling the settlement of a case,” he says.

Findler also wants attorneys to know that non-recourse funding presents no risk because regardless of the outcome of a case, the funds borrowed do not need to be repaid. The only collateral is the case itself.

In addition to non-recourse funding for trials, Priority Responsible Funding also offers medical funding. This can be valuable in TBI cases because while it is fairly easy to find doctors to work on lien, it is very difficult to secure the treatment needed by TBI survivors in the same way. “I found that it was impossible to source inpatient facilities on lien for my clients suffering from TBI which is precisely what they needed,” says Findler. It was also important to Findler that his company made funding available for non-catastrophic care. He explains that in a catastrophic case, for example when a client is paralyzed, the necessary medical intervention isn’t questioned in the same way it is in a non-catastrophic case.

If all of the aforementioned doesn’t win you over, Priority Responsible Funding, LLC was founded and is run by trial attorneys. This means there is absolutely no communication gap. Attorneys seeking funding do not need to explain anything outside of the specifics of their case.This seamless customer services allows Priority Responsible Funding to quickly access a case and expedite funding so attorneys can focus on what matters — helping their clients.

For more information about Priority Responsible Funding: www. priorityresponsiblefunding.com, info@priorityresponsiblefunding.com, 855 FUNDS-4-ME (855 386 3746).

JEREMY L. TISSOT, ESQ. FOUNDER AND LEAD TRIAL ATTORNEY, THE TISSOT LAW FIRM, APLC

JEREMY TISSOT: THE TRIAL LAWYER WHO TURNS MEDICAL KNOWLEDGE INTO MILLION-DOLLAR VERDICTS

In the world of personal injury law, success is a blend of knowledge, strategy and unparalleled expertise. Few attorneys embody this formula as well as Jeremy Tissot, founder of The Tissot Law Firm, APLC. With over two decades of experience in litigating some of the most challenging and complex personal injury cases in the country, Jeremy has earned a reputation not only for winning multi-million dollar verdicts but also for his ability to bridge the often-opaque gap between medicine and law.

Jeremy’s success as a renowned trial attorney is a testament to the power of a focused, relentless commitment to learning. His legal career has spanned over 20 years, with countless high-value wins under his belt — encompassing all types of catastrophic personal injury lawsuits, including traumatic brain injury (TBI) cases. He has become a go-to expert for attorneys seeking to strengthen their cases through the application of intricate medical knowledge, often coming on board as a consultant or co-counsel at the eleventh hour before a trial.

Jeremy was recently first chair counsel in one of the largest verdicts against Costco Wholesale Corp. in history ($5 million) — an unheard-of win in the legal community. With only a $10,000 settlement offer on the table and just $40,000 in past medical bills, Jeremy’s strategic acumen and deep understanding of the medical aspect of the case led to a monumental victory. This case wasn’t just a win — it was a testament to Jeremy’s ability to turn a seemingly modest case into one worth millions.

Jeremy has earned particular recognition in the TBI niche. Take, for example, the very recent $7 million plus verdict in an mTBI case (which had a settlement offer of less than $1 million). Jeremy, once again, proved that when the right medical insights meet top-tier trial expertise, the results are nothing short of extraordinary — even when obstacles presented in the case seemed unsurmountable, such as accusations of the client making false claims of injuries.

While many trial attorneys source experts within their local region, Jeremy takes a broader, nationwide approach. Rather

than limiting himself to California’s expert pool, he actively seeks out the most qualified medical professionals across the country. His extensive network of top-tier specialists allows him to connect clinical findings with legal arguments that drive successful outcomes. “Many attorneys focus only on local experts, but if you truly want the best for your client, you have to think outside of the box,” Jeremy explains. “I bring in the right medical professionals, no matter where they are, to help ensure that the case is as strong as possible.”

This commitment to securing the best possible medical evidence for his clients is one of the key aspects that sets Jeremy apart. It’s not just about being a talented trial attorney — it’s about being someone who truly understands the medical intricacies of a case. His ability to translate complex medical terminology and treatment history into a compelling, understandable narrative is invaluable, and is precisely why he is so often called upon to bring home a verdict in the final stretch of a trial.

Jeremy’s approach to trial law can best be described as a blend of meticulous preparation, powerful storytelling and keen insight into the medical and scientific aspects of personal injury. His thorough medical knowledge allows him to effectively connect the dots between diagnoses and legal arguments, giving him a unique edge in the courtroom.

Another passion of Jeremy’s is to mentor young attorneys, offering them invaluable guidance towards elevating their trial skills, particularly when it comes to integrating medical knowledge into their legal strategy. “Law and medicine are constantly evolving, and there’s always something new to learn,” Jeremy says. “I make it a priority to stay on top of the latest scientific and medical advancements, especially in the realm of TBI. My commitment to learning never stops.”

When Jeremy isn’t scoring phenomenal wins for his clients he is sharing his invaluable knowledge by speaking on the conference circuit. His passion for education has made him

a sought-after speaker at conferences and summits such as TBI Med Legal, The Motorcycle Accident Summit, Dordick Trial College, Law Di Gras, CAALA, CAOC and others. A frequent contributor to discussions about the intersection of law and medicine, Jeremy’s commitment to continuous learning and professional development is a core component of his approach to both practice and mentorship. In addition, Jeremy serves on the CAOC board of directors, one of the leading organizations in the country protecting accident victims’ access to justice.

Giving back to the community is also a key focus for Jeremy. As Vice President (soon to be President) of LA Trial Lawyers Charities (LATLC), he has helped raise millions of dollars to make a positive difference in the quality of life for people within the greater Los Angeles area.

At the heart of his success is what Jeremy calls “The Tissot Difference.” It’s the edge that his clients, colleagues and peers recognize in him — a unique combination of legal acumen, medical knowledge and a genuine desire to help others. Jeremy Tissot’s mastery of bridging the gap between medical and legal has not only resulted in multi-million dollar verdicts for his clients but has also helped change the way attorneys approach personal injury cases nationwide. Also important to note, unlike many firms, The Tissot Law Firm offers co-counsel 50% referral fees, subject to RPC restrictions.

In the ever-evolving world of personal injury litigation, Jeremy Tissot is a true expert who has earned his place at the top. With his impressive trial record, unmatched expertise and relentless commitment to excellence, he remains the attorney to call when the stakes are high. The Tissot Law Firm has offices throughout California and also handles select cases out of state. Contact them today to experience ‘The Tissot Difference’: 888-661-0444, jtissot@tissotlaw.com. Visit The Tissot Law Firm online: www.tissotlawfirm.com. Follow Jeremy on Instagram: @TissotEsq and @TBITitan.

At BrainWorks Neuropsychological Evaluation and Treatments, we are committed to restoring minds and renewing lives through comprehensive psychological and neuropsychological care.

OUR VISION

We envision a healthy and peaceful life for individuals affected by brain injuries and emotional trauma to receive precise diagnoses and effective interventions, empowering them to regain functional independence and enhance their quality of life. Our multidisciplinary approach ensures that each patient receives tailored care addressing their unique cognitive, emotional, and functional needs.

OUR MISSION

At BrainWorks, we are dedicated to assisting and empowering clients whose lives have been negatively affected by traumatic experiences. We aim to restore daily functional skills, improve executive functioning, and renew quality of life through targeted and comprehensive psychological evaluation and neuropsychological care. Our mission is to provide expert diagnostic evaluations and research-based treatments for traumatic brain injury (TBI), mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI), emotional trauma, and other cognitive impairments. Our evidence-based assessments and treatments target executive function skills, memory, vestibular disorders, language processing, and social-emotional skills, ensuring comprehensive and personalized care for all our patients.

MEET OUR FOUNDER: DR. SHIRIN ANSARI

Dr. Shirin Ansari, a licensed clinical psychologist, is the founder and CEO of BrainWorks. She pioneered a multidisciplinary approach to evaluating and treating patients with brain injuries, integrating her expertise in neuropsychology and clinical evaluations to identify cognitive impairments and social-emotional challenges. Dr. Ansari’s research has been published in esteemed medical and psychological journals, including The Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Orange County Psychologist.

Our team of experts in neuropsychology, clinical psychology, speech/ language pathology, and occupational therapy has extensive experience treating traumatic brain injuries, concussions, and trauma.

OUR EXPERT TEAM

Dr. Shaleise Collier, Ph.D. – A neuropsychologist, Dr. Collier specializes in neurodevelopment, concussion diagnosis, and treatment. She uses CBT and Somatic Experiencing to address trauma and its symptoms, as well as the neurocognitive effects of injuries.

Dr. Diana Karjoo, Ph.D. – Specializing in neuropsychological and clinical assessments, Dr. Karjoo provides treatments for depression and anxiety. She provides effective coping strategies tailored to each individual.

Dr. Gregory Koch, Ph.D. – As a Clinical Director and fluent Spanish speaker, Dr. Koch has provided psychological assessments and treatments since 1999. He has contributed to research presented at the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and speaks on diagnostics and evidence-based treatments.

Alexa Lee, PMHNP-BC - As a psychiatric nurse practitioner, Alexa specializes in neuropsychological assessments, psychotherapy, and medication management. She has extensive experience treating anxiety, trauma, addiction, and works with patients using somatic experiencing and executive function coaching for life-altering injuries.

Mary C. Pratt, LCSW – Mary is a seasoned provider of EMDR and Internal Family Systems (IFS) therapy. She specializes in parentchild interaction therapy and has trained many new practitioners, presenting at the Parent-Child Interaction Annual Conferences.

Efren Esparza, M.A. - A registered psychological associate and a PsyD candidate, Efren specializes in neuropsychological evaluations and clinical treatment. Fluent in Spanish, he offers culturally responsive care and integrates mindfulness and trauma-informed approaches to support individuals through life’s challenges.

Wendy Roberts, M.A., SLP – A Master’s level Speech/Language Pathologist, Wendy has expertise in addressing language and speech deficits, particularly in functional language processing.

For more information or to schedule a consultation, please visit our website at www.thebrainworks.net or contact us at 949-654-2424.

Comprehensive Neuropsychological & Psychological Assessment and Treatment

22 MESSAGE FROM THE PUBLISHERS

26 COVER STORY

Elon Musk’s Neuralink could be the new frontier of TBI treatment.

FEATURES

36 AI CAN PREDICT TBI PROGNOSIS

Artificial intelligence is shedding new light onTBI prognosis.

40 EMOTIONAL COMMUNICATION WITH TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY

Emojis are a valuable tool for TBI survivors to express themselves.

50 SCIENTISTS FIND MOLECULAR CLUES BEHIND TBI

Molecular markers are making a difference in TBI diagnosis.

54 DOES DI VING DAMAGE THE BRAIN?

How compressed gas diving affects the brain.

58 THE NEUROSCIENCE BEHIND STROKE

What you need to know about this nTBI.

62 AWAKE CRANIOTOMY

How this unique procedure helps to preserve neurological function.

64 THE BRAIN BUILDING BREAKTHROUGH

New insights into brain cell regeneration thanks to the axolotl stereo-seq.

68 DEATH BY TBI

How and why traumatic brain injury can result in death.

72 DR EAMING AFTER TBI

How traumatic brain injury affects dream tendencies.

78 HOW BRAIN INJURY BECAME THE ELEPHANT IN THE ROOM OF PROFESSIONAL SPORTS

Why is the industry turning a blind eye to traumatic brain injury risk?

84 HEMINGWAY’S BRAIN

The neuropsychiatric demise of a great literary mind.

88 KETAMINE COULD BE THE GREAT PROTECTOR

Could this anesthetic protect brain cells after traumatic brain injury?

90 NEUROLAW: THE BRAIN ON TRIAL

How traumatic brain injury can shape legal accountability.

COVER STORY, ELON MUSK’S NEURALINK, PG. 26

Cover Illustration: Shutterstock AI Composite

KETAMINE THERAPY, PG. 84

AWAKE CRANIOTOMY PG. 62

NEU ROLAW, THE BRAIN ON TRIAL, PG. 90

94 STEM CELL THERAPY TO TREAT TBI

This cutting-edge therapy offers a revolutionary potential to heal the brain after traumatic brain injury.

100 THE CONNECTION BETWEEN TBI AND DEMENTIA

Experiencing a traumatic brain injury in early to mid-life is associated with an increased risk of dementia in late life.

108 HOW TBI HAS SHAPED HISTORY

How traumatic brain injury has shaped the world we know today.

DEPARTMENTS

116 EXAMINE

The latest in TBI research and treatment.

119 IMPROVING MORTALITY AFTER TBI

120 TBI AND HORMONE DYSREGULATION

121 THE EFFECTS OF TBI ON SLEEP

122 ADVANCED IMAGING FOR TBI DIAGNOSIS

123 NON-INVASIVE BRAIN STIMULATION

124 EXPLORATION OF BRAIN-DERIVED BIOMARKERS

125 LONG-TERM BRAIN CHANGES POST-PEDIATRIC

126 HOW GENETIC STUDIES ARE ADVANCING TBI RESEARCH

129 HOW FASTING CAN HELP SYMPTOMS OF TBI

130 NEUROTROPHINS HELP TO REPAIR BRAIN CELL S

131 COLOR THERAPY EASES THE SYMPTOMS OF TBI

132 STEM CELL THERAPY

133 TRANSCRANIAL MAGNETIC STIMULATION

134 CEREBROSPINAL FLUID DRAINAGE AND MANAGEMENT

135 OPTOGENETICS THERAPY

136 COGNITIVE TRAINING WITH AI

137 VIRTUAL REALITY REHABILITATION

1 38 NEUROMODULATION DEVICES

140 THRIVE

A celebration of TBI survivors living their best lives

160 READING ROOM

Must-reads for TBI survivors and their families

NON-INVASIVE BRAIN STIMULATION, PG. 123

PEDIATRIC BRAIN CHANGES POST-TBI, PG. 125

BRAIN-DERIVED BIOMARKERS, PG. 124

OPTOGENETICS THERAPY, PG. 135

COGNITIVE TRAINING WITH AI, PG. 136

HOW FASTING CAN HELP TBI SYMPTOMS, PG. 129

PRESENTED BY

April 10-12, 2025 | San Diego, CA

Marriott Marquis San Diego Marina

UNITING MEDICAL PROFESSIONALS AND ATTORNEYS

DAYS TRACKS

EMPOWERING ATTORNEYS TO ARGUE COMPLEX TBI CASES

CHAIRMAN

VICE CHAIRMAN

Welcome to the latest edition of TBI Times. We are excited to present our readers with this educational and inspiring issue filled with topics to educate, motivate and enlighten traumatic brain injury (TBI) survivors.

As always, it is our mission to inspire individuals touched by TBI to reach beyond the perceived limitations that often accompany a brain injury. By providing the latest information on diagnosis and treatment, thought-provoking stories from a TBI perspective and inspiring testimonials, we aim to broaden the horizons of each and every TBI survivor.

Our cover story features Elon Musk’s Neuralink and its treatment potential for TBI. Additionally, we bring you The Rising Hope of Stem Cell Therapy in TBI Treatment; The Molecular Clues Behind TBI; Ketamine, The Great Protector; The Connection Between TBI and Dementia; How TBI Has Shaped History; Dreaming After TBI and many more engaging and informative stories.

We hope this issue inspires you to approach your TBI journey with renewed enthusiasm, and we look forward to supporting you with more cutting-edge TBI related content.

Sincerely,

The TBI Med Legal Team

ERICA CHAVEZ, ESQ.

DR. NICHOLAS LOLOEE, DC

2025-26 EVENTS CALENDAR

Lanier Trial Academy Master Class 9.0

Marriott Marquis Houston l Houston, TX

June 16-19, 2025

Big Truck & Auto Summit

Renaissance Chicago Downtown | Chicago, IL

August 4-6, 2025

Law-Di-Gras

Rancho Bernardo Inn l San Diego, CA

October 16-18, 2025

Mass Torts Made Perfect Fall Seminar

Bellagio Hotel l Las Vegas, NV

October 21-23, 2025

The Business of Law

JW Marriott Camelback Inn Resort and Spa l Scottsdale, AZ

November 6-8, 2025

2026 Trial Lawyers Summit

Loews Miami Beach Hotel | Miami, FL

January 25-28, 2026

THE PROMISE OF

Revolutionizing recovery for traumatic brain injury.

IN RECENT YEARS, FEW NAMES HAVE BEEN AS synonymous with technological innovation as Elon Musk. Known for his groundbreaking ventures such as Tesla and SpaceX, Musk has now turned his attention to the human brain, founding Neuralink — a company that aims to revolutionize the field of neuroscience. Through Neuralink, Musk envisions a world where brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) are no longer a far-off science fiction concept but an accessible reality capable of transforming lives. While the company’s overarching goal is to merge the human brain with artificial intelligence, one of the most promising potential applications lies in its ability to help individuals suffering from traumatic brain injuries (TBI). By using advanced neural interfaces, Neuralink may one day provide life-changing treatments for those whose lives have been upended by severe brain damage.

THE BIRTH OF NEURALINK

Founded in 2016, Neuralink was conceived by Elon Musk with the intention of advancing the development of brain-machine interfaces to solve some of the most pressing problems in human health and consciousness. Musk, a visionary known for pushing the boundaries of technology, recognized that the future of artificial intelligence could pose significant challenges to humanity. His response was to find a way for the human brain to communicate more seamlessly with AI — ensuring that humans could co-exist with intelligent machines rather than be left behind.

Neuralink’s original goal was not just to develop a tool for brain augmentation, but also to treat and manage neurological diseases and injuries. Musk has frequently stated that he believes the integration of the human brain with computers could improve

The Neuralink brain-computer interface is fully implantable, cosmetically invisible, and designed to allow full control a computer or mobil device.

human cognition and potentially lead to the development of new capabilities, such as memory enhancement or increased intelligence. In addition, by creating a direct neural interface, the company could help manage conditions like Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease and traumatic brain injury (TBI), ultimately improving the quality of life for millions of people around the world.

At the heart of Neuralink’s technology is a tiny, flexible electrode that can be implanted into the brain. The electrode, which connects to a small device resembling a computer chip, would read and transmit electrical signals from the brain, providing a direct communication channel between the brain and external devices. This could enable a wide range of applications, from controlling prosthetic limbs to restoring lost sensory functions. The implications for treating TBI — where brain tissue is damaged by a blow or jolt to the head — are profound, as Neuralink could offer new solutions to patients who might otherwise have limited options for recovery.

TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY: A GROWING GLOBAL EPIDEMIC

TBI is a serious and growing problem worldwide. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), TBIs are responsible for over 2.8 million emergency department visits, hospitalizations and deaths in the United States alone each year. These injuries can result from a wide variety of events, including car accidents, sports injuries, falls and physical violence. While some individuals recover from mild TBIs (commonly known as concussions), others experience more severe and long-lasting effects that can impact their cognitive abilities, emotions and motor functions.

In its most severe form, TBI can lead to permanent disability or even death. Even those who survive a traumatic brain injury may suffer lifelong consequences, including memory loss, personality changes, impaired speech, paralysis and other neurological impairments. The economic and emotional toll on patients and their families is staggering, with rehabilitation and ongoing medical care often costing millions of dollars. Despite years of research and medical advancement, effective treatments for traumatic brain injury have remained limited and many patients are left with few options for recovery.

It is in this context that Neuralink’s technology offers a beacon of hope. By developing a sophisticated brain-machine interface, Neuralink has the potential to bridge the gap between the injured brain and modern technology, providing new opportunities for

patients with TBIs to regain lost functions and improve their quality of life.

THE SCIENCE BEHIND NEURALINK AND ITS POTENTIAL FOR TBI RECOVERY

At the core of Neuralink’s technology lies a deep understanding of how the brain works. The brain is made up of billions of neurons that communicate with one another through electrical signals. These signals form the basis of all cognitive functions — such as thought, memory, emotion and movement. When the brain is injured, however, these electrical pathways can become disrupted, leading to loss of function and neurological impairments.

Neuralink aims to address this issue by developing a system that can both read and stimulate the brain’s electrical activity. By implanting electrodes into specific regions of the brain, the device would be able to detect abnormal activity associated with TBI and potentially even restore function to damaged areas. The electrodes could also be used to transmit signals to the brain, encouraging the regeneration of neural pathways or bypassing damaged regions altogether.

For patients with TBI, Neuralink’s BCI could be used in several ways to aid recovery. One of the most promising applications is neuroplasticity — the brain’s ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections in response to injury. Neuralink’s electrodes could help stimulate specific regions of the brain, promoting the development of new pathways that could compensate for areas that have been damaged. In essence, the device would act as a form of brain therapy, helping the brain rewire itself and regain lost functions.

In addition to promoting neuroplasticity, Neuralink’s technology could also provide real-time monitoring of brain activity, allowing healthcare providers to gain deeper insights into a patient’s condition. By tracking brainwaves and neural signals, doctors could identify patterns of injury, monitor recovery progress and adjust treatment plans accordingly. For patients with severe TBIs, this could lead to more personalized and effective treatment strategies.

Moreover, Neuralink’s ability to interface with external devices could enable patients to control prosthetic limbs or communicate more effectively, even if their ability to speak or move has been compromised. The technology could provide a direct line of communication between the brain and robotic systems, allowing individuals with TBI to interact with their environment in ways that would otherwise be impossible.

“Neuralink’s brain implants will help people with brain or spinal injuries regain control of their devices and improve their quality of life.”

— Elon Musk

Neuralink demonstrated its surgical robot for the first time, showing the world during a livestreamed event how the bot could swiftly and precisely insert electrode-packed threads into a dummy brain.

PHOTO: NEURALINK

OVERCOMING CHALLENGES AND ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

While the potential of Neuralink’s technology is immense, there are still significant challenges to overcome before it can be used to treat traumatic brain injury. One of the biggest hurdles is ensuring the safety and efficacy of the devices. Implanting electrodes into the brain is a delicate procedure that carries inherent risks, including infection, bleeding and damage to surrounding tissue. Additionally, the long-term effects of having such a device implanted in the brain are not yet fully understood.

To address these concerns, Neuralink has conducted animal studies and is working on perfecting its surgical techniques to make the implantation process as minimally invasive as possible. The company has developed a robotic surgical system that can perform the procedure with high precision, reducing the risk of complications. While human trials are still in the early stages, Neuralink has shown promising results in animal models, demonstrating that the technology is capable of recording brain activity and stimulating neural pathways.

There are also ethical considerations surrounding the use of brain-machine interfaces, particularly when it comes to issues of privacy, consent and autonomy. As Neuralink’s technology advances, questions will inevitably arise about who has access to the data generated by the devices and how that information is used. Furthermore, the prospect of enhancing human cognition through neural interfaces raises concerns about inequality and the potential for misuse.

Despite these challenges, the potential benefits of Neuralink’s technology for people with traumatic brain injury cannot be overstated. For individuals whose lives have been profoundly impacted by TBI, the promise of new treatments and improved outcomes offers a glimmer of hope.

A FUTURE OF POSSIBILITIES

The future of Neuralink holds exciting possibilities, not just for those with traumatic brain injuries but for humanity as a whole. By developing advanced BCIs that can repair and enhance brain function, Neuralink could revolutionize the way we understand the human mind and open up new avenues for treating a wide range of neurological disorders.

As research and development continue, it is likely that Neuralink will collaborate with leading neuroscientists, medical professionals and healthcare providers to refine its technology and explore its full potential. In the coming years, we may see the first successful treatments for TBI using Neuralink’s innovative devices, ushering in a new era of brain rehabilitation.

While much work remains to be done, Neuralink represents a bold step toward bridging the gap between science fiction and reality. For those living with the devastating effects of traumatic brain injury, the dream of recovery may no longer be a distant hope but a real and achievable future.

In the hands of Elon Musk and his team at Neuralink, the human brain may one day be equipped with the tools it needs to heal, adapt and thrive — ushering in a new era of neurological treatment and opening the door to a world where the impossible becomes possible.

Neuralink’s surgical robot’s needle is thinner than a human hair.

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AI CAN PREDICT

TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY (TBI) REMAINS ONE OF THE most complex and poorly understood conditions in medical science. Despite significant advancements in research, many questions still surround the varying outcomes of brain injuries — why do some concussions lead to long-lasting damage while others do not? The complexity of the brain itself is one of the main challenges. Unlike many other organs, the brain is soft, gelatinous and irregular in its structure, making it difficult to model accurately, especially when subjected to external mechanical forces. Traditional methods of studying brain injury, which rely on multiple material models for different stress types, have not been effective at explaining the nuances of brain trauma. These models often fail to account for how trauma affects different areas of the brain in distinct ways. Now, researchers at Stanford University have developed a groundbreaking approach to studying brain injury, using artificial intelligence (AI) to create more precise models of how mechanical forces like compression and twisting impact brain tissue. This innovative technique promises to revolutionize our understanding of brain injury and lead to better prevention strategies, protective equipment and therapeutic treatments.

THE CHALLENGE OF UNDERSTANDING TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY

Understanding the mechanics of traumatic brain injury is a difficult task. The brain is made up of different regions, each with its own distinct structure and properties, and these regions respond differently to mechanical forces. When a person sustains a brain injury, the force may cause the brain to twist, compress or stretch in various ways, affecting different parts of the brain with varying severity. In addition, the soft, gelatinous nature of the brain makes it susceptible to deformation, which adds further complexity to modeling its response to injury. While the outer layer of the brain, the cortex, is crucial for higher functions

Out of 4,095 possible models, the network autonomously discovers the model and parameters that best explain the stresses in human brain tissue.

like cognition and movement, other areas such as the corpus callosum (which connects the two hemispheres) play important roles in communication between brain regions. Different brain regions have different stiffnesses, which means they resist deformation in different ways when subjected to trauma.

For years, researchers relied on various models of brain tissue, each designed to simulate different types of mechanical stress, such as compression, tension or shear. However, these models often failed to provide comprehensive insights because they could not account for the complexities of the brain’s structure and how different areas of the brain respond to different kinds of force. The limitations of these models made it difficult to predict how a given injury would affect the brain and what long-term damage might result.

THE AI-BASED CONSTITUTIVE MODEL: A PARADIGM SHIFT

In an effort to overcome these challenges, a team of researchers at Stanford University has introduced a breakthrough methodology called constitutive artificial neural networks (CANN). This new AI-driven technique automates the process of selecting the most accurate model to simulate brain injury, offering a more dynamic and comprehensive approach than previous models. Traditionally, researchers had to manually select the model that they thought would best fit the data, a process that was subjective and time-consuming. The selection of the right model was based on the experience and judgment of the researcher, which often introduced bias into the results.

With CANN, machine learning algorithms are used to automatically analyze the data and identify the most suitable model for a given set of conditions. This means that the process is not only more accurate but also far more efficient, as it eliminates the need for manual decision-making and streamlines

the research process. The AI system is trained on vast amounts of data, which allows it to “learn” from patterns in the data and choose the most appropriate model without human intervention. This approach is particularly beneficial because it removes the subjective element, providing more reliable results that are based on data rather than human assumptions.

REVEALING NEW INSIGHTS INTO BRAIN TISSUE MECHANICS

One of the key advantages of using AI in brain injury research is that it enables scientists to uncover previously hidden patterns in the brain’s mechanical properties. Using the AI-based model, the researchers at Stanford discovered significant differences in the mechanical stiffness of different brain regions. For instance, the cortex, which is responsible for higher-level cognitive functions, was found to be much stiffer than the corpus callosum, the part of the brain that connects the left and right hemispheres. The researchers found that the cortex was more than three times stiffer than the corpus callosum. This is a critical finding because it suggests that different parts of the brain respond differently to mechanical forces, which may explain why certain types of injuries are more damaging than others.

Shear stiffness, or the resistance of brain tissue to deformation, is an important factor in determining how a region of the brain will respond to external forces. Regions with higher stiffness are less likely to deform under stress, while regions with lower stiffness are more susceptible to deformation. By understanding these variations in stiffness, the researchers can make more accurate predictions about how different brain regions will react to injury, which could lead to better safety protocols, equipment design and treatment strategies.

The ability to model and predict the behavior of brain tissue with such precision could also have practical applications in designing better protective equipment, such as helmets for sports or military use. By understanding how the brain deforms under different types of stress, engineers can create more effective protective gear that minimizes the risk of injury. Similarly, this knowledge could help inform medical treatments for people who have suffered brain injuries, potentially leading to more effective therapies that target specific regions of the brain that are more vulnerable to damage.

A GAME-CHANGER IN BRAIN INJURY RESEARCH

The introduction of AI in brain injury modeling represents a paradigm shift in how we understand and study brain trauma. By automating the process of model selection and allowing for a more data-driven approach, the CANN system offers a more

accurate, comprehensive and scalable solution for brain injury research. This method removes human bias from the equation, enabling researchers to conduct more reliable studies that can lead to better insights into the mechanics of brain injuries.

As the technology matures, it could revolutionize not only brain injury research but also other areas of biomechanics, such as the study of spinal cord injuries or joint trauma. The possibilities for AI-driven simulations are vast, and the potential to improve public health and safety is enormous. In particular, the ability to accurately model brain injury will help prevent brain trauma before it occurs by guiding the design of better safety equipment and reducing the incidence of brain injury-related diseases, such as chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE).

FUTURE IMPLICATIONS AND APPLICATIONS

The use of AI in modeling brain injury is still in its early stages, but the implications for the future are profound. The precision and efficiency of AI-driven models could lead to significant advancements in both the prevention and treatment of brain injuries. By providing a deeper understanding of how the brain responds to trauma, this new approach could guide the development of better diagnostic tools, improve treatment protocols and lead to more effective rehabilitation techniques for brain injury victims.

Moreover, as the AI system continues to improve, it could help refine our understanding of how to protect the brain from injury in various high-risk environments, such as in contact sports or military combat. Better understanding of the brain’s mechanical properties and how they relate to injury could also inform policy decisions related to public health and safety standards. With the AI approach offering a more comprehensive and data-driven understanding of brain injury, it is possible that this research will lead to significant reductions in the number of people affected by brain trauma.

IN CONCLUSION

Stanford University’s innovative use of artificial intelligence in brain injury modeling represents a major step forward in understanding the complex mechanics of traumatic brain injury. By employing AI to automatically select the most accurate models for simulating brain stress, researchers are able to uncover new insights into the brain’s mechanical properties and how different regions respond to injury. This approach promises to revolutionize not only brain injury research but also the way we design protective equipment and diagnose and treat brain injuries. As the research progresses, the impact of AI on the field could lead to breakthroughs that will ultimately save lives and reduce the longterm consequences of traumatic brain injuries.

COMMUNICATION Emotional

WITH TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY

How emojis can help individuals with TBI communicate more effectively.

TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY (TBI) CAN HAVE SIGNIFICANT and long-lasting effects on communication. Cognitive impairments resulting from TBI can impact an individual’s ability to express thoughts clearly, understand language and engage in social interactions. However, recent advancements in digital communication and technology have opened new pathways to assist individuals with TBI. One of the most promising tools for improving communication in this population is the use of emojis. These small, expressive symbols can help bridge communication gaps, offering a simple, effective means for individuals with TBI to express emotions, convey meaning and engage with others.

UNDERSTANDING TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY AND ITS IMPACT ON COMMUNICATION

TBI occurs when a sudden trauma causes damage to the brain, which can result from a fall, accident, sports injury, or violent impact. The effects of TBI vary widely depending on the severity of the injury and the area of the brain affected. Common symptoms include memory loss, difficulty concentrating, emotional instability and problems with speech and language.

For many individuals with TBI, language processing and expression become major challenges. These individuals may struggle to find the right words, organize their thoughts, or engage in fluid conversation. In severe cases, individuals may be unable to communicate at all, relying on nonverbal forms of expression. The resulting isolation and frustration may have a profound impact on the emotional well-being of individuals with TBI, further exacerbating communication difficulties.

THE ROLE OF EMOJIS IN COMMUNICATION

Emojis are small, digital images or icons used to convey emotions, ideas, or reactions in electronic communication. Emojis have become an integral part of texting, social media interactions and online conversations. Their simplicity and visual appeal make them particularly effective for conveying emotions quickly and clearly, making them an ideal tool for individuals with communication challenges.

Emojis help bridge the gap between text-based communication and nonverbal cues which are often lost in written communication. For individuals with TBI, using emojis can provide an intuitive, accessible way to communicate their feelings, reactions and thoughts, even when words may fail them. They can add a layer of emotional context to text messages, helping others understand the underlying sentiment behind the words.

Angry SAD

HOW EMOJIS BENEFIT INDIVIDUALS WITH TBI

Nonverbal Communication Enhancement: One of the key struggles individuals with TBI face is the difficulty in expressing emotions or conveying the intended tone. In speech and written communication, individuals with TBI may find it challenging to express sadness, joy, anger, or excitement in a way that is easily understood by others. Emojis serve as a visual representation of these emotions, providing a clear and direct way for individuals to express themselves. For example, a simple smiley face can indicate happiness or contentment, while a sad face can convey sadness or frustration. This nonverbal support allows individuals to communicate more effectively, even when their verbal skills are impaired.

Improved Clarity in Communication: TBI can often cause cognitive difficulties, including problems with word-finding, memory and sentence construction. In these instances, emojis may help fill in the gaps, allowing individuals to convey meaning without needing to rely solely on words. For example, if someone struggles to describe an event, they may choose to pair a thumbs-up emoji with a few words, indicating approval or agreement. This visual support enhances the clarity of the message, helping to reduce misunderstandings and ensure effective communication.

Encouraging Social Interaction: Social isolation is a common challenge for individuals with TBI, as communication difficulties can make it harder to maintain relationships and

participate in conversations. The use of emojis can encourage social interaction by lowering the barriers to communication. Emojis provide a less intimidating way for individuals with TBI to engage in digital conversations. A single emoji can be an easy and approachable way to respond to others, express gratitude, or show interest in a topic, even when verbal communication feels overwhelming or difficult.

Reducing Emotional Frustration: Difficulty communicating effectively can lead to frustration, anxiety and depression for individuals with TBI. The inability to express one’s thoughts and emotions in a clear manner may create feelings of helplessness. Emojis offer a way to quickly express how one feels without the pressure of finding the right words. By using emojis, individuals can feel more in control of their communication, which can reduce feelings of frustration and help them maintain emotional stability.

Supporting Cognitive Rehabilitation: Cognitive rehabilitation is an important part of the recovery process for individuals with TBI. Therapy often focuses on improving cognitive functions such as memory, attention and problem-solving skills. Emojis can play a role in this process by providing a visual tool to reinforce cognitive exercises. For example, therapists may encourage patients to use specific emojis as part of their rehabilitation program, helping them remember and recall emotions, identify appropriate responses and practice communication in a safe, controlled environment.

The amygdala is the almondshaped mass of gray matter inside each cerebral hemisphere, primarily involved with emotions, emotional behavior and motivation. Damage to the amygdala can often be caused by stroke, traumatic brain injury and other neurological conditions. Individuals with amygdala damage may experience various emotional and behavioral effects, such as impaired decisionmaking, hypervigilance, or anxiety, just to name a few.

ACCORDING TO RESEARCH, SOME TYPES OF EMOJIS ARE HARDER FOR TBI SURVIVORS TO INTERPRET THAN OTHERS.

Enhancing Digital Literacy: In today’s world, digital communication is an essential part of daily life. For individuals recovering from TBI, gaining comfort and confidence with digital platforms is often an important goal. Learning how to use emojis as part of text-based communication can enhance digital literacy, making it easier for individuals to engage with others on social media, send messages to loved ones and participate in online communities. Emojis serve as a nonverbal tool that complements traditional digital communication, helping individuals feel more confident and capable in their online interactions.

CASE STUDIES AND REAL-WORLD APPLICATIONS

A growing body of research and anecdotal evidence suggests that emojis have a positive impact on communication for individuals with TBI. For example, a study conducted with individuals recovering from TBI found that the use of emojis improved the clarity and emotional tone of their written messages. Participants reported feeling more confident in their ability to express emotions and connect with others. Additionally, caregivers and family members noted that emojis helped reduce the frustration associated with communication difficulties, leading to improved relationships and better emotional well-being.

In another case, therapists working with individuals who had sustained TBIs in accidents or sports injuries integrated emojis into their rehabilitation programs. By using emojis

to represent different emotions or actions, individuals were able to engage more effectively with cognitive exercises. The therapists noted that this simple tool helped reinforce lessons about emotional expression, improved social skills and encouraged more interactive communication.

Moreover, families of individuals with TBI have reported that the use of emojis has helped maintain relationships by providing an easier way for loved ones to communicate. Emojis have become an essential tool for those supporting persons with TBI, offering a nonverbal way to check in, offer support, or show empathy without overwhelming the individuals with excessive verbal demands.

IN CONCLUSION

Emojis represent a simple yet powerful tool for individuals with traumatic brain injury to enhance communication, express emotions and reduce social isolation. By offering a visual and intuitive means of communication, emojis help individuals with TBI overcome language barriers, alleviate frustration and engage more effectively with others. As digital communication continues to play an increasingly important role in modern society, the use of emojis can be an essential part of the recovery and rehabilitation process for individuals with TBI. While they may not be a cure-all, emojis provide a meaningful way to support communication and improve quality of life for those affected by TBI, offering a small yet significant step toward a more inclusive and understanding world.

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MOLECULAR CLUES SCIENTISTS

BEHIND TBI

The identification of molecular markers for mTBI is making definitive concussion diagnosis a reality.

MILD TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY ( M TBI), OFTEN referred to as a concussion, is one of the most common and underdiagnosed injuries in both sports and everyday life. Traditionally, concussions have been diagnosed based on clinical symptoms and patient history, which may often be subjective and prone to misinterpretation. This uncertainty has prompted extensive research to find more objective and accurate diagnostic tools for mTBI, with molecular markers emerging as a promising solution. The identification of these biomarkers could potentially revolutionize the way concussions are diagnosed, offering a path toward definitive, objective diagnosis. This article explores the current state of research on molecular markers for mTBI and their role in making concussion diagnosis a reality.

THE CHALLENGE OF DIAGNOSING MTBI

A concussion results from a blow to the head or a jolt to the body that causes the brain to move rapidly inside the skull, leading to temporary disruption in brain function. The symptoms of a concussion are wide-ranging, including headaches, dizziness, confusion, nausea and cognitive difficulties such as memory problems and difficulty concentrating. Importantly, many symptoms are not visible, and they can evolve over hours or days, making it challenging to assess the extent of the injury in real time.

Currently, the diagnosis of mTBI relies heavily on clinical evaluations, such as the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS), symptom checklists, and imaging tests like CT or MRI scans. However, these methods have limitations. GCS scores are useful in assessing the severity of brain injury, but they do not differentiate between mild and moderate brain injuries effectively. Imaging techniques, while excellent at detecting

more severe brain injuries, often fail to show any abnormalities in the case of mTBI, as the damage caused by concussions is typically microscopic.

This lack of diagnostic precision can lead to underdiagnosis, where individuals with concussions continue to engage in physical activity, risking further injury, or overdiagnosis, where individuals are sidelined unnecessarily. Both scenarios highlight the need for a more objective method to diagnose concussions accurately.

THE PROMISE OF MOLECULAR MARKERS

In recent years, research into the molecular mechanisms underlying mTBI has revealed that certain proteins and molecules are released into the bloodstream or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) shortly after a brain injury. These biomarkers, or molecular markers, can provide crucial information about the extent and nature of brain injury. Unlike traditional methods, molecular markers offer a window into the biological changes occurring at the cellular level following a concussion.

The use of molecular markers as a diagnostic tool for mTBI holds immense promise because it can provide a more definitive and objective measure of injury. Unlike symptom-based assessments, which may be influenced by the patient’s ability to report symptoms and the subjective interpretation of healthcare providers, molecular markers are tangible and measurable indicators of physiological changes. Additionally, the detection of molecular markers can help monitor recovery, guide clinical decisions and aid in preventing second-impact syndrome, a potentially fatal condition that occurs when an individual sustains a second concussion before the first one has healed.

KEY MOLECULAR MARKERS FOR MTBI

Numerous molecular markers have been identified in t he search for reliable diagnostic tools for mTBI. These markers typically fall into categories based on the nature of the substances they represent, such as neuronal proteins, glial markers, or molecules associated with inflammation. Below are some of the most promising molecular markers:

1. Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein (GFAP)

GFAP is a protein found in the glial cells of the brain, which provide support and nourishment to neurons. When the brain is injured, GFAP is released into the bloodstream as glial cells are damaged. Elevated levels of GFAP have been shown to correlate with the severity of brain injury. In fact, research has shown that GFAP levels can be measured in the blood within hours of a concussion and provide valuable insights into the injury’s severity. GFAP, along with other markers, may become a key biomarker for mTBI diagnosis.

2. S100B Protein

S100B is a calcium-binding protein that is primarily expressed in glial cells and neurons. When the brain is injured, S100B is released into the bloodstream, making it a potential marker for detecting mTBI. Elevated levels of S100B in the blood have been associated with both mild and severe brain injuries. This biomarker has been widely studied, and although its specificity for mTBI remains a topic of ongoing research, its use in conjunction with other markers could significantly improve diagnostic accuracy.

3. Ubiquitin C-terminal Hydrolase L1 (UCH-L1)

UCH-L1 is an enzyme found in neurons that plays a role in protein degradation. In the event of neuronal injury, UCH-L1 is released into the bloodstream. Several studies have demonstrated that increased levels of UCH-L1 in blood samples are strongly associated with brain injury, and elevated concentrations have been observed following both acute and subacute phases of mTBI. UCH-L1 is particularly promising because it can be detected shortly after the injury and may provide an early indicator of concussion severity.

4. Tau Protein

Tau is a protein that stabilizes microtubules in neurons. Following a brain injury, tau can become hyperphosphorylated, leading to its detachment from microtubules and subsequent release into the bloodstream. Elevated tau levels are typically associated with more severe forms of brain injury and are considered a hallmark of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s. However, its role in mTBI has garnered significant attention. Elevated tau levels can serve as a potential marker for detecting concussion-related brain injury, particularly when combined with other biomarkers.

5. Neurofilament Light Chain (NfL)

NfL is a structural protein found in neurons, and its release into the bloodstream has been linked to axonal injury. As axons are damaged following mTBI, NfL levels in the blood rise. Several studies have demonstrated that NfL concentrations are elevated in patients with mTBI and can provide valuable information about the extent of axonal injury. NfL may offer a broad and reliable method for detecting brain injuries, especially mild ones, that would not otherwise be visible using conventional imaging techniques.

CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS OF MOLECULAR MARKERS FOR MTBI DIAGNOSIS

The ability to identify and measure these molecular markers in blood or CSF opens up several exciting possibilities for improving concussion diagnosis and management. One of the most significant advantages of molecular markers is their ability to detect mTBI early, even in the absence of visible symptoms or abnormalities on standard imaging. This early detection could allow healthcare professionals to make timely decisions about whether an athlete or patient should rest, undergo further testing, or return to activity.

Furthermore, molecular markers can be used to track recovery. By measuring biomarker levels over time, clinicians can assess whether the brain is healing appropriately or if additional treatment or rest is needed. This monitoring could help prevent the long-term consequences of multiple concussions, including chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) and other neurodegenerative diseases.

Molecular markers may also reduce the reliance on subjective symptom reporting, which may be inconsistent, particularly among athletes who may be reluctant to report their symptoms due to the desire to continue playing. By providing an objective, biological measure of injury, molecular markers could help ensure that individuals who sustain a concussion are appropriately managed and protected from further harm.

IN CONCLUSION

The identification of molecular markers for mTBI is poised to transform concussion diagnosis from a largely subjective process into one that is objective and precise. By providing a more accurate and timely assessment of brain injury, molecular markers have the potential to improve patient care, reduce the risk of further injury, and enhance recovery outcomes. While more research is needed to refine these biomarkers and establish standardized testing protocols, the progress made so far brings us closer to the day when definitive concussion diagnosis is a reality. With continued advancements in molecular biology, it may soon be possible to accurately diagnose and manage mTBI with the same level of certainty that we apply to other medical conditions.

DIVING DAMAGE THE DOES BRAIN?

It is well known that compressed gas diving may result in acute decompression sickness and cause permanent injury to the brain and spinal cord. However, the risk of possible injury to the brain in the absence of acute decompression illness is less clear.

Magnetic resonance images of brains of three Ama divers: hyperintense area on T2-weighted image (circle), corresponding to hypointensity on T1-weighted image (inset). A patchy shadow in the left parietal cortex (A, No. 2), a linear subcortical lesion in the right frontal lobe (B, No. 5), and deformity of bilateral caudate heads and subdural fluid collection (allow heads) (C, No. 11).

SCUBA DIVING IS AN EXCITING AND THRILLING activity that allows individuals to explore the wonders of the underwater world. However, beneath its allure, scuba diving may pose certain risks to the brain, especially when improper techniques, rapid ascension, or inadequate decompression protocols are involved. While acute decompression sickness (DCS) is commonly discussed as a significant threat, brain damage from scuba diving can occur even in the absence of acute symptoms. This article explores the potential brain damage caused by scuba diving, both with and without the presence of acute decompression sickness, and provides precautions to minimize these risks.

BRAIN DAMAGE IN THE PRESENCE OF ACUTE DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS

Acute decompression sickness, often referred to as “the bends,” is a condition that occurs when nitrogen, which is absorbed into the body during a dive, forms bubbles in the bloodstream upon rapid ascent. These bubbles can obstruct blood vessels and lead to a range of neurological symptoms, including brain damage. When a diver ascends too quickly, the rapid reduction in pressure causes nitrogen to come out of solution and form bubbles that can accumulate in the brain, spinal cord and other tissues. The brain is particularly vulnerable to these gas bubbles because they can disrupt the normal flow of blood, depriving neural tissue of oxygen and leading to ischemic injury. The severity of brain damage from DCS depends on several factors, including the depth of the dive, the duration of the dive and the speed of ascent. Prolonged exposure to high-pressure environments can increase the likelihood of forming gas bubbles that are large enough to cause tissue damage.

Symptoms of DCS affecting the brain include dizziness, confusion, loss of coordination, visual disturbances, seizures and, in extreme cases, loss of consciousness. If left untreated, these symptoms can lead to permanent brain damage or even death. The damage occurs because the bubbles obstruct the small blood vessels in the brain, preventing proper blood flow and oxygen delivery to the neural tissue. This lack of oxygen (hypoxia) can cause neurons to die, leading to cognitive impairments, motor deficits and other long-term neurological issues.

BRAIN DAMAGE IN THE ABSENCE OF ACUTE DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS

Even when acute decompression sickness is not present, there are still risks of brain damage associated with scuba diving. One potential mechanism for this type of brain injury is chronic exposure to high-pressure environments, which can lead to oxygen toxicity, a condition that results from breathing high concentrations of oxygen at elevated pressures. This condition can damage brain cells by producing reactive oxygen species (ROS), which are highly reactive molecules that can cause cellular damage, inflammation and cell death.

Another potential risk factor for brain damage in the absence of DCS is repetitive exposure to diving environments without adequate recovery periods. This can lead to a condition known as “chronic dive syndrome,” which may involve subtle but cumulative neurological changes. Some studies suggest that frequent diving without sufficient time for the body to off-gas nitrogen can result in low-level nitrogen buildup in the brain, which could potentially impair cognitive function over time.

Additionally, the physiological stress associated with diving, such as the increased workload on the heart and the body’s need to adapt to fluctuations in pressure, may exacerbate pre-existing brain conditions or contribute to vascular changes that compromise brain health. These factors, when combined with dehydration, fatigue, or hypothermia from cold water exposure, can lead to minor brain injuries that accumulate over time, potentially resulting in long-term cognitive dysfunction.

POTENTIAL BRAIN DAMAGE FROM NITROGEN NARCOSIS

Another critical consideration in relation to brain health while scuba diving is nitrogen narcosis. This condition, commonly referred to as the “rapture of the deep,” occurs when nitrogen becomes more soluble at high pressures, affecting the central nervous system and leading to symptoms similar to alcohol intoxication. At depths greater than 30 meters (100 feet), divers may experience impaired judgment, motor coordination and cognitive function. In severe cases, nitrogen narcosis can cause confusion, hallucinations and loss of consciousness, increasing the risk of accidents and brain injury.

While the effects of nitrogen narcosis are typically reversible upon ascent, repeated exposure to the condition may contribute to long-term neurological changes. Some researchers suggest that chronic nitrogen narcosis could lead to subtle cognitive deficits or an increased risk of developing neurodegenerative disorders in the long term, though further research is needed to fully understand these risks.

PRECAUTIONS TO PREVENT BRAIN DAMAGE FROM SCUBA DIVING

While the potential for brain damage during scuba diving is a serious concern, there are several precautions divers can take to minimize the risks and ensure safe diving practices. These include proper training, adhering to safe diving limits, and taking steps to manage nitrogen exposure.

Proper Training and Certification: Ensuring that all divers are properly trained and certified through reputable organizations, such as PADI (Professional Association of Diving Instructors) or NAUI (National Association of Underwater Instructors), is essential. Certified divers are taught safe diving practices, including the importance of controlling ascent rates and adhering to depth limits.

Slow and Controlled Ascent: One of the most crucial precautions to avoid decompression sickness and potential brain injury is to

ascend slowly. Divers should always follow the recommended ascent rates (no faster than 9 meters per minute or 30 feet per minute) and make safety stops at 3 to 5 meters (10 to 15 feet) to allow nitrogen to safely leave the body.

Decompression Stops and Tables: Using dive tables or dive computers is critical to ensure that divers do not exceed safe nodecompression limits. These tools help track the nitrogen load accumulated during the dive, providing guidance on when and where to make decompression stops to prevent DCS.

Adequate Rest Between Dives: Giving the body enough time to offgas nitrogen before the next dive is vital. Avoiding multiple dives on a single day or diving on consecutive days without adequate surface intervals can reduce the risk of nitrogen buildup and the potential for neurological damage.

Oxygen Exposure Management: Limiting exposure to oxygen-rich environments, especially during deep dives, is essential to prevent oxygen toxicity. Divers should avoid prolonged stays at depths greater than 40 meters (130 feet) and be cautious when diving with enriched air (“nitrox”), ensuring that oxygen partial pressures do not exceed safe levels.

Hydration and Avoiding Fatigue: Staying well-hydrated and ensuring adequate rest before and after dives is important for maintaining cognitive function and reducing stress on the body. Dehydration and fatigue can increase susceptibility to divingrelated injuries, including those affecting the brain.

Post-Dive Monitoring: After a dive, monitoring for symptoms of DCS, such as dizziness, confusion or difficulty breathing, is essential. If any symptoms occur, immediate medical attention should be sought to prevent potential brain damage or other serious complications.

IN CONCLUSION

Scuba diving can offer a rich and rewarding experience, but it is not without its risks. The potential for brain damage exists both with and without the presence of acute decompression sickness, making it essential for divers to take proper precautions to minimize harm. By following established safety protocols, receiving proper training, managing exposure to nitrogen and oxygen and ensuring adequate rest, divers can significantly reduce the risks associated with diving and protect their brain health. With the right approach, scuba diving can remain a safe and enjoyable activity for both recreational and professional divers alike.

STROKE THE NEUROSCIENCE BEHIND

What you need to know about this nTBI.

STROKE IS A LEADING CAUSE OF DISABILITY AND death worldwide. It occurs when there is a sudden interruption of blood flow to the brain, resulting in the death or damage of brain cells. While strokes have long been categorized as vascular events, they share similarities with traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) in their effects on brain tissue. Specifically, a stroke is now recognized as a type of non-traumatic brain injury (nTBI), a category that is not caused by direct physical trauma to the brain. This article explores the neuroscience behind stroke, its impact on the brain and why it is classified as an nTBI.

WHAT IS A STROKE?

A stroke occurs when there is a disruption in the blood supply to a part of the brain. This disruption can be due to two main mechanisms:

Ischemic Stroke: This type of stroke is caused by a blockage or narrowing of the blood vessels that supply the brain. A clot can form either in the brain itself (thrombotic stroke) or travel from another part of the body, such as the heart (embolic stroke).

Entertainer Jamie Foxx recently experienced a stroke on the set of Back In Action. Foxx had a blood clot that led to a stroke and became partially paralyzed and blind.

Hemorrhagic Stroke: This occurs when a blood vessel in the brain bursts, leading to bleeding within the brain. The pooling of blood puts pressure on surrounding brain tissues, causing damage.

Both types of strokes share a common outcome: a lack of oxygen and nutrients to brain tissue, leading to cell death and neurological dysfunction. The primary difference between the two types is the mechanism causing the disruption in blood flow.

THE NEUROSCIENCE OF STROKE: HOW IT AFFECTS THE BRAIN

To understand why stroke is considered an nTBI, it is important to examine the physiological mechanisms that occur during a stroke. Regardless of the type of stroke, the fundamental problem is the disruption of cerebral blood flow, which triggers a cascade of cellular and molecular events in the brain.

1. Ischemia and Oxygen Deprivation

When blood flow to a part of the brain is interrupted, the affected tissue becomes deprived of oxygen and glucose. These are essential for neurons to produce energy and function normally. Within minutes of ischemia, brain cells begin to suffer damage. The immediate effect is a phenomenon called cerebral ischemia, which causes a range of toxic processes within the brain.

At the cellular level, neurons begin to experience energy failure, primarily due to a lack of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is crucial for maintaining normal cellular functions. Without ATP, the cell’s ion pumps malfunction, causing an imbalance of ions

across the cell membrane. This leads to a phenomenon called excitotoxicity, where an excessive release of neurotransmitters, especially glutamate, results in an influx of calcium ions into the neuron. High calcium levels activate various enzymes that break down cellular structures, leading to cell death.

2. Cerebral Edema

As brain cells die and release their contents, they also cause swelling, a condition known as cerebral edema. This swelling further exacerbates the ischemia by compressing nearby blood vessels, which reduces blood flow even more. As a result, the tissue becomes even more deprived of oxygen, leading to further neuronal injury and even more extensive damage.

The accumulation of fluid in the brain is particularly concerning because it can cause increased intracranial pressure (ICP), which can lead to herniation of brain tissue, a life-threatening complication. The brain is housed within the rigid skull, so any increase in pressure can be catastrophic.

3. Infarction and Cell Death

If the interruption in blood flow continues, the affected brain tissue may undergo infarction, meaning the tissue dies due to a lack of oxygen and nutrients. In this phase, neurons, glial cells and blood vessels within the affected region die. Infarction is a hallmark of ischemic strokes, although hemorrhagic strokes can also lead to similar forms of tissue death.

The damaged area in the brain forms a central necrotic core, surrounded by a penumbra—an area where cells are damaged but not yet dead. The penumbra is particularly important because it represents the tissue that is at risk of further damage. Early intervention to restore blood flow, such as through clot-busting drugs or surgical procedures, can save this area and prevent further brain injury.

4. Neuroinflammation

Stroke leads to inflammation in the affected brain region. This inflammation, called neuroinflammation, is triggered by the damage to brain cells and blood vessels. The activation of microglia, the brain’s resident immune cells, is a key component of this inflammatory response. Initially, microglia attempt to clear up dead cells and debris, but if the inflammation is prolonged, it can contribute to further brain injury by releasing proinflammatory cytokines and other toxic molecules.

Neuroinflammation is not only harmful in the acute phase of stroke but also contributes to long-term brain damage and recovery. The chronic inflammation that follows stroke has been implicated in the development of neurological deficits, cognitive decline and the progression of neurodegenerative diseases.

STROKE AS A NON-TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY (nTBI)

Traditionally, TBIs have been associated with external physical forces such as blows to the head, falls, or accidents. These external

forces result in direct trauma to the brain, leading to tissue damage and dysfunction. However, stroke, while not caused by a direct mechanical impact, can produce similar effects on brain tissue and functions. This has led to the recognition of stroke as a non-traumatic brain injury (nTBI).

An nTBI refers to any type of brain injury that is not the result of an external physical force but still leads to structural or functional damage to the brain. Strokes, whether ischemic or hemorrhagic, fit this definition because they result in significant brain injury due to the interruption of blood flow without any direct external impact on the brain.

WHY STROKE IS CONSIDERED AN NTBI

There are several reasons why stroke is categorized as an nTBI:

Similar Pathophysiology: Like traumatic brain injuries, stroke leads to neuronal cell death, neuroinflammation and long-term changes in brain structure and function. Both conditions cause damage to neurons and glial cells, leading to neurological deficits, cognitive impairments and emotional disturbances.

No External Trauma: Unlike TBIs, which are caused by external physical forces, strokes occur due to internal processes, such as blood clots or ruptured blood vessels. There is no direct impact on the skull or brain tissue from an external object, yet the effects on brain function can be just as devastating as a TBI.

Long-Term Consequences: Both stroke and TBI often result in long-term functional impairments, including motor deficits, sensory disturbances, cognitive decline and mood disorders. The recovery process for both conditions can be slow, requiring extensive rehabilitation and often leading to permanent disability.

Overlap in Risk Factors: Many of the risk factors for stroke overlap with those of TBI. For example, age, hypertension, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases are risk factors for both strokes and TBIs. Furthermore, individuals who have suffered a TBI are at

an increased risk for stroke, further emphasizing the connection between the two conditions.

Impact on Brain Networks: Both stroke and TBI can disrupt the functioning of large-scale brain networks, affecting motor, sensory and cognitive functions. These disruptions can lead to widespread changes in brain connectivity, which is often associated with neurological deficits and difficulties in recovery.

CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS AND TREATMENT OF STROKE AS AN NTBI

Recognizing stroke as an nTBI has important clinical implications. It highlights the need for timely intervention to prevent further brain damage and improve outcomes. For example, the use of thrombolytic therapy (clot-busting drugs) and mechanical thrombectomy in ischemic stroke can restore blood flow and limit the extent of brain damage, much like how early intervention in TBI can prevent secondary injury.

Additionally, the rehabilitation of stroke patients often involves similar strategies used for TBI patients, including physical therapy, occupational therapy and neuropsychological interventions. The goal is to help patients recover lost functions and adapt to any remaining disabilities.

IN CONCLUSION

Stroke is a complex neurological event that results in the disruption of blood flow to the brain, leading to cell death, inflammation, and long-term neurological impairment. While strokes are caused by vascular issues and not external trauma, they share many similarities with traumatic brain injuries in terms of their pathophysiology, clinical outcomes and impact on brain function. For these reasons, stroke is increasingly recognized as a form of non-traumatic brain injury (nTBI), and understanding its mechanisms can help improve treatment and rehabilitation strategies for those affected. By viewing stroke through the lens of nTBI, we can better address the needs of patients, leading to improved care and recovery outcomes.

Film MRI ( magnetic resonance imaging ) of brain showing stroke.

AWAKE CRANIOTOMY

Traumatic aneurysms — aneurysms that occur as a result of traumatic brain injuy — can be effectively treated with this fascinating procedure that helps to preserve neurological function in comparison to traditional craniotomy.

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AWAKE CRANIOTOMY IS AN ADVANCED SURGICAL technique that is increasingly used to treat traumatic brain aneurysms, which are abnormal bulges or weakened areas in the walls of blood vessels within the brain and caused by traumatic injury. These aneurysms are particularly dangerous because they can rupture, leading to severe brain hemorrhage which may cause irreversible damage or even death. Traditionally, treating such aneurysms required traditional craniotomy, in which the skull is opened to access the brain, but awake craniotomy offers a more precise and safe alternative, especially when the aneurysm is located near critical brain structures.

During an awake craniotomy, the patient is kept conscious throughout the procedure, but local anesthesia is administered to numb the scalp and skull. The patient is sedated enough to remain calm and comfortable, but remains alert and responsive for most of the surgery. This conscious state allows the surgeon to interact directly with the patient, performing neurological tests during the procedure. If the aneurysm is near regions of the brain responsible for essential functions such as speech, movement, or cognition, the surgeon can monitor the patient’s responses to stimulation, ensuring that vital brain areas are not damaged during the surgery.

For patients with traumatic aneurysms, awake craniotomy allows the surgical team to more effectively target the aneurysm while avoiding harm to crucial brain functions. For example, during surgery, the surgeon may ask the patient to speak or move a limb while stimulating specific brain areas to assess which parts of the brain control those functions. This real-time feedback enables the surgical team to navigate sensitive areas more carefully. The surgeon can make adjustments if they notice any adverse effects or if the patient shows signs of discomfort. This level of precision is particularly important for aneurysms located in complex or deep regions of the brain, where traditional surgery might risk significant damage to nearby structures.

One of the significant advantages of awake craniotomy is the ability to monitor the patient’s neurological status during surgery. In traditional surgeries, patients are typically under general anesthesia, making it impossible for the surgical team to assess the patient’s cognitive and motor functions in real time. In contrast, with awake craniotomy, the surgeon can adjust the procedure dynamically, reducing the risk of complications such as paralysis, speech difficulties, or cognitive impairment. By ensuring that the brain is undamaged, the technique can result in better long-term outcomes and fewer complications after surgery. Patients are often able to recover more quickly and with less residual neurological damage, making this method particularly beneficial for those with traumatic brain injuries.

While awake craniotomy has many advantages, it also comes with challenges. The patient must be able to cooperate throughout the procedure, which may be difficult for some individuals, particularly those who experience anxiety or discomfort. Additionally, the procedure requires highly skilled surgical teams who can effectively communicate with the patient and monitor the brain’s response to stimulation. Despite these challenges, awake craniotomy remains a groundbreaking technique that significantly improves the treatment of traumatic aneurysms, offering a safer, more effective alternative to traditional surgical methods. By allowing surgeons to operate with increased precision and real-time feedback, awake craniotomy has become a key tool in treating brain aneurysms while minimizing the risk of long-term complications.

craniotomy is a surgical operation in which a bone flap is temporarily removed from the skull to access the brain.

BRAIN BUILDING THE BREAKTHROUGH

The first-ever axolotl stereo-seq gives new insights into brain cell regeneration.

AXOLOTLS, A SPECIES OF SALAMANDERS NATIVE to lakes near Mexico City, have long captivated the scientific community due to their extraordinary regenerative abilities. These amphibians can regenerate entire limbs, spinal cord, heart and even parts of their brain. However, the molecular mechanisms that allow such remarkable tissue regrowth have remained a subject of intense study. A groundbreaking new technique, the first-ever axolotl stereo-seq, is shedding new light on these regenerative processes, especially in the brain. This pioneering method holds tremendous promise for advancing our understanding of neural regeneration and potentially developing new therapies for neurodegenerative diseases in humans.

WHAT IS STEREO-SEQ?

Stereo-seq (short for stereoscopic sequencing) is a cuttingedge technique that allows researchers to map gene expression with high spatial resolution. In essence, it is a method for visualizing the activity of genes within the context

of tissue architecture. By capturing both the spatial and transcriptomic data of cells, stereo-seq offers unparalleled insights into how gene expression varies across different regions of a tissue or organ.

Traditional gene expression studies, such as RNA sequencing, can only give a broad view of gene activity at the molecular level, without considering the exact location of that activity within the tissue. Stereo-seq bridges this gap by combining high-resolution spatial tissue imaging with gene sequencing, creating a comprehensive map that reveals not only what genes are active but also where they are active.

THE AXOLOTL: A MODEL ORGANISM FOR REGENERATION

The axolotl has become one of the most important model organisms in regenerative biology. Unlike most vertebrates, axolotls possess the incredible ability to regenerate complex body parts, including entire limbs, organs and even parts of

their brain. This ability has made axolotls an ideal subject for studying regeneration at a molecular level.

In particular, the axolotl’s brain offers an exciting area of study. While mammals, including humans, have limited capacity to regenerate brain cells after injury, axolotls can repair and regrow significant portions of their central nervous system. Understanding how axolotls are able to achieve this could revolutionize the treatment of neurodegenerative conditions such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s and multiple sclerosis.

THE ROLE OF BRAIN CELL REGENERATION IN AXOLOTLS

One of the most intriguing aspects of axolotl regeneration is their ability to regenerate brain cells after injury. In mammals, brain injuries often result in permanent damage because the neurons cannot regrow or repair themselves. However, axolotls have specialized cells, called radial glial cells, that play a crucial role in neurogenesis (the creation of new neurons) in the adult brain.

These radial glial cells are capable of reprogramming themselves to become neuronal precursor cells, which can differentiate into neurons. This process is fundamental to the axolotl’s ability to regenerate parts of its brain. However, the exact molecular signals and genetic pathways that control this process are still poorly understood.

UNDERSTANDING BRAIN CELL REGENERATION THROUGH STEREO-SEQ

The introduction of stereo-seq to the study of axolotl brain regeneration has allowed scientists to examine the precise molecular events that occur during this process. By applying stereo-seq to axolotl brain tissue, researchers can map gene expression patterns in individual cells while simultaneously preserving the spatial context of the tissue. This enables them to see which genes are active in specific regions of the brain and,

more importantly, which genes are involved in the regenerative processes that allow axolotls to regrow brain cells.

The breakthrough stereo-seq study on axolotls focused on several key aspects of brain regeneration, such as:

Cellular Identity and Differentiation: By capturing the gene expression of individual brain cells, researchers were able to identify distinct populations of cells involved in regeneration. This includes understanding the role of radial glial cells and how they differentiate into neurons during brain repair.

Molecular Pathways: Stereo-seq allowed scientists to pinpoint which molecular pathways are activated in response to brain injury. For example, certain genes related to inflammation, cell proliferation and cell differentiation were found to be upregulated in response to injury, suggesting they play a role in the brain’s regenerative process.

Spatial Mapping of Gene Expression: By mapping gene activity in precise spatial locations, researchers could see how different regions of the brain respond to injury. This is critical for understanding how axolotls can regenerate specific brain areas and how this knowledge can be applied to human medicine.

The Stereo-seq Approach, a New Era of Cellular Mapping: The stereo-seq technique offers several advantages over previous methods used to study tissue regeneration.

HIGH SPATIAL RESOLUTION

One of the biggest challenges in studying tissue regeneration is capturing the precise location of gene activity within a complex tissue structure. Traditional methods, such as bulk RNA sequencing, provide valuable data on gene expression but lack spatial resolution. With stereo-seq, researchers can pinpoint the exact locations within the tissue where specific

Axolotl brain developmental and regeneration processes.

The axolotl is a paedomorphic salamander closely related to the tiger salamander. It is unusual among amphibians in that it reaches adulthood without undergoing metamorphosis.

genes are active. This is particularly important when studying tissues like the brain, where cellular organization is critical to understanding function and regeneration.

INTEGRATION OF SPATIAL AND TRANSCRIPTOMIC DATA

Stereo-seq integrates both spatial and transcriptomic data, allowing researchers to simultaneously visualize the architecture of the tissue and understand the molecular mechanisms at play. This combination provides a much richer and more complete picture of the regeneration process. By studying axolotl brain tissue with this integrated approach, scientists can map out the spatial distribution of cellular activities during regeneration and link them to specific molecular events.

SINGLE-CELL RESOLUTION

Stereo-seq operates at a single-cell resolution, which is essential for understanding the heterogeneity of cells involved in regeneration. In the brain, different types of neurons, glial cells and precursor cells may exhibit different gene expression patterns depending on their developmental stage or regenerative status. Stereo-seq allows researchers to investigate these differences at the level of individual cells, revealing a detailed picture of how various cell types contribute to brain repair.

NEW INSIGHTS INTO AXOLOTL BRAIN REGENERATION

The stereo-seq findings from axolotls have already provided several exciting insights into the regenerative processes at play in their brains:

1. Radial Glial Cells as Key Players in Neurogenesis

The study confirmed that radial glial cells are central to brain cell regeneration in axolotls. These cells, which are typically found in the developing nervous system, retain their regenerative potential in adulthood. Stereo-seq data revealed that radial glial cells not only act as a source of new neurons but also help maintain the architecture of the regenerating tissue.

Interestingly, the study also found that radial glial cells in axolotls exhibit gene expression patterns that are very different from those of radial glial cells in mammals, suggesting that there may be distinct molecular mechanisms at play in the axolotl’s regenerative response.

2. Activation of Regenerative Pathways

Researchers identified several molecular pathways that are upregulated during brain regeneration in axolotls. Some of these pathways are involved in cell proliferation, differentiation and tissue remodeling. These pathways include the Notch, Wnt and Hedgehog signaling pathways, which are known to play crucial roles in development and regeneration in other species as well.

Stereo-seq revealed how these pathways interact in different regions of the brain and how they help guide the regeneration process. By identifying these pathways in axolotls, researchers may be able to design targeted therapies that could encourage neurogenesis in humans, potentially offering new treatments for neurodegenerative diseases.

3. The Importance of Inflammatory Response

Another interesting finding from the stereo-seq study was the role of inflammation in brain regeneration. While inflammation is often considered detrimental to tissue repair, the data revealed that a controlled inflammatory response is crucial for promoting neurogenesis in axolotls. This suggests that inflammation may have a dual role, both aiding in the repair of damaged tissue and helping to guide the regenerative process.

IMPLICATIONS FOR HUMAN MEDICINE

The insights gained from studying axolotl brain regeneration using stereo-seq have significant implications for human medicine, particularly in the fields of neurology and regenerative medicine. By understanding the genetic and molecular mechanisms behind axolotl brain repair, scientists can identify potential therapeutic targets for encouraging brain cell regeneration in humans.

IN CONCLUSION

The first-ever axolotl stereo-seq represents a major leap forward in our understanding of brain cell regeneration. By combining spatial mapping with gene expression data, this technique has provided unprecedented insights into the molecular and cellular processes that drive axolotl brain repair. The findings from this study not only deepen our understanding of regenerative biology but also offer exciting new possibilities for treating brain injuries and neurodegenerative diseases in humans. As research in this field continues, we may one day be able to harness the regenerative powers of axolotls to help heal human brains.

DEATH BY TBI

How and why traumatic brain injury can result in death.

TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY (TBI) IS A SERIOUS AND OFTEN life-threatening condition that results from a sudden blow or jolt to the head, causing damage to the brain. While many individuals who experience a TBI recover with appropriate treatment, in some cases, the injury can lead to death. The severity of the brain injury and the specific areas of the brain that are affected play a significant role in determining the outcome. Understanding how and why TBI can lead to death requires an exploration of the mechanisms of injury, the types of TBIs and the complications that can arise in the aftermath of a traumatic event.

MECHANISMS OF TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY

The brain is a delicate organ, and any significant trauma to the head can cause a range of injuries. TBI can occur through several mechanisms, including direct impact, accelerationdeceleration forces and rotational forces. A direct impact, such as a blow to the head from a fall or a car accident, can cause localized damage to the brain. The brain is cushioned by cerebrospinal fluid within the skull, but when an external force is strong enough, the brain can collide with the inside of the skull, causing bruising (contusion), swelling and even bleeding (hemorrhage).

Acceleration-deceleration injuries occur when the head is rapidly moved back and forth, as in a car crash or sportsrelated injury. This rapid motion causes the brain to shift within the skull, leading to damage to brain tissue, blood vessels and nerve fibers. Rotational forces, such as those caused by a sudden twisting motion, can tear nerve fibers (axons), resulting in diffuse axonal injury (DAI). DAI is one of the most severe forms of TBI and often results in longterm impairments or death. These mechanisms can cause damage to different regions of the brain, each of which plays a crucial role in basic life functions such as breathing, heart rate and consciousness.

Actor and comedian Bob Saget’s official cause of death was blunt head trauma. His autopsy showed a fracture at the base of his skull and evidence of bleeding around the brain.

CT brain scan image of a patient with severe skull depression fracture at left frontal parietal area with left zygomatic arch and both maxillary sinuses fractures with small subarachnoidal hemorrhage.

TYPES OF TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY

TBI is classified into three main categories based on severity: mild, moderate and severe. Mild TBI, often referred to as a concussion, typically involves a brief loss of consciousness or confusion, with recovery expected within days to weeks. Moderate and severe TBIs, however, carry a much higher risk of complications and death. Moderate TBI can lead to lasting cognitive deficits and physical impairments, while severe TBI often involves significant brain swelling, bleeding and widespread tissue damage that can be fatal.

One of the most dangerous forms of TBI is a penetrating injury, in which an object, such as a bullet or sharp object, enters the skull and damages brain tissue. These injuries are often fatal because they cause immediate, severe damage to critical brain structures, leading to uncontrollable bleeding, infection and loss of function in vital areas of the brain. Subdural and epidural hematomas, which involve the accumulation of blood between the brain and the skull, are also life-threatening conditions that can result from moderate to severe TBI. These blood clots can put pressure on the brain, reducing blood flow and oxygen supply to vital brain regions, leading to brain death.

Brain Swelling and Increased Intracranial Pressure

One of the primary reasons that TBI can lead to death is brain swelling (cerebral edema), which can increase intracranial pressure (ICP). When the brain swells due to injury, there is limited space within the rigid skull to accommodate the expanding tissue. As a result, the pressure inside the skull rises, which can restrict blood flow to the brain and decrease the supply of oxygen and nutrients. This can lead to widespread brain cell death and irreversible brain damage.

COMPLICATIONS LEADING TO DEATH

In addition to brain swelling and increased ICP, there are several other complications that can arise from TBI and lead to death. These complications include hemorrhaging (bleeding) within the brain, infections and seizures. Intracranial bleeding, such as subdural or epidural hematomas, can quickly worsen and lead to irreversible brain damage. Hemorrhages can occur immediately after the injury or develop over time, making it crucial for medical professionals to monitor individuals with severe TBI closely.

Infections, particularly in cases of open head wounds or penetrating injuries, can also be fatal. Infections can spread rapidly within the brain, causing inflammation, tissue destruction and sepsis, which can lead to multi-organ failure and death. Seizures are another common complication of TBI, especially in individuals with moderate to severe injuries. Seizures can further damage brain tissue, increase ICP and contribute to other lifethreatening conditions.

Traumatic brain injury can cause death through a combination of direct damage to the brain, swelling, bleeding and secondary complications such as infection and seizures. The severity of the injury, the areas of the brain affected and the individual’s overall health determine the likelihood of survival and recovery. Severe TBIs, particularly those involving significant brain swelling, hemorrhaging or penetration, carry the highest risk of death. Early intervention, medical management to control swelling and bleeding, and surgery to address complications can improve survival rates, but TBI remains a leading cause of death and long-term disability worldwide. Understanding the mechanisms of TBI and the risks involved highlights the importance of prevention, early detection and prompt medical treatment to reduce the potentially fatal consequences of head injuries.

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BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN MEDICAL AND LEGAL

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WHAT’S NEW AT TBI MED LEGAL 2025

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Stay ahead of the curve at TBI Med Legal 2025, the premier event where lawyers can learn the latest TBI advancements from top experts. Gain insights to apply to your cases for significant outcomes. Join us, and transform the way you handle TBI cases.

AFTER TBI dreaming

Sleep and dream studies have shown that traumatic brain injury heavily influences a person’s dream tendencies. One such study out of Oxford University shines a light on this phenomenon.

When you dream, your whole brain is active at some level. However, during REM sleep, your prefrontal cortex is less active. This is the part of the brain that is responsible for planning and logic.

DREAMING IS A COMPLEX AND MYSTERIOUS ASPECT OF human consciousness, with dreams offering a window into our unconscious mind. While the exact functions of dreams remain elusive, they are considered essential for emotional processing, memory consolidation and even problem-solving. However, when it comes to traumatic brain injury (TBI), the effects on dreaming are not well understood. TBI, which occurs due to an external force to the head, can cause a range of cognitive, emotional and physical impairments. It can also have a profound impact on the dreaming process, which is intricately tied to the brain’s ability to function. This article explores how TBI affects dreaming, the changes in dream patterns and the potential reasons behind these alterations.

UNDERSTANDING DREAMING AND THE BRAIN

Dreams are primarily associated with rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, a stage of sleep that is crucial for restorative processes in the brain. During REM sleep, brain activity is high, and the brain undergoes various functions, including the processing and consolidation of memories. It is during REM sleep that vivid and often surreal dreams occur. Non-REM sleep stages, especially deep sleep, also play a role in memory consolidation, physical restoration and the maintenance of cognitive functions.

The brain structures that play an essential role in dreaming include the prefrontal cortex, the limbic system (which controls emotions) and the hippocampus (which is involved in memory formation). These regions work together to create the vivid scenarios that we experience while dreaming. Traumatic brain injury can disrupt these brain structures, resulting in changes to the dreaming process, affecting both the content and quality of dreams.

THE IMPACT OF TBI ON DREAMING

The effect of TBI on dreaming varies depending on the severity of the injury, the regions of the brain affected and whether the individual is recovering from the injury. However, several common trends have emerged in research that help to explain the link between TBI and changes in dreaming.

1. Disruption in REM Sleep

One of the primary effects of TBI on dreaming is a disruption of the sleep cycle, especially REM sleep. Many individuals with TBI report experiencing difficulty entering or maintaining REM sleep, which in turn affects the intensity and frequency of dreams. Some individuals with TBI may experience less REM sleep overall, which reduces the opportunity for dreaming. On the other hand, some individuals report fragmented or disrupted REM sleep, leading to sleep disturbances that may cause nightmares or vivid dreams.

The disturbance in REM sleep following TBI is often linked to the brain’s inability to regulate sleep cycles effectively. Damage to brain regions such as the hypothalamus, which controls the circadian rhythm, and the brainstem, which regulates REM sleep, can result in sleep fragmentation and other disturbances that affect dreaming.

2. Changes in Dream Content

The content of dreams can be profoundly altered after a traumatic brain injury. Dreams may become more bizarre, fragmented or distressing. Some individuals with TBI report an increase in violent or frightening dreams, including nightmares, possibly due to heightened emotional responses to stress or trauma experienced during the injury. The emotional part of the brain, particularly the amygdala, may be affected by TBI, which could make emotions such as fear, anxiety and anger more dominant in dreams.

Moreover, people with TBI may experience more frequent dreams that revolve around the injury itself or the events surrounding it. These types of dreams may be related to posttraumatic stress, a common condition following a TBI. Dreams may replay the traumatic incident or present variations of the injury experience, leading to increased distress and anxiety. Such dreams are often reflective of the brain’s attempt to process and integrate traumatic memories.

The EEG spectogram image above shows the intensity of brainwave activity over time. High-intensity regions are indicated by tones of red, yellow and green, and low-intensity regions are indicated by tones of blue.

3. Memory and Dream Recollection

One of the hallmark symptoms of TBI is memory impairment. This can also impact the ability to recall dreams. Individuals with TBI may have difficulty remembering their dreams upon waking. This memory dysfunction may arise due to damage to the hippocampus, a brain structure crucial for both long-term memory and the consolidation of daily experiences, which is also important for dream recall. As a result, TBI sufferers may have fewer recollections of their dreams, or they may find that their dreams feel fragmented or incomplete.

The reduced ability to recall dreams may also be associated with cognitive fatigue. Many people with TBI experience cognitive difficulties such as attention deficits, which can make it harder for them to focus on and retain dream experiences. This can diminish the vividness and continuity of dreams over time.

4. Nightmares and Night Terrors

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a common consequence of TBI, especially in cases where the injury resulted from an accident or violent trauma. PTSD is often associated with the occurrence of frequent nightmares and night terrors. Individuals with TBI may experience an increase in nightmares or vivid dreams that are emotionally intense and may involve reliving the trauma of the injury or other stressful events in their lives.

Nightmares can interfere with sleep quality, leading to more difficulty maintaining healthy sleep patterns and exacerbating cognitive impairments. Sleep deprivation caused by frequent nightmares can contribute to feelings of fatigue, irritability and difficulty focusing, further impacting daily functioning and rehabilitation efforts.

Sleep stages graph (hypnogram) above shows the different stages of sleep of participants during their session.

5. Sleep Apnea and Other Sleep Disorders

Sleep disorders, including sleep apnea, are common in individuals with TBI. Sleep apnea is a condition in which a person’s breathing repeatedly stops and starts during sleep. This leads to reduced oxygen levels in the blood, further disrupting the sleep cycle and negatively affecting REM sleep. The lack of quality REM sleep can significantly impact dreaming, causing a reduction in dream intensity or altering the nature of dreams.

TBI can contribute to the development of sleep apnea by affecting the brainstem, which plays a role in regulating breathing. In addition to sleep apnea, other sleep disorders such as insomnia and restless leg syndrome may also develop after TBI, further affecting sleep quality and, by extension, the dreaming process.

NEUROCHEMICAL CHANGES AND THEIR EFFECT ON DREAMS

The brain’s neurotransmitter systems play a crucial role in regulating sleep and dreaming. TBI can result in alterations in the levels of neurotransmitters such as serotonin, dopamine and acetylcholine, which are all involved in the regulation of sleep and dream activity. Damage to these systems may lead to abnormal sleep cycles, less REM sleep and changes in the emotional tone of dreams.

Serotonin, for example, is critical for maintaining healthy sleep patterns and mood regulation. TBI-related disruptions in serotonin levels may contribute to sleep disturbances, nightmares and emotional instability in dreams. Similarly, changes in dopamine levels can affect motivation, reward systems and mood regulation, leading to more vivid or unusual dreams. Alterations in acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter essential for REM sleep, can directly impact the quality and frequency of dreaming.

NEUROPLASTICITY AND DREAMING POST-TBI

Neuroplasticity, the brain’s ability to reorganize itself and form new neural connections, plays a role in recovery after a traumatic brain injury. As the brain heals and compensates for areas of damage, it may restore some functions, including the ability to engage in normal sleep cycles and experience regular dreams. However, the extent of this recovery depends on the severity of the injury, the areas of the brain affected and the individual’s age and overall health.

In some cases, as neuroplasticity allows the brain to compensate for damage, individuals with TBI may experience a return of more vivid or coherent dreams. Conversely, some individuals may experience persistent disruptions in dreaming as the brain continues to adapt to the injury. The process of neuroplasticity is unique to each individual, and its impact on dreaming remains an area of ongoing research.

Although many individuals with TBI experience significant changes to their dreams, there are effective strategies for managing these disturbances, including cognitive behavioral therapies, pharmacological interventions and lifestyle changes.

POTENTIAL TREATMENTS FOR DREAMING DISTURBANCES FOLLOWING TBI

While there is no definitive treatment to restore normal dreaming after a traumatic brain injury, several strategies may help manage the associated sleep disturbances and improve sleep quality, which, in turn, can support healthier dreaming.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Insomnia (CBT-I): This type of therapy is often used to treat sleep disturbances in individuals with TBI. CBT-I helps individuals identify and address thoughts and behaviors that interfere with sleep, leading to improvements in overall sleep quality, which may also have a positive effect on dreaming.

Pharmacological Interventions: Medications such as antidepressants, antianxiety drugs or sleep aids may be prescribed to individuals with TBI who suffer from nightmares or other sleep disturbances. These medications may help to regulate sleep patterns and reduce the frequency of nightmares.

Relaxation Techniques: Techniques such as meditation, deep breathing and progressive muscle relaxation may help individuals with TBI reduce stress and anxiety before sleep, leading to improved sleep quality and potentially less disturbing dreams.

Sleep Hygiene Education: Establishing a consistent sleep routine and creating a calm and comfortable sleep environment can improve sleep quality, leading to better recovery and less disruption to dreaming. Sleep hygiene strategies may include maintaining a consistent

sleep-wake cycle, avoiding caffeine and alcohol before bedtime and minimizing screen time in the hours leading up to sleep.

Nightmare Management: Individuals who suffer from frequent nightmares related to TBI may benefit from therapies that focus on trauma resolution, such as EMDR (eye movement desensitization and reprocessing) or trauma-focused cognitivebehavioral therapy. These approaches aim to reduce the emotional impact of traumatic memories, potentially decreasing the frequency and intensity of nightmares.

IN CONCLUSION

The effects of traumatic brain injury on dreaming are varied and complex, reflecting the intricate nature of the brain’s sleep and memory systems. TBI can lead to disruptions in REM sleep, changes in dream content, increased nightmares and memory difficulties related to dream recall. These disturbances are influenced by various factors, including neurochemical changes, emotional responses to trauma and disruptions in brain regions responsible for sleep regulation.

Although many individuals with TBI experience significant changes to their dreams, there are effective strategies for managing these disturbances, including cognitive behavioral therapies, pharmacological interventions and lifestyle changes. By addressing the underlying sleep issues, it is possible to improve sleep quality, reduce nightmares and enhance the overall healing process following a traumatic brain injury. As research into the relationship between TBI and dreaming continues, a better understanding of these processes may lead to more targeted treatments and interventions.

HOW BRAIN INJURY BECAME THE IN THE ROOM OF PROFESSIONAL SPORTS

ELEPHANT

MEDICAL HISTORIAN STEPHEN CASPER ARGUES THAT THE D ANGER OF CHRONIC TRAUMATIC ENCEPHALOPATHY (CTE) WAS ONCE WIDELY ACKNOWLEDGED IN PROFESSIONAL SPORTS. WHY, THEN IS THE INDUSTRY TURNING A BLIND EYE TO THE RISK OF TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY TODAY?

STEPHEN CASPER, PH.D., A

NOTED MEDICAL HISTORIAN, offers a critical examination of the rise and decline of recognition of chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) in the context of professional sports. His argument revolves around a paradox: while CTE was once widely acknowledged as a significant danger to athletes, its growing recognition as a problem has led to a dangerous trend where it is increasingly dismissed or ignored, especially in contact sports like football, boxing and hockey.

THE HISTORY OF CTE AWARENESS

Casper’s analysis begins with the origins of CTE as a medical concept. The condition itself, first identified in the 1920s, was initially associated with boxers who suffered from repeated head trauma. In those early days, the condition was known as “punch-drunk syndrome,” a term that was commonly used in the medical community. As research evolved, it became clear that repetitive head trauma in various sports led to a range of cognitive and psychological symptoms, including memory loss, aggression and depression.

In the latter half of the 20th century, this growing body of evidence led to a broader understanding of CTE. The 1990s and 2000s saw some mainstream attention to the condition, particularly as athletes began to come forward with their stories. For instance, the death of former NFL players, such as Mike Webster, raised questions about the long-term impacts of repetitive head injuries. Posthumous examinations of their brains revealed patterns of degeneration that were consistent with CTE.

For a time, the presence of CTE in athletes was widely acknowledged in both academic circles and the general public. Medical professionals and former athletes began to advocate for reforms in contact sports to limit the risk of head trauma, and there was a growing consensus that something needed to be done to protect players.

THE DECLINE OF RECOGNITION IN PROFESSIONAL SPORTS

Casper argues that, despite the earlier recognition of the dangers of CTE, there has been a troubling shift in professional sports. While CTE remains a central issue in academic and medical research, the sports industry itself has begun to downplay or ignore its potential dangers. This shift can be traced to a few key factors.

THE ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL INTERESTS OF PROFESSIONAL SPORTS

At the heart of this change is the immense financial and cultural power of professional sports. In leagues like the NFL, the NHL and other contact sports organizations, the revenue generated from games, sponsorships and media deals is enormous. The idea of reforming the way the sport is played — or worse, changing the very nature of the game — may be seen as a threat to the financial model that underpins the entire industry.

The resistance to acknowledging CTE’s long-term effects can, therefore, be understood in the context of these

Left: A normal, healthy brain. Right: A brain with advanced CTE.

powerful economic interests. For instance, while the NFL has faced growing scrutiny for its role in the CTE crisis, the organization has been accused of downplaying the issue, often by funding studies that cast doubt on the extent of the damage caused by head injuries. This has contributed to a culture in which the real dangers of CTE are minimized in favor of maintaining the status quo.

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL DENIAL AMONG ATHLETES

Another contributing factor, according to Casper, is the psychology of professional athletes themselves. Many athletes are deeply invested in the idea of toughness and the willingness to push through pain. In contact sports, there is a long-standing culture of “playing through the pain,” and athletes often view injury as a part of their job, rather than a potential threat to their future well-being. This mindset has led many athletes to dismiss or downplay the risks of CTE, particularly when faced with the potential of their career coming to an end due to health concerns.

Furthermore, there is a significant stigma surrounding mental health in the athletic world, especially among men. Admitting to problems like memory loss, depression, or aggression may be seen as a sign of weakness. The refusal to acknowledge CTE symptoms, therefore, can be understood

as a form of self-preservation, as athletes try to maintain their image and identity as invulnerable competitors.

THE ROLE OF MEDICAL EXPERTS AND MEDIA

Casper also critiques the role of the media and medical experts in contributing to the marginalization of CTE. In the early 2000s, when CTE research began to gain attention, the media played an important role in spreading awareness about the condition. However, as the issue became more contentious, some media outlets began to back away from the narrative. Partly due to pressure from sports organizations, the portrayal of CTE began to shift from an established concern to a more disputed topic.

In the case of the NFL, a notable instance of this shift was the release of the movie “Concussion” in 2015, which dramatized the story of Dr. Bennet Omalu, the forensic pathologist who first discovered CTE in football players. The NFL’s response to the film and its portrayal of CTE was one of aggressive denial, leading to public confusion over the true extent of the issue. Some medical professionals also became less willing to engage with the topic of CTE directly, choosing to focus on less controversial topics or minimizing the long-term risks associated with repetitive head trauma.

Tiaina Baul “Junior” Seau Jr., who suffers from CTE, was an American professional football linebacker who played in the National Football League, mostly with the San Diego Chargers. Known for his passionate play, he was a 6-time first-team All-Pro, 12-time Pro Bowl selection and named to the NFL 1990s All-Decade Team.

Michael Lewis Webster, who died with CTE, was an American football center in the National Football League from 1974 to 1990 with the Pittsburgh Steelers and Kansas City Chiefs. He is a member of the Pro Football Hall of Fame, class of 1997.

MORE THAN OF NFL PLAYERS ARE AFFECTED BY TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY.

%

THE ONGOING PROBLEM: A CALL FOR REFORMS

Despite efforts to downplay the issue, there is still significant concern about the long-term consequences of CTE for athletes. Casper’s work urges a return to a more honest, scientific discussion of the risks posed by contact sports, advocating for reforms such as rule changes to limit head trauma, better concussion protocols and greater education on long-term effects. Moreover, Casper believes the sports industry must move away from denial regarding CTE, prioritizing athletes’ health over the financial interests of leagues and teams. This shift is essential to ensuring athletes’ safety and reducing future cases of CTE.

IN CONCLUSION

Stephen Casper’s work highlights the disturbing trend of CTE’s growing invisibility in professional sports. What was once a widely acknowledged danger has now been relegated to the margins, largely ignored by powerful sports organizations, athletes and media outlets. Casper calls for a return to a serious, evidence-based discussion on CTE, one that prioritizes athletes’ health over economic and cultural forces that downplay head trauma risks. His argument serves as a critical reminder that the fight to protect athletes from CTE is not over and the risks must not be ignored in the pursuit of entertainment and profit.

PHOTO: YOUSUF KARSH

HEMINGWAY’S BRAIN

The neuropsychiatric demise of a great literary mind by way of chronic traumatic encephalopathy

DR. ANDREW FARAH DESCRIBES THE NEUROPSYCHIATRIC

collapse of a brilliant literary mind in his recently published biography of Ernest Hemingway, Hemingway’s Brain. According to Dr. Farah, Hemingway had multiple severe concussions during his life, which led to chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). Alcoholism, uncontrolled diabetes and hypertension further exacerbated this dementia, maybe including a vascular component. He thinks that this illness influenced Hemingway’s later literary works in addition to his daily contacts, relationships and life.

“I had a meeting with a Hemingway biographer soon after leaving residency. Having read some of my ECT study, he was curious as to why, instead of getting better, Hemingway took his own life after undergoing ECT. He’d read that ninety percent of patients who received ECT got the desired result. I indicated that, in my experience, ECT is a biological stressor that helps

reveal an underlying organic brain disease in people who worsen after receiving it,” according to Farah. “He was curious about the nature of Hemingway’s illness, so I started reading every biography I could find about the writer as well as Hemingway’s memoirs, letters and other writings.”

When he was in Italy during World War I, a 5-gallon Austrian mortar burst not too far away from him. According to the Department of Military Affairs report, it burst only three feet away from him, meaning that a blast-type concussion was his first serious head injury. Ted Brumback, a fellow reporter and ambulance driver who was also Hemingway’s closest friend at the time, wrote to Hemingway’s father from Milan stating that “an enormous trench mortar bomb lit within a few feet of Ernest.” It blasted off the legs of one soldier who stood between him and the bomb, killed another, blew Hemingway several feet away and covered him with earth.

“But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”

— Ernest Hemingway, The Old Man and the Sea

PHOTO:

After suffering his first significant concussion, he was involved in an accident in 1928 while returning home late from a night out with friends in Paris. He meant to pull the commode’s chord, but instead he grabbed the cord tied to a cracked skylight, which caused the skylight to fall on the left frontal portion of his skull, leaving him with a legendary scar and another serious concussion.

There were other mishaps after that. His fishing boat suffered a collapse from its flybridge while off the coast of Cuba, and he was involved in a serious vehicle accident in London during the Blitz. His head struck the windshield, necessitating 57 stitches to repair the frontal region. Three further concussions occurred during World War II. While on a foolish escapade with Robert Capa, he was hit by a German anti-tank bullet and killed. As he landed, he banged his head against a boulder. Both physical trauma and a blast injury were sustained in that occasion. Finally, he and his fourth wife escaped two plane disasters in Africa on their 1954 trip. He had another car accident in Cuba with her.

This is a pattern that you can see: multiple concussions, both direct and blast-type blows. It’s also notable that Hemingway played football in high school and boxed as a young man, viewing these activities as symbols of his manhood. Undoubtedly, the football gear used in 1915 and 1916 was not very safe.

Hemingway extensively detailed the symptoms of postconcussion syndrome in a number of letters following various traumas, including the fall from his fishing boat, the concussions he sustained during World War II and the plane crashes.

Hemingway had little trouble expressing the typical postconcussion syndrome symptoms, which included irritation, double vision, persistent headaches and sensory abnormalities. He directly linked them to his concussions in his writings. He wrote from Kenya in a letter following the two jet crashes: “This is a funny thing. Maybe — concussion is very strange — and I have been studying it: double vision; hearing comes and goes … ”

Farah contends that because Hemingway was overweight after 1940, the cumulative effect of his injuries led to the development of CTE, which was hastened by alcoholism and potentially by a vascular component. Furthermore, it is likely that he was prediabetic for a considerable amount of time as he failed to treat the diabetes that was finally identified years later at the Mayo Clinic. There would have been significant fluctuations in his blood pressure as well. Studying his work reveals that the later novels, which were released after his death, lack the mastery of the masterpieces.

Farah claims that Hemingway’s documented actions on a 1954 safari — when he “went native,” shaved his head, dyed his clothes like a local and went spear-hunting — all support the theory that he was experiencing a manic episode. That diagnosis certainly seems to fit this unique situation, but since Hemingway has a history of multiple serious head injuries, CTE seems like a more likely explanation.

Hemingway’s Brain is a fascinating look at how TBI shaped the life of a literary legend.

KETAMINE

COULD BE THE

GREAT PROTECTOR

Studies suggest that ketamine, a well-known anesthetic, may act as a neuroprotective agent that can protect the delicate cells of the brain from injury and premature death due to stroke or traumatic injury.

TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY (TBI) IS A MAJOR CONCERN in both medical and military fields, affecting millions of people worldwide. The impact on brain function may range from mild concussions to severe, life-altering damage. Traditional treatments, such as physical therapy and medication, often address symptoms but may not fully promote brain healing. However, recent studies suggest that ketamine therapy could be an innovative approach in helping patients with TBI recover.

Ketamine is a dissociative anesthetic that has been used for decades in surgical settings. Its ability to block N-methylD-aspartate (NMDA) receptors in the brain gives it unique properties, particularly in its ability to induce anesthesia without affecting breathing or heart function. More recently, ketamine has gained attention for its therapeutic potential in treating depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), chronic pain and, as of recent studies, TBI.

TBI may lead to a range of cognitive, emotional and physical impairments due to neuronal damage and inflammation. Ketamine therapy is believed to aid in recovery through several mechanisms:

Neuroplasticity Promotion: One of the most exciting aspects of ketamine’s potential for TBI treatment is its ability to enhance neuroplasticity — the brain’s capacity to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections. This is especially critical after a TBI, where damaged brain cells need to be repaired or replaced. Ketamine has been shown to stimulate

the release of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a protein essential for neuron growth and survival.

Reduction of Inflammation: Following a brain injury, inflammation is a significant contributor to secondary brain damage. Ketamine has anti-inflammatory properties that may help reduce the extent of this damage, protecting brain tissue from further harm and supporting recovery.

Glutamate Regulation: Ketamine works by blocking NMDA receptors involved in glutamate signaling. Glutamate is a neurotransmitter crucial for memory and learning but can be neurotoxic in excess. By regulating glutamate levels, ketamine helps prevent further neuronal injury and promotes healthy brain function.

Mood and Cognitive Improvement: TBI patients often experience depression, anxiety and cognitive impairments. Ketamine’s rapid antidepressant effects can improve mood and enhance cognitive function, creating an optimal environment for rehabilitation therapies to be more effective. While more research is needed to fully understand the scope of ketamine’s benefits for TBI patients, early findings suggest that it could be a breakthrough in brain injury treatment. By promoting neuroplasticity, reducing inflammation and improving mood, ketamine therapy offers hope for those recovering from TBI. As clinical trials progress, ketamine may become an integral part of TBI rehabilitation strategies, providing a new lifeline for patients seeking recovery.

NEUROLAW The Brain on Trial

Understanding the interdisciplinary field of neurolaw and how traumatic brain injury can shape legal accountability

NEUROLAW, AN EMERGING INTERDISCIPLINARY FIELD, lies at the intersection of neuroscience and the law. It seeks to understand how the brain’s functions and malfunctions can influence legal outcomes, particularly in criminal and civil cases. This field of study addresses critical questions about human behavior, accountability and the consequences of neurological impairments, including those caused by traumatic brain injury (TBI). TBIs, which often result from accidents or violence, have been linked to significant changes in behavior, decision-making and impulse control. As our understanding of how the brain works deepens, neurolaw is redefining how courts approach cases involving individuals with brain injuries, including issues of criminal responsibility and the adequacy of punishment.

In this story, we will explore neurolaw, with a focus on how TBI influences legal proceedings, and how this evolving field is reshaping the relationship between brain science and the law.

WHAT IS NEUROLAW?

Neurolaw is the study of the relationship between neuroscience (the science of the brain) and law (the system of rules governing behavior). As science continues to unlock the mysteries of the brain, neurolaw explores how these discoveries should be applied in legal contexts. The field raises questions like: Can a person be held criminally responsible for actions that are influenced by

an injured brain? How can courts evaluate the mental state of a defendant with a brain injury? What role does the brain’s capacity for change (neuroplasticity) play in sentencing and rehabilitation?

In a typical criminal case, the law traditionally assumes that an individual has control over their actions and can be held accountable for their choices. However, as science shows, brain injuries or disorders can sometimes limit a person’s ability to make decisions, control impulses or understand the consequences of their actions. This complicates the application of traditional legal principles such as intent and mens rea (the mental state needed to commit a crime).

Neurolaw seeks to understand the balance between responsibility and brain-based impairments, especially when conditions like TBI alter cognitive function and behavior.

THE ROLE OF TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY IN NEUROLAW

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) occurs when an external force causes damage to the brain. This injury can result from various incidents, such as car accidents, falls, physical assaults, or sports-related injuries. TBIs vary in severity, ranging from mild concussions to life-threatening injuries that can cause permanent damage to brain function.

The effects of TBI are wide-ranging and can affect various aspects of a person’s cognitive abilities, including memory, attention, decision-making and emotional regulation. One of the most significant consequences of TBI is its potential impact on a person’s behavior. Damage to areas of the brain responsible for impulse control, such as the prefrontal cortex, can lead to increased aggression, poor judgment and difficulty controlling emotional responses. In some cases, this can contribute to criminal behavior or actions that are seen as erratic and outside a person’s control. Neurolaw plays a crucial role in determining how TBI should be considered in the context of criminal responsibility. Legal professionals must assess whether a defendant’s TBI affected their ability to understand the nature of their actions or control their behavior at the time of the offense.

TBI AND CRIMINAL RESPONSIBILITY: THE IMPACT ON LEGAL DECISIONS

In criminal law, the question of whether a defendant was capable of forming intent at the time of the crime is central to determining guilt. This is where the science of neurolaw intersects with TBI. When a defendant has sustained a traumatic brain injury, their ability to plan, control impulses, or even recognize right from wrong may be impaired. In some cases, an individual with a TBI may act impulsively without fully understanding the consequences of their actions, raising important questions about legal responsibility.

For example, consider a case where a defendant with a history of TBI commits an act of violence. If brain scans or expert testimony reveal that the injury has caused significant damage to areas of the brain responsible for impulse control, the defendant’s ability to control their actions at the time of the offense could be in question. Legal experts might argue that the individual should not be held fully accountable for their behavior because the brain injury impaired their judgment.

One prominent case illustrating the role of TBI in criminal law is that of Ernest Willis, a man with a history of brain injuries who was involved in violent behavior. Expert testimony suggested that his brain injuries, which affected his ability to regulate emotions and impulses, contributed to his actions. While Willis was still held accountable for his behavior, the understanding of his brain injury influenced how the case was handled, including the nature of his sentencing and the focus on treatment rather than purely punitive measures.

The central question in cases like these is whether the brain injury can be shown to have impaired the individual’s capacity to form the mental state (mens rea) necessary to commit the crime. If TBI is determined to have compromised this ability, it could lead to different legal outcomes, including verdicts of diminished responsibility, insanity, or not guilty by reason of mental illness.

THE IMPACT OF TBI ON SENTENCING AND REHABILITATION

Neurolaw also plays a critical role in determining appropriate sentences for those convicted of crimes when a brain injury is involved. Traditionally, criminal justice focuses on punishment and deterrence, but the growing understanding of the brain’s role in behavior is pushing for a greater emphasis on rehabilitation and treatment.

For individuals with a history of TBI, courts may consider whether the injury contributed to their criminal behavior and what treatment options might be available. In some cases, the legal system may take the brain injury into account during sentencing, with a focus on providing medical treatment, counseling and rehabilitation rather than long-term incarceration.

For instance, a defendant whose TBI has led to significant cognitive impairment or emotional instability may be better served by rehabilitation programs designed to address the underlying neurological issue. This approach could involve therapies aimed at improving impulse control, anger management and cognitive function, helping the defendant reintegrate into society in a more productive and healthy way.

The concept of neuroplasticity, the brain’s ability to reorganize itself and form new neural connections, plays a key role here. With appropriate therapy and rehabilitation, individuals with TBI may regain some of their lost functions, potentially reducing the likelihood of future criminal behavior. This presents a compelling argument for shifting the focus from punitive measures to rehabilitation and therapeutic interventions, particularly for those whose actions were influenced by neurological factors beyond their control.

MENTAL HEALTH AND TBI: LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS

In addition to the physical consequences of TBI, the injury often leads to significant mental health challenges. Individuals who suffer from brain injuries frequently experience mood disorders, depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), all of which can complicate their behavior. These mental health issues, compounded by neurological damage, may affect their ability to function normally in society.

In the context of neurolaw, mental health and brain injuries are interconnected. For individuals with both TBI and mental health disorders, the law must grapple with the question of how best to assess their criminal responsibility. Are these individuals fully culpable for crimes they committed while under the influence of neurological dysfunction or mental health crises? Should the court take into account the extent to which their TBI contributed to their actions?

In some cases, defendants with TBI may be able to present a dual defense: that their actions were influenced both by brain injury and mental illness. Expert testimony from neuropsychologists and psychiatrists can help establish a connection between

the injury and the psychological consequences that followed, providing the court with a more comprehensive understanding of the individual’s state of mind at the time of the offense.

ETHICAL AND MORAL QUESTIONS IN NEUROLAW

The increasing integration of TBI and neuroscience into the legal system also raises ethical and moral questions about free will, responsibility and justice. If an individual’s behavior is largely determined by neurological factors, to what extent can they be held morally and legally accountable for their actions? Does the knowledge that someone has a brain injury excuse their behavior, or does it merely explain it?

These questions challenge long-standing principles in criminal law, which assume that people are fully responsible for their actions unless they can demonstrate insanity or incapacity. The complexity of the brain, particularly in cases of TBI, complicates this straightforward view and calls for a more nuanced approach to justice.

While some argue that brain injuries should be a valid factor in reducing punishment or offering treatment, others fear that allowing TBI as a defense could lead to individuals evading full accountability for their actions. These concerns underscore the ongoing debate within neurolaw about the balance between understanding brain dysfunction and maintaining a just and fair legal system.

THE FUTURE OF NEUROLAW AND TBI

As our understanding of the brain continues to grow, the field of neurolaw will likely expand, offering new ways of considering TBI and other neurological impairments in legal contexts. The intersection of law and neuroscience promises to reshape how the legal system addresses issues of responsibility, accountability and punishment.

In the future, it is likely that TBI and other brain-related conditions will play an even greater role in legal cases. More advanced neuroimaging technologies, such as diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and electroencephalograms (EEGs), will provide deeper insights into brain function and injury, allowing courts to more accurately assess the role of TBI in criminal behavior.

Ultimately, neurolaw is challenging us to rethink the relationship between brain function and legal responsibility. As we continue to explore how TBI and other brain injuries affect behavior, it is likely that we will find more ways to ensure that justice is both compassionate and informed by the latest scientific understanding of the human brain.

STEM CELL THERAPY

A BREAKTHROUGH IN TBI TREATMENT

Stem cell therapy offers a revolutionary potential to heal the brain and restore function following traumatic brain injury.

TRAUMATIC BRAIN

INJURY

(TBI) IS A SIGNIFICANT

HEALTH

concern worldwide, affecting millions of people each year. It occurs when an external force, such as a blow or jolt to the head, causes damage to the brain. Symptoms may range from mild concussions to severe injuries leading to permanent disability or death.

Most treatment options focus primarily on managing symptoms and preventing further damage, with limited success in reversing the injury. However, recent advancements in regenerative medicine, particularly stem cell therapy, have generated excitement in the medical community and among patients for their potential to heal the brain and restore lost cognitive functions.

Stem cell therapy could promote brain repair, offering hope to individuals living with the long-term effects of TBI. This article will explore how stem cell therapy works and the promise it holds for treating TBI.

THE SCIENCE BEHIND STEM CELL THERAPY

Stem cell therapy involves using undifferentiated cells — cells that have the ability to become specialized into various types of tissues and organs — to repair or replace damaged cells in the body. These cells have key properties that make them highly promising for TBI treatment.

For example, stem cells have the ability to differentiate into various types of specialized cells, including neurons, which are the cells affected after a TBI. This regenerative potential is what makes stem cells a compelling option for healing brain tissue. In addition to their regenerative capacity, stem cells can reduce inflammation and provide protection to existing neurons. This is particularly important in TBI, as inflammation in the brain is a key contributor to secondary damage following injury.

HOW STEM CELL THERAPY IS REVOLUTIONIZING TBI TREATMENT

The potential of stem cell therapy to treat TBI lies in its ability to promote brain repair and recovery. Here’s how stem cell therapy works in the context of TBI:

Neurogenesis (Regeneration of Neurons): After a TBI, neurons (brain cells) may be damaged or die, leading to cognitive and motor impairments. Stem cells have the potential to replace lost neurons by differentiating into functional brain cells. This can improve brain function and potentially restore lost abilities such as memory, motor skills and speech.

Reduction of Inflammation: In the aftermath of a brain injury, inflammation often exacerbates damage. Stem cells can modulate

the immune response, reducing inflammation and preventing further harm to healthy brain tissue. This could be particularly valuable in the days and weeks following an injury.

Improvement of Blood Flow to the Brain: Stem cells can also help restore damaged blood vessels, improving circulation in the brain. Better blood flow can support the healing process by delivering essential nutrients and oxygen to injured areas.

Functional Recovery: In addition to directly repairing brain tissue, stem cells can promote the growth of new connections between surviving neurons. This network remodelling could help restore lost functions and improve the overall health of the brain.

THE ROAD AHEAD: A BRIGHT FUTURE FOR TBI PATIENTS

The advances in stem cell therapy in recent years suggest a bright future for this innovative treatment. Stem cell-based

Transplantation of stem cells decreased tissue atrophy and lesion volume in a study using piglet brains effected by TBI.

Transplantation of stem cells preserved cerebral blood flow in a study using piglet brains effected by TBI.

therapies are set to become a standard part of treatment for TBI. With continued investment in research and a growing understanding of the brain’s regenerative capabilities, stem cell therapy holds immense promise for TBI patients.

IN CONCLUSION

Stem cell therapy represents one of the most exciting innovations in medicine, particularly in the treatment of traumatic brain injury. It has the potential to offer not just symptom management, but actual recovery and healing of the brain. The promise of stem cell therapy to treat TBI could transform the lives of millions of people who suffer from brain injuries, restoring their abilities and improving their quality of life. With continued innovation and collaboration in the scientific community, stem cell therapy is becoming a breakthrough treatment that is revolutionizing the field of TBI recovery.

Scans courtesy of: Schantz, S. L., Sneed, S. E., Fagan, M. M., Golan, M. E., Cheek, S. R., Kinder, H. A., Duberstein, K. J., Kaiser, E. E., & West, F. D. (2024). Human-Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Neural Stem Cell Therapy Limits Tissue Damage and Promotes Tissue Regeneration and Functional Recovery in a Pediatric Piglet Traumatic-Brain-Injury Model. Biomedicines, 12(8), 1663. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines12081663

THE UNBREAKABLE SPIRIT OF GREEN BERET JUSTIN MENCHACA

How Stem Cells Are Changing the Game for TBI Recovery

In the world of Special Forces, warriors push their minds and bodies beyond human limits. The battlefield doesn’t allow weakness, and neither does life after combat. But sometimes, the hardest battle isn’t against an enemy—it’s against the injuries that linger long after the fight.

For Green Beret Justin Menchaca, that battle came in the form of a gunshot wound to the head. On July 23, 2011, during his second combat deployment, an enemy sniper’s bullet struck him, causing massive trauma. The impact left him unable to speak, paralyzed on his right side and facing a grueling fight for survival. Doctors weren’t sure if he’d ever walk or talk again. But Menchaca, known for his relentless warrior mindset, refused to give up.

Through months of grueling therapy, he slowly regained mobility, relearning to speak, write with his left hand and even walk again. But even with progress, the lasting effects of his traumatic brain injury (TBI) were severe. Chronic pain, limited mobility, migraines and expressive aphasia became a daily struggle. That’s when he turned to stem cell therapy, a cuttingedge approach to healing that would change his life.

In 2020, Menchaca — reated under the scope of research — underwent his first stem cell treatment, receiving intravenous (IV) PremiereMax stem cells (the only FDA IND approved minimally manipulated umbilical cord blood stem cells in the United States), followed by injections in all of his joints. This groundbreaking therapy, using umbilical cord blood stem cells, aimed to reduce inflammation, promote tissue regeneration and improve neurological function.

The treatment, supplied by Kalbio Biotechnology, a trusted provider of FDA-compliant umbilical cord blood stem cells under an approved IND, was part of a research-driven approach to regenerative medicine. Administered at the Stem Cell Sports Institute of Southern California, which holds an exclusive partnership with the Green Beret Foundation, the therapy was specifically tailored for elite warriors like Menchaca who suffer from complex injuries and TBI-related complications.

Major Anterior Muscles There are over 650 named skeletal muscles in your body.

The impact of the PremiereMax stem cell therapy was undeniable — his migraines became less frequent and less severe, his speech improved, with greater fluency and control, chronic pain and joint discomfort decreased, and his mobility increased, allowing him to live a more active life.

Jaw/ Oral injections 1cc Each Side. 1cc into each quadrant

Deltoid Injection 1ml

Pectoralis Tears 1-2cc’s, direct site

For the first time in years, Menchaca saw real, measurable improvements in his daily life. Encouraged by his progress, his supporters launched the “Cells for Chac” campaign to fund additional treatments, ensuring he could continue benefiting from stem cell therapy and regenerative medicine.

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Menchaca’s incredible journey has garnered national attention, with Donald Trump Jr. publicly supporting his recovery and the use of stem cell therapy for veterans. His story has become a symbol of the life-changing potential of regenerative medicine, bringing awareness to the need for advanced treatments for warriors suffering from TBIs and chronic injuries.

In addition to Trump Jr.’s endorsement, President Donald Trump himself sent Menchaca a personal letter, recognizing his service and resilience. This acknowledgment from the highest office in the country underscores growing awareness and support for stem cell research and its role in veteran recovery and rehabilitation.

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Today, Menchaca’s journey isn’t just about survival — it’s about thriving. He remains an advocate for stem cell research and alternative treatments for TBIs, proving that warriors don’t stop fighting when they leave the battlefield. He has embraced life with his wife, Carissa, and continues to pursue activities he once thought impossible. Thanks to organizations like Homes for Our Troops, which provided him with a fully adapted home, and the Green Beret Foundation, which has helped make stem cell therapy accessible to other Special Forces veterans, Menchaca has regained independence, confidence and hope.

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Necrosis 2-18 cc’s depending on the size

Clearwater Florida & Fontana California 909-441-0407

info@kalbio.com @stemcellbiologics www.kalbio.com

Right: Proof is in the MRI scans. Before & after umbilical cord blood stem cell therapy for TBI—no further brain atrophy two years later. First scans May 2012, 2nd scans September 2014.

Kalbio

DEMENTIA TBI THE CONNECTION BETWEEN AND

One of the most feared long-term consequences of TBI is dementia, as multiple epidemiologic studies show that experiencing a TBI in early or midlife is associated with an increased risk of dementia in late life.

THERE

ARE OVER 100 TYPES OF DEMENTIA, INCLUDING ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE, CHRONIC TRAUMATIC ENCEPHALOPATHY (C.T.E.), LEWY BODY DISEASE AND APHASIA.

TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY (TBI) IS A MAJOR PUBLIC health issue that affects millions of people worldwide every year. It results from external forces applied to the head, such as falls, motor vehicle accidents or sports injuries. While the immediate effects of TBI, such as physical injury or cognitive impairment, are well-documented, increasing evidence suggests that TBI can have long-term consequences, including an increased risk for dementia. This article explores the connection between TBI and dementia, the mechanisms that underlie this association, the types of dementia related to TBI and what can be done to mitigate these risks.

UNDERSTANDING TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY (TBI)

TBI occurs when a sudden external force causes damage to the brain, either through a direct blow or rapid acceleration or deceleration of the brain inside the skull. TBI can range from mild (concussion) to severe, with varying degrees of recovery. The severity of the injury depends on several factors, including the force of impact, the area of the brain affected and the individual’s health prior to the injury.

Concussions, often referred to as mild TBIs, can cause short-term confusion, dizziness, headache and other symptoms that typically resolve with rest and time. However, even mild TBIs can have long-term consequences if not properly managed, particularly when individuals experience repeated injuries. Severe TBIs can lead to long-lasting impairments in cognitive, physical and emotional functions.

WHAT IS DEMENTIA?

Dementia is a broad term used to describe a decline in cognitive function severe enough to interfere with daily life. It is not a specific disease but a syndrome that may result from various underlying conditions. The most common type of dementia

is Alzheimer’s disease, which accounts for up to 70% of all cases. Other forms of dementia include vascular dementia, frontotemporal dementia and Lewy body dementia.

Dementia is characterized by a gradual decline in memory, thinking, judgment and other cognitive abilities. It can also cause behavioral changes, mood disturbances and difficulty performing everyday tasks. The underlying causes of dementia vary but often involve damage to brain cells and the progressive loss of neural connections.

THE LINK BETWEEN TBI AND DEMENTIA

Research has consistently shown that individuals who experience TBI are at a significantly higher risk of developing dementia later in life. This association has been particularly well-documented in people who sustain moderate to severe brain injuries, but even mild TBIs, particularly those involving repeated concussions, have been shown to contribute to an increased risk of dementia.

The connection between TBI and dementia is complex and involves several mechanisms. Key factors include the structural changes in the brain that occur as a result of the injury, the neurochemical processes that are disrupted and the long-term effects of inflammation and cellular damage.

MECHANISMS LINKING TBI AND DEMENTIA

Neuroinflammation: After a TBI, the brain undergoes an inflammatory response as part of the healing process. This inflammation, however, may become chronic, leading to the longterm accumulation of neuroinflammation. Chronic inflammation can accelerate the degeneration of neurons, impair neural communication and promote the formation of neurotoxic proteins such as amyloid-beta and tau. These proteins are hallmark features of Alzheimer’s disease and other forms of dementia.

Amyloid Plaques and Tau Tangles: One of the key pathophysiological features of dementia, particularly Alzheimer’s disease, is the buildup of amyloid plaques and tau tangles in the brain. Amyloid plaques consist of clumps of amyloid-beta protein, while tau tangles involve the abnormal accumulation of tau protein inside neurons. These plaques and tangles disrupt normal brain function and are thought to play a critical role in cognitive decline. Research suggests that TBIs may increase the production of amyloid-beta and tau proteins, making individuals more susceptible to dementia. Studies have found that people with a history of TBI have a higher likelihood of developing these pathological features, which can lead to Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias.

Neuronal Damage and Cell Death: TBI often results in direct damage to brain cells, particularly neurons, which may die or become damaged in ways that impair their function. Over time, this neuronal loss can accumulate and lead to cognitive deficits. In particular, damage to regions of the brain associated with memory, such as the hippocampus, can contribute to the development of dementia.

Disrupted Brain Connectivity: The brain’s networks of neurons are essential for cognitive function. TBIs can disrupt these networks, impairing the brain’s ability to communicate effectively. This disruption may result in long-term cognitive impairments that resemble the early stages of dementia. Over time, these

impairments can worsen, leading to the development of neurodegenerative diseases.

Oxidative Stress: Another mechanism that links TBI and dementia is oxidative stress. After an injury, the brain may experience an imbalance between free radicals and antioxidants, leading to oxidative damage to brain cells. This damage can impair cellular function and accelerate neurodegeneration, increasing the risk of dementia.

TYPES OF DEMENTIA LINKED TO TBI

Alzheimer’s Disease: As mentioned earlier, Alzheimer’s disease is the most common type of dementia and is strongly associated with the buildup of amyloid plaques and tau tangles. Studies suggest that individuals with a history of TBI, especially those who experience repeated concussions, are at an increased risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease later in life.

Vascular Dementia: Vascular dementia occurs when there is reduced blood flow to the brain due to damage to blood vessels. TBI can cause damage to the brain’s blood vessels, leading to strokes or chronic ischemia (reduced blood flow) in certain regions of the brain. This vascular damage can contribute to cognitive decline and the development of vascular dementia.

Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE): Chronic traumatic encephalopathy is a form of dementia that is specifically linked to repeated head trauma. It is most commonly found in athletes involved

Left: Shortly after she was diagnosed in the early 1980s, Rita Hayworth became one of the first celebrities to publicly share she had Alzheimer’s. This brave feat increased awareness at a time when very little was known about dementia and very little was discussed, and helped start a national conversation around the disease. Right: Bruce Willis was diagnosed with frontotemporal dementia, aka FTD, and had to retire from acting.

in contact sports, such as football or boxing and military veterans. CTE is characterized by the abnormal buildup of tau protein, and its symptoms include memory loss, mood swings, impaired judgment and cognitive decline. Individuals who experience repeated TBIs are at a significantly higher risk of developing CTE.

Frontotemporal Dementia: Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) is another type of dementia that has been associated with TBI, particularly when the injury involves the frontal and temporal lobes of the brain. FTD is characterized by changes in personality, behavior, and language, and it tends to occur earlier than other forms of dementia.

RISK FACTORS FOR DEVELOPING DEMENTIA AFTER TBI

Not everyone who experiences TBI will develop dementia, but certain factors may increase the risk. These include:

Severity of the Injury: The more severe the TBI, the higher the risk of developing dementia later in life. Severe injuries, such as those that involve loss of consciousness, long-term memory loss or extensive brain damage, are particularly risky.

Repetitive Head Injuries: Repeated TBIs, such as those sustained in contact sports or military service, significantly increase the likelihood of developing dementia. The cumulative effects of these injuries can lead to chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) and other neurodegenerative diseases.

Age at the Time of Injury: Younger individuals may have a higher resilience to brain injuries, but sustaining a TBI at a young age can increase the risk of developing dementia later in life due to the long-term effects of the injury.

Genetic Predisposition: Some individuals may have a genetic predisposition to developing dementia, particularly Alzheimer’s disease. Having a family history of dementia or carrying certain genetic variants, such as the APOE ε4 allele, may increase the likelihood of developing dementia after a TBI.

Other Health Conditions: Pre-existing conditions, such as hypertension, diabetes or obesity, can increase the risk of both TBI and dementia. These conditions can exacerbate the effects of brain injury and make recovery more difficult.

Left: More than six years after his death in 2014, a documentary called Robin’s Wish revealed details about Robin Williams’s final days and aimed to raise awareness for Lewy body dementia (LBD), a progressive form of dementia that Williams was diagnosed with following his death by suicide at the age of 63. Right: Amelia Clarke, Game of Thrones actress, had first suffered an aneurysm in 2011 soon after the success of the first season of the series. She underwent urgent surgery and subsequently suffered from aphasia, at one point being unable to recall her own name. She had a second aneurysm surgically treated in 2013.

PEOPLE WITH DEMENTIA OFTEN EXPERIENCE CHANGES IN THEIR EMOTIONAL RESPONSES. THEY MAY HAVE LESS CONTROL OVER THEIR FEELINGS AND HOW TO EXPRESS THEM.

PHOTO: JORM

PREVENTION AND TREATMENT

While there is no surefire way to prevent dementia following TBI, certain steps can be taken to reduce the risk. These include:

Protecting the Head: Using protective gear, such as helmets, during sports or activities that carry a risk of head injury can reduce the risk of TBI. Ensuring that safety measures are in place during military operations or in high-risk work environments is also essential.

Proper Management of TBI: Timely medical intervention following a TBI is critical for minimizing the long-term effects of the injury. Proper treatment can help reduce the severity of the injury and prevent complications that could increase the risk of dementia.

Avoiding Repeat Injuries: Repeated head injuries should be avoided at all costs, especially in contact sports or high-risk professions. Athletes, in particular, should be educated about the risks of concussions and the importance of following return-to-play protocols.

Healthy Lifestyle Choices: Maintaining a healthy lifestyle, including a balanced diet, regular physical activity and mental

stimulation, can help protect brain health and reduce the risk of dementia. Additionally, avoiding smoking and excessive alcohol consumption can lower the risk of both TBI and dementia.

Cognitive Rehabilitation and Therapy: For individuals who have experienced a TBI, cognitive rehabilitation therapy can help improve memory, attention and other cognitive functions. Early intervention and rehabilitation can slow the progression of cognitive decline and improve quality of life.

IN CONCLUSION

The connection between TBI and dementia is increasingly recognized as a critical area of research, as the long-term effects of brain injuries become more apparent. While TBIs, especially severe and repeated injuries, increase the risk of developing dementia, understanding the mechanisms behind this connection is crucial for both prevention and treatment. By taking proactive steps to prevent head injuries and by properly managing TBI recovery, the risk of dementia can be minimized. Early diagnosis, rehabilitation and healthy lifestyle choices can further help mitigate the long-term cognitive decline associated with TBI.

In addition to clinical findings, CSF and MRI, PET imaging are useful in diagnosing AD. In AD, FDG-PET can show hypometabolism in the temporoparietal regions and/or the posterior cingulum. This may help differentiate AD from FTD, which shows frontal hypometabolism on FDG-PET. The images show FDG-PET and axial FLAIR images of a normal subject and of patients with AD and FTD: FDG-PET (top row) and axial FLAIR images of a normal subject and of AD and FTD patients. In AD there is a decreased metabolism of the parietal lobes (yellow arrows), whereas in FTD, there is frontal hypometablism (red arrows).

HOW TBI HAS SHAPED

HISTORY

The oldest known mention of brain injury dates back to 1600 BCE and is found in an ancient Egyptian text known as the Edwin Smith Papyrus. In fact, many important historical figures have suffered from brain injury, begging the question—how has TBI shaped the world we know today?

TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY (TBI) HAS LIKELY INFLUENCED numerous historical events, sometimes in subtle and profound ways, as individuals with significant head injuries could experience long-term changes in their behavior, cognitive function and decision-making abilities. For example, if a ruler or military leader sustained a traumatic brain injury, it might have impaired their judgment or leadership abilities, potentially altering the course of battles or diplomatic relations. Historical accounts suggest that some prominent leaders, such as Alexander the Great and Napoleon Bonaparte, may have suffered from head injuries that affected their actions or decisions. These events, influenced by TBI, could have shifted the outcomes of wars or the stability of empires, as the trajectory of power often relied heavily on the mental acuity of their leaders.

In another context, traumatic brain injuries could have also shaped the lives of soldiers or warriors, influencing the outcome of major conflicts. Soldiers who sustained TBI in battle may have returned home with lingering physical and psychological impairments, affecting their ability to contribute to society or engage in further military efforts. For instance, veterans who were unable to function due to cognitive or emotional changes might have created social

unrest or disrupted the economic balance of a region. Furthermore, the collective impact of TBIs on a population, especially during large-scale wars or conquests, could have led to shifts in social structures or the development of medical and therapeutic practices as societies sought to address the long-term consequences of brain injuries. Thus, the effects of traumatic brain injury could be seen as an unseen force that shaped not only individuals but entire historical movements and societal progress.

The Edwin Smith Papyrus, an ancient Egyptian medical text dating back to around 1600 BCE, is one of the oldest and most significant sources of medical knowledge from antiquity. Among its various references to different injuries and illnesses, the papyrus notably includes detailed descriptions of brain injuries. It addresses head trauma in a methodical and observational manner, providing insights into how ancient Egyptian physicians approached the diagnosis and treatment of brain injuries. In particular, the text describes cases of skull fractures and concussions, emphasizing the need for careful examination of symptoms, including changes in consciousness, memory and physical function, which were considered essential in assessing the severity of the injury.

Antique medical anatomy illustration showing the biology of the head, brain, and spine.

A vicious blow to the head may have been the catalyst that turned Harriet Tubman into an abolitionist hero. When Abraham Lincoln was ten years old, he was kicked in the back of the head by a mule. Consequently, he suffered a traumatic brain injury which effected his cognitive functioning.

The papyrus also reveals that the ancient Egyptians understood the link between brain trauma and impaired cognitive and motor functions, though their understanding of the brain itself was rudimentary. They recognized that head injuries could lead to a variety of symptoms, from loss of speech to paralysis. However, treatments mentioned in the papyrus were largely focused on managing symptoms rather than curing the underlying condition, and the prognosis was often seen as poor for severe injuries. The careful documentation of brain injuries in the Edwin Smith Papyrus highlights the advanced nature of ancient Egyptian medical knowledge, demonstrating their capacity to observe and record complex physical conditions with a level of detail that would not be surpassed in many parts of the world for centuries.

Harriet Tubman, renowned for her courageous work as a conductor on the Underground Railroad and her pivotal role in the abolitionist movement, also carried the effects of a traumatic brain injury (TBI) throughout much of her life. As a young girl, Tubman was struck in the head by a heavy metal weight thrown by an overseer while she was working on a plantation. The blow caused her to suffer from severe headaches, dizziness and intermittent episodes of seizures, which lasted for the rest of her life. The injury led to what would now likely be diagnosed as postconcussion syndrome, impacting her memory, concentration and overall mental health. Despite these challenges, Tubman’s resilience allowed her to maintain her sharpness of mind and extraordinary courage, which were instrumental in her success as a leader in the abolitionist movement.

Despite the physical and cognitive toll of her brain injury, Tubman’s legacy as a tireless abolitionist was not diminished. In fact, her TBI seemed to have reinforced her determination and focus. While the injury led to moments of confusion and disorientation, it did not hinder her ability to navigate the Underground Railroad or strategize for the abolitionist cause. Tubman led more than 300 enslaved people to freedom and became a key figure in the broader abolitionist movement, inspiring many through her unyielding commitment to justice and equality. Her experience with brain injury also deepened her empathy for others who suffered from physical and psychological trauma, which likely influenced her later work as a nurse and a supporter of women’s suffrage. Tubman’s story demonstrates how an individual’s struggles with TBI did not preclude their ability to leave a profound mark on history, proving that strength and purpose can transcend even the most debilitating challenges.

Abraham Lincoln, one of the most influential presidents in American history, may have experienced the effects of traumatic brain injury (TBI) during his lifetime, though this is a matter of ongoing historical speculation. In his younger years, Lincoln was involved in several physical altercations, including a famous incident in which he was struck on the head during a wrestling match. The severity of the blow and any lasting effects are unclear, but some scholars suggest that Lincoln may have suffered from symptoms of brain injury, such as depression, mood swings and episodes of disorientation, which could

have impacted his personal and professional life. These mental health challenges were compounded by the immense pressure he faced during his presidency, particularly during the Civil War, and could have been exacerbated by the cumulative stress of his leadership role, contributing to what some perceive as a complex emotional and psychological profile.

While it’s uncertain whether Lincoln’s mental health issues were directly related to TBI, his life and presidency were undoubtedly marked by struggles with depression and emotional strain, which may have been influenced by underlying physical injuries. The physical and mental toll on Lincoln during his presidency, especially as he dealt with the pressures of the Civil War and the loss of loved ones, may have been linked to his struggles with persistent mood disorders. Despite any challenges associated with TBI or depression, Lincoln’s ability to maintain clarity of vision and lead the nation through its most divisive period remains a testament to his resilience. His capacity to navigate personal hardship while shaping the future of the United States highlights how an individual can endure and even thrive in the face of significant physical and mental challenges, leaving an enduring legacy.

King Henry VIII of England, one of the most notorious monarchs in history, may have experienced traumatic brain injuries during his life, which may have had a profound impact on his physical and psychological state, and, by extension, on England’s history. Early in his reign, Henry was known for his

Henry VIII may have suffered repeated traumatic brain injuries similar to those experienced by football players, according to research by a Yale expert. One could argue that the effects of his injury influenced not only government but religion.

athleticism, jousting prowess and physical vitality. However, in 1536 at the age of 44, he was involved in a severe jousting accident during a tournament. He was thrown from his horse, and the horse fell on him, striking his head and causing a significant head injury. Although Henry survived the accident, it is widely believed that the injury contributed to long-term health problems, both physical and psychological. Historians speculate that the TBI may have affected his temperament, his decisionmaking abilities and his overall mental state, leading to a more erratic and tyrannical reign in the years that followed.

Prior to the accident, Henry VIII was known as a charismatic and energetic ruler, admired for his intelligence and charm. His reign was marked by initial success in consolidating power and making significant strides in the arts, education and military expansion. However, after the jousting accident, there was a noticeable shift in his personality and behavior. Henry became increasingly prone to bouts of anger, paranoia and unpredictable decision-making. His physical health also began to deteriorate, with reports of obesity, leg ulcers and chronic pain, all of which may have contributed to his temperamental nature. Some historians argue that the TBI played a role in these changes, making him more susceptible to mood swings, aggression and impulsive decisions that shaped his later policies.

The impact of Henry’s TBI is often cited as a contributing factor to some of the more infamous decisions he made during his later years, particularly in regard to his marital relationships and his break with the Roman Catholic Church. His obsessive desire for a male heir led to a series of marriages, divorces and executions, most notably his six marriages, which included the execution of two of his wives, Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard. This personal turmoil and the violent decisions he made are often seen as indicative of a monarch who, increasingly unstable and driven by a mix of paranoia and personal obsession, was willing to take drastic measures to achieve his goals. Henry’s desire to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon and marry Anne Boleyn led directly to England’s break from the Roman Catholic Church, a momentous event that permanently altered the course of English history.

The psychological and physical toll of Henry’s TBI also had broader consequences for his leadership and the stability of the English monarchy. His erratic behavior and inability to effectively govern during his later years weakened his authority, leading to a volatile court environment. The power struggles between factions within the court became more pronounced, as figures like Thomas Cromwell and Thomas More vied for influence. Additionally, Henry’s frequent mood swings and decisions based on personal desires over practical statecraft created an atmosphere of fear and distrust. His heavy-handed approach to governance and his cruelty toward those who opposed him contributed to a culture of repression that persisted throughout his reign.

Despite these challenges, Henry VIII’s reign was pivotal in shaping the future of England. The religious and political changes initiated by his break with Rome had lasting effects, leading to the establishment of the Church of England and a religious reformation that would continue to influence England and Europe for centuries. While the long-term effects of his TBI cannot be definitively proven, it is clear that the injury likely played a role in the transformation of his leadership style, making him more volatile and ruthless. His reign ultimately set the stage for the tumultuous religious, political and dynastic developments of the following generations, demonstrating how a traumatic brain injury may have shaped the course of history in ways both subtle and profound.

The impact of traumatic brain injuries on historical figures shows how physical trauma can subtly shape history. Whether through altered decision-making, erratic behavior, or longterm challenges, TBIs likely influenced the leadership and legacies of many key individuals. Figures like Harriet Tubman, Abraham Lincoln and Henry VIII, each of whom endured such injuries, demonstrate the far-reaching consequences of head trauma, from personal struggles to shifts in political and social landscapes. Examining TBI’s effects on these individuals reveals how history may have been molded by forces beyond political or military strategies — highlighting the complex intersection of health, psychology and leadership.

DIAGNOSIS & ASSESSMENT OF TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY: OBJECTIVE FINDING

Dr. Bal S. Grewal Ph.D, QME, Neuropsychologist & Clinical Psychologist, Board Certified QEEG/Brain Mapping

Diagnosing mild traumatic brain injury (TBI), often called a concussion, may be challenging due to overlapping symptoms with other neuropsychiatric conditions. A missed or incorrect diagnosis can delay treatment and prolong recovery. Proper diagnosis involves a combination of neuroimaging and neuropsychological assessments to identify brain damage and guide effective treatment.

The typical approach to diagnosing mild traumatic brain injury (TBI), or concussion, involves both neuroimaging and neuropsychological assessments. However, this diagnosis is often not documented in ER medical records, even when patients report symptoms consistent with mild TBI. The lack of a reliable diagnosis may lead to inadequate or delayed treatment. An incorrect diagnosis may worsen the patient’s condition and delay recovery. TBI symptoms often overlap with other neuropsychiatric conditions, such as depression, which can also cause impaired cognition, including slowed thinking, attention issues and memory problems—symptoms that could easily be attributed to TBI.

During an accident, the brain’s rapid movement inside the skull causes bruising, bleeding and damage to nerve fibers. A diffuse axonal injury (DAI) occurs when the brain’s connecting nerve fibers (axons) are sheared from the brain shifting and rotating inside the skull. Diffuse brain damage may happen with mild TBI, even without a loss of consciousness.

Brain trauma can damage neurons and axons, impairing normal brain function. Damaged nerve cells may be unable to transmit signals, disrupting communication between different brain areas. This damage can lead to significant mood, behavioral and cognitive changes. Immediately after the injury, patients may feel disoriented, dazed or confused, and experience blurred vision. Symptoms may also include headaches, nausea, ringing in the ears, dizziness and fatigue. These symptoms might not appear immediately; they may emerge days or weeks later. After mild TBI, patients may experience dizziness, headaches, sensitivity to light and noise, speech problems and balance issues. Cognitive problems such as difficulty concentrating and memory issues are also

common, as are mood disturbances, including depression, anxiety, irritability and sleep disturbances.

The extent of brain damage is determined through neuroimaging tests such as MRIs or CT scans and neuropsychological assessments. Cognitive findings are critical for diagnosing mild TBI or DAI. Neuropsychological evaluations can pinpoint the areas of the brain affected by TBI and how the impairments are impacting functioning. These assessments are essential for differential diagnosis and developing an appropriate treatment plan, ideally conducted within 4-6 months of the injury.

CT scans or MRIs typically show “normal” results in mild TBI, meaning an unremarkable scan doesn’t rule out brain trauma. These scans are primarily used to detect severe conditions like brain hemorrhage, edema, stroke and skull fractures. Specialized imaging techniques, such as diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and susceptibility weighted imaging (SWI), may be more effective in detecting TBI-related damage, including DAI. Brain MRIs (3.0T) with fractional anisotropy (FA) analysis, resting state network analysis and volumetric studies can identify microstructural changes in axons and myelin. Combining neuroimaging and neuropsychological evaluation enhances diagnosis accuracy and provides objective evidence of mild TBI.

EDUCATION

Dr. Bal S. Grewal specializes in treating TBI, concussion, depression, anxiety and PTSD after accidents. With 25+ years of experience, he is an expert in neurological and psychological disorders and is well-known in the legal community for assisting with personal injury cases.

Diagnosis & Assessment

Objective

Dr. Bal Neuropsychologi

Board Certified

Undergraduate, graduate, and post-graduate studies — London, England (U.K.)

The typical approach to diagnosing mild TBI neuroimaging and neuropsychological assessment. documented in ER medical records despite patients consistent with mild traumatic brain injury. of TBI leads to inadequate treatment, delayed incorrect diagnosis can cause worsening in the recovery process. TBIs may be missed or misdiagnosed frequently overlap with other neuropsychiatric and can cause impaired cognition. One example slowness in thinking, delayed responses during and memory, all of which could just as well

Master’s in medical psychology (neurology)

Doctorate in neuropsychology and clinical psychology

CERTIFICATIONS

Board Certified QEEG/Brain Mapping

Diplomate of the American Board of Disability Consultants

Member American Psychological Association (APA)

Member Society of Clinical Neuropsychology (SCN)

Member California Society of Industrial Medicine and Surgery (CSIMS)

Certification as a Qualified Medical Evaluator by the State of California

Member National Academy of Neuropsychology (NAN)

Member International Neuropsychological Society (INS)

Member National Neurotrauma Society (NNS)

During the impact of an accident, the rapid back of the bony skull cause bruising, bleeding, A diffuse axonal injury (DAI) happens when are sheared as result of the brain shifting and to the brain can result from mild traumatic brain consciousness.

14860 Roscoe Blvd., Ste. 200 Panorama City, CA 91402

Trauma to the brain can cause injury to the neurons normal brain functioning. When nerve cells transmit and/or cause interference with transmission one part of the brain to other parts of the brain. behavioral & cognitive changes. Immediately disorientated, dazed, confused, not remember vision. Symptoms may also include severe headache dizziness, or tiredness . These features of a concussion

412 W. Ave. J, Ste. F Lancaster, CA 93534

11022 Santa Monica Blvd., Ste. 310 Los Angeles, CA 90025

(818) 414 3324 Grewal@PainCure.com

Texamine

THE LATEST IN TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY RESEARCH AND TREATMENT

RESEARCH + INNOVATION

IMPROVING MORTALITY AFTER A TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY

Improving the mortality rate after a traumatic brain injury (TBI) requires a multifaceted approach that focuses on immediate medical intervention, advanced technologies and long-term care. TBI, which occurs due to external forces such as a blow to the head, can result in severe brain damage, leading to complications that significantly affect survival rates. Immediate treatment and timely interventions are crucial to reducing mortality and improving overall outcomes.

One of the most important aspects of improving survival rates after TBI is the rapid management of increased intracranial pressure (ICP). Elevated ICP can result in brain herniation, a life-threatening condition. To manage this, doctors often use interventions like cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) drainage or medications to reduce swelling. Monitoring and maintaining proper oxygenation, blood pressure and temperature are also critical to preventing further brain injury.

Advancements in neuroimaging technology have greatly improved the diagnosis and treatment of TBI. Early and accurate identification of the injury’s severity allows for more targeted treatment. Computed

tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are commonly used to assess brain damage, and these tools can help guide the clinical decision-making process in the critical early hours following a TBI.

Surgical intervention may be required in severe cases of TBI, particularly when there is brain bleeding or skull fractures. Early surgery to remove hematomas or repair fractures can reduce the risk of further complications and improve survival rates. Additionally, therapeutic hypothermia, or cooling the brain to reduce metabolic demand, has been investigated as a potential treatment to decrease brain damage and improve recovery outcomes.

Finally, effective rehabilitation and long-term care play a role in improving the overall prognosis for TBI patients. Multidisciplinary care involving neurosurgeons, neurologists, physical therapists and psychologists helps address the cognitive, physical and emotional effects of the injury, enabling patients to recover and improve their quality of life post-injury. As research continues to advance, the integration of new treatments and technologies will further help reduce TBI mortality rates.

TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY AND HORMONE DYSREGULATION

Hormone dysregulation is a significant but often overlooked consequence of traumatic brain injury (TBI). The brain, particularly the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, plays a central role in regulating hormone production and balance. When these areas are damaged due to TBI, it can lead to disruptions in the secretion of essential hormones, which can affect physical, emotional and cognitive well-being.

One of the most common hormonal disruptions following TBI is adrenal insufficiency. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland regulate the production of cortisol, a hormone critical for managing stress and regulating metabolism. If these areas are injured, cortisol production can be impaired, leading to symptoms like fatigue, weakness and difficulty recovering from physical exertion. Another common issue is growth hormone deficiency, which can hinder tissue repair and slow down recovery. Patients with growth hormone deficiencies often experience fatigue, muscle weakness and impaired immune function. Thyroid hormone imbalances are also common, leading to symptoms such as weight gain, depression and cognitive fog.

Sex hormones, including estrogen and testosterone, may also be disrupted following TBI, especially in individuals of reproductive age. This hormonal imbalance can contribute to mood swings, depression and reduced sexual function, further complicating the recovery process.

Addressing hormone dysregulation after TBI involves careful diagnosis and management. Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) is often used to restore hormone levels, such as thyroid hormone or cortisol replacement, depending on the specific deficiency. Growth hormone therapy can also be administered to help improve recovery and reduce fatigue. In some cases, managing hormone levels may also require lifestyle modifications, such as better stress management, physical therapy and ensuring proper nutrition to support overall healing.

While hormone dysregulation after TBI can present challenges to recovery, appropriate medical intervention can help restore balance and improve the quality of life for individuals affected by these changes.

THE EFFECTS OF TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY ON SLEEP

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) often leads to significant disruptions in sleep, a crucial component of physical and cognitive recovery. Sleep disturbances are common after a TBI, and these disruptions can worsen other symptoms such as memory problems, mood swings and increased fatigue, further complicating the recovery process. Understanding the relationship between TBI and sleep is essential for improving patient outcomes and helping individuals regain their quality of life.

After a TBI, sleep problems can manifest in various ways, including difficulty falling asleep, frequent waking during the night or excessive daytime sleepiness. These disturbances are linked to the brain’s inability to properly regulate sleep-wake cycles, often due to damage in areas that control sleep, such as the hypothalamus. Additionally, the emotional and physical trauma from the injury can contribute to stress, anxiety and depression, all of which can further disrupt sleep patterns. Post-concussion syndrome, which is common after TBI, can result in prolonged sleep issues, with many patients struggling with insomnia or disturbed sleep for months or even years.

To address these sleep disturbances, a multifaceted approach is often necessary. Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) has shown to be an effective, nonpharmacological treatment, helping individuals alter behaviors and thought patterns that interfere with sleep. It focuses on improving sleep hygiene, relaxation techniques and the development of a consistent sleep schedule. Medications may also be used to manage specific sleep issues, such as sleep aids to help initiate sleep or antidepressants to address mood disorders that affect sleep. However, medications should be carefully prescribed and monitored to avoid dependency or adverse effects that could interfere with brain healing.

Lifestyle adjustments can also play a role in improving sleep quality. Establishing a calming bedtime routine, limiting screen time before bed and creating a quiet, comfortable sleep environment can promote better rest. By addressing the effects of TBI on sleep through both behavioral and medical interventions, individuals can improve their recovery process, reduce fatigue and enhance overall well-being.

ADVANCED IMAGING FOR TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY DIAGNOSIS

Accurate and timely diagnosis of traumatic brain injury (TBI) is crucial for effective treatment, and advanced imaging techniques have revolutionized the approach to diagnosing and managing TBI. These methods allow for detailed visualization of brain structures and help clinicians assess the severity of injury, monitor recovery and guide therapeutic interventions.

Among the most common imaging tools are computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). CT scans are often the first-line tool in emergency settings due to their speed and efficiency in detecting acute injuries like hemorrhages, skull fractures and brain swelling. However, CT scans have limitations in detecting diffuse axonal injury (DAI), which is a microscopic injury that can lead to severe long-term effects. This is where MRI excels.

MRI offers superior soft tissue contrast and is more sensitive to subtle brain injuries, such as DAI and microhemorrhages, which are not visible on CT. Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), a specialized form of MRI, tracks the movement of water molecules in the brain and provides insights into the integrity of white matter fibers. This makes it especially useful for

assessing brain connectivity and detecting injuries that might not be visible through conventional imaging.

Another promising imaging modality is positron emission tomography (PET). PET scans can identify metabolic changes in the brain that may occur even in the absence of visible structural damage. This is particularly valuable in diagnosing mild TBI, in which patients may experience symptoms like headaches, dizziness and cognitive impairments without clear evidence of injury on CT or MRI. PET scans also provide insight into the long-term effects of TBI, such as neurodegeneration.

Lastly, functional MRI (fMRI) is an emerging tool that maps brain activity in real time. It helps clinicians understand how TBI affects brain function and can inform rehabilitation strategies by revealing regions of the brain that are compensating for damaged areas.

In summary, advanced imaging techniques like MRI, DTI, PET and fMRI offer critical insights into the complexities of TBI. These technologies are not only vital for accurate diagnosis but also for personalized treatment plans and monitoring recovery over time.

NONINVASIVE BRAIN STIMULATION

Noninvasive brain stimulation (NIBS) has emerged as a promising treatment option for traumatic brain injury (TBI), offering a way to modulate brain activity without the need for surgery or implants. TBI, often caused by blows or jolts to the head, can lead to a wide range of cognitive, emotional and motor impairments, depending on the severity and location of the injury. Traditional treatments primarily focus on rehabilitation, medication and physical therapy, but NIBS provides a novel approach that could enhance recovery and improve outcomes for individuals with TBI.

Among the various NIBS techniques, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) are the most studied and utilized for TBI. TMS uses magnetic pulses to stimulate specific areas of the brain, increasing or decreasing neuronal activity depending on the frequency and intensity of the pulses. High-frequency TMS is typically used to enhance brain activity in underactive regions, while low-frequency TMS can inhibit overactive areas. For individuals with TBI, TMS can target areas of the brain that are damaged or less responsive, promoting neuroplasticity — the brain’s ability to reorganize and form new connections. This stimulation can help to restore cognitive functions, such as memory, attention and executive functioning, which are often impaired following a TBI.

On the other hand, tDCS involves applying a low electrical current to the scalp through electrodes. The current modulates the excitability of neurons in the targeted brain regions, typically by enhancing or inhibiting their activity.

The advantage of tDCS lies in its simplicity, portability and relatively low cost, making it an appealing option for both clinical and home use. Studies have shown that tDCS can improve cognitive functions like attention and working memory in individuals with TBI. It has also been used to enhance motor recovery by stimulating motor-related areas of the brain, making it particularly useful in cases of TBI that result in motor impairments, such as difficulty with movement or coordination.

The potential benefits of NIBS in TBI treatment go beyond cognitive and motor recovery. Research has also highlighted its positive effects on mood regulation, which is often a significant challenge for individuals with TBI. Depression, anxiety and irritability are common psychological symptoms associated with TBI, and NIBS has been shown to alleviate these symptoms by targeting areas of the brain involved in mood regulation, such as the prefrontal cortex. By modulating the brain’s electrical activity, NIBS may help restore a balance in neurotransmitter systems, leading to improvements in emotional well-being and quality of life.

Although NIBS has shown promise in treating TBI, its widespread use in clinical practice is still in the early stages. While studies have demonstrated its potential benefits, more research is needed to determine the most effective protocols, such as optimal stimulation parameters and treatment duration. Additionally, the effects of NIBS may vary from individual to individual, making personalized treatment plans essential for maximizing the benefits of this innovative therapy. Nonetheless, noninvasive brain stimulation holds great potential as a supplementary treatment for TBI, offering a noninvasive, safe and effective approach to enhance recovery and improve outcomes for individuals affected by this debilitating injury.

EXPLORATION OF BRAINDERIVED BIOMARKERS

The exploration of brain-derived biomarkers in traumatic brain injury (TBI) research has gained significant attention as a promising approach to better understand, diagnose and treat this complex condition. TBI, which occurs when an external force causes damage to the brain, can result in a wide range of cognitive, physical and emotional impairments, making it one of the leading causes of disability and death worldwide. Traditional methods of assessing TBI, such as neuroimaging and clinical evaluation, often fail to capture the full scope of the injury, especially in mild cases or in the early stages. This is where brain-derived biomarkers offer great potential, allowing for more accurate diagnosis, real-time monitoring and a deeper understanding of the injury’s underlying mechanisms.

Biomarkers in TBI research are substances that can be detected in biological fluids such as blood, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) or even saliva, providing valuable insights into the injury’s severity and progression. One of the most widely studied biomarkers in TBI is glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), a protein found in glial cells, which helps to protect and support neurons. Elevated levels of GFAP in the blood or CSF have been shown to correlate with more severe forms of TBI, making it a potential diagnostic tool for identifying and classifying the injury. Another key biomarker is neurofilament light chain (NfL), a structural protein released

into the bloodstream when neurons are damaged. Increased NfL levels are associated with axonal injury, a common feature of TBI, and have been used to track recovery and predict long-term outcomes.

In addition to these markers, tau protein, typically associated with neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s, has garnered attention in TBI research. When the brain experiences trauma, tau may become hyperphosphorylated and form tangles that disrupt neural communication. Elevated tau levels in blood or CSF are thought to reflect the extent of neuronal injury and have been linked to poor outcomes and cognitive decline in TBI patients. Researchers are also investigating the role of microRNAs, small molecules that regulate gene expression, as potential biomarkers for predicting TBI severity and recovery trajectories.

The use of these biomarkers holds immense potential for advancing TBI research, allowing for earlier detection of brain injury, improved monitoring of recovery and the development of more targeted treatments. However, challenges remain in validating these biomarkers for widespread clinical use. Nonetheless, the continued exploration of brain-derived biomarkers offers hope for more personalized, effective treatments for individuals affected by TBI, paving the way for improved diagnosis, monitoring and therapeutic strategies in the future.

LONG-TERM BRAIN CHANGES POST-PEDIATRIC

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) in children is a major concern due to its potential for long-lasting effects. Unlike adults, children’s brains are still developing, and TBI during critical periods of brain growth can profoundly impact cognitive, emotional and physical functions. Long-term brain changes following pediatric TBI may be subtle but can significantly affect a child’s development, behavior and quality of life. Understanding these changes is crucial for improving treatment strategies and outcomes for children with TBI.

After a TBI, the brain undergoes complex processes of injury and repair. In the immediate aftermath, swelling, bruising and disruption of neural networks can cause cognitive impairments, such as memory problems, attention difficulties and slowed processing speed. The true long-term effects, however, may not become apparent until months or years later, as the brain continues to mature and neural connections reorganize.

One significant long-term change is altered brain connectivity. Brain networks supporting functions like executive control, memory and emotional regulation can be disrupted. Children with TBI may experience difficulties in problem-solving, planning and impulse control. Structural changes to brain regions like the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, observed in imaging studies, can lead to impairments in executive functions crucial for decision-making and academic success.

Neuroplasticity — the brain’s ability to reorganize and form new connections — also plays a role in recovery. While the

brain’s plasticity allows compensation for damaged areas, this process may not fully restore lost functions. In some cases, the brain compensates by over-activating certain regions, leading to heightened emotional responses or self-regulation difficulties. Research suggests younger children have greater neuroplasticity, but this ability can be limited by injury severity and the child’s age at the time of injury.

Children with TBI may also experience changes in brain metabolism and neurotransmitter activity. Post-injury, altered brain energy use can lead to persistent cognitive and behavioral symptoms. Some children may develop mood disorders, such as depression or anxiety, years after the injury, linked to changes in brain regions like the amygdala and prefrontal cortex. Studies show children with TBI are at higher risk for psychiatric conditions, and their severity correlates with brain damage.

The effects of pediatric TBI can vary based on age, injury severity and brain region affected. Younger children are more vulnerable to certain brain injuries due to ongoing neural development. Preexisting conditions, such as ADHD or learning disabilities, can also exacerbate cognitive and behavioral changes. Early intervention, including cognitive rehabilitation, therapy and academic support, is essential for managing the long-term consequences of TBI. Understanding these brain changes is key to improving treatment and helping children achieve their full potential despite the challenges posed by TBI.

HOW GENETIC STUDIES ARE ADVANCING TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY RESEARCH

Genetic research is rapidly advancing the field of traumatic brain injury (TBI) by providing insights into how individuals respond to brain injuries and the potential for personalized treatments. TBI, which results from external forces damaging the brain, can lead to a wide range of cognitive, emotional and physical impairments. While some individuals recover with minimal long-term effects, others may experience severe, lifelong consequences. Genetic research is helping to explain why these outcomes vary and offers the potential to improve diagnosis, treatment and prevention.

One key area of genetic research in TBI involves identifying genetic variations that influence an individual’s susceptibility to injury and their ability to recover. Studies have shown that certain genes, particularly those involved in inflammation, cellular repair and neuronal survival, can play a significant role in the severity of injury and the brain’s capacity to heal. For example, variations in the apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene, known for its link to Alzheimer’s disease, have been shown to affect how the brain responds to TBI. Some variations of the APOE gene increase the risk of cognitive decline following a TBI, while others may offer a degree of protection.

Another promising area of research focuses on genes related to oxidative stress and inflammation, both of which are activated following a brain injury. These processes can cause further damage to brain cells and contribute to the development of conditions such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or neurodegenerative diseases. By understanding how these genetic factors influence the brain’s response, researchers are working toward identifying individuals who may be at higher risk for these long-term complications.

Additionally, genetic studies are aiding in the development of more targeted treatments. With knowledge of an individual’s genetic makeup, doctors may be able to recommend personalized therapies that improve recovery outcomes. For instance, genetic testing may help identify patients who could benefit from certain pharmaceutical treatments or rehabilitation strategies, improving the effectiveness of interventions.

In conclusion, genetic research is advancing TBI research by revealing the underlying biological factors that influence injury severity and recovery. These discoveries are leading to more personalized, effective treatments and offering hope for better outcomes for individuals with TBI.

TREATMENT

HOW FASTING CAN HELP THE SYMPTOMS OF TBI

Fasting has gained attention in recent years for its potential health benefits, and research suggests that it may help alleviate symptoms associated with traumatic brain injury (TBI). TBI, which can result from blows or jolts to the head, often leads to cognitive, emotional and physical impairments. While traditional treatments primarily focus on rehabilitation and symptom management, fasting presents a novel approach that could support recovery by enhancing brain function and promoting healing.

Fasting triggers several biological processes that may benefit TBI patients. One of the key mechanisms is the activation of autophagy, a process where the body cleans out damaged cells and regenerates healthier ones. This process is essential for repairing brain tissue and supporting neuronal health. After a TBI, the brain may experience inflammation and cell damage, and autophagy can help mitigate these effects by clearing damaged cells and promoting neurogenesis, the growth of new neurons.

Additionally, fasting can enhance the production of brainderived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a protein that supports the survival of existing neurons and encourages the growth of new ones. BDNF plays a crucial role in neuroplasticity, which allows the brain to reorganize and adapt following an injury. Increased levels of BDNF could help improve cognitive function, memory and emotional regulation, which are often impaired after a TBI.

Fasting may also help reduce inflammation, which is a common issue after brain injury. Inflammation can exacerbate brain damage and contribute to long-term cognitive deficits. By reducing inflammation, fasting may aid in minimizing further brain injury and improving overall recovery.

While more research is needed to fully understand the impact of fasting on TBI recovery, early findings suggest that it could be a useful adjunct to traditional therapies. It is essential, however, for individuals considering fasting to consult with healthcare providers, as it may not be suitable for everyone, especially those with underlying health conditions. Nonetheless, fasting offers a promising area of exploration for improving TBI symptoms and supporting brain healing.

NEUROTROPHINS HELP TO REPAIR BRAIN CELLS

Neurotrophins are a group of proteins that play a critical role in the growth, survival and repair of neurons in the brain and nervous system. These molecules are vital for maintaining the health and function of neurons, the cells responsible for transmitting signals throughout the body. Following brain injuries, such as traumatic brain injury (TBI) or neurodegenerative diseases, neurotrophins help facilitate the repair and regeneration of damaged brain cells, promoting recovery and improving cognitive and emotional function.

One of the primary neurotrophins is brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which supports the survival and growth of neurons in the brain. BDNF plays an essential role in neuroplasticity, the brain’s ability to reorganize and form new connections. This is particularly important after a brain injury when the brain must repair damaged neural pathways and form new ones to restore function. By promoting the growth of new synapses and enhancing communication between neurons, BDNF aids in the recovery of memory, learning and motor functions often impaired after injury.

Another key neurotrophin is nerve growth factor (NGF), which is important for the survival and maintenance of certain types of neurons, particularly those involved in the autonomic nervous system. NGF is involved in the regeneration of nerve fibers after injury, and its action helps restore function to damaged neural networks. Additionally, it has been shown to reduce cell death in response to brain injury, further supporting the repair process.

Neurotrophins can also reduce the harmful effects of inflammation in the brain. After a TBI, inflammation can cause further damage to brain cells and delay recovery. By regulating inflammatory responses and promoting neuroprotection, neurotrophins can help limit secondary damage and enhance the brain’s ability to heal.

Researchers are investigating various therapies that can stimulate neurotrophin production or mimic their effects, such as using drugs or gene therapies to increase levels of these proteins in the brain. These approaches hold promise for improving the recovery of brain function after injury or in conditions like Alzheimer’s disease or Parkinson’s disease. Ultimately, neurotrophins play a vital role in the brain’s ability to repair and regenerate itself, offering hope for enhancing recovery and restoring cognitive health after brain injury.

COLOR THERAPY EASES THE SYMPTOMS OF TBI

Color therapy, also known as chromotherapy, is a form of alternative treatment that uses colors to influence mood, physical health and emotional well-being. In the context of traumatic brain injury (TBI), color therapy has gained attention as a potential complementary treatment to help alleviate symptoms such as anxiety, depression and cognitive difficulties. While it is not a standalone treatment for TBI, research suggests that it may have therapeutic benefits by stimulating specific brain areas and promoting a sense of balance and relaxation.

Colors have been shown to have different effects on the human body and mind. For example, the color blue is known for its calming properties and is often used to reduce stress and anxiety. After a TBI, individuals may experience heightened anxiety, agitation or sleep disturbances, and the soothing effects of blue may help promote relaxation and better sleep. Similarly, the color green, associated with balance and harmony, is often used to reduce emotional stress and increase mental clarity. For TBI patients experiencing mood swings or cognitive difficulties, green

can be used to create a calming environment that aids in concentration and emotional stability.

Red, on the other hand, is a color associated with energy and stimulation. While it may not be suitable for all TBI patients, red can be used strategically to stimulate brain activity and encourage mental alertness. This can be particularly helpful for those dealing with fatigue or cognitive slowness, as red may help enhance focus and motivation.

Yellow, a color linked to positivity and optimism, is also used in color therapy to stimulate mental activity and improve mood. For TBI patients who struggle with depression or a sense of hopelessness, exposure to yellow can help lift spirits and promote a more optimistic outlook on recovery.

While color therapy is not a replacement for medical treatments, it can be a valuable adjunct to traditional therapies, helping TBI patients manage symptoms and improve overall well-being. By incorporating color therapy into rehabilitation programs, individuals may experience greater emotional balance, mental clarity and a sense of calm during their recovery journey.

STEM CELL THERAPY

Stem cell therapy has emerged as a promising treatment for traumatic brain injury (TBI), offering hope for patients who experience long-term neurological impairments. TBI, resulting from an external force that causes damage to the brain, can lead to cognitive, physical and emotional difficulties. Most treatments focus on managing symptoms and rehabilitation, but stem cell therapy is seen as a solution to promote brain repair and recovery at the cellular level.

The appeal of stem cell therapy for TBI lies in the regenerative potential of stem cells. These cells have the ability to differentiate into various types of brain cells, such as neurons, glial cells and endothelial cells, which are essential for maintaining brain function. Stem cells can replace damaged cells and stimulate the repair of neural networks. This process can help restore lost brain function and enhance motor skills.

There are several types of stem cells with the potential to treat TBI, including embryonic stem cells, induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and adult stem cells, such as mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). Each type has unique advantages, with MSCs being particularly notable for their ability to reduce inflammation and promote tissue repair in the brain.

Research has demonstrated that stem cell therapy can lead to improvements in motor function and cognitive abilities as well as enhanced tissue regeneration. Stem cell therapy holds great potential for treating TBI by promoting neural repair and improving long-term outcomes for patients. This cutting-edge therapy has the potential to become a key component in the treatment of TBI, offering patients new hope for recovery.

TRANSCRANIAL MAGNETIC STIMULATION

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is gaining attention as a noninvasive treatment for traumatic brain injury (TBI), offering a novel approach to help patients recover from the cognitive, emotional and physical impairments caused by brain trauma. TBI, which results from an external force damaging the brain, often leads to long-lasting symptoms such as memory problems, difficulty with attention, mood disorders and motor dysfunction. Traditional treatments focus on rehabilitation and symptom management, but TMS offers the potential to directly influence brain activity and facilitate recovery. TMS works by using magnetic fields to generate electrical currents in specific areas of the brain. During treatment, a magnetic coil is placed on the scalp, producing a magnetic pulse that stimulates nerve cells in the targeted region of the brain. The stimulation can increase or decrease neural activity, depending on the parameters used, helping to restore normal brain function in areas affected by the injury. TMS has been shown to improve brain plasticity, which is the brain’s ability to reorganize and form new connections..

Research into TMS as a treatment for TBI is still in its early stages, but preliminary studies have shown promising results. TMS has been found to improve cognitive functions such as attention, memory and executive functions, which are often impaired after a brain injury. Additionally, TMS may have a positive effect on mood and emotional regulation, helping to alleviate symptoms of depression and anxiety that are common in TBI patients.

While TMS offers a noninvasive and relatively safe treatment option, challenges remain in optimizing the treatment protocols for TBI patients. These include determining the most effective stimulation parameters, identifying the best candidates for treatment and understanding the long-term effects of TMS. However, as research continues to explore its potential, TMS holds promise as a valuable tool in the rehabilitation and recovery process for individuals with traumatic brain injury, offering hope for better functional outcomes and improved quality of life.

CEREBROSPINAL FLUID DRAINAGE AND MANAGEMENT

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) drainage and fluid management are critical components in the treatment of traumatic brain injury (TBI), particularly in cases where increased intracranial pressure (ICP) poses a significant risk to brain function. TBI, which results from external forces damaging the brain, can cause swelling, bleeding and a rise in ICP, leading to further brain injury and potentially life-threatening complications. Managing the volume and pressure of CSF within the brain is vital in minimizing this risk and improving patient outcomes.

CSF is a clear fluid that surrounds and cushions the brain and spinal cord, providing protection against mechanical injury and helping to remove waste products. After a TBI, inflammation, bleeding or swelling within the brain can impair the normal flow and drainage of CSF, leading to increased ICP. Elevated ICP can cause compression of brain structures, reducing blood flow and depriving the brain of essential oxygen and nutrients, which can result in brain damage and neurological deficits.

To manage ICP and maintain optimal CSF levels, doctors may employ methods such as external ventricular drainage (EVD), which involves inserting a catheter into the ventricles of the brain

to remove excess CSF. This procedure allows for continuous monitoring and adjustment of ICP, ensuring that pressure remains within safe limits. In some cases, lumbar drains may also be used to drain CSF from the spinal cord, helping to reduce pressure in the brain.

Fluid management is equally important in TBI treatment. The goal is to maintain an appropriate balance of fluids in the body, which directly affects ICP. Overhydration can exacerbate swelling and increase ICP, while dehydration can impair brain function and reduce the effectiveness of CSF drainage. Careful monitoring of fluid intake, output and electrolyte balance is essential to avoid complications and optimize recovery.

While CSF drainage and fluid management are essential for preventing further brain injury in TBI patients, these interventions must be carefully monitored to avoid potential risks, such as infection, catheter blockage or over-drainage, which could lead to other complications. Despite these challenges, effective CSF and fluid management remain critical strategies in improving the prognosis for patients with severe TBI.

OPTOGENETICS THERAPY

Optogenetics therapy is an innovative approach to treating traumatic brain injury (TBI) that holds promise for enhancing recovery and understanding brain function. TBI, resulting from an external force causing damage to the brain, can lead to long-lasting cognitive, emotional and physical impairments. Traditional treatments primarily focus on symptom management and rehabilitation, but optogenetics offers a more direct and targeted method for modulating brain activity and potentially promoting recovery at the cellular level.

Optogenetics involves using light to control the activity of specific neurons that have been genetically modified to express light-sensitive proteins. These proteins allow researchers to activate or inhibit neurons by exposing them to precise wavelengths of light. This technique provides an unprecedented level of control over neural circuits, enabling scientists to study brain function in real time and, more importantly, to directly influence brain activity in ways that were not possible with previous treatments.

In the context of TBI, optogenetics could offer a breakthrough by targeting damaged or dysfunctional neural circuits within the brain. Following a brain injury, neurons may become

overstimulated or underactive, or may fail to properly communicate, contributing to cognitive and motor deficits. By using light to stimulate specific brain regions, optogenetics has the potential to restore normal brain activity, promote neuroplasticity (the brain’s ability to reorganize and form new connections) and improve overall recovery.

Research into optogenetics therapy for TBI is still in its early stages, but early studies have shown promising results in animal models. These studies suggest that optogenetics can help improve cognitive function, motor skills and even mood regulation following a TBI. The ability to precisely manipulate brain activity holds great promise for developing personalized treatments for individuals suffering from the long-term effects of TBI.

Despite its potential, optogenetics faces several challenges, including the complexity of gene delivery methods and the need for sophisticated equipment to deliver light to specific brain regions. However, as research progresses, optogenetics could become a powerful tool in the treatment of TBI, offering new possibilities for recovery and improving the quality of life for patients.

COGNITIVE TRAINING WITH ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Cognitive training with artificial intelligence (AI) is an exciting and innovative approach to treating traumatic brain injury (TBI), offering potential for enhancing recovery in patients who suffer from cognitive impairments following brain trauma. TBI can lead to a range of difficulties, including memory loss, attention problems and impaired decision-making, all of which can severely affect a person’s quality of life. While traditional rehabilitation methods focus on physical and occupational therapy, AI-driven cognitive training aims to specifically target and improve brain functions through personalized, technologybased interventions.

AI-powered cognitive training systems use sophisticated algorithms to assess an individual’s cognitive abilities and design tailored exercises to address specific deficits. These systems can adapt in real time to the user’s performance, increasing the difficulty of tasks as improvements are made or providing more support if progress is slow. By doing so, AI can create a highly personalized training experience that is more dynamic and engaging than traditional methods. This adaptability makes AI a promising tool for helping TBI patients recover cognitive functions more efficiently.

For individuals recovering from TBI, cognitive training may involve exercises that challenge memory, attention,

problem-solving and executive function. For example, virtual reality (VR) programs powered by AI can immerse patients in controlled environments where they practice tasks such as navigating spaces, recalling information or managing emotions. Additionally, AI systems can track progress over time, providing detailed feedback to clinicians and patients. This data helps adjust therapy programs, ensuring that the exercises remain relevant and continue to challenge the brain.

The integration of AI with cognitive training can also offer real-time monitoring, allowing clinicians to detect early signs of cognitive decline or recovery. AI can analyze vast amounts of data from brain activity, neuroimaging and behavioral patterns, helping to identify subtle changes that may not be immediately apparent through conventional methods.

While AI-based cognitive training offers many potential benefits, challenges remain, particularly in terms of accessibility, cost and ensuring that these technologies are used in conjunction with traditional rehabilitation methods. However, as AI continues to evolve and become more integrated into health care, it holds promise for revolutionizing TBI treatment, providing more effective and personalized rehabilitation solutions to enhance cognitive recovery and improve the overall well-being of TBI patients.

VIRTUAL REALITY REHABILITATION

Virtual reality (VR) rehabilitation is emerging as an innovative and effective approach to treating traumatic brain injury (TBI).

TBI, caused by external forces such as a blow to the head, can lead to long-term cognitive, motor and emotional impairments, significantly affecting a person’s quality of life. Traditional rehabilitation often involves physical therapy, occupational therapy and cognitive exercises, but VR provides a more immersive, interactive experience that can enhance recovery in a way that is both engaging and tailored to individual needs.

In VR rehabilitation, patients use a headset and controllers to engage with a simulated environment designed to challenge specific areas of brain function. This can include tasks that focus on memory, attention, spatial awareness and motor skills. VR allows patients to practice these skills in a safe, controlled setting while providing real-time feedback on their performance. The immersive nature of VR creates a highly engaging experience, encouraging patients to actively participate in their recovery.

One of the primary advantages of VR rehabilitation is its ability to provide personalized therapy. Through VR, therapists can design specific exercises and scenarios that address the patient’s unique needs, whether that involves improving balance and coordination, regaining fine motor skills or rebuilding cognitive functions. For example, a patient recovering from

a motor impairment may practice walking through virtual environments or performing tasks that require hand-eye coordination, which can help retrain the brain and improve physical capabilities.

Furthermore, VR allows for constant monitoring and adjustment of the rehabilitation process. As patients progress, the system can adapt the difficulty of exercises to ensure continuous improvement without overwhelming the patient. The ability to track progress and adjust tasks in real time ensures that therapy remains challenging and effective, which is essential for recovery.

Another benefit of VR rehabilitation is its potential to improve patient motivation and engagement. Traditional therapy can sometimes be monotonous, but the interactive nature of VR creates an enjoyable experience that motivates patients to continue their rehabilitation. VR also offers the opportunity for patients to practice skills in realistic, everyday situations that would be difficult or impossible to recreate in a clinical setting.

While VR rehabilitation is still a relatively new field, research continues to support its effectiveness in enhancing TBI recovery. As the technology becomes more advanced and accessible, it holds the potential to significantly improve rehabilitation outcomes for TBI patients, offering them a more personalized, engaging and effective way to recover.

NEUROMODULATION DEVICES

Neuromodulation devices are becoming an increasingly important tool in the treatment of traumatic brain injury (TBI), offering patients the potential for improved recovery and better management of cognitive, emotional and physical impairments. TBI, which results from an external blow or jolt to the head, can lead to a variety of long-lasting symptoms, including memory loss, difficulty concentrating, mood swings and motor dysfunction. Traditional therapies often focus on rehabilitation and symptom management, but neuromodulation devices provide a more direct intervention by modulating neural activity and promoting brain recovery.

Neuromodulation devices work by delivering targeted electrical stimulation to specific areas of the brain, helping to restore normal brain function. This can involve the use of technologies such as transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) or deep brain stimulation (DBS). Each of these devices aims to regulate neural activity and promote neuroplasticity, the brain’s ability to reorganize and form new connections after injury.

One commonly used neuromodulation device is tDCS, which applies a low electrical current to the scalp to modulate brain activity. This technique can be used to enhance cognitive functions such as memory and attention, which are often impaired following TBI. tDCS has been shown to be effective in

improving motor function, mood and executive function in some TBI patients, helping them regain independence and improve overall quality of life.

TMS, on the other hand, uses magnetic pulses to stimulate specific areas of the brain, providing a noninvasive way to improve neural connectivity and brain function. TMS has been used successfully in TBI treatment to reduce symptoms such as depression, anxiety and cognitive deficits. It works by stimulating brain regions that have been damaged by the injury, helping to restore normal activity in these areas.

Deep brain stimulation involves implanting a device that delivers electrical impulses to targeted regions within the brain. This technique is typically used in more severe cases of TBI where other treatments have been ineffective. Deep brain stimulation can help alleviate symptoms such as chronic pain, motor dysfunction and mood disturbances by modulating brain activity at a deeper level.

While neuromodulation devices show great promise in TBI treatment, more research is needed to determine their longterm effectiveness and optimal usage. However, as technology continues to advance, these devices have the potential to become a vital part of comprehensive TBI management, offering patients improved recovery outcomes and a better quality of life.

Tthrive

A CELEBRATION OF TBI SURVIVORS LIVING THEIR BEST LIVES

SARAH BECAME A PASSIONATE ADVOCATE FOR TBI AWARENESS, COMMITTED TO INSPIRING OTHERS WITH HER STORY.

SARAH

LIVING AN INSPIRED LIFE FUELED BY RESILIENCE AND HOPE

Sarah never imagined that one split second could change her life forever. It was a crisp fall day when, while riding her bike down a hill, she lost control and collided with a tree. The impact left her unconscious, and when she awoke, she was in the hospital, unable to remember what had happened. Sarah had suffered a severe traumatic brain injury (TBI), and doctors weren’t sure how much of her previous life she would regain.

The road to recovery was long and filled with challenges. The simplest tasks—like remembering her own name or tying her shoes—felt impossible. She struggled with speech, coordination and daily activities. Frustration and doubt crept in as she faced one obstacle after another. But Sarah refused to give up. Every day, she pushed herself a little further, taking part in physical and cognitive therapies with determination.

Her family and friends were by her side, offering constant encouragement, and over time, small victories began to accumulate. Sarah started to walk again, then speak clearly, and slowly but surely, she regained control over her body and mind. It wasn’t easy, but she embraced every challenge as an opportunity to grow stronger.

Years after her accident, Sarah became a passionate advocate for TBI awareness, sharing her story to inspire others facing similar battles. She returned to school, earned her degree and started a successful career. More importantly, she found a new appreciation for life, cherishing the simple moments that once seemed ordinary.

Today, Sarah is not only living but thriving. Her journey proves that even after a life-altering event, resilience, support and hope can lead to a future far brighter than one could have imagined.

know? DID YOU

Reintegrating into a community has a different meaning for each brain injury survivor. Returning to work, interacting with friends and family or resuming volunteer work are all examples of active community life. There are a wide range of services available to help brain injury survivors reintegrate into their communities. Some of these include home health services and community reentry and independent living programs.

HOME HEALTH SERVICES

For brain injury survivors, rehabilitation can continue in the home. Home health care can be less expensive, more convenient and just as effective as facilitybased therapy.

COMMUNITY REENTRY

Community reentry programs generally focus on developing higher level motor, social and cognitive skills in order to prepare the person with a brain injury to return to independent living and potentially to work.

INDEPENDENT LIVING PROGRAMS

An independent living program is operated within a housing facility. Brain injury survivors who can not care for themselves in the home enter this type of program with the goal of regaining the ability to live independently.

TBI ANALYTICS EMPOWERS PATIENTS

Obtaining

MARK’S DETERMINATION AND FIERCE WILL TO RECOVER KEPT HIM GOING.

WITH

THE SUPPORT OF HIS FAMILY, FRIENDS AND A DEDICATED TEAM OF DOCTORS AND THERAPISTS,

HE BEGAN HIS LONG JOURNEY OF REHABILITATION.

MARK

RISING FROM THE ASHES TO CREATE A NEW AND BEAUTIFUL LIFE

Mark was always the life of the party — outgoing, energetic and passionate about his career as a professional photographer. But everything changed one rainy evening. While driving home from a shoot, Mark lost control of his car on a slick road and collided with a guardrail. The accident left him with a traumatic brain injury (TBI). He was rushed to the hospital in critical condition, and doctors weren’t sure how much of him would ever come back.

In the days that followed, Mark faced immense challenges. His memory was foggy, his body uncooperative and his once-vibrant mind seemed distant. Even simple tasks like walking or holding a camera felt impossible. For a man who had always been in control of his life, the loss of independence was heartbreaking.

But Mark’s determination and fierce will to recover kept him going. With the support of his family, friends and a

dedicated team of doctors and therapists, he began his long journey of rehabilitation. Slowly, he regained basic skills — first learning to walk again, then relearning how to speak, think clearly and regain his coordination. Every small victory brought a sense of hope, and Mark pushed through each setback with a relentless spirit.

Two years after the accident, Mark returned to photography — not just as a career, but as a renewed passion. He started his own photography business, capturing life’s precious moments for others. His work, once fueled by ambition, now carried a deeper meaning, as he had learned to appreciate the beauty in every shot, every breath and every day.

Today, Mark is living proof that with resilience, love and hard work, even the toughest challenges can be overcome. His recovery story is one of hope, showing that it’s possible to rise from the ashes and create a new, beautiful life.

T“THE FUTURE BELONGS TO THOSE WHO BELIEVE IN THE BEAUTY OF THEIR DREAMS.”

Eleanor Roosevelt

know? DID YOU

Treatment in a hospital following a brain injury may range from a quick neurological assessment to longer-term, inpatient care. Within the hospital there are different departments designed to care for patients at various stages of treatment.

ER

ICU SDU

EMERGENCY ROOM INTENSIVE CARE UNIT

In the ER, the treatment team focuses on saving lives and takes measures to protect the brain from further injury or damage.

In the ICU, the treatment team works to medically stabilize the patient and prevent medical crisis by providing life-sustaining care.

STEP-DOWN UNIT

Once medically stable, a patient moves on to the SDU, where they receive transitional care before being admitted to the general medical ward.

QUESTIONS FAMILIES SHOULD ASK THE TRAUMA MEDICAL TEAM

1. CAN YOU TELL ME MORE ABOUT MY LOVED ONE’S INJURY?

2. HOW IS TREATMENT SPECIFICALLY HELPING MY LOVED ONE?

3. CAN YOU EXPLAIN THE NEXT STEPS IN TREATMENT?

4. HOW DO I KNOW MY LOVED ONE IS READY FOR THE NEXT STEP?

5. WHAT CAN I EXPECT FOR MY LOVED ONE IN RECOVERY?

EMILY NOT ONLY REGAINED HER PHYSICAL ABILITIES BUT ALSO FOUND A NEW PURPOSE. SHE BECAME A MOTIVATIONAL SPEAKER, SHARING HER STORY WITH OTHERS.

EMILY

Emily was an avid runner, always striving for personal bests and enjoying the freedom of the open road. One fateful afternoon, however, her life took a dramatic turn. While crossing a busy intersection, she was struck by a car. The accident left her with a severe traumatic brain injury (TBI), and doctors feared the worst — she might never walk, talk or even think the same again. In the aftermath, Emily’s world was turned upside down. She couldn’t remember simple things, struggled to communicate and faced constant pain. The woman who had once run marathons now couldn’t even walk across a room without assistance. The road to recovery seemed overwhelming, and for a while, Emily wondered if she would ever be the person she once was.

BUILDING A NEW CAREER INSPIRED BY HER RECOVERY

But Emily wasn’t ready to give up. Surrounded by a loving family and a team of therapists, she committed herself to her rehabilitation with unwavering determination. Every day, she worked hard, no matter how slow or painful the progress seemed. It was a battle, but Emily began to reclaim her strength. She relearned how to walk, how to talk and how to navigate the world around her—each small step a victory.

Years later, Emily not only regained her physical abilities but also found a new purpose. She became a motivational speaker, sharing her story with others who were facing their own challenges. She ran again, this time not for records, but for the joy of movement and life itself.

T“IT ALWAYS SEEMS IMPOSSIBLE UNTIL IT’S DONE.”

Nelson Mandela

PHOTO:

know? DID YOU

VERBAL OUTBURSTS

BEHAVIORAL & EMOTIONAL

PHYSICAL OUTBURSTS

SOME SYMPTOMS OF BRAIN INJURY

POOR JUDGMENT

IMPULSIVE BEHAVIOR

LACK OF EMPATHY

LACK OF MOTIVATION DEPRESSION AND ANXIETY

A brain injury can directly effect a person’s behavior, emotional state and cognitive thinking.

MEMORY LOSS

STATE OF CONFUSION

LACK OF COORDINATION

IMPAIRED EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

FOGGINESS

TROUBLE’ THINKING CLEARLY SLEEP PROBLEMS

COGNITIVE & THINKING

JOHN PUSHED THROUGH GRUELING THERAPY SESSIONS WHILE EXPERIENCING BOTH PROGRESS AND SETBACKS.

JOHN

John was a dedicated athlete, known for his speed and skill on the football field. But his life changed in an instant during a game when he collided with another player, suffering a traumatic brain injury (TBI). The impact left him unconscious and in critical condition, with doctors uncertain if he would ever fully recover. His dreams of playing professionally seemed shattered.

The road to recovery was long and painful. John faced physical, cognitive and emotional challenges. He had difficulty concentrating, remembering things and even walking without assistance. He struggled with frustration and despair, but one thing remained constant: his determination. John refused to let the injury define him.

With unwavering support from his family, friends and medical team, John began his rehabilitation journey. Each day, he pushed through grueling therapy sessions — sometimes with

CELEBRATING SMALL VICTORIES ON HIS WAY TO A PURPOSEFUL LIFE

progress, sometimes with setbacks. His resilience and positive mindset became his greatest assets. He celebrated small victories, like taking his first unassisted steps, regaining his speech and gradually rebuilding his strength.

Over time, John not only regained his physical abilities but discovered new passions. He went back to school, earned a degree in sports science and became a coach, sharing his love for athletics with young athletes. His experience with TBI fueled a new mission: to raise awareness about brain injuries and help others navigate their own recovery journeys.

Today, John is living a life filled with purpose. He’s an advocate for brain injury recovery and leads a full, active life, spending time with family, mentoring athletes and continuing to pursue his passions. John’s story proves that with perseverance, hope and the right support, even the darkest moments can lead to a future brighter than ever imagined.

T“WHAT LIES BEHIND US AND WHAT LIES BEFORE US ARE TINY MATTERS COMPARED TO WHAT LIES WITHIN US.”

Ralph Waldo Emerson

ROD AMIRI, MD

BOARD-CERTIFIED PSYCHIATRIST

YOUR TBI PHYSICIAN

Rod Amiri, MD, is a board-certified psychiatrist in Beverly Hills, California. He serves as executive director of Connect Wellness and personally leads their renowned intensive outpatient program to ensure the highest level of success for every patient.

Born in Ahvaz, Iran, Dr. Amiri escaped the war-torn country with the help of his family and immigrated to the United States at age 13. He excelled in high school and college, graduating at the top of his class. He earned his medical degree from St. George’s University in True Blue, Grenada, before going on to complete his residency at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles.

Dr. Amiri served as Chief Resident at Cedars-Sinai, where he mastered intensive psychotherapy skills and was honored with several awards, scholarships and fellowships from organizations including the California Society of Addiction Medicine and the American Psychiatric Association. He also gained teaching experience as a professor of anatomy and physiology at the American University of Complementary Medicine in Los Angeles.

Dr. Amiri has a private practice in Beverly Hills where he helps patients cope with mental health disorders like depression, bipolar disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder.

ALIREZA

UNCOVERING THE INVISIBLE INJURY Evidence Based Functional Capacity Evaluations

BAGHERIAN, DC, CCEP, QME, DAIPM, ABVE/F

Functional Capacity Evaluations (FCEs) can be a valuable tool in identifying, objectively measuring, and documenting the tangible impact and functional consequences of mild traumatic brain injuries (mTBI), particularly when conventional imaging does not adequately reflect the extent of impairment. Because FCEs focus on an individual’s actual functional abilities rather than just subjective symptoms, they provide a clear, measurable representation of how mTBI-related impairments can impact daily living, social engagement, and work capacity. This functional approach is particularly useful in forensic settings, where objective, evidence-based data is critical for legal cases, disability determinations, and rehabilitation planning. By emphasizing real-world function, FCEs help bridge the gap between medical findings and practical limitations, ensuring that forensic evaluations reflect the true impact of an injury.

For nearly three decades, Dr. Bagherian has dedicated his career to forensic injury analysis, applying his expertise in the areas of injury causation, human factors, occupant kinematics, accident reconstruction, and disability assessment to provide objective, evidence-based evaluations for medical-legal cases and rehabilitation. His professional development includes advanced coursework and training from the Spine Research Institute of San Diego, UCLA, UC Riverside, the University of Michigan’s Engineering Department, Radboud University Medical Center in the Netherlands, the Academy of Forensic Medical Sciences in the UK, and the American Academy of Forensic Sciences.

Dr. Bagherian specializes in evidence-based FCEs, evaluating neuromuscular function and physical impairments stemming from mTBI and musculoskeletal injuries to provide objective, defensible findings that guide medical treatment, legal proceedings, and return-to-work considerations.

3580 California Street, Suite 102, San Francisco, CA 94118 Office: (415) 921-6200 • Direct: (415) 265-2225 • drb@synapsehc.com

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Over My Head: A Doctor’s Own Story of Head Injury from the Inside Looking Out

Claudia L. Osborn

Locked inside a brain-injured head looking out at a challenging world is the premise of this extraordinary autobiography. Over My Head is an inspiring story of how one woman comes to terms with the loss of her identity and the courageous steps (and hilarious missteps) she takes while learning to rebuild her life. The author, a 45-year-old doctor and clinical professor of medicine, describes the aftermath of a brain injury 11 years ago, which stripped her of her beloved profession. For years she was deprived of her intellectual companionship and the ability to handle the simplest undertakings like shopping for groceries or sorting the mail. Her progression from confusion, dysfunction and alienation to a full, happy life is told with restraint, great style and considerable humor.

Prognosis: A Memoir of My Brain

Sarah Vallance

The day after she fell off a galloping horse, Sarah Vallance walked into her kitchen and discovered a lamp in her refrigerator and a toaster in her freezer as groceries melted in the sink. She was diagnosed with a brain injury, and her life imploded. A social worker deemed Vallance unfit for her high-level position in Australian government. Her work on a Ph.D. halted because her IQ plummeted. Afraid to let anyone witness her dramatic change in abilities and deem her stupid, she retreated to her sofa. A succession of rescue dogs (and a few cats) became her primary companions as she struggled to regain the ability to read, write and remember. Battling personality changes and mood swings, as well as her shift in mental capacity, nearly immobilized Vallance in shock, dread and fear. And yet, buoyed by her canine companions who “robbed her of a reason for dying,” Vallance not only endured, she rebuilt her life. She completed her thesis and graduated. She landed another job. She traveled the world. She married. She wrote this book.

Brain Storm: A Journey of Faith Through Brain Injury

Laura Allen and Bruce Allen

Brain Storm is the story of Bruce and Laura Allen who, when confronted with the immeasurable challenges of brain injury, found courage, determination and strength from God to forge through the seemingly insurmountable obstacles of Bruce’s intense and often heartbreaking recovery. The overwhelming struggles that consumed the next year changed their lives forever. “Brain Storm” views these incredible hurdles through the separate eyes of both the survivor and the caregiver. It recounts how God miraculously led them through each step of the journey. This candid, intimate and often humorous approach to recovery from brain injury will encourage and inspire readers, especially those who are currently traveling a similar path. You will learn why Bruce decided, “This has been the best year of my life.”

To Root & to Rise: Accepting Brain Injury

Carole J. Starr

An inspiring, interactive book and workbook to help brain injury survivors and caregivers navigate grief and loss, find their strengths and move forward with a changed life. As a brain injury survivor herself, author Carole Starr knows the depth of grief and loss of self that accompany brain injury, the challenge of coping with symptoms that are misunderstood by many and the peace that can come from accepting a new life and a new self. Carole describes the journey in a way that survivors, caregivers and professionals can relate to and learn from. To Root & To Rise is also a workbook with optional questions in each chapter that encourage readers to take Carole’s strategies and apply them to their own experience. These questions may be answered on one’s own, with family members, with rehabilitation professionals or with a brain injury support group.

My Stroke of Insight: A Brain Scientist’s Personal Journey

Jill Bolte Taylor

This astonishing New York Times bestseller chronicles how a brain scientist’s own stroke led to enlightenment. On December 10, 1996, Jill Bolte Taylor, a 37-year-old, Harvardtrained brain scientist experienced a massive stroke in the left hemisphere of her brain. As she observed her mind deteriorate to the point that she could not walk, talk, read, write or recall any of her life — all within four hours — Taylor alternated between the euphoria of the intuitive and kinesthetic right brain, in which she felt a sense of complete well-being and peace, and the logical, sequential left brain, which recognized she was having a stroke and enabled her to seek help before she was completely lost. It would take her eight years to fully recover.

Head Cases: Stories of Brain Injury and Its Aftermath

Michael Paul Mason

Head Cases takes us into the dark side of the brain in an astonishing sequence of stories, at once true and strange, about the effects of brain damage. Michael Paul Mason is one of an elite group of experts who coordinate care in the complicated aftermath of tragic injuries that can last a lifetime. On the road with Mason, we encounter survivors of brain injuries as they struggle to map and make sense of the new worlds they inhabit. Mason gives us a series of vivid glimpses into brain science, the last frontier of medicine, and we come away in awe of the miracles of the brain’s workings and astonished at the fragility of the brain and the sense of self, life and order that resides there. Head Cases “[achieves] through sympathy and curiosity insight like that which pulses through genuine literature.”