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BIOLOGISTS MOBILISE ON AN UNPRECEDENTED SCALE

SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY

GROWING NEW SPIDER SILKS WITHOUT SPIDERS

ANALYSIS

SCIENCE EDUCATION IN AND AFTER LOCKDOWN

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THE MAGAZINE OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF BIOLOGY / www.rsb.org.uk

ISSN 0006-3347 • Vol 67 No 3 • June/July 2020

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NATURE’S CHAMPION Sir David Attenborough on his long career in the life sciences

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Potential Applications of CRISPR Edited Cellular Therapies Adapting to Climate Change: People and Biology Early Earth and the Rise of Complex Life

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Contents, 1

CONTENTS

Volume 67 No 3 June/July 2020

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For details contact tom.ireland@rsb.org.uk ROYAL SOCIETY OF BIOLOGY 1 Naoroji Street, London WC1X 0GB Tel: 020 3925 3440 info@rsb.org.uk; www.rsb.org.uk

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EDITORIAL STAFF Editor Tom Ireland MRSB, @Tom_J_Ireland tom.ireland@rsb.org.uk Editorial assistant Emma Wrake AMRSB

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Chair of the Editorial Board Professor Alison Woollard FRSB

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Editorial Board Dr Anthony Flemming MRSB, Syngenta Professor Adam Hart FRSB, University of Gloucestershire Dr Sarah Maddocks CBiol MRSB, Cardiff Metropolitan University Professor Shaun D Pattinson FRSB, Durham University Dr James Poulter MRSB, University of Leeds Dr Cristiana P Velloso MRSB, King’s College London

ON THE COVER 14 Interview Sir David Attenborough celebrates his long relationship with life science

UP FRONT 04 Society News The latest news from the Society and its policy team 08 Opinion Why we need to watch our language when it comes to ‘invasive’ species; the highs and lows of lecturing in lockdown

Membership enquiries Tel: 01233 504804 membership@rsb.org.uk CLIENT

Subscription enquiries Tel: 020 3925 3464; info@rsb.org.uk The Biologist is produced on behalf of the Royal Society of Biology by Think Publishing Ltd, Capital House, 25 Chapel Street, London NW1 5DH www.thinkpublishing.co.uk; 020 3771 7200

FEATURES

18

10 Silk sensations Using synthetic biology to produce custom spider silks with extraordinary properties

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18 Activism The biologists taking direct action on climate change

Printed by Full Spectrum, Basildon Group art director Matthew Ball Senior designer Felipe Perez Production editor Sian Campbell Sub editor Kirsty Fortune Group account director John Innes john.innes@thinkpublishing.co.uk

22 Back to school Will a natural history GCSE help engage today’s pupils with nature?

ISSN 0006-3347 Advertising in The Biologist represents an unparalleled opportunity to reach a large community of professional biologists.

22

For advertising information contact tom.ireland@rsb.org.uk; 020 3925 3464

26 Pandemic response Tom Ireland explores how biologists have rallied to fight COVID-19 30 C4 photosynthesis Could we bioengineer trees to sequester more carbon?

Views expressed in this magazine are not necessarily those of the Editorial Board or the Royal Society of Biology. © 2020 Royal Society of Biology (Registered charity no. 277981) The Society permits single copying of individual articles for private study or research, irrespective of where the copying is done.

Multiple copying of individual articles for teaching purposes is also permitted without specific permission. For copying or reproduction for any other purpose, written permission must be sought from the Society. Exceptions to the above are those institutions and non-publishing organisations that have an agreement or licence with the UK Copyright Licensing Agency or the US Copyright Clearance Center. Access to the magazine is available online; please see the Society’s website for further details.

This magazine is sent in biodegradable wrap that can be composted or placed with food waste.

Cover: Sir David Attenborough, courtesy of Sam Barker/Contour by Getty Images

REGULARS 34 Members RSB members on deep-sea worms, malaria and science policy 38 Book reviews 42 Branches 45 Obituaries 47 Crossword

26 TWITTER @RoyalSocBio

48 Museum piece Bees! At the Museum of the Earth FACEBOOK www.facebook.com/ RoyalSocBio

BLOG blog.rsb.org.uk

WEBSITE thebiologist.rsb.org.uk

Vol 67 No 3 / The Biologist / 1

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WELCOME What’s in this issue

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Life in lockdown

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or me, working from home during lockdown feels almost like having a new job. Everything takes so much longer or has to be done in a different way, and I’ve realised how much nourishment I get from the face-to-face interactions that define life as a researcher and teacher. Online teaching is a particular challenge, and I have been reduced to tears recording lectures with less-than-perfect IT in a stuffy bedroom, invaded by barking dogs and noisy children.

On the plus side I’ve been impressed by how well my household rubs along together, despite the odd tantrum (both parents and teenagers). I have also discovered some new pleasures, including reconnecting with old friends over Zoom and checking my seeds during work breaks (I’m investigating Pomodoro – the time-management technique, not the vegetable). My daughters have become accomplished bakers and my now hunter-gatherer husband seems able to procure whatever ingredients they require, including flour from a local mill.

In this issue our nourishment comes from the one and only David Attenborough (page 14). Receiving a Lifetime Achievement Award as part of the RSB’s 10-year anniversary celebrations, Sir David reflects on the crucial importance of the biological sciences. “You understand the way the natural world works,” he says, “and it is essential that we empower people who vote to understand the meaning of biology.” You can hear his voice!

Sir David shares some of his more devastating environmental experiences, but reminds us there is hope.

And there are always things you can do: on page 18 Emma Wrake talks to climate activists within the life sciences, while on page 30 Sophie Young tells us about the potential for C4 photosynthesis to revolutionise both crop yield and carbon storage. Fascinating chemistry explained very clearly!

Elsewhere in the issue we look at plans to introduce a natural history GCSE (page 22), the problem of language in conservation (page 6) and the extraordinary properties of synthetic spider silk (page 10). There are pieces on the impact of the current pandemic on early career scientists (page 9) and the education system more generally (page 6), as well as a round-up of interviews with researchers working on COVID-19 projects (page 26).

I hope, like me, you’ve been appreciating the regular RSB COVID-19 bulletins delivered by email. I’ve found them and the RSB Science Policy Newsletter to be remarkably thorough and well curated, including research updates, expert opinion, community news and initiatives. It is so useful to have all this information in one place and I take my hat off to those involved in putting them together.

And one last thing: bucking the trend that suggests a worrying gender disparity in research papers submitted during lockdown, all the articles bar one in this issue are written by women!

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I’ve realised how much nourishment I get from the everyday face-to-face interactions that define life as a researcher and teacher

Alison Woollard Woollard FRSB FRSB Chair, Editorial Board of The Biologist

Welcome and BioPic, 1

BioPic

BEE IN A HOLE

By Will George A male Anthophora plumipes adhering to public health advice and staying in its nest.

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UPFRONT Society news • Opinion • Policy updates • Analysis

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MEMBERSHIP

#MembershipMay campaign a success as RSB seeks to expand its network CLIENT

A new initiative celebrating the Society’s diverse and growing membership ran throughout May. The #MembershipMay online campaign involved social media posts showcasing the breadth of research, roles

and interests among RSB members and Fellows.

The month-long campaign also highlighted ways in which the Society supports its members, and provided guidance on how to apply for or upgrade membership.

COVID-19

RSB delivers a range of COVID-19 resources The Society has launched a suite of COVID-19 resources to help signpost the bioscience community to key guidance and information during the pandemic.

Almost 30,000 subscribers have signed up to the RSB’s weekly COVID-19 bulletin, which provides a selection of essential research papers, messages from funders and government, and other general information for the sector.

The Society is also collating opportunities to collaborate, volunteer or ‘crowdfight’ as part of COVID-19 projects, and the RSB education team has created a list of guidance and resources for those who are home schooling.

The Biologist has been running a series of online Q&As with bioscientists who have suddenly shifted to COVID-19-related projects, summarised in the feature on page 26, and the Society has moved its 4 / The Biologist / Vol 67 No 3

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New members who started their application during Membership May were eligible for three months of free membership.

The RSB currently has almost 18,000 members worldwide, across all career

training programme to online courses delivered via Zoom (see page 36).

The Society has also begun running virtual events, starting with a live online ‘Policy Lates’ discussion on antimicrobial resistance at the end of May. The RSB website contains information on how each area of our work may be impacted and links to further information from our Member Organisations.

Members are also encouraged to respond to our new survey on the impact of COVID-19 on the research community.

See www.rsb.org.uk/covid19 for more details on all the above resources.

COMPETITIONS

Society competitions open despite coronavirus The Society’s broad range of competitions, awards and prizes are unaffected by COVID-19, and are open for entries throughout the summer.

stages and disciplines of the biosciences. Biologists can join the RSB as early as aged 14 as a BioNet member and it is not necessary for members to have any formal biosciences qualification to apply to join the RSB network.

The Intermediate Biology Olympiad 2020 will run for students aged 16 to 17 from 2nd to 9th June.

The Outreach and Engagement Award 2020, which offers a prize of up to £1,500, is open to researchers in any sector of UK bioscience until 26th June. ‘Our changing world’ is the theme of this year’s RSB Photography Competition, with the deadline for entries on the 24th July. The Nancy Rothwell Award 2020 specimen drawing competition for seven- to 18-year-olds is open for submissions throughout the summer.

RESOURCES

RSB rolls out bioscience Policy Resource Library The Society has launched a free, innovative library of policy resources for the biosciences that provides easy search and access to more than 800 published documents.

The RSB Policy Resource Library provides unrestricted access to bioscience

Upfront News, 1

policy statements, briefings, comments, consultation responses, reviews and more that have been published by the RSB and its Member Organisations.

The library is intended to be a first port of call for anyone wishing to research bioscience and education policy work published by specialist and learned societies, and is the result of a multi-year design and development project run by the policy team at the RSB. The library can be accessed online through the RSB’s mySociety portal (my.rsb.org.uk) and is available to both members and non-members.

In case you missed it...

The editor’s pick of biology stories being shared online FUNGUS OFFERS MOSQUITOES PROTECTION FROM MALARIA

COUNCIL

New members elected to Society council LONGEST SEA ‘CREATURE’ EVER RECORDED

Two vacancies have been filled on the RSB Council after the April 2020 round of nominations. Professor Nigel Brown FRSB, who held the role of chair of the College of Individual Members, has been re-elected for a second term of four years from 6th May 2020. Professor Stefan Przyborski FRSB (pictured above), representing the Anatomical Society, has been elected in the College of Organisational Members.

Professor Przyborski, a professor of cell technology and a principal investigator at Durham University, brings his extensive trusteeship experience to Council, having previously served as president of the Anatomical Society, treasurer of the British Neuroscience Association, and having chaired panels with BBSRC and UKRI. The election saw a higher than average voting turnout, with 17.6% of individual members and 44.3% of Member Organisations casting their vote. New Council members are traditionally announced at the Society’s Annual General Meeting, which was planned for Wednesday 6th May. The event was postponed due to the COVID-19 outbreak, but may take place at a later date in an online format.

President of the RSB Professor Dame Julia Goodfellow FRSB confirmed that Professor Richard Reece FRSB has been reappointed as honorary secretary for his fourth year, with Dr Paul Brooker FRSB reappointed as honorary treasurer for his third year.

A research vessel operated by the Schmidt Ocean Institute has captured images of what newspapers are describing as “the longest creature ever seen in the ocean”.

The enormous spiralling siphonophore, spotted in the deep sea off Western Australia, was estimated to be around 40-50m long. The string-like colony of cloned individual zooids rivals the longest organisms seen before at sea, such as lion’s mane jellyfish, which can have tentacles over 30m long, and the blue whale, which can grow to almost 30m.

In addition to the huge siphonophore, the team of scientists identified up to 30 new species from the deep waters of Australia’s Cape Range Canyon and Cloates Canyon regions.

THE NEW YORK TIMES bit.ly/150siphono

GLOW-IN-THE-DARK PLANTS A collaboration between synthetic biologists in the UK and Russia has created truly bioluminescent plants for the first time. A video widely shared on Twitter showed the plants glowing bright green in a dark environment.

Previous attempts to use bacterial bioluminescence genes have resulted in low light output, but the use of genes from luminous tropical mushrooms resulted in a glow in complete darkness that researchers say can be seen with the naked eye. The study’s authors, writing in Nature Biotechnology, said the findings could underpin development of a suite of imaging tools for plants.

VIA KAREN SARKISYAN ON TWITTER www.twitter.com/krnsrksn

Researchers in Kenya have found a fungal parasite that protects mosquitoes from being infected with malaria.

After studying mosquito populations from the Lake Victoria area of Kenya, scientists from the International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology found that no mosquitoes infected with Microsporidia MB also had malaria parasites. Further studies in the laboratory, published in Nature Communications, confirmed the fungal parasite gave the mosquitoes protection from malarial parasites.

According to the BBC, researchers are now investigating whether they can release similarly infected mosquitoes into the wild or use spores to suppress the disease in wild mosquito populations.

BBC bit.ly/microspor

PROFILE OF A KILLER: THE COMPLEX BIOLOGY OF CORONAVIRUSES In an article for Nature, David Cyranoski looks at the history of coronavirus science, how coronaviruses jump from one species to another, and what makes SARS-CoV-2 such a stable and difficult virus to stop.

The article also looks at key questions about how the virus affects those who have already had it, exploring what would happen if SARS-CoV-2 continues to circulate among the population for years to come. Cyranoski argues that common colds, which may once have been deadly but now circulate causing only minor symptoms, may offer a model for where this pandemic might go.

NATURE bit.ly/COVIDreview

Synthetic biologists have created bioluminescent plants

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POLICYANALYSIS Lauren McLeod is head of education policy at the RSB

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Education after lockdown Lauren McLeod looks at the way science education might change and even improve following the extensive disruption this year

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ver a single weekend in March UK schools saw a drastic shift in expectations of their role in the community. Pupils were sent home and summer exam season was cancelled. Some teachers are now working at home, while others are still at school providing support for key workers’ children and those entitled to free school meals. Some will be able to conduct classes online, but others may need to contact pupils with no computer or internet access at home. Both teachers and pupils are likely to have new caring responsibilities, and may have fallen ill themselves.

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with scientifically engaged parents may be doing home experiments, but older students will be missing out on practical skills in the classroom, or the university laboratory classes that train them in processes required for future courses or employment.

We must ensure young people affected are further supported in the next stage of their education, and that we re-engage and inspire pupils and students in science when they return to classrooms and laboratories. The devolved nature of education in our country has led to different approaches in how grades will be awarded this year, but the message has been clear from all: individuals should not be disadvantaged by this unusual disruption to their education.

For universities and employers, this means qualifications awarded this year should be considered no different

We must ensure young people affected are further supported in the next stage of their education

to previous years – the mechanisms used to calculate and award grades are intended to ensure comparability between previous and future cohorts.

However, we are faced with many challenges for next year’s school pupils, undergraduate and postgraduate students, trainee teachers and newly qualified teachers.

We should also consider: how can we build in more resilience should we face another national emergency in the future? Many of the issues raised here are areas where the Society already calls for further support or changes to policy: ensuring those from disadvantaged backgrounds aren’t left behind; monitoring and improving progression to post-16 qualifications across all ethnic groups, genders and disabilities; and more subjectspecific support for our trainee or early career teachers and lecturers.

n

COVID-19

Billions pledged to create a COVID-19 vaccine More than $8bn (£6.5bn) has been pledged to help develop a COVID-19 vaccine and fund research on the SARS-CoV-2 virus, following an online summit organised by the EU and co-hosted by the UK, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Norway and Saudi Arabia. More than 30 countries worldwide, along with philanthropic bodies and research institutes, made donations.

The European Commission pledged $1bn (£810m), which was matched by Norway, while Japan promised more than $800m (£652m).

The UK pledged £338m and there were donations from individuals – Madonna, for example, gave €1m (£880,000).

World leaders said the fund would “kickstart an unprecedented global co-operation between scientists and regulators, industry and governments, international organisations, foundations and healthcare professionals” and gave their backing to the World Health Organization.

Nations’ virus containment strategies compared

In higher education, late admission and clearing for undergraduates may need to be considered if an autumn exam series in England goes ahead.

Universities may choose not to open until the second semester of the academic year, in January 2021, to aid social distancing. Decisions taken now will impact not only this year’s graduating cohorts, but those sitting post-16 exams and moving through undergraduate degrees.

It also raises the possibility of new ideas: can calculated grades become the norm, freeing up more time for practical and non-examinable content? Should we reduce the breadth of content in qualifications at 16? And how can we best deploy our teachers and use their expertise?

In the coming months the RSB’s education policy team will continue to engage with governments, awarding bodies, regulators and our colleagues in other science organisations to further identify areas that require support and to build resilience in education. This will ensure all students and teachers are able to develop in times of emergency and when we return to learning and teaching in more traditional settings.

Work has begun on a project to study the huge variation in containment measures and public health policies employed by different countries, and explore which strategies are most effective.

A platform being developed for the World Health Organization by a team at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine will pull together data being collected by around 10 different tracking organisations.

The database will standardise the information gathered by the different teams and should be more comprehensive than anything an individual group could generate, data scientists told Nature.

Researchers hope that the platform will help disease modellers predict how adding and removing control measures affects transmission rates and infection numbers.

UKRI sets up fast-track trials for coronavirus drugs COVID-19 treatments could be fast-tracked through a new national clinical trial initiative involving UK Research and Innovation (UKRI), the National Institute for Health Research and partners in industry and the Government.

This platform will accelerate the development of new drugs for patients hospitalised with COVID-19, reducing the time taken to set up clinical studies for new therapies from months to weeks.

Funded by UKRI and the Department of Health and Social Care, the programme – known as the ACCORD (Accelerating COVID-19 Research & Development)

platform – will look for positive indications of drug treatments’ effectiveness and help them advance rapidly into the large-scale trials currently in progress across the country.

MPs demand environmental controls to stop pandemics A cross-party group of MPs is calling for funds to encourage better agriculture and halt habitat loss to help avoid another pandemic.

The group of 26 MPs, led by Green MP Caroline Lucas, says new environmental regulations must be a key part of the UK’s recovery from the coronavirus crisis and told the chancellor, Rishi Sunak, that bailouts for industries should come with conditions on their environmental impact.

Their letter followed a warning by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity, which said recent pandemics were the direct consequence of human activity.

Government delivers support package for universities and students The Government has announced a range of measures to protect students and the higher education sector from the impact of coronavirus, but has rejected calls for a multibillion-pound bailout.

Institutions will be allowed to expand student numbers and charge full tuition fees during lockdown, and will receive £2.6bn from next year’s fees early and an extra £100m for research funding.

The Government also confirmed that education providers are eligible to apply for its support packages.

Many universities are drawing up plans to cut expenditure this year, including furloughing and restructuring staff, pay cuts, and putting recruitment and capital projects on hold.

Committee to consult on COVID and funding agency The House of Commons Science and Technology Committee has launched a consultation into the Government’s intention to create a new research funding agency “broadly modelled” on the US ARPA, to support visionary high-risk, high-payoff scientific, engineering and technology ideas.

The consultation closes on the 30th June 2020 and the RSB is drafting its response.

The committee will also inquire into the place of UK research, science and technology in the national and global response to the COVID-19 pandemic, and what lessons should be learned for the future. This closes for submissions on the 31st July 2020.

Contact consultation@rsb.org.uk for more information and if you would like to contribute.

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POLICYNEWS

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OPINION

Dr Rebecca Nesbit is an ecologist and author

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‘Species are not invading and recorders are volunteers not soldiers’ Is prejudiced language getting in the way of sound ecological decision making?

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n 2019, as the Government was drawing up plans for the UK to “take back control of our borders”, British MPs called for a “citizens’ army” to tackle the “growing threat from invasive species”.

The use of aggressive and even militant language to describe introduced wildlife spans the full spectrum of Britain’s press – The Guardian’s headlines have included “Invasive species: attack of the aliens” and The Sun has spoken of plans to “blitz” non-native species.

By branding species as invasive aliens, it is self-evident that they are undesirable. In some cases this is undeniably true: introduced species have caused havoc in many ways.

However, most introduced species have expanded local biodiversity without discernible negative impacts1.

The horse chestnut and the little owl are just two examples that have become an accepted part of Britain’s wildlife. Some introductions bring benefits – the Louisiana crayfish, for example, is now a food source for native birds in Spain, and the Japanese white-eye is a pollinator in Hawaii, replacing the role of extinct birds. In many cases there have been both advantages and disadvantages to the new arrivals – plenty of 8 / The Biologist / Vol 67 No 3

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introduced species have become valuable food sources while simultaneously causing problems such as bank erosion, from tilapia fish in Papua New Guinea to signal crayfish in Sweden.

The language of war masks these nuances. It speaks more of ideologies about where each species belongs than protecting nature, with worrying parallels to xenophobia.

The little owl is a non-native species that has thrived in the UK

FRIEND OR FOE?

Negative labels are also assigned to species that have become common or successful within their native range.

Species of plants or animals whose numbers are inconvenient for any reason are ‘weeds’ or ‘pests’. These are often successful generalists with the ability to adapt to a wide range of environments, just like humans.

The dandelion, for example, is common throughout the world in seemingly inhospitable habitats, but is rarely acclaimed for its beauty or the insects it supports.

The label of ‘pest’, meanwhile, diminishes care for animals’ welfare and can encourage or glorify their killing. In New Zealand illegal drownings of possum joeys have now been stopped, but people still compete to kill as many possums as they can.

There are important reasons to reduce the numbers of certain species; culling can prevent species extinctions, for example, or extensive damage to crops and woodland. However, branding the animals ‘pests’ doesn’t mean we can dismiss the harm we are causing them as irrelevant.

Even seemingly innocent terms can imply certain values. ‘Pristine’ and ‘healthy’ ecosystems, for example, can suggest there is a correct way for nature to be that does not involve humans. In a changing, overpopulated world, that’s an idea we need to question.

WORD TO THE WISE

REFERENCE 1. Williamson, M. & Fitter, A. The varying success of invaders.

Ecology 77(6), 16 61–1666 (1996).

Using value-laden language can get in the way of making decisions based on evidence and compassion. As scientists and as messengers about science we must all be aware of how we present conservation challenges.

Let’s replace emotionally charged descriptions with factual alternatives – for example, species are ‘expanding their range’ rather than ‘invading’, and the citizen’s army are ‘volunteers’ not ‘soldiers’. Let’s think about how the language we use drives our attitudes and whether it stops us from adapting to the reality we face.

Dr Beth Lawry is a lecturer at Newcastle University’s School of Biomedical Sciences, writing on behalf of ECLBio, an advisory group to the Heads of University Biosciences (HUBS)

Ring the changes Beth Lawry looks at the anxious, exhausting but at times uplifting experiences of early career lecturers during lockdown

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oronavirus, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, whatever you are calling the pandemic, one thing is for sure: we are all being impacted by it. As early career academics, our home life is often affected by our work life, but now it is even harder to separate the two.

We asked our early career lecturers (ECLs) about their experiences of lockdown to start a discussion about potential resources and support.

Many ECLs have young children and are required to juggle their kids’ schoolwork, their entertainment needs, nutrition and exercise with trying to work full time.

“I’ve heard from some academics about how they’re now able to write that paper or grant application they never had the time for while I’m just trying to get through my emails and lecture content and keep my children alive,” wrote one respondent.

The guilt that often comes with being a parent and an ECL has been amplified during lockdown, with many feeling they’re not doing either job well. Many ECLs also have other caring duties, their own health complications and mental health issues – the list goes on. We’re all told to look after ourselves and practise self-care, but at the same time ECLs say they just don’t have time to do it all.

Lecturers have reported feeling guilty for not devoting enough time to either students or family

CONFRONTING THE CRISIS

Many of us already used online content before lockdown, but the transition to fully online material came hard and fast. The first few weeks were especially chaotic, getting taught content up online, changing to online coursework and supporting students.

My department’s technical team did a fantastic job, videoing practicals so the students could see the processes, and we integrated questions and assessment to encourage student engagement.

Other ECLs have developed animations, live presentations and computational practicals.

Other challenges centre around all the new software required and how

One concern is the lack of research output and how this will impact current funding, promotions and contracts

to use it. Having adequate internet and hardware at home hasn’t been straightforward, and we must also write exams in formats that work online and cannot be answered by Google. This has all been done at tremendous speed.

A longer-term concern is the lack of research output and how this will affect current funding, promotions and contracts. It’s an especially worrying time for those on shortterm contracts. “As an ECL the small amount of research funding I had was spent on reagents that are going out of date and a postgrad who can’t collect any data,” one lecturer said.

ECLs worry they will bear the brunt of any cutbacks, as established PIs with large groups and a bigger profile are better positioned to gain funding and retain positions.

However, there are signs funders and universities are reviewing and refining their policies to take disruption into account: the UKRI has announced a six-month funded extension for final-year PhD students, the Wellcome Trust has extended funding for its grants for a minimum of six months and other funders such as The Royal Society have stated that grant applications are open as usual.

REF submission has been delayed, with an adapted framework under consultation. It’s also been great to

see how quickly university decisions about undergraduate student support, assessments and ‘safety nets’ have been established.

PRAISE THE POSITIVES

It’s important that these conversations continue so that a strong UK research community can emerge from the pandemic. There have also been other positives for some ECLs being locked down. They have developed new skills, spent more time with distant family (albeit virtually) and formed new research opportunities around COVID-19.

I’ve found it brilliant how our university community has pulled together, and experienced excellent admin and technical support, while research and teaching colleagues have worked together to rewrite exams, mark papers or support projects.

We’re all in the same storm, but in different boats – we are dealing with our own specific circumstances and it’s important not to feel guilty for spending time managing these. Do what you need to do to keep afloat and speak out if you need support.

Follow the ECLBio on Twitter at @ECL_HUBS and tweet us your comments about this piece. Also, connect with us on AdvanceHE Connect (HUBS-ECLBio) to find our discussion boards.

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OPINION

SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY VERSION SUBS ART PRODUCTION

Jolanta Beinarovi a AMRSB explores how synthetic biology is helping produce custom spider silks with a range of extraordinary mechanical and biological properties in quantities that would be impossible to extract from spiders

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Synthetic biology has enabled scientists to replicate the genetic blueprint of spider silk and insert it into a microorganism

pider silk is the toughest known fibre: its physical properties can outcompete natural and synthetic materials, including bullet-proof Kevlar and hightensile steel. Silk is resistant to chemical degradation by solvents and strong acids and bases, and its biodegradation rate is slow.

Besides its phenomenal mechanical traits, spider silk shows excellent biocompatibility in mammals, making it an ideal material for biomedical applications1.

The reason we cannot buy spider silk-based plasters and bandages at the local pharmacy is the scarcity of the material. Unlike silkworms, spiders are highly territorial and cannibalistic, which rules out high-density farming for an industrially relevant silk supply.

To illustrate just how difficult it is to obtain spider silk, in 2009 artists Simon Peers and Nicholas Godley presented the world with the first and only piece of clothing made entirely of natural spider silk. It took 1.2 million wild golden orb-weaver spiders (Nephila clavipes), more than 80 people and three years of labour to produce four metres of fabric2.

FANTASTICSILKS AND HOW TO SPIN THEM

Natural spider silk is composed of large (>250kDa), repetitive and insoluble proteins called spidroins. Spidroins are stored within the silk glands and form an extremely concentrated fluid (known as spinning ‘dope’) equivalent to 40 grammes of protein dissolved

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in 100 millilitres of water. The spider forces the dope out of the glands through an S-shaped duct that actively acidifies and dehydrates the protein solution. Finally, the silk thread exits the spider at the spinneret or the cribellum (depending on the spider species). Spiders make seven types of silk, each spun from a single type of spidroin, from scaffolding silks to glues and silks to capture prey or wrap eggs (see ‘The seven wild silk types’, p12).

To study natural silk genes, researchers explore the spider genome or extract glands from the spider’s abdomen and study the cells’ transcriptome (the RNA intermediates between genes and proteins).

The best-researched model silk is dragline silk, made up of the major ampullate spidroin (MaSp) (see box, overleaf). MaSps are composed of hundreds

Spider silk, 1 Adidas

Unlike silkworms, spiders are highly territorial and cannibalistic, which rules out high-density farming

Left: Shoe with an upper made from AMsilk’s biofabricated ‘biosteel’ Opposite page: Dress made from yeast-produced silk, created by Bolt Threads in collaboration with Stella McCartney Below: Female golden silk orb-weaver spider (Nephila clavipes)

of core repeats of glycine-rich and polyalanine blocks that are responsible for silk’s mechanical properties.

This core unit is flanked by highly evolutionarily conserved domains that ensure the solubility of silk at high concentrations in the storage gland and help with fibre formation (see ‘MaSp structure’, p12). Most spidroins have a similar modular nature.

REPLICATING SILK

Sharp Photography

Synthetic biology has enabled scientists to replicate the genetic blueprint of spider silk and insert it into a nonnative organism, usually a microorganism. The goal of this effort is simple: to make large amounts of spiderfree (recombinant) spider silk, sometimes by the kilo or even the tonne. Recombinant silk production removes most ethical and biosafety concerns about animal involvement in the manufacturing process, making it more sustainable and helping to avoid potential species-jumping pathogens.

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SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY VERSION

The seven wild silk types

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Synthetic silks can be processed into selfassembling and chemically stable films, as well as nanoparticles and gel-like structures

• Major and minor ampullate: Non-sticky orb web scaffold silks • Flagelliform: Sticky orb web spiral that captures prey • Tubuliform: Egg-wrapping silk • Aciniform:Silk for immobilising prey, as well as web decoration and mating webs • Aggregate: Another prey-capture silk that forms glue dots on the orb web spiral • Pyriform:Silk that can cement several different fibres together

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MaSp structure

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N-terminal domain A simplified model of the structure of the golden orb weaver spider major ampullate spidroin (MaSp), with repeats of glycine-rich and polyalanine blocks between functional end units.

Mechanical Fibre properties formation GG x AAAAA repeats

C-terminal domain

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machinery, which gives up translating long genes because their native proteins are significantly smaller (averaging 30–40kDa). Instead, protein designers utilise silks’ modular nature to mix and match domains from different spidroin types or even different spider species, making a customised silk for the desired application (see ‘Synthetic silks’, opposite page).

Miniature synthetic silks replicate the biocompatibility of their naturally occurring counterparts3. The mechanical properties of mini silks are directly proportional to the length of their repetitive region, and full-size synthetic silks are as strong as those that come from a spider4.

SILK PURIFICATION

Right: Spiber spins proteins into synthetic spider thread (Spiber Inc)

After the synthetic silk gene is designed by mixing and matching the protein domains of interest, biotechnologists insert it into the microorganism using electrical or heat shock. Unlike spiders, microorganisms are not picky in their diet and can survive solely on sugar, salt and a nitrogen source – a great prospect for circular economies. The host culture grows to an extremely high density in bioreactors, which regulate the acidity and temperature of the culture, and supply enough air and food. Then, with the addition of a chemical inducer, such as a synthetic lactose analogue, the bubbly, syrupy microorganism soup is forced to make silk proteins.

Overnight, the microorganisms pack themselves full of silk. The host cells are then popped open using soap or ultrasound, and the synthetic silk is separated from the debris using salt precipitation, protein chromatography or electrostatic interaction.

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While natural silks exist in nature exclusively as hardy, insoluble fibres, synthetic silk production gives access to meaningful amounts of soluble silk protein.

Solubility is a critically important feature because it enables researchers to fine-tune the morphology of the final silk material. For instance, soluble synthetic silks can be processed into self-assembling and chemically stable films (or coatings), as well as nanoparticles and gel-like structures1.

To add a layer of functionality to these physical and morphological properties, protein engineers genetically or chemically fuse synthetic silk with other, biologically active molecules. In the genetic approach, silk fusions with another protein are called chimeras. For instance, silk and cell adhesion motif chimeras support stem cell growth culture5, and silkantimicrobial peptide chimeras act as highly selective antimicrobial materials6.

In the chemical approach, silk fusions with another molecule are called conjugates. Usually, chemists make conjugates by attaching molecules to a protein’s naturally reactive amino acids, such as cysteines, which can be tricky and detrimental to spidroin’s ability to form fibres. To avoid exploiting natural amino acids that play a critical role in maintaining the protein structure, unnatural amino acids with selectively reactive side chains can be incorporated into the silk sequence and then used as sites for conjugation. In 2017, Harvey et al reported the first-ever spider silk bearing an unnatural amino acid azidohomoalanine (AHA) instead of methionine.

The researchers processed Aha-bearing silk into fibres and conjugated them with levofloxacin, a broad-spectrum antibiotic, thus creating the first prolonged-action antibiotic-delivering spider silk7.

Spider silk, 2 Above: Synthetic 4RepCT3AHA fibres at 20x magnification under white light, under UV, and an overlay of both Left: Synthetic 4RepCT3AHA fibres fibres conjugated to a fluorophore Right: Synthetic 4RepCT fibre under scanning electron microscope REFERENCES

SPIDER SILK BEYOND THE LABORATORY

Synthetic silks

The bioindustry has noticed the huge potential of spider silk as a novel material and several silk technologies are currently available.

Companies such as Spiber (Japan), Bolt Threads (US), AMSilk (Germany) and Inspidere BV (Netherlands) manufacture spider silk for clothing, biocompatible medical devices and beauty care. In 2017 Bolt Threads, in collaboration with fashion designer Stella McCartney, created a dress made entirely of synthetic spider silk produced in yeast.

The price of this dress is unknown, but a tie made of the same material, Microsilk, costs $314 (£253).

Swedish company Spiber Technologies uses silk protein to help stem cells to adhere to surfaces and grow in cell culture.

Overall, spider silk has the potential to replace animal-derived materials such as keratin, gelatine and elastin.

Future work will focus on developing and testing novel functional silk materials, such as antimicrobial coatings, protein-based heart pacemakers, bone scaffolds and much more. Synthetic spider silk is a truly inspiring material.

• 4RepCT is composed of four repeats and the C-terminal domain from the nursery web spider (Euprosthenops australis) MaSp8. This spidroin was designed to spontaneously form fibres in response to sheer force in solution.

• NT2RepCT is made of the N-terminal domain and two core repeats from Euprosthenops australis combined with the C-terminal domain from the Araneus ventricosus minor ampullate spidroin9. NT2RepCT is arguably the highestyielding synthetic silk owing to its water-loving N-terminal domain. It forms fibres when extruded into an acidic environment.

Dr D Harvey

• Partial construct of ADF3, containing N- and C-terminal domains flanking 10 repetitive polyalanine and glycine blocks from the European garden spider (Araneus diadematus)10, forms a very strong synthetic silk.

Self-assembled fibres of synthetic spidroin 4RepCT

Jolanta Beinarovi a AMRSB is a Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council-funded spider silk biotechnologist at the University of Nottingham. Her research focuses on the design of synthetic silk-based antimicrobial biomaterials. She can be found on Twitter @BlackWidowJola

1) Eisoldt, L. et al. Decoding the secrets of spider silk. Materials Today 14(3), 80–86 (2011).

2) Hosmer, K. Collecting golden spider silk for 3 years to create a cape. Accessed at bit.ly/2Ko0RIi on 22nd March 2020 (2012).

3) Fredriksson, C. et al. Tissue response to subcutaneously implanted recombinant spider silk: an in vivo study. Materials 2(4), 19081922 (2009).

4) Xia, X. X. et al. Native-sized recombinant spider silk protein produced in metabolically engineered E. coli results in a stronger fiber. PNAS 107(32), 14059–14063 (2010).

5) Wu S, et al. Spider silk for xeno-free long-term self-renewal and differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells. Biomaterials 35(30), 8496–850 (2014).

6) Gomes, S. et al. Antimicrobial functionalized genetically engineered spider silk. Biomaterials 32(18), 4255–4266 (2011).

7) Harvey, D. et al. Antibiotic spider silk: site-specific functionalisation of recombinant spider silk using ‘click’ chemistry. Advanced Materials 29(10), 1604245 (2017).

8) Stark, M. et al. Macroscopic fibers self-assembled from recombinant miniature spider silk proteins. Biomacromolecules 8(5), 1695–1701 (2007).

9) Andersson, M. et al. Biomimetic spinning of artificial spider silk from a chimeric minispidroin. Nat Chem Biol.

13(3), 262–264 (2017).

10) Scheibel, T. Spider silks: recombinant synthesis, assembly, spinning, and engineering of synthetic proteins. Microbial Cell Factories 3, 14 (2004).

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A life in life science Sir David Attenborough speaks to The Biologist about his enduring interest in the natural world and environmental science

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girls, folk dancing, to show the way DNA could recombine in one way or another. We did quite ambitious things.

And by contrast, what kind of scientific team do you have for a modern series such as Blue Planet, for example?

Well, it depends. You must have some idea what the basic objective of the programme is and then you go to the appropriate scientists. It’s not only that you want to get the theory right, because presumably you watch me knowing what the theories are. You want to know what the latest examples are, or what the latest discoveries are. Where was this animal last seen?

Currently I’m doing a remake of a programme from 25 years ago, [originally called] The Private Life of Plants. So we’re doing a new version of that, because, technically, we can do it much better than we did 25 years ago. And so I’m talking to a lot of botanists. So, whatever the subject, there are scientists and they are always very helpful.

Attenborough interview, 1

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s part of the RSB’s 10th anniversary celebrations, Sir David Attenborough was recently presented with a Lifetime Achievement Award at a special fundraising gala dinner at London’s Science Museum.

Introducing the award, the Society’s honorary treasurer, Professor Richard Reece, said that Sir David’s “distinguished storytelling” has made an enormous contribution to the field of biology.

“Generations of biologists and naturalists have attributed the beginning and growth of their interest to him and the remarkable documentary work that brought the breathtaking beauty of biology to millions worldwide.”

The naturalist and broadcaster, now aged 94, is still presenting natural history programmes, with several series due to air in 2020 and 2021, including Green Planet, on plants; A Perfect Planet, on global atmospheric cycles and Earth science; and A Life on Our Planet, about Sir David’s experiences around the world. He is also one of a number of stars presenting special ‘lessons’ that the BBC will air for schoolchildren during lockdown.

Accepting the RSB’s award, Sir David said the Society was “one of the most important learned societies in the country at this time,” as he spoke of the importance of bioscience in raising awareness of the myriad threats facing the natural world.

“You understand the way the natural world works – and it is essential that we empower people who vote to understand the meaning of biology … To understand that we are dependent on the natural world for every breath of air we breathe and every morsel of food we eat.

“That’s not fancy, that’s the truth. And the population of this country responsible for electing their political leaders need to be convinced. And you are the people who do that.”

Speaking 10 years since helping launch the Society in 2009, the broadcaster said the award “will hold a special place in my heart because I do believe that biologists have a great responsibility, that you can see the future clearly, and that many of you are concerned with passing on that understanding to the next generation”.

Before accepting his award, Sir David sat down with The Biologist’s editor, Tom Ireland, to discuss his long connection to the life sciences.

“Quite often, and particularly now with camera traps and so on, you’ll see things that nobody’s seen before”

Presumably it has been a mutually beneficial relationship, with the filmmaking process feeding back insights into biology.

I would like to think scientists think it is worthwhile.

I’m told that the original The Private Life of Plants, for example, caused quite a bump in the applications for botany and plant sciences. Whether it will do this again I don’t know, but certainly at the BBC we have quite serious scientific ambitions.

There are lots of times when you say to your scientists: “I don’t know what’s happening.” And then sometimes they say: “I’ve never seen that before.” Quite often, and particularly now with camera traps and so on, you’ll see things that nobody’s seen before. And, of course, with marine science, you can get all sorts of new things.

Sir David Attenborough receives his award from Professor Dame Julia Goodfellow and Professor Richard Reece

Sam Barker/Contour by Getty Images; KrisHumphreys

Sir David, I wanted to start by asking you about the science that has supported your filmmaking over the years. Can you give us a sense of how science programmes were made at the start of your career and how things have changed?

It’s been a huge change, and not just in science programmes, or quasi-science programmes. In 1952, when I joined, a producer did everything. I mean, they wrote the camera script, directed to the studios and so on. They were very small teams and we had two small studios up at Alexandra Palace, and the programmes weren’t even filmed – they were all live.

But what they produced was full of quite good science. We started The Sky at Night, for example, and did quite tough things. I remember doing a twohour programme about genetics. We had dancing Vol 67 No 3 / The Biologist / 15

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INTERVIEW VERSION

Miles Barton, Neil Nightingale, John Sparks, Michael Pitts/naturepl.com

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“Sir Peter Scott was the first person to say that we had to take the proposition that we could exterminate species very seriously”

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Naturalist and storyteller Ernest Thompson Seton was an inspiration to Sir David

When we do interviews with RSB members and Fellows, we’ve stopped asking them who or what inspired them, because so many say the same thing – Sir David Attenborough!

So I want to put the same question to you: are there any figures in the sciences who you particularly admire or have been inspirational to you?

Oh, biologists [say that]? I’m very flattered. I know who inspired me as a child: there was a wonderful man who was a ranger on the Canadian prairies called Seton Thompson – or Ernest Thompson Seton. He actually spells his name differently and he sometimes has it in different orders! He was a very good artist as well as one of the founding figures of the Boy Scouts of America. His naturalistic observations were marvellous, and he told the

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stories of cats, wolves and cottontail rabbits, and so on, and I found them really very touching.

That was when I was very young. But the naturalist who inspired me the most was a man called Sir Peter Scott, who really was one of the great founders of the conservation movement.

I mean, his name ought to be on everybody’s lips now because he was the first person to really start talking about the dangers of what we were doing to the natural world. He was the first person to say that we had to take the proposition that we could exterminate species very seriously. He was a great man.

You’ve become an expert naturalist and zoologist yourself through your filmmaking.

What were you like as a natural sciences student? Before you worked in television, did you imagine a career in science or academia?

States United Library of Congress

It’s kind of you to say that, but I took a wartime degree. And that meant that I only went to university for two years and then I had to go into the Navy. So I’m half-educated.

By the time I came out I was in my 20s and reckoning that I didn’t want to go back on a grant – I wanted to earn a living and get out there and do things. And I didn’t think I was suited to being a research scientist, looking at the same thing, all the time, with a dedication that I much admire but don’t share. And so I got a job that was grandly 16 / The Biologist / Vol 67 No 3

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The face and voice of natural history programmes since the 1950s, Sir David’s broadcasting credits include Life in Cold Blood, The Private Life of Plants and Life on Earth. He continues to inspire people around the world

called a science editor at the University of London Press. However, it was no such thing – it was books for kiddies, crossing commas out of manuscripts on tadpoles. And from there I went to work for the BBC. Your incredible career has put you in quite a rare position in that you’ve seen many, many environments and ecosystems over many, many years. For a lot of people, climate change and biodiversity loss are just figures on a graph or headlines in the newspaper.

What sort of changes have you seen with your own eyes?

Well, I’ve been to South Georgia, where 10 years earlier there was a glacier and there’s now just an earth valley. I suppose the most dramatic thing I’ve seen is going back to a coral reef in northern Australia, which I knew before was full of life, and seeing a graveyard of white coral. That is certainly one of the pretty devastating sights.

Just to keep it in balance, I’ve also been to Rwanda where we filmed mountain gorillas 20 to 30 years ago when they were on the verge of extinction. Now there are twice as many mountain gorillas in the world as there were when I was seeing them. So it can go both ways.

Going back to the theme of the evening, which is the celebration of the last 10 years in bioscience,

what aspects of biology and life sciences particularly interest you?

I suppose I’ve been so overcome by concerns about what is happening to the climate and the planet that pure science has taken a back seat so to speak. But epigenetics, I must say, is something that interests me very much. After all, it fairly hits at the foundation stones of quite a lot of biological sciences. And I wish I had done more reading on it myself. If someone said to me I’d like to do a programme on epigenetics that would be a good chance to get down and not just forage around the edges, but actually get out to do something serious. It does strike me as potentially a game changer.

However, the overwhelming thing for me is the environmental sciences. The consequences of climate change is the thing that dominates one’s thoughts all the time. This is not abstract science – these are urgent, urgent issues that we need to deal with.

“I suppose the most dramatic thing I’ve seen is going back to a coral reef in northern Australia and seeing a graveyard of white coral”

Well, David, congratulations on your award tonight. And thank you very much for your time, and for all your work raising the profile of the wonderful world of biology.

Thank you very much.

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Joy Trauth

CLIMATE ACTIVISM VERSION REPRO OP SUBS

Climate: Code Red

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As the need for action on climate change and species loss becomes more urgent, an increasing number of scientists are turning to environmental activism. Emma Wrake AMRSB speaks to some of them

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t a time when United Nations SecretaryGeneral António Guterres has declared that the planet is facing a ‘climate emergency’, activism is playing a substantial role in forcing social and political responses to the crisis. Across nations, everyone from schoolchildren to retirees are joining climate activism groups such as Extinction Rebellion and Fridays for Future to call for radical action to tackle the environmental crisis. Among these people are scientists who, whether it be through outrage, despair or a sense of duty, feel the time has come to do more than just provide society with scientific information.

Formed in the UK in May 2018, Extinction Rebellion (or XR) is a group that aims to use nonviolent civil disobedience to ‘halt mass extinction and minimise social collapse’. Since 2018 XR has grown steadily into an international movement, with thousands taking part in disruptive non-violent ‘uprisings’, from naked demonstrations in the House of Commons to sit-ins, blockades and marches. Last autumn eight people from the group were arrested after spraying the Treasury building with fake blood from a fire truck, and XR blockades bought central London to a standstill.

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TIME TO TAKE ACTION

“I have been in despair that much too little is being done to save the natural world and to reverse our destruction of the environment. XR’s activities gave me some hope” Professor James Bullock

These actions have attracted global attention and a spectrum of reactions, ranging from celebrity support to accusations of extremism. Yet as of March this year more than 1,500 scientists have signed a declaration of support for XR’s aims, including hundreds of academics from the life sciences. Many are members of the group or related subgroups such as Scientists for Extinction Rebellion.

One of them is Professor James Bullock, an ecologist at the UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology. With more than 30 years of experience in conservation and management of the natural world, Bullock is particularly interested in restoring habitats and landscapes to benefit biodiversity and increase resilience to environmental change.

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XR, 1

“I have for a long time been in despair that much too little is being done to save the natural world and to reverse our destruction of the environment. XR’s activities gave me some hope,” he says.

Bullock initially took part in an XR ‘die-in’ (a form of protest where activists lie down and pretend to be dead, disrupting people’s movement). “Meeting up and joining in with XR scientists at the October Rebellion gave me a focus and milieu through which I felt I could use my scientific knowledge to contribute to XR.” XR protests have divided public opinion. Some in London were criticised as disproportionately disruptive for low-wage workers attempting to get to work, and in early 2020 leaked internal documents from the UK’s counter-terrorism unit listed XR as an extremist group. But Bullock says that criticisms of the group as extremists are “hysterical reactions by certain people in authority” and a threat to nonviolent protest. He believes that freedom of speech is “central to science and its contribution to society”.

Sarah Peters, a medical student at the University of Oxford, believes that the climate crisis “transcends

political opinion”. She feels “a duty to ensure people are aware of the facts of climate change, enabling them to act with full comprehension of the current situation”.

Peters came to the attention of The Biologist’s editor, Tom Ireland, on a train travelling to London during Storm Ciara in February. “In the middle of a slow, delayed journey, she just stood up, introduced herself to the whole carriage, and explained how climate change was likely to make big storms and flooding more likely in the UK,” says Ireland. “As Brits we find this kind of thing terribly awkward, but everything she said was all perfectly true and it was probably quite affecting for the people who listened.”

Peters says she felt compelled to take direct action by way of a ‘train talk’ to commuters in a bid to “nudge them to channel their frustration into action”.

She thinks that scientists are well placed to join groups such as XR, whose aim to communicate environmental facts to the public aligns with researchers’ efforts to communicate the latest findings from the sciences.

“I cannot in good faith stand by, knowing the current and future effects of the climate crisis, and do nothing” Sarah Peters

Extinction Rebellion use performance art to try to communicate their urgent message, including visually striking ‘red brigade’ costumes. Should more scientists join these red-robed protesters in future?

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CLIMATE ACTIVISM VERSION REPRO OP SUBS

“Many climate scientists still have not woken up to the fact that nothing is being done to stop a catastrophic outcome” Dr Wolfgang Knorr

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Peters also highlights the need for her fellow students and academics to do more. Her medical degree offers an optional module in sustainable healthcare, a rapidly expanding field, yet only four of 150 students have chosen to take the module. She is concerned that awareness of the real-world implications of climate change is low even among her student peers and that there is a certain level of passivity. “We would be shocked if doctors did not know how to manage epidemics of infectious diseases or how to minimise their occurrence – why should it be any different for the much greater health threat posed by the climate crisis?”

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OFFERING ADVICE AND EXPERTISE

Above left: Greta Thunberg, the Swedish activist who sparked school climate strikes around the world Above right: XR protesters demand climate justice Right: Dr Wolfgang Knorr, climate scientist and activist

Climate scientist Dr Wolfgang Knorr has recently decided to move away from academic research to commit more of his time, skill and knowledge to fight the climate crisis in different ways, including advising activist groups such as XR. After initially working in theoretical physics, Knorr moved to climate science in the early 1990s. His research has looked at atmospheric CO2 and how plants and soils are influenced by changing atmospheric conditions, how the climate is changed by land vegetation and how forests could play a part in stopping the rise in CO2.

While still retaining a visiting scientist position at Lund University, Sweden, Knorr now acts as an adviser to XR on the interpretation of scientific research, such as the latest Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report.

“What scientists tend to overrate is our own knowledge,” says Knorr. “Climate scientists, in particular the IPCC, base their decisions around climate models that show results with gradual transition to some warmer climate state.” The reality of climate change could be very different, he adds, with “a catastrophe arising from something unexpected that has never been thought about before, marked by big, disruptive changes, such as the recent pandemic, or a similarly unexpected insect pest outbreak that destroys crops”.

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For Knorr, it was “outrage at the inability of the establishment to come up with viable solutions” and governments “outright denying the existence of a problem, playing it down or engaging in initiatives they know will be inadequate” that led him to join groups taking direct action. He believes that many climate scientists still “have not woken up to the fact that nothing is being done to stop a catastrophic outcome”.

Knorr stresses that this includes threats to human systems and points to the current coronavirus crisis.

“If climate change leads to a lasting deterioration of the world’s food supply and questions of inequality are not addressed, the number of malnourished [and vulnerable people] could skyrocket.” The next pandemic could be an even bigger threat to humanity if nothing is done to mitigate the effects of climate change, he says.

ACTIVISM AND OBJECTIVITY

One reason that many scientists are reluctant to publicly campaign for or align with activist groups is

XR, 2

that a key principle in science is the need to be objective. In increasingly partisan times, information from scientists needs to be wholly independent and some believe that scientists joining protests could reinforce the belief that scientists are an ‘interest group’, making all scientific data less credible and other researchers’ efforts more easily dismissed.

Bullock disagrees. “Activism doesn’t undermine my independence as a researcher,” he says. “It arises from my independent analysis of the evidence.” For him, “activism is based on the evidence that we are destroying the natural world, and that this evidence is being systematically ignored and underplayed. I have made a rational decision that activism is the only way to get governments and others to take notice of the evidence and act.”

Bullock believes that if more scientists researched the goals and principles of groups such as XR, which are founded on the communication of accurate and impartial information, more might be willing to join.

And if they can’t join a direct action group, they should be doing everything they can to improve their sector’s impact. “We [academics] need to

reconsider how we run conferences and do research, and from whom we receive funding.”

Knorr believes that recent climate-based activism differs from earlier activities in that for the first time “it has propelled the topic quite a long way up the political list of priorities, similar to the Occupy movement bringing the issue of inequality to the political radar screens. It remains to be seen, though, if the effect will last.”

For Sarah Peters, the decision to partake in activism is simple: she “cannot in good faith stand by, knowing the current and future effects of the climate crisis, and do nothing”.

So, is it time for more scientists to become directly involved with campaigning and activist groups such as XR? This year The Biologist is looking to explore how life scientists are dealing with the existential crises facing the organisms and habitats they study. If you have a view on this topic, we’d love to hear from you.

“My activism is based on the evidence that we are destroying the natural world, and that this evidence is being systematically ignored and underplayed” Professor James Bullock

Emma Wrake AMRSB is editorial assistant at the Royal Society of Biology.

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Back to nature I As a UK exam board looks into the possibility of a new GCSE in natural history, Helen Robertson explores what the subject is and what it might bring to 21st century pupils

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Some 250 years later natural history still faces the same problem. Despite flourishing in the 18th and 19th centuries, the field has seen a steady decline at all levels of science education since the 1950s. For many children that means a disconnect between themselves and nature both inside and outside the classroom. A 2002 study found that eight-year-olds could, on average, identify eight out of 10 Pokémon characters, but recognised only 50% of 10 common wildlife species2. Fewer than half could recognise a beetle or an oak tree.

A lack of knowledge and appreciation of nature has prompted a call by some for a resurgence in natural history teaching. With that in mind a new GCSE in natural history has been proposed by Cambridge Assessment and its exam board, OCR. If accepted, it could be introduced to schools as early as next year3.

OCR chief executive Jill Duffy says that she believes the current curriculum “isn’t encouraging a connection with the natural world” despite young people being very much engaged in the debate on the environment. “We know that they want to get engaged, but we also know that they feel at the moment that they don’t have enough knowledge or understanding to help them engage effectively.”

The prototype course, which was originally suggested by nature writer Mary Colwell and Green Party MP Caroline Lucas, is designed to complement current science teaching and encourage engagement with nature.

A 2002 study found that eight-year-olds could, on average, identify eight out of 10 Pokémon characters, but fewer than half could recognise an oak tree

HOLISTIC APPROACH

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n 1767 the pioneering naturalist Gilbert White lamented his peers’ lack of interest in the natural world. “It has been my misfortune never to have had any neighbours whose studies have led them towards the pursuit of natural knowledge,” he wrote. “… for want of a companion to quicken my industry and sharpen my attention, I have made but slender progress in a kind of information to which I have been attached from my childhood1.”

To understand why natural history is important to science education – and why it fell out of favour in the first place – we first need to understand what it is.

To many, the term ‘natural history’ conjures up images of taxidermy in dusty cabinets or collections of butterflies in drawers. However, natural history is more than just whimsy or old-fashioned collections.

It is the cross-disciplinary inquiry of the fundamental properties of natural objects or organisms in their natural environment: what they are, how they live and how they interact. As Colwell states, biology teaching in schools – and indeed at most levels of science education – focuses on the ‘processes of the living world’. A natural history GCSE would instead concentrate on ‘what the living world is’, teaching teenagers about field observation skills, conservation, and how nature has influenced culture and the arts3.

Others argue that these elements are already in the curriculum when science is taught well.

Natural history was a popular pastime in the 18th and 19th centuries. In its earliest form the field was characterised by the work of parson-naturalists, or countryside clergymen, such as Gilbert White, who documented nature in their local area4. As observations of the natural world became more rigorous, natural history became a diverse and celebrated scientific discipline, encompassing what we now know as zoology, evolutionary biology, botany and phenology, among others. Even Darwin himself, who could be viewed as a founding father of natural history, originally aspired to become a parson-naturalist.

In a move designed to reconnect children with nature, Green Party MP Caroline Lucas, left, has been involved with a prototype natural history course to complement current science teaching

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Looking at the ‘big picture’ of nature is increasingly important in understanding the impact of climate change

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The success of natural history continued well into the mid-20th century, where naturalists at universities were well-regarded scientists within their institutions and by society.

Importantly, this was mirrored in the teaching of natural history across all levels of education. The Natural History of Selborne by White is one of the only books in the English language that has never been out of print – third only to the Bible and the works of Shakespeare – and was commonly awarded at prize-giving ceremonies in Victorian schools1. In the US, Anna Botsford Comstock’s Handbook of Nature-Study was a core part of elementary school teaching well into the 1940s4. At the heart of this was the idea that understanding nature was crucial to a proper understanding and appreciation of the world, and that this had relevance to many aspects of both life and the sciences. Similarly, university degrees in biology had once had mandatory courses in natural history and PhDs in the discipline made up a large proportion of science postgraduate courses5.

This appreciation for the scope of natural history began to decline in the latter half of the 20th century.

Biological research became focused on what were perceived to be more exciting new disciplines such as molecular biology, microbiology and, more latterly, genetics and genomics. As biology became increasingly divided into specialisms, having an understanding across the breadth of nature was less sought after and the terms ‘ecology’ and ‘conservation’ replaced those aspects of natural history. The need to win funding for innovative new research was deemed more important than broader knowledge, and the inclusion of natural history courses in undergraduate degrees tailed off.

So too did the teaching of natural history in schools; with more children growing up in cities, learning the names of the flora and fauna that were no longer on their doorstep seemed unnecessary.

But why should we mourn the loss of natural history if we think it has been superseded by more technical disciplines or no longer has relevance to urban lifestyles?

The proposed natural history GCSE would teach children about observation in the field, although some argue that this would make the course difficult for schools in urban areas

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Ultimately, a disconnect between the general public, some members of the scientific community, and nature and natural history is a shame both for our appreciation of nature and for the importance it has to many facets of science and society. On an individual level, being outside and appreciating nature can reduce stress, anxiety and depression6.

For children in particular, feeling connected to nature has been shown not only to improve mood, but also to increase sustainable and pro-environment behaviours: if children don’t grow up learning about nature, they are more likely to be uninterested or uninformed about it as adults. In fact, a so-called ‘nature deficit disorder’ has been attributed to a disregard for the health of the planet, as a lack of understanding or appreciation for nature means that individuals are less inclined to care about the impact of their behaviour on the environment7. And with a 2016 investigation by Natural England finding that one in nine children had not visited a park or other natural environment in the prior year, it’s clear that even getting outside into nature is a fundamental problem for some8.

IMPORTANT INDICATOR

At a scientific level, natural history works like a panoramic camera, viewing the complete picture as a way of understanding how living things function in their environment – a huge contrast from the narrow specialisms of most modern scientific disciplines.

Now more than ever, this has relevance to science policy. First, looking at the ‘big picture’ of nature is increasingly important in understanding the impact of climate change, and long-term phenological records are an excellent tool for tracking changes in plant and animal seasonality. Natural history specimens in museums and private collections across the world are also a valuable resource for investigating historical ecological conditions and global distributions9. Perhaps more presciently, the World Health Organization estimates that 75% of emerging human diseases involve animals at some point in their life cycle. Knowledge of host species’

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natural history is therefore an important factor in mapping disease risk and dynamics5.

Bringing natural history back into the classroom could be a way to begin to counter some of these problems. However, introducing natural history as a distinct new GCSE has raised concerns from teachers and science education professionals – in particular, that it might detract from the teaching of natural history-related topics in biology GCSE courses. Topics such as ecology, climate change and plant science could be effectively removed from the traditional biology curriculum, even if a natural history GCSE is an optional alternative, but not equivalent, course.

Another concern is that such a course might only be offered at well-resourced schools with the means to support it. If one of the main purposes of this GCSE is to re-engage children in urban areas with nature, this could present a barrier to large-scale uptake in schools for students who need it the most.

Hopefully, as plans for the proposed GCSE develop, some of these concerns can be addressed. At least for now, discussion around the course has brought natural history education back into focus. Outside of an exam-based framework, there are a number of other UK initiatives that support natural history learning. Jane Goodall’s Roots and Shoots programme

encourages children to learn about animals and environmental issues, and organisations including the WWF and RSPB provide resources for teachers in the classroom. Whether the proposed GCSE develops or not, this growing interest in the field hopefully means natural history will take a more prominent role in future revisions of national curriculums and qualifications, and will encourage a new generation to see nature as the diverse and engaging topic it can be.

The world has changed a great deal since naturalists began to document nature in their local area, and a modern incarnation of natural history needs to adapt to reflect the environment and society we live in now. If this is approached in the right way, we could learn a great deal from nature and natural history – let’s not leave it gathering dust on a shelf like an old taxidermy specimen any longer.

Dr Helen Robertson is a postdoctoral scholar in molecular evolutionary biology at the University of Chicago with a keen interest in science communication and science in society.

Find out more about Cambridge Assessment’s plans to develop a natural history GCSE at www.cambridgeassessment.org.uk/news/gcse-innatural-history-announced

REFERENCES 1) White, G. The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne (1789).

2) Balmford, A. et al. Why conservationists should heed Pokémon. Science 295(5564), 2367 (2002).

3) www.cambridgeassessment.org. uk/news/gcse-in-natural-historyannounced 4) Comstock, A. B. Handbook of Nature-Study (Comstock Publishing Associates, 1911).

5) Tewskbury, J. J. et al. Natural history’s place in science and society.

BioScience 64(4), 300–310 (2014).

6) Beyer, K. M. M. et al. Exposure to neighborhood green space and mental health: evidence from the survey of the health of Wisconsin.

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 11(3), 3453–3472 (2014).

7) Barrera-Hernández, L. F. et al.

Connectedness to nature: its impact on sustainable behaviors and happiness in children. Front.

Psychol. 11 (2020).

8) Monitor of Engagement with the Natural Environment: a pilot to develop an indicator of visits to the natural environment by children (Natural England, 2016).

9) Johnson, K. G. et al. Climate change and biosphere response: unlocking the collections vault.

BioScience 61(2) 147–153 (2011).

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Since the pandemic began Tom Ireland has been talking to bioscientists from around the world who have sprung into action to help to understand, track and treat COVID-19

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n early March, as the number of confirmed cases of COVID-19 started to grow rapidly in the UK, Professor Paul Freemont FRSB gathered his team at the London Biofoundry, a synthetic biology research and technology centre within Imperial College. Long before the Government had issued a UK-wide call for support from science laboratories, the team brainstormed how their robotic platforms and automation expertise could help support COVID19 testing on a mass scale.

Just a week later they had repurposed, rehoused and tested their robotic platform in an NHS diagnostic unit at St Mary’s Hospital, and were running hundreds of tests for COVID-19 per day. Within three weeks a second robotic testing platform was set up at Charing Cross Hospital and Freemont was in discussions with Public Health England to set up larger versions in other locations that could perform 4,000 tests per day. It’s just one of the many remarkable stories that I heard amid the blur of catastrophic news and strange virtual meetings that dominated this spring.

JOINING FORCES

In a series of ‘COVID Q&As’ (published online at thebiologist.rsb.org.uk) I found that in those crucial weeks at the start of the crisis, researchers across many disciplines of the life sciences – both in academia and industry – spontaneously formed groups to discuss how they could help. This was often done amid the logistical chaos of shutting down offices and laboratories, relocating staff for home working, shuttering research programmes and setting up virtual teaching.

“Before the shutdown I set up a Slack channel and emailed colleagues, and very quickly we got 850 researchers,” says Cambridge biophysicist Professor Pietro Cicuta. “It’s worked really well for a bottomup, grassroots place for sharing ideas. Now we have about 20 to 30 channels for different things, from engineering ventilators to volunteering, and other collaborators from the Cambridge area have joined.”

Clinician scientists at the Francis Crick Institute, Europe’s largest biomedical testing facility, realised in early March that there was an urgent need for more testing for staff and patients in the NHS system. In two weeks, working with partners at University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, they started to test staff from nearby hospitals, 26 / The Biologist / Vol 67 No 3

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“[Slack] has worked really well for a bottom-up, grassroots place for sharing ideas” Pietro Cicuta

eventually repurposing the entire site for COVID-19 research and diagnostics.

These remarkable logistical and scientific achievements seem to have been possible for several reasons. The first is that researchers have volunteered to work long hours and lend expertise in huge numbers wherever possible. “More people are running towards the fire than running away from it,” as US microbiologist Michael D L Johnson puts it.

“The collaborative spirit is extraordinary and unprecedented,” says Bristol-based synthetic biologist Imre Berger FRSB. He is part of a group of 40 scientists, including clinicians, biologists, chemists, epidemiologists, virologists, engineers, administrators, lawyers and public health experts, who e-meet daily to work on “rapid solutions to otherwise insuperable problems and generate new ideas… which are taken forward almost on a daily basis”.

A second key factor in the rapidity of response has been the flexibility and innovation shown by those that

Covid, 1

e world unite

support the sciences, from funders and administrators to equipment and reagent suppliers. Processes that would normally take weeks have been speeded up and red tape has been lifted where possible. I heard of multimillion pound grants awarded in 24 hours, and suppliers sending equipment first and working out payment and paperwork later.

A third theme has been the speed at which data has been made available for teams to work with. US virologist and disease outbreak specialist Dr Angela Rasmussen says that data has come out at a different speed and scale to anything she has seen in her career before, which includes the response to Ebola and Zika outbreaks. “One reason is widespread and affordable sequencing, and the other is the existence of pre-print servers. Thousands of viral genomes have been uploaded to online strain databases and pre-prints are coming out so fast that I can’t keep up with all of them.”

This unprecedented deluge of information and data has allowed many groups around the world to use

“It’s really almost like crowd science, which can really accelerate things” Thomas Meany

other groups’ findings or data almost as they are produced. Groups have had to quickly develop new ways to sort through all the information being shared and to ensure their work is seen by those who need it.

For example, the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (LSHTM) is using master’s students to triage case reports. They have also developed an in-house peer-review system to vet data before they put it into open repositories.

“We realised that if we are sort of bypassing peer review in the short term, we want to make sure you are at least double-checking the work before it goes out,” says Dr Adam Kucharski, an associate professor at the LSHTM who is modelling many aspects of the outbreak.

“The idea here is not to do a paper that will define the field for the years to come. It’s getting something that’s immediately useful and available, with the knowledge that you’re going to have to refine it over time.”

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Below left: Disease outbreak specialist Dr Angela Rasmussen says she has never seen data come out at such a speed and scale as it has during the COVID pandemic Below right: Microbiologist Michael D L Johnson, who says: “More people are running towards the fire than running away from it”

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For many, this is a positive change to a more open and modern way of sharing research outputs than the traditional journal model. Thomas Meany, co-founder of the Open Cell laboratory space in West London, used a draft Google Doc from a lab at Penn State University as a starting point for developing their own high-throughput COVID-19 screening system.

“The authors were all still writing the paper, but they decided to make it public,” says Meany. “That allows us to say: ‘Okay, the Salis Lab are doing this, we know that x, y and z haven’t been properly assessed, but we as a lab can take that up now and begin to critique that rigorously in our own experimentation.’

“That can really accelerate things. Now we can update Google Docs on the fly and another laboratory can publish an addendum as quickly as it takes to write on a screen; it’s really almost like ‘crowd science’.

That’s just one thing I’ve been very excited about.”

‘WE CAN’T MAKE ASSUMPTIONS’

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“I don’t want this information not to come out – but it needs to be interpreted very carefully within context” Dr Angela Rasmussen

This new world of crisis science is concerning others, however. Amid the deluge of information, and with relaxed or nonexistent peer review, poor-quality studies, press releases and government briefings are being used in other studies or reported as if they were fact. This could lead to potentially harmful public policy decisions, says Dr Rasmussen.

“I don’t want this information not to come out – but it needs to be interpreted very carefully within context.

We can’t make assumptions, for example, that people are having reactivations of their viral infections because we don’t have any good data that says they do.”

Others have concerns beyond the current shortterm crisis to what comes next. As early as April there was talk of institutions planning large-scale cuts to survive, and there will be an entire generation of PhD and postdoc students who have holes in their experiments and, possibly, their careers. The job insecurity, the constant virtual meetings, and the sudden change to working at home with families to support are causing exhaustion and stress. Research based on charity funding has taken a big hit.

“My first advice to everyone in my team and my collaborators was to carefully consider their own mental state and address any anxiety they may experience,” says Professor Sophien Kamoun, group leader at the Sainsbury Laboratory.

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Dr Elizabeth Mann (left) and Dr Madhvi Menon (right) with Professor Tracy Hussell, director of the Lydia Becker Institute. The immunologists are tracking the immune response of patients in Manchester hospitals, from admission to intensive care and, hopefully, recovery

“The second advice is to revisit objectives and expectations. I advised my team to have a plan. What are your revised goals? How realistic are they? What would it take to achieve them?”

ALL BEING UNEQUAL

Despite my best efforts, the responses and comment I received as part of my reporting were disproportionately from male researchers, something echoed across COVID-19 coverage in the press more broadly. “Negligible number of submissions to the journal from women in the last month. Never seen anything like it,” journal editor Elizabeth Hannon wrote on Twitter.

There is probably a range of systemic reasons for this, but there is concern that female researchers are being disproportionately affected by the move to home working on top of these.

There is also a concern that while those in specialties directly relevant to the COVID-19 outbreak are busy with emergency responses, researchers in more distant and less useful fields have more time to write large COVID-19 grant applications.

There are signs funders are starting to respond to some of the immediate issues facing researchers unable to get into their laboratories. The UKRI and Wellcome have announced extensions in funding for PhD students and other grants. REF submission has been delayed, with signals that the disruptions will be taken into account in a modified framework.

The sector will need far more support than this, and more nuanced policy work will be required to ensure certain groups aren’t disproportionately affected, but it is a step in the right direction.

Overall, the feeling is that the research community has pulled together in an incredible way in an unprecedented mobilisation of scientific effort. This was exemplified by volunteers such as Adrienne Adele

Covid, 2

“I would fund all of the feasible vaccines in development, knowing that some will fall away, as is the way in clinical development.

Backing one or two horses doesn’t appear to me to be the most sensible decision” Dr Elliot Bland

Cox, who had put her PhD at the University of Liverpool on hold to volunteer at one of the UK’s three ‘mega-labs’, built by the army to scale up COVID-19 testing. She spoke to me from her hotel room having worked consecutive night shifts, but was glowing about the camaraderie and efforts of everyone involved.

“Everyone’s ego is just left at the door, and it doesn’t matter if you’re a professor or if you’re an undergrad – everyone is there to work towards this common goal.

Everyone is just so upbeat all the time, even at 4am, when all the chocolate has run out and we’re all tired.”

However, it’s also clear that the response on a national and global level was not always coherent, timely or evidence based. Scientists will need to be involved in reflecting on what could be improved next time. “Like many of my colleagues I was surprised by the Government’s initial response – there was a period of laissez-faire before robust measures were implemented,” says Kamoun. “It seemed imprudent

to me that as Lombardy went into lockdown, you couldn’t take a train from Milan to Rome, but you could fly from Milan to Heathrow with absolutely no checks whatsoever upon arrival.

“I was also stunned by the infamous press briefing of Thursday 12th March when the mitigation strategy of herd immunity was announced. Fortunately, the scientific community reacted strongly and I was very impressed by the broad pushback.”

Dr Elliot Bland, of Sussex-based biopharma firm Stabilitech, says he is struggling to get funding to develop a thermally stable oral vaccine for COVID-19 that could be posted out, helping prevent millions needing injections from a healthcare professional.

“When you have a situation where the shutdown is losing the economy £2.4bn per day, that doesn’t tally up with a scenario where you make only a minimal amount of funding available to a few small players.

“From my perspective, I would fund all of the feasible vaccines in development, knowing that some will fall away, as is the way in clinical development.

Backing one or two horses doesn’t appear to me to be the most sensible decision.”

“This is an unprecedented situation, unplanned and chaotic,” wrote Sir Paul Nurse, director of the Francis Crick Institute. “The science sector has pulled together quickly and openly, which has been impressive to see. Once the pandemic is over it will be vital to come together to see what worked well, what went wrong and how it could be improved. But for now everyone must focus on the challenge at hand.”

“The time will come for frank and serious debate, involving all stakeholders and the general public, to identify oversight, indifference, mistakes and lack of funds,” says Berger. “But now is not the time for such deliberations. Now is the time for a supreme effort by everybody and all, at work, at home, to bring to bear all we can muster, to stem the tide and defeat this crisis.”

Above: PhD student Adrienne Adele Cox, currently staying in a hotel while doing night shifts in a COVID testing lab Above, inset: Dr Elliot Bland and Stabilitech are developing an oral vaccine that can be posted to people Left: Open Cell co-founders Thomas Meany and Helene Steiner developed a mobile COVID-19 lab for use in shipping containers

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Could we bioengineer trees to grow more quickly and store more carbon? Sophie Young explores the challenges of introducing the more efficient C4 photosynthesis into non-C4 plants

O

f the estimated 435,000 plant species on planet Earth, C4 photosynthesis is present in fewer than 2%. However, it accounts for approximately 25% of global primary productivity1,2. It can be considered a ‘turbocharged’ form of photosynthesis, with the most productive C4 plants having yields and maximum growth rates some 40–50% higher than the most productive C3 species.

Just three of the world’s top 10 crops – maize, sorghum and sugarcane – use C4 photosynthesis.

As such, it has long been recognised that if more of our most-consumed crop species used C4 photosynthesis, it could have a radical effect on global food security.

However, a less well-discussed topic is how the lack of C4 photosynthesis in forest tree species, which are important both economically and in terms of carbon storage, has impacted and continues to impact habitats across Earth and global carbon sequestration. Ongoing research aims to provide insight into the possibility of engineering the C4 pathway into C3 plants and investigate the reasons behind the rarity of C4 photosynthesis in trees.

If the C4 Rice Project is successful, engineered rice could be up to 50% more productive than C3 rice

EVOLVING EFFICIENCY

Since the discovery of C4 photosynthesis over 50 years ago, plant lineages from 19 different families (including the Poaceae, Chenopodiaceae and Asteraceae) have been observed to have evolved this photosynthetic pathway, representing nearly 70 independent evolutions of the C4 state2. The evolutionary transition to the complex C4 type of photosynthesis from the ancestral C3 state involves the acquisition of a number of modifications that set up a ‘carbon shuttle’ to concentrate CO2 around Rubisco, the central enzyme of photosynthesis.

This CO2-concentrating mechanism is beneficial because Rubisco is inefficient at catalysing photosynthesis: when exposed to both carbon dioxide and oxygen it cannot differentiate between the two molecules. This means that it sometimes catalyses an oxygenation reaction, where oxygen rather than CO2 is combined with the RuBP molecule, creating toxic by-products that must be rescued in order to return RuBP to the Calvin cycle (see Figure 1, p32).

This process, known as photorespiration, reduces photosynthetic efficiency for three reasons. First, it consumes RuBP that could otherwise be used in photosynthesis. Second, oxygen competes with CO2 for Rubisco-active sites. Third, it releases previously fixed carbon and nitrogen as CO2 and ammonia respectively.

Photorespiration by C3 crops is socioeconomically costly: photorespiration by soybean and wheat crops in the US accounts for a total loss of 148 trillion calories, which is equivalent to the yearly calorie requirements of 203 million people3.

This photorespiratory inhibition of photosynthesis increases with reduced atmospheric CO2 concentrations and increasing temperature, and results in reduced water- and nitrogen-use efficiency.

Thus, the C4 CO2 concentrating mechanism, which largely avoids photorespiration, is most advantageous under hot and dry conditions. This is reflected by the dominance of C4 vegetation in environments such

Left: Sorghum, one of the few major crops that uses C4 photosynthesis

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Given that C4 photosynthesis makes plants more efficient in their use of water and nitrogen through minimising photorespiratory losses, scientists have recognised the potential benefits of using genetic engineering to introduce C4 photosynthesis into C3 crops. This effort is currently directed primarily towards rice, which accounts for 19% of all calories consumed globally5.

The C4 Rice Project (www.c4rice.com) aims to make rice more productive and thus generate higher yields for the same area of land and inputs of water and fertiliser. However, projects such as this are challenging due to the high number of modifications required to produce C4 photosynthesis and the need to understand the genetic basis of these modifications.

To achieve true C4 efficiency, leaf anatomy must be altered so that there is an increased proportion of veins and associated bundle sheath tissue compared with the mesophyll tissue (which conducts the bulk of photosynthesis in C3 plants). The bundle sheath also needs to gain a large number of chloroplasts, the organelles that carry out photosynthesis, while the C4 enzymes must be localised to the mesophyll to set up a CO2 ‘shuttle’. We do not understand fully how these modifications are regulated, but the urgent need to increase global rice yields means engineering attempts are occurring in parallel with new discoveries about the regulation of C4 photosynthesis1.

If the C4 Rice Project is successful, engineered rice could be up to 50% more productive than C3 rice,

Why C3 is inefficient

Figure 1: Photorespiration inhibits photosynthesis (the Calvin cycle) as oxygen competes for Rubisco-active sites, with subsequent reactions releasing previously fixed carbon (CO2) and nitrogen (NH3)

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which is a significant increase compared with traditional breeding programmes, which are currently achieving approximately a 1% increase in yield per year.

C4 photosynthesis makes grass crops more productive in warm environments, so it is not unreasonable to suggest it could do the same for trees, particularly in the tropics and subtropics. Forests draw down carbon from the atmosphere and store it, and increasing global forest cover through reforestation and creating new forests has been a long-standing goal in slowing global climate change. If a forest was more productive, it would be more efficient at sequestering carbon and thus be an effective tool in increasing carbon drawdown from the atmosphere.

C4 photosynthesis could also increase productivity to help meet increasing global demand for biomass crops, such as timber.

However, C4 photosynthesis is notably rare in trees and C4 plants do not form forests. The few C4 trees that do exist are native to the Hawaiian Islands, only reach approximately 9m in height and are not dominant plants in their biomes. In fact, most of the seven tree taxa that have evolved C4 photosynthesis are federally endangered or observed to be rare. So, by measure of abundance or productivity, C4 trees do not appear to be successful in the way that C4 grasses or herbs are.

WHY ARE C4 TREES SO RARE?

We don’t currently know why C4 photosynthesis is so rare in trees, or why the trees that do use C4 do not appear to grow more quickly or perform better than C3 trees, although there are many theories.

It may be difficult for trees to transition from C3 to C4 photosynthesis, as the typically longer generation times of trees mean more evolutionary time is required to accumulate a ‘pool’ of duplicated genes that appear to be important in the transition to C4 photosynthesis6. Equally, transitioning from the herbaceous to tree life form may be difficult for a C4 plant, as the C4 state may reduce adaptive plasticity6,7.

Thus, the emergence of C4 photosynthesis within preexisting trees as well as the transition to a tree habit within C4 lineages would both face challenges that together could explain the global rarity of C4 photosynthesis in trees.

It has also been suggested that C4 trees can’t form forests because they perform poorly in the shade.

C4 plants generally do less photosynthesis per photon of light incident on their leaves compared with C3 plants. However, three of the C4 tree taxa in Hawaii are able to live in the forest understorey and seem as well adapted to the shade as equivalent C3 plants. This may mean that it is not shade tolerance that limits the ability of C4 trees to form forests, but some other factor that is yet to be recognised.

One possibility is that C4 photosynthesis could affect the ability of a tree to transport water and sugars, especially over the long distances required by tall trunks, and so the height of C4 trees may be limited much more than for C3 forest-forming trees.

IMAGINING A C4 WORLD

Ongoing discoveries in the field of C4 photosynthesis and advances towards engineering C4 rice mean that

Sporck-Koehler/USGS; Maggie Forest and Kim Starr/USGS

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If a C4 forest was more productive, it would be more efficient at sequestering carbon and thus be an effective tool in increasing carbon drawdown from the atmosphere

as savanna grassland and arid scrubland4. While C4 plants will not benefit directly from rising atmospheric CO2 enhancing photosynthesis (as is the case for C3 plants where photorespiration is reduced), they will perform better under the higher temperatures and increased incidence of drought that are associated with higher CO2 levels in the atmosphere.

Trees, 2 Maggie Sporck-Koehler/USGS; Forest and Kim Starr/USGS

C4 trees such as Euphorbia herbstii (top) and Euphorbia olowaluana (left and right) are rare

there is a definite possibility that we will see the C4 pathway become more widespread in our most grown crops this century8,9.

The higher water- and nitrogen-use efficiency of theoretical C4 rice means that the same yield of rice can be achieved for lower inputs, and the mechanism would also help in ‘future-proofing’ crop yields against the rising temperatures associated with global climate change. As such, if C4 rice could be successfully engineered, its uptake by the agricultural industry would probably be high.

Progress towards understanding the rarity of C4 trees has been limited since the discovery of the Hawaiian C4 trees in the 1970s. Nevertheless, new research avenues, such as examining the interplay between the photosynthetic and hydraulic systems in C4 trees, may yet yield interesting findings, especially in the context of increasing drought risk to forests with climate change.

However, until we understand more about the physiology of these trees, and of other species that are potentially on the evolutionary path to becoming a C4 tree (such as C4 shrubs or as-yetundiscovered photosynthetically intermediate ‘C3-C4’ trees), there is no reason to suggest C4 trees will become widespread on our planet now

or in the future. Nevertheless, it is interesting to consider how our world would look if C4 trees had evolved earlier and been able to form forests.

Savannas and grasslands across the world that are dominated by C4 grasses could instead have been home to C4 forests. In addition, the C3 forests of the tropics and subtropics may also have been replaced

by C4 forests.

If C4 trees were abundant across the low latitudes of our planet, the world could look very different.

The reduced reflection of sunlight (albedo) and higher evapotransporation by forests compared with grasslands could have resulted in wetter local climates in low latitudes. Increased global forest cover would not only have meant greater forest carbon storage, but could also have had implications for the evolution of species that evolved on open grassland, including grazing animals and their predators, as well as humans. In other words, the rarity of C4 trees and their apparent inability to form forests seems to have been integral to shaping the evolution of the human race10.

Sophie Young is an ENVISION-funded PhD student at Lancaster University studying photosynthetic diversity in trees.

REFERENCES 1) Sedelnikova, O. V. et al.

Understanding the genetic basis of C4 Kranz anatomy with a view to engineering C3 crops. Ann. Rev. Genetics 52, 249–270 (2018).

2) Sage, R. F. A portrait of the C4 photosynthetic family on the 50th anniversary of its discovery: species number, evolutionary lineages, and Hall of Fame. J. Experimental Botany 67(14), 4039–4056 (2016).

3) Walker, B. J. et al. The costs of photorespiration to food production now and in the future. Ann. Rev. Plant Biology 67(1), 107–129 (2016).

4) Christin, P-A. & Osborne, C. P. The evolutionary ecology of C4 plants. New Phytologist 204, 765–781 (2014).

5) Elert, E. Rice by the numbers: a good grain. Nature 514, S50–S51 (2014).

6) Young S. N. R. et al. Why is C4 photosynthesis so rare in trees? J. Experimental Botany (in press) (2020).

7) Sage, R. F. & McKown, A. D. Is C4 photosynthesis less phenotypically plastic than C3 photosynthesis?

J. Experimental Botany 57, 303–317 (2006).

8) Ermakova, M. et al. On the road to C4 rice: advances and perspectives.

Plant J. 101, 940–950 (2020).

9) Schlüter, U. & Weber, A. P. M. Regulation and evolution of C4 photosynthesis. Ann. Rev. Plant Biology 71(16), 1–33 (2020).

10) Sage, R. F. & Sultmanis, S. Why are there no C4 forests? J. Plant Physiology 203, 55–68 (2016).

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MEMBERS A snapshot of our members at work and leisure

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A day in the life Marine ecologist Dr Laetitia Gunton on life in the remote waters of the Southern Ocean

SUBS ART PRODUCTION CLIENT

Annelid (Polynoidae) on coral

Marine biologist Dr Laetitia Gunton studies deep-sea annelid worms. She is currently based at the Australian Museum, Sydney, on the Chadwick Biodiversity Fellowship.

MY DAY STARTS…

At 2am, with a phone call. It’s pitch black, there’s a low humming noise and my room is rocking. A few seconds later I remember, I’m on the Australian research vessel Investigator steaming south of Tasmania in the Southern Ocean. The call is from the leader of the biological processing team, who tells me a deep-sea beam trawl will be on deck in 30 minutes. I climb (fall) down from the top bunk, just as my cabin mate comes back from the end of her shift. I try not to step in the sick bucket as I fumble around. I put on my overalls, boots, hard hat and lifejacket, and drop by the galley and grab some leftovers from last night’s dinner. Then it is on to the back deck to watch the trawl being winched on board. There is a sense of anticipation as it is dragged up from the seabed 1,000m below. What will be in the catch?

MY WORK INVOLVES…

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deep-sea fauna, which is extremely poorly sampled. Information on the fauna is vital to the designation and management of marine parks, and as a baseline study to quantify the effects of climate change, ocean acidification, pollution and mining in these remote habitats.

laboratory. We are often joined there by two colleagues from the Tasmanian Museum who are identifying molluscs, and another two colleagues from Australian Marine Parks who are analysing underwater towed-camera footage. This is followed by ‘lunch’ and bed at 2pm, when my shift ends.

ON A TYPICAL DAY…

While on a research vessel most of my time is taken up processing the samples that are brought up in the deep-sea trawls.

In the wet lab, we start rough-sorting the trawl into higher taxa and species where possible. A diverse array of fish, crabs, lobsters, sea urchins and, importantly, annelid worms are caught in the net. These are quickly transferred into containers of cooled sea water surrounded by ice.

The specimens are sorted, photographed and fixed in ethanol or formalin as soon as possible to preserve them in the best possible condition.

The processing of a catch takes on average four hours, depending on how large the catch is. The rest of the day is spent identifying annelids with my colleague from Museums Victoria (Melbourne) in the dry

SOMETIMES I ALSO…

Help a colleague at the Australian Museum with her research and fieldwork on upsidedown jellyfish (Cassiopea sp.) in shallow waters. Fieldwork involves kayaking along transects on a large coastal lake north of Sydney trying to spot jellyfish resting on the bottom of the lake.

RIGHT NOW I AM…

At the Australian Museum, Sydney, writing papers on deep-sea annelids collected from the Australian abyss, describing new species, and using morphological and molecular techniques to understand species connectivity.

I am collaborating with colleagues at the Natural History Museum in London to describe the fauna living on a whale skeleton found in the eastern Australian abyss, and we have discovered a new species of Osedax (bone-eating worms), which is very exciting.

Members and members listing, 1

The career ladder Professor Jake Baum FRSB on the difficult decision to choose biology over medicine help control malarial disease keeps my laboratory energised to keep prodding the cell, to keep asking questions.

Jake Baum FRSB is a professor of cell biology and infectious diseases at the Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London. His laboratory works on the cell biology of the malaria parasite and translating that research into potential therapeutics.

A KEY PIECE OF ADVICE WOULD BE…

Science will be 90% failure, unless you’re very lucky. With so much disappointment along the way what you work on has got to be something you are passionate about, not what you just happened to fall into. So find a question that has enough interest to keep you motivated come rain or shine.

I FIRST DISCOVERED BIOLOGY…

At home. I am one of four brothers, and my mother is an abstract painter and my late father was a paediatrician, so it’s perhaps not surprising that two of us are now artists and two are scientists – a classical genetic cross. My biology teacher, Mrs Jeffries, showed us the movie The Race for the Double Helix, with Jeff Goldblum as the young James Watson, and I was hooked.

I STUDIED…

Biology at Oxford University. It was very nearly medicine, but a niggling feeling kept me in biology. At the end of my degree I missed out on a promised scholarship to go to Cambridge and had to take a year out instead. During that time, working in a laboratory in Jerusalem extracting ancient DNA from fossilised samples, I found a new passion for evolutionary genetics. So I returned to Oxford to do a master’s in human biology before moving my PhD to the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.

ANY REGRETS?

THE BEST THING ABOUT MY JOB IS…

Getting to see science from a distance, the real privilege of being a laboratory head. I love the nitty-gritty of a western blot or PCR result, but what I really love is seeing data and results take shape. We’re often wrong, but that moment when you see all the data from different people in the laboratory, and you’ve understood something for the first time, that is golden. And even more so when it is with a student or someone at the start of their journey in science.

THIS IS AN INTERESTING AREA TO WORK IN BECAUSE…

The malaria parasite is a marvellous, unusual cell. To pursue research that might

I can’t deny I’d love to have done medicine.

I’d love to be where I am in research, but be able to then work with patients and plan experimental work that translates our findings from bench to bedside. And perhaps staying with my university band, Oi Va Voi, which went on to global fame after I left! Ah, what could have been!

IN THE FUTURE I HOPE TO…

Keep working for the global malaria eradication programme. I hope our science can contribute to a world without malaria.

More generally I also love bridging scientific gaps, bringing people from very different disciplines together to ask questions.

Irrespective of how my own research goes, I’d love to keep doing this interdisciplinary matchmaking at a leadership level.

My Society and me Nicola Marchant FRSB on connecting scientists through the Scotland branch of the RSB On retiring in 2014 I relocated with my family to Scotland – a long-held plan to return to where I had grown up.

As a biologist of many years, and having worked in science policy in the pharmaceutical industry, I was keen to keep in touch with science and take the opportunity to meet new people. My role prior to my retirement had included working closely with the Society and hence I reached out to the Scotland branch to see how I could help.

As Scotland has many devolved areas of science and education it soon became clear that my

experience in science policy could benefit the branch and HQ in London. We now have a small group of biologists who work together to provide input to RSB responses to consultations and calls for evidence.

Through being involved in the Scotland branch I have met a wonderful set of like-minded people.

We meet regularly and stay connected throughout the year.

Currently one of our areas of focus is to reach out to members who are scattered across a very large area to see if they are interested in providing input into our policy and education network.

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Opportunities, awards and events A round-up of upcoming RSB activities for members

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COVID-19

SUBS ART

Opportunities to help in the fight against COVID-19 can be found on the Society’s dedicated pandemic pages, from ‘crowdfighting’ research projects and hackathons to volunteering apps and placements at diagnostic testing labs.

Visit www.rsb.org.uk/about-us/covid-19/ how-you-can-help or sign up to the RSB’s COVID-19 bulletin at www.rsb.org.uk/ COVID19 for regular updates A range of educational guidance and resources from the RSB and other science organisations can be found at www.rsb.org. uk/about-us/covid-19/education-duringcovid-19 COMPETITIONS AND AWARDS

PRODUCTION CLIENT

The Nancy Rothwell Award 2020 specimen drawing competition for sevento 18-year-olds is open for submissions.

Prizes include an experience day at the Royal Veterinary College for students and their school can also win £100. Visit the RSB website for details.

Are you a bioscience researcher involved in science communication? If you work in any sector of the UK biosciences, apply for the RSB Outreach and Engagement Award 2020 and you could win up to £1,500.

Submit your applications by 26th June.

Nick Edwards’ winning entry to last year’s photo competition

‘Our changing world’ is the theme of this year’s RSB Photography Competition.

The competition has two age categories each with a cash prize: 18 and over (£1,000) and under-18s (£500). Submit your images by 24th July.

Visit www.rsb.org.uk/competitions for further information.

MAGAZINES AND JOURNALS

The Biologist is included in a package of educational titles that have been made free for schools during the coronavirus crisis.

The free subscriptions, organised through our publishing partner, Exact Editions, allow remote access to digital issues of The Biologist and 10 other titles, including BBC

Science Focus and Chemistry World, for any student or teacher from participating schools. To sign up visit institutions. exacteditions.com/schoolsoffer Emerging Topics in Life Sciences, the journal co-owned by the RSB and the Biochemical Society, has been made free to access until further notice by its publishers, Portland Press.

The latest issue is Perspectives in Bioethics, with previous issues covering topics as diverse as CRISPR, early Earth, scholarly communication and adaptation to climate change.

EVENTS

The Society is working hard to develop a range of virtual events and online conferences to replace in-person events cancelled during the pandemic, from our Policy Lates series to branch events. Please see below for details of our new virtual training courses, and check www.rsb.org. uk/events for updates on planned events.

SCIENCE POLICY

Stay up to date with, and contribute to, the Society’s policy work by viewing the list of current and recent inquiries and consultations at www.rsb.org.uk/ policy/consultations

Education and training The Society’s programme of online courses All RSB in-person training courses are currently suspended, but the Society is instead offering a range of courses delivered online, with discounts for members LABORATORYHEALTH AND SAFETY (AND COSHH) Zoom video conference, 3 June and 10 June Health and safety is a vital aspect of laboratory work where individuals are exposed to biological, chemical and physical hazards. The course is aimed at those working in biological containment labs.

15 CPD points From £80 + VAT ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN BIOSCIENCE Distance learning course,

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starting 6 July A course for those who would like to learn about what entrepreneurship means in the bioscience sector. This course contributes to the RSB’s Industry Skills Certificate.

21 CPD points From £100 + VAT COPYRIGHT AWARENESS FOR RESEARCHERS Distance learning course, starting 14 July Copyright is a form of intellectual property and as

such has various laws associated with it. This programme will help introduce researchers to the key laws and rights associated with copyright, case studies and how to manage risks.

21 CPD points From £100 + VAT WRITING FOR NONSPECIALIST AUDIENCES Online course, available at any time The language of academia can be impenetrable to those who don’t have a scientific

background, and sometimes even to those who do.

Featuring The Biologist’s editor, Tom Ireland, this online course is suitable for anyone hoping to communicate science clearly to a broad audience and for those who are interested in opportunities in science writing or journalism.

From £48 + VAT For more information visit learn.rsb.org.uk or contact training@rsb.org.uk

ASSOCIATE (AMRSB) Mary Adams, Oluwatosin Adesina, Al Zahraa Al Sabei, Catrin Allen, Peter Allen, Aaliyah Alli, Madeleine Anderson, Sophia Anderson, James Appleyard, Ellie Arthur-Morgan, Nuruddin Bahar, Nada Baker, Harrison Balcombe, Tandy Balunywa, Rebecca Barber, Matthew Barry, Amy Basford, Stephanie Bean, Sarah Blackburn, Rhiannon Buchan, Thomas Burleigh, Curtis Butler, Jessica Caddy, Reece Carlington, Joshua Carter, Leah Cavill, Wan Chen, Jennifer Christoff, Ethan Clark, Joshua Clark, Helen Cleal, Matthew Clemens, Anna Clements, Gareth Coles, Lowri Connolly, Ella Cooks, Kieran Corti, Adam Cottam, Joshua Cowles, Rebecca Cox, Peter Crocombe, Adam Cuffley, Olivia Cullimore, Tom Dale, Scott Davies, Siobhan Dempsey, Daniella di Mascio, Joseph Dixon, Amber Douglas, Ruth Dowell, Edward Drake, Emma Dryden, Marc Duque, Katerina Economou, Lina El Badaoui, Joseph Eller, Thomas Entwistle, Rhian Esfandiarinia, Harry Evans, Shaun Evans, Nellie Farhoudi, Samuel Files, Lawrence Finn, Lewis FisherReeves, Limuel Flores, Carwyn Francis, Henry Freston, Zoe Fuller, Katie Gaster, Alistair Gemmell, Sonia Gharbi, Jessica Gilmore, Anthony Goddard, Emily Graham, Iwan Griffiths, Ana Guri, Jamie Hakham, Michael Hammond, Abdul Haq, Anita Hashmi, Mohammad Hassan, Joseph Hayes, Annabelle Healy, Joseph Hearnshaw, George Herbert, Aled Hickinbottom, Alexander Higgs, Callum Hobbs, Katie Horsburgh, Macarius Howard, Toby Humby, Ellen Humphries, George Hunt, Jacob Hyams, Anna Iakovou, Nneka Igwebuike, Anna Ioannidi, Katherine Jackson, Giovanna James, Sian James, Benjamin Jarrett, Dominic Jarvis, Matthew Jenner, Alexander Jennings, Kevin Jennings, Anna-Lee Jessop, Marina Johnson, Colten Jones, Reagan Katz, Benjamin Kerwood, Laurence Kirk, Jack Knopp, Oghenevovwero Kwakpovwe, Maria Kythraiotou, Elizabeth Lane, Ellis Larcombe, Oliver Larrisey, Rosie Latham, Finn Latto, Jennifer Lawrence, Megan Lawrenson, Jon Lee, Caitlin Lewis, Robert Lewis, Shelby-Jay Lewis, Kyriakos Louca, Emmanuel Lourdes, Kirstin Lowe, Amanda Madera, Ffion Maguire, Christopher Mansfield, Freja McCallStevenson, Rebecca McCann, Elizabeth McDermott, Alex McDougall, Aidan McGurty, George McKeown, Chloe McLoughlin, Miriam McReddie, Isobel Medcroft, Ella Milne, Harri Mitchell, Paul Molloy, Joseph Monks, Joseph Moore, Elizabeth Morgan, Jennifer MorganJones, Amber-Jean Morris, Rachael Morris, Stephen Morris, Jordan Morris-Humphreys, Joseph Nathan, Lawrence Neal, Mah Noor, Georgina Norris, Charlie Nuciforo, Florence O’Sullivan, William Oliver, James O’Neill, Millie Onslow, Caitlin Orzel, Emily Osborn, Ashley Osborne, Tom Osborne, Thomas Osuji, Rhys Owen, Shauna Owen-Mather, Hannah Paddison, Irini Papageorgiou, Oliver Parry, Darrian Paul, Laura Paull, Emma Pettitt, Jack Petts-Lewis, Abigail Pincombe, Daisy Pinn, Rachel Price, Owen Pullen, Alexander Purdie, Emily Rabstein, Philip Ragan, Odeta Razmaite, Fhionna Redfern, Matthew Reed, Natasha Ribakovs, Hannah Rickets, Alicia Rietiker, Lewis Ritchie, Morgan Roberts, Scott Rosser, Edward Rowbotham, Edward Royall, Rejin Salimraj, Hermione Sanderson, Jack Savage, Jordan Schofield, Sean Scully, Emily Sheppard, James Simkins, Benjamin Simmons, Dominic Simpson, Elizabeth Sinclair, Lucy Smith, Charlotte Spreadbury, Rhona Stuart, Jack Summerhill, Jordan Swaby, Peter Syme, Marya Tahir, Zining Tang, Mark Teesdale, Agapi Theodoridou, Lois Thomas, Robert Thomas, Shannon Thomas, Sophie Thomas, William Thorne, Banu Tokatligil, Jack Traynor, Stephen Tully, Connor Tyler, Oscar Van Hoorn, Mikayla Van Niekerk, Katherine Vaughan, Deeana Vaughan-Watkin, Pavithra Venkatramanaiyer, Jessica Vevers, Anisa Vora, Eleanor Wade, Joshua Waites, Jade Wallace, Joshua Walters,

Ailing Wang, Stephanie Watkins, Megan Watts, Mollie Webb, Mustafa Wehbe, Georgia Wheeler, Rebecca Whitelegg, Fiona Wilkinson, Caitlin Williams, Chloe Williams, Courtney Williams, Elise Williams, Rhys Williams, Richard Williams, Hannah Wimbush, Adam Wood, Chloe Wood, Fenella Wood, Gemma Woodhouse, Alex Woodland, Alex Woodley, Michael Woodrow, Hugo Woodward-Rowe, Abigail Wookey, Owen Wright, Alice Wyness.

AFFILIATE Salma Al-Muqaimi, Latifa Abdillahi, Yussuf Abdulahi, Ahmad Abdullahi, Eshraakah Abdulrazeg, Phoebe Abrahams, Moaad Abu Hashim, Julian Adams, Millie-Jane Adcock, Mohammed Adlan, Usama Ahmad Parveen, Buthainah Ahmed, Kashmala Ahmed, David Aitken, Victoria Aldcroft, Daniel Allen, Rebekah Allen, Scott Allen, Carlos Alvarado, Fraser Andrews, Angela Awty, Aleksandra Bacanovic, Joshua Bain, Harriet Barker, Phoebe Barker, Laura Barnett, Thomas Barton, Faith Bates, Serena Bearpark, Samuel Beckett, Josh Bennett, Imane Berroum, Tsara Boakye, Sarah Boardman, Emily Boswell, Audrey Bourdais Paull, Jessica Bouwer, Grace Boyling, Liam Breslin, Yasmin Briddon, Michael Brigham, Joy Bromley, Amy Brook, Victoria Brown, Austeja Budreikaite, Irene Burke, Emily Campbell, Rebecca Campbell, Danny Carine, Maya Carswell, Natalie Cartwright, Kelly Cavaciuti, Kayleigh Chadwick, Katherine Chan, Lauren Chance, Lydia Chatelier, James Chatterton, Amanda Chia, Henry Chippindale, Farjana Chowdhury, Laura Valentina Cifuentes Jaramillo, Hannah Clarke, Reece Clarke, Jennifer Coe, Zoe Cole, Hannah Coleman, Barney Connaughton, Robert Conway, Emily Copp, Ciara Costello, Luc Costello Heaven, Emma Cowles, Laura Cunningham, Jessica Dack, Lydia Davies, Quentin Davis, James Delaney, Jennifer Delaney, Rita Direito, Leah Dodds, Alice Drysdale, Katarzyna Drzewinska, Rebecca Dumbell, Michelle Dumi, Georgia Durham, Rebecca Ellis, Lauren Elson, Lucy Epton, Emily Everitt, Natalie Falshaw, Shirley Ferber, Tamara Fernandez, James Finlay, Anna Firth, Arran Fitzgerald, Amelia Ford, Cameron Forshaw, Courtney Furnell, Edward Fyfe, Joseph Gapper, Thomas Garvey, Elisia Geelan, Thomas Gill, Izabela Glegola-Madejska, Daakshayani Gnanaguru, Chris Godbehere, Elizabeth Golding, Annousha Devi Govindan, Katharine Grant, Megan Green, Hazel Gregory, George Grimsey, Hakim Hamid, Benjamin Hammond, James Harris, Emma Harrison, Philippa Harrod, Lauren Hawkins, Chynah Hayde, Owen Haywood, Kaixin He, Andrea Hepworth, Samuel Hobbs, Jess Hodge, Megan Hodge, Lauren Hodson, Wayne Hough, Tracey Houghton, Emily Howard, Kirsten Hunter, Sohaib Hussain, Faheema Ismail, Bethany Jaab, Abigail Jackson-Ware, Carys James, Anisa Janko, Jennifer Jehan, Shannon Jenkins, Maggie Johnson, Sally Johnson, Adeola Johnson-Oreoluwa, Jayne Johnston, Bethan Jones, Jessica Jones, Rowan Jones-Brown, Oliver Judge, Aleardo Kandiah, Andy Kapaga, Anindya Kargupta, Komalpreet Kaur, Birabwa Kayongo, David Keatinge, Aidan Kendrick, Kurtis Kenny, Joshua Kenway, Hannah Kerfoot, Alexandra Kettle, Morgan Kettle, Almera Khan, Bushra Khan, Zeerak Khan, Sam Kidby, Ben King, Goda Korevaite, Emily Lane, Tayla Leathers, Emil Lenart, Amanah Lewis-Wade, Danuta Lisiecka, Matt Llewellyn, Justyna Lochnicka, Jack Lockyer, Emily Long, Joao Louro, Jack Lynch, Jane Lyon, Wing Hei Juliana Ma, Maia MacDiarmid, Lonnie MacDonald, Ross Macmillan, Iuliana Macovetchi, Chloe Magee, Catherine Mahon, Phoebe Malin, Rhonda Marshall, Kira Mason, Jason Mathurin, Thinekitha Mathybalan, Anna Mattocks, Rumbidzai McCabe, Samuel McCormack, Ben McCormick, Jonathan McDowell, Nicole McIntyre, Tatiana McKie, Trent McLean-Ash, Devanshee Mehta, James Merchant, Hendrik

Michel, Rebecca Mighell, Eleanor Minshall, Lewis Mitchell, Poppy Mitchell, Irina Montero Pinto, Elisabeth Moore, Ayodele Morakinyo, Treveni Mukherjee, Esher Nandra, Rachael Nash, Andreea-Gabriela Nedelea, Stuart Neville, Victor Nistor, Lauren Nugent, Kellie Nunn, Lydia Oboigba, Salma Omar, Yun Qi Ong, Ellen Packer, Nafsika Paisiou, Mrutyunjaya Panda, Chhayal Patel, Mohamed Patel, Robert Peverley, Manjyot Phull, Francesca Picucci, Lauren Pollard, Michaela Poole, Emily Prescott, Ellie Price, Ethan Price, Aaron Priestley, Alison Pritchard, Saffron Ramchandar, Asha Rana, José Raposo Costa, Cameron Rees, Safi Rehman, Kerry-Anne Revie, Tallulah Rhydderch, Laura Richards, Anna Ritchie, Keeley Roach, Rebecca Roberts, Katy Robertson, Laura Robinson, Chakriya Rompho, Tania Rosario, Matilde Rossi, Claire Olivia Rowland Churchill, Hanan Rustom, Ashley Sadler, Elena Sage, Mohammed Samir, Jessica Sanders, Andrei Sandu, Debbie Savage, Rebekah-Louise Scanlan, Ashleigh Senior, Rebekah Shackleton, Katie Sharrocks, Hannah Shaw, Anastasiia Shcherbakova, Daniella Shipley, Ben Slater, Alice Smith, Isabel Smith, Sophie Smyth-Osbourne , Rebekah Snazel, Amy Southern, Michael Spillane, Sophie Starling, Nicole Stasik, Adela Stemple, Kathryn Stone, Jamie Talbot, Peter Tarrant, Robert Tasker, Amal Tayamoi, Abbie Taylor, Megan Taylor, Evelyn Thesia, India Thomas, Rebecca Towler, Anna Traynor, Alysson Turcios, Bobbie Turner, Verity Tynan, Louis Tyndall, Rebecca Vanes, Aurora Veteleanu, Sophie Wade, Joe Walker, Alice Walter, Victoria Walters, Billie Ward, Georgia Warren, Loren Waters, Rachel Watkins, Lucy Watson, Olivia Watthey, Rosie Webber, Sophia Weber, Lewis Weedon, Kaila Wheatley Kornblum, Matthew Whelan, Joe White , Georgia Wilkinson, Ieuan Williams, Lana Williams, Rhiannon Williams, Stephanie Williams, Barbara Wolinska, Eliza Wray, Eleana Xenophontos, Haiqi Xu, Hei Loi Yip, Hei Tung Yu, Haobo Yuan, Ella Yusaf, Karolina Zarzyczny.

MEMBER (MRSB) Enas Adam, Alper Akay, Rana Anjum, Sarah Barnett, Ruhana Basar, Ahmet Berkyurek, Trevor Blackmore, Rebecca Bloomfield, Sari Brown, Steven Brown, Teagan Brown, Lucie Buchi, Natalia Bulgakova, Larissa Carvalho Ferreira, Sergio Cerezo-Medina, Awais Chaudhry, Lina Chauhan, Corina Ciocan, Andrew Clarkson, Simon Coppard, Vilma Cortes, Emma Cousins, Dinis Goncalo Cunha dos Santos, Sylwia Cybularz, Georgios Damalas, Jessica Dangerfield, Sarah Daniell, Loris De Cecco, Rachel Denley Bowers, Lorraine Descallar, Laura Dicker, Callum Donohue, Mark Downham, Vanessa Drayton, Debprasad Dutta, Cathrina Edwards, Emem Ekaette, Tim Eldridge, Marian Fernandez, Brendan Fitzpatrick, Kate Fitzsimmons, Rita Franco-Santos, Alexander Fullwood, Elisabetta Gamen, Kinjalka Ghosh, Marianela Gil Curto, Olivia Goode, Daniel Green, Jonathan Green, James Greer, Christopher Grefen, Michelle Grey, Scott Hackford, Heide Hardiman, Odile Harrison, Lesley Hawksworth, Susan Hawthorne, Sara Henderson, Miguel Angel Hermida Ayala, Andrew Holding, David Holland, Louise Hopes, Sarah Horgan, Helen Horsman, Toby Hurd, José Irigoyen Carmona, Kamran Javaid, Sree Javvadi, Fay Jones, Sue Jones, Rucha Karnik, Sumeet Kaur, Susana Keane, Katharine Keogan, Daniel Kiff, Peter Klappa, Marcin Kowalski, Eleni Kraniotaki, YanYee Lau, James Lazenby, Lopa Leach, Amelia Lewis, Annabelle Lewis, Martyn Lowe, (Johnny) Kun Luk, Karen Lupton, Mai M Hassan Ahmed, Srinivasan Manavalan, Sue Martin, Trisha McAllister, Mark McCall, Arlie McCarthy, Caitlin McCarthy, Michael McDougall, Fiona McKenna, Clare Meadowcroft, Rowan Mitchell, Adrian Mogg, Sam Mowbray, Barbara Murphy, Emeka Neboh, Jed Nicholson, Bart Nieuwenhuis, Alison Niewiarowska (nee.

Bradley), Rosalind Noble, Ojiugo Nwosu, John O’Dea, Anika Offergeld, Chidinma Okolo, Luisa Orsini, Uzoma Osemeke, Eleonora Ottina, Tochukwu Ozulumba, Deborah Perks, Parvinder Phul, Dimitra Pipini, Alessandro Poma, Wing Lam Poon, Pushpa Potaliya, Ronit Prawer, Megan Quartley, Vidya Ramathas, Michael-Thomas Ramsey, Juna Rana, Ekta Rayani, Avinash Reddy, Damian Rivett, Steven Roberts, Sam Robson, Balraj Sandhar, Sam Sarradj, Christopher Seaman, Giovanni Sena, Chrysi Sergaki, Khandaker Shadia, Kevin Sheeran, Jason Sheridan, Hannah Simmons, Annika Simpson, Benjamin Simpson, Matthew Smith, Jordi Sola Codina, Harley StevensonCocks, Mandy Stoker, Sanjay Talreja, Ahmed Tawfike, Lisa Thomas, Chris Thompson, Kevin Thurlow-Criss, Marcus Tindall, Dale Tucker, Samra Turajlic, Steve Unwin, Natalie Vallone, Dapeng Wang, Ashleigh Ward, Frances White, Tara Wight, Stuart Williamson, Joels WilsonNieuwenhuis, Gary Wood, Yannick Woudstra, Melanie Wright, Susan Wyllie.

FELLOW (FRSB) Sharan Badiger, David Carter, Rajesh Chopra, Adrian Collins, Sonia Correa-Muller, Kate Creasey Krainer, Johann de Bono, Steven Djordjevic, Mark Enright, Michael Fontaine, Brendan Gilmore, David Grundy, Robert Grundy, Jianzhong He, Jonathan Hodgkin, Paul Huang, Iain Johnstone, Ian Judson, Nathalie Juge, Paul Kirkham, Peter Leavitt, John Lucocq, Jennifer McDowall, John McGeehan, William McLean, Mohamed Meerasahib, Jagadis Misra, Garry Myers, Christopher Nutting, Lorraine O’Driscoll, Uwe Oelfke, Anand Paramasivam, Andrew Pelling, Richard Pestell, Sandra Phinbow, Louise Robson, Christopher Rudd, Tobias Schwarz, Darren Shaw, Avinash Sonawane, Sanjeeva Srivastava, Guy-Bart Stan, Alan Stewart, Graham Stone, Tim Thompson, Nicola Valeri, Cynthia Whitchurch, Xiangming Xu. PROFESSIONAL REGISTERS Registered Science Technician (RSciTech) RSciTech Affiliate Kelly Cavaciuti, Phoebe Griffiths, Nafsika Paisiou.

RSciTech AMRSB Emma Davidson-Hasson, Richard Preston, Sheetal Rai. RSciTech MRSB Gillian Devereux, Amy Garnett, Gemma Telford.

Registered Scientist (RSci) RSci Affiliate Jennifer Coe, Izabela GlegolaMadejska, Chris Godbehere, Manjit Kaur, Laura Richards, Amy Southern.

RSci MRSB Stefania Bortolussi, Sophia Bradley, Dwane Dryden, Sanjit Heer, Martyn Lowe, Trishna Shah, Melanie Wright.

Chartered Biologist (CBiol) CBiol MRSB Simon Bate, Marcus Bedford, Konstantinos Chasiotis, Omololu Fagunwa, Harriet Groom, Fahimullah Hayat, Thomas Herring, Nishitkumar Kachhela, Daniel Myatt, Adele Pidgeon, Joseph Shepherdson, Fergus Watson.

CBiol FRSB Alastair Sloan Chartered Scientist (CSci) CSci Affiliate Rebecca Dumbell CSci MRSB Aneet Bahia, Rebecca Baldwin, Andrew Bevan, Beata Michalik, Sam Robson, Dibyajyoti Saha.

CSci FRSB David Lovell Chartered Science Teacher (CSciTeach) CSciTeach MRSB Nigel Francis, Gary McDonald.

Plant Health Professionals (PHP) PHP AMRSB Casey May Higgins-King PHP MRSB Joseph McMinn, Katie Treseder.

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NEW MEMBERS

VERSION

REVIEWS Books for biologists, nature lovers and their families

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THE INVERTEBRATE TREE OF LIFE Gonzalo Giribet and Gregory D Edgecombe Princeton University Press, £70.00 (Hardcover)

SUBS ART PRODUCTION CLIENT

Giribet and Edgecombe, respectively zoology professor at Harvard and merit researcher at the Natural History Museum, London, have brought their combined expertise to bear to produce an impressive synthesis of invertebrate zoology that will be welcomed by anyone with a scholarly interest in the subject.

The book, which is sure to find a home in all university libraries and zoology departments, takes an avowedly phylogenetic approach, hardly surprising since the authors have between them published hundreds of scientific papers investigating metazoan phylogenies. Not only are the latest genomic and other molecular analyses reviewed, but also the anatomy, physiology, developmental biology, natural history and fossil record of each of the invertebrate phyla and their component taxa.

While the authors have drawn upon the latest research at the time of writing (up to mid-2019), they also refer to original work by zoologists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Each phylum is given its own chapter, with additional chapters exploring what came before animals, as well as the ‘problematic’ groups or species. The book is well illustrated throughout with clear diagrams, photographs and micrographs, many in full colour, and of course many detailed phylogenetic trees.

This is not an introductory book for someone embarking on a study of invertebrate zoology. However, for working

More than 95% of all described animals are invertebrates, from corals and worms to molluscs and insects

38 / The Biologist / Vol 67 No 3

BLACK YELLOW MAGENTA CYAN

The industrial revolution is one of seven key periods of history discussed in Energy, the Great Driver

biologists, postgraduate students and advancing undergraduates, its nearly 600 pages provide a substantial overview and a major reference work that will be widely and repeatedly consulted. For those who wish to go further, the approximately 3,000 references in the bibliography (almost all of which have been checked by the authors) provide the means to do so.

Mike Smith FRSB

ENERGY,THE GREAT DRIVER: SEVEN REVOLUTIONS AND THE CHALLENGES OF CLIMATE CHANGE R Gareth Wyn Jones University of Wales Press, £18.50 There have been many books on climate change that outline the nature of the issues humankind faces in the next few decades. Most of them do not offer comprehensive solutions to the way forward and paint a pessimistic picture of the likely future faced by people. Professor Wyn Jones is no exception. However, his wide-ranging and novel approach provides cause for thought and some reasons to consider that people may yet survive to a favourable future.

He starts from the hypothesis that energy enables work and power, which leads to ordered complexity. This is set in the context of the development of life on Earth. Unless there are some specific stabilising mechanisms, organisms and communities of organisms would be short lived. This leads to the conclusion that at all stages of evolution there must be a state of homeostasis for individuals, simple and complex, and for communities of organisms.

Wyn Jones considers six major energy events: the first living cell (prokaryotes)

Reviews, 1

that the reports contain copious data and extensive analysis. There is a history of bad decisions in education policy, often because they were not evidence based, and here we have examples of much more rigorous approaches.

This is not bedtime reading – I found it quite hard work. I was also irritated by the author- and date-reference format, which breaks up the flow of the text – sometimes with two or more lines of references – when less intrusive styles are available.

Les Rose CBiol FRSB NATURE’S CALENDAR: A YEAR IN THE LIFE OF A WILDLIFE SANCTUARY Colin Rees Johns Hopkins University Press, £24.50

perhaps four billion years ago; the development of photosynthesis; the evolution of complex cells (eukaryotes); the development of cooking by hominids, which allowed the evolution of a larger brain; the development of agriculture; and the industrial revolution, leading to a major expansion of the human population.

The seventh potential revolution concerns the present, in which the human population is expanding towards eight billion, with the concomitant release of greenhouse gases, depletion of the other biological resources on Earth and the development of extreme social and economic disparity.

This raises the question of whether this complex situation has gone so far that it is out of human and biological control.

Homeostasis will fail to exist, and some dire consequences may befall humanity.

Professor Wyn Jones offers one outcome with a favourable future for mankind on Earth, but one senses that he is not optimistic that it will be fulfilled without a significant change in people’s appreciation of the problems to be faced.

The book has some useful notes, a strong list of references and an index. It would be valuable as a basis for seminars to senior students at schools and universities across a range of subjects.

John C Bowman FRSB

EVOLUTION EDUCATION RE-CONSIDERED Ute Harms and Michael J Reiss FRSB (Eds) Springer Publishing, £87.00 “Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution.” Dobzhansky’s profound statement underpins this multi-author volume, which is more like an extended scientific journal than a coffee-table book.

I was especially struck by the powerful arguments from the editors as to why everyone needs to understand evolution as a fact, not just biologists.

The book comprises 16 scientific reports on what works in teaching evolution. Many obstacles to understanding are considered.

Among these, religious belief is prominent, but cultural factors are also powerful.

Nevertheless the latter can sometimes be exploited. A strong message is that going head to head against entrenched beliefs can be counterproductive.

As an outsider to educational science I found the study designs interesting.

Participants in some studies were, of course, students – for example, measuring how their understanding responded to teaching – and, in others, teachers. I am not qualified to comment on the statistics – suffice it to say

In this absorbing book Colin Rees has documented the incredible range of flora and fauna encountered on his forays into the Jug Bay Wetlands Sanctuary, Maryland, USA, and its surrounding areas.

His accounts of the sights and sounds of the natural world, experienced month by month through a whole year, provide an insight into the way nature adapts with the changing seasons. He illustrates the relationships between organisms and the shifting climatic conditions, demonstrating the adaptations necessary for survival in an ever-changing environment.

It is clear that Jug Bay is a naturalist’s paradise as the diversity of species encountered in January alone is extensive.

In each month Rees made several trips into the wetlands and documented his observations in exquisite detail. He has managed to find specific aspects of the wildlife to focus on during each outing and

Spicebush swallowtail at Jug Bay

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the reader is given a rich insight into the lives of the reserve’s many inhabitants.

He touches on several ecological issues, including climate change, habitat fragmentation and pressures from development, as well as interesting accounts of microbial diversity, bird ringing and butterfly phenology.

The book is complemented by more than two dozen colour plates, as well as several black-and-white images. For scientists, naturalists and the interested amateur this book is a pleasant read and champions the diversity and complexity of this unique and fragile ecosystem in southern Maryland.

Dr Alan Woollhead TALES FROM THE FOREST: SEA THE LIGHT Johanna Sarah Aldridge Kindle Direct Publishing, £7.99 (paperback) The uniqueness of our planet is a source of wonder and endless curiosity to young minds. The range and depth of children’s questions today is a testament to their primary education, aided by the availability and use of the internet, the knowledge and 40 / The Biologist / Vol 67 No 3

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excitement of teachers, the many life forms, including ourselves, and the delicate checks and balances needed to maintain the Earth’s equilibrium.

In themselves these fundamental concepts can be overwhelming to young children. However, if woven into their imagination using storytelling involving magic, witches and friendly other-worldly creatures, then the concepts of flying, whirlpools, gaseous exchange, climate change, and empathy and respect for all life can be drip-fed into their minds, ready to be built on in later life. Most importantly for young children is the need for the stories’ conclusions to be happy ones, where no character is harmed or the planet irreparably damaged.

In Talesfrom the Forest, Aldridge is masterful in creating, through her stories, paradigms explaining the mechanisms by which planet Earth and the life it supports are intertwined and exist in a fine balance, and how its future continuance is dependent on the sensitivity and proactiveness of its human caretakers working collaboratively with one another and all forms of life.

Profits from this book will go to the British Heart Foundation.

Dr Stephen R Hoskins CBiol FRSB FLS

FOUNDATIONS OF PALEOECOLOGY: CLASSIC PAPERS WITH COMMENTARIES S Kathleen Lyons, Anna K Behrensmeyer and Peter J Wagner (Eds) The University of Chicago Press, £48.00 Every scientist surely has their own favourite articles from the scientific literature – the paper that made them think about the world differently, learn something unexpected or find out the answer to a question they had always wondered about.

Even though I no longer work in a laboratory I fondly remember reading various papers from the scientific literature for the first time – and realising that I would be recommending them to others for years to come.

This is exactly what the editors of Foundations of Paleoecology are doing for their subject specialism. Not just sharing their own and other scientists’ (including museum curators’) choice of pivotal, gamechanging, go-to papers, but also explaining the background to these important breakthroughs via a commentary, revealing how they advanced paleoecology and their

Gerhard Boeggemann

Foundations of Paleoecology is a collection of pivotal papers from the specialism

importance. Chosen papers are reproduced in their entirety where possible for shorter articles, or feature selected details of introduction, results and conclusions for longer articles.

This book is a fascinating insight into the world of paleoecology. It is a shame that many journals have A4-sized pages and have been reproduced in miniature to fit the pages of this book, making it less easy to read in paperback. However, overall it is really nice to see the original texts, with good use of referencing to the wider literature for further reading material.

Dr Amanda Hardy MRSB

within the biosphere and how we can learn from and apply them to us, personally and within society, to our mutual benefit and to achieve greater sustainable planetary fitness. The ‘lessons’ include biodiversity, energy efficiency, regenerative growth and interdependence.

The concept of interdependence within ecosystems is hopefully appreciated most fully by biologists. There is a growing awareness in the wider public that as humans we have separated ourselves from nature, or even seen ourselves as increasingly outside it. In the industrial and post-industrial ages society has largely been blind to our complete dependence on it.

Ferguson extends the concept of interdependence to co-operative relations within society too. The vital roles played by various frequently overlooked, or at best undervalued, professions and workers has become paramount during the pandemic. The adaptive behaviour of many nations has also led to a reduction in air pollution – a possible step to healing our ‘diseased’ planet and another lesson from nature.

The text of Eight Master Lessons of Nature is a mine of historical anecdotes and cultural stories from around the world.

There are rich descriptions of species, habitats and ecosystems, such as the energy efficiency in the South American

sloth species, and the familiar formations of migratory geese and fish shoals that have inspired planning layouts for verticalaxis turbine farms.

The need to embrace the connection between women and nature and recognise the value of female leadership endorses the ecofeminist viewpoint on why humans have put so much out of sync in the local, regional and global environment.

These eight lessons are ones Ferguson thought most important, but there are others too that will hopefully be included in revised editions, such as the roles of pioneer species through succession to mature ecosystems, painful lessons from the impact of non-native species, or energy conservation and natural biogeochemical cycles.

Doubleday Books has the maxim of publishing books that make you think, feel and remember. This volume fits exactly within this remit. I was fortunate enough to have this very readable book to give me a taste of nature in March this year – it certainly gave me plenty to think about during that silent spring. The lessons are relevant to us all, and should be the foundation stones of our and our children’s education. The words of the text would be equally warming and inspirational during dark winter months if you are looking for a gift that lasts a lifetime.

Dr Alexander Waller CBiol MRSB Energy-saving formations of geese in flight have inspired wind turbine design

EIGHT MASTER LESSONS OF NATURE: WHAT NATURE TEACHES US ABOUT LIVING WELL IN THE WORLD Gary Ferguson Doubleday, £9.99 Amid the COVID-19 lockdown restrictions many of us have become abundantly aware of how much we miss the freedom to be out enjoying, exploring and experiencing our natural environments. Ferguson looks at some of the principles that are adhered to Vol 67 No 3 / The Biologist / 41

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BRANCHES The inside story

All branch events are currently cancelled, postponed or under review. Some branches are organising virtual meetings and events.

Please visit rsb.org.uk/events or rsb.org.uk/regional-activity for the latest information and updates.

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ith most regional Society events and meetings currently cancelled or being held virtually, The Biologist has asked members of our branch committees to explain what their role involves and why you should join. We hope when lockdown measures are finally lifted more members than ever will strengthen our regional network and enjoy the social events and days out in nature that our branches offer.

Joining a branch committee is your opportunity to organise and support the type of events and activities you would like to see in your area. From university students, researchers and amateur enthusiasts to professional biologists, all members are welcome to join their local branch committee.

Committee roles are divided up between members, with a minimum of three principal officer roles: chair, secretary and treasurer.

Beyond these core roles the committee can use the various expertise, interests, knowledge and contacts of each of its members according to the desired focus of the branch. Potential roles include social media officer, membership recruitment officer, school or university engagement officer, and outreach officer.

Branch committees receive annual funding directly from the RSB and dedicated support from the Events and Regions team to administer their activities.

to attend and then making it a reality for them. I try to plan events that are new, and a bit different from lectures, to get a wider range of people coming to the events and engaging with the RSB. “Overall, it’s a great way to meet people, get more involved with the Society and give something back to biology.”

Natalie Lamb (in hat) during a branch ‘escape room’ social

NATALIELAMB RSCI MRSB Chair, East Anglia branch “As chair, my role involves supporting other committee members, ensuring the branch is hitting its targets, being present as a face of the branch, preparing and delivering a yearly speech at the AGM and planning events.

“I joined the branch committee because I love being able to explain my research to people and I thought it would be a great opportunity to organise some events in my field. I put myself forward as a committee member to engage with younger people and universities, but I was elected as chair because of my previous experience establishing a biology society at my undergraduate university.

“One thing I really love about the role is hearing about events that people would like

DR HILARY OTTER FRSB Chair, Wessex branch “We meet about five times a year and try to schedule meetings around the region. The time I spend on all of this varies, but is usually a few hours per month.

“The current committee includes biologists from a wide range of backgrounds who work or have worked in a wide range of fields, including ecology, education, biochemistry and big data. Each member of the committee contributes ideas for possible branch activities and helps to organise and support the various events. In the past few years these events have ranged widely and have included lectures, field trips, film nights, site visits and various activities for schools.”

JOHN HASPINEALL CBIOL FRSB Former secretary, Thames Valley branch “The last 10 years have been a most enjoyable time, as I have been able to engage in so many different activities in

The Wessex branch trip to the Isle of Wight Zoo in 2017

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Branches, obits, Biofeedback and Crossword, 1 The Scotland branch with awardwinning students at the annual ‘Science in Parliament’ event in 2015

biology. It has allowed me to capitalise on the working and learning skills of a lifetime, and the reward has been to give something back to the field of science that has motivated me throughout my life.

“The role of branch secretary is diverse and primarily focuses on organising events and branch meetings. It takes a maximum of eight hours a month and in no way impinges on my life or holiday plans. I have always been a pragmatist, so making things happen is rewarding and enables me to use the project management and planning skills acquired during my professional life. It is a very enjoyable, fulfilling and satisfying role helping to bring life to the life sciences.”

BEN STEVENSON MRSB Secretary, Yorkshire branch “I applied for the role of secretary at the RSB Yorkshire branch as a way of broadening my professional network and to help organise events for local members. My role involves attending committee meetings, taking minutes at those meetings and circulating relevant information to the rest of the committee.

“I would love to see more undergraduate, master’s and PhD students engaging with their local branches. Ultimately, making use of local branches enables people to increase their professional networks and expand their knowledge in all areas of biology.”

years, have been branch chairman and am now the treasurer.

“Being a Society member has provided invaluable networking opportunities during my career in marine science. It has brought me into contact with biologists from a wide range of disciplines, which provided inspiration for my own research.”

CHARLIE BROWN AMRSB Beds, Essex and Herts branch “Several years after joining the Society I volunteered to take part in a locally run RSB event, the Basildon Street Science Festival.

New to volunteering, I was completely unprepared, with no prior knowledge or expectations. I loved every moment. I was responsible for organising and communicating with the exhibitors from fields which ranged from pure biology, chemistry, engineering and anthropology to various combinations. I enjoyed the experience so much that I joined my local

branch committee. I have continued to be involved with the running of the festival for the past three years as well as many other RSB regional events, and look forward to many more. If you are thinking of joining the Society, I could not recommend it more.”

DR ANDREW SPIERS CBIOL FRSB Secretary, Scotland branch “My RSB membership allows me to meet other biologists from diverse backgrounds and help contribute to Scottish and UK policymaking, as well as presenting biology to the wider community. I have been particularly pleased by the support of past and current committee members, many of whom were considerably more experienced than me when I first joined the Scotland branch committee. One of my early roles, which I proudly retain, is that of pastry supplier: I get to choose which combination of almond croissant, pain au chocolat and pain au raisin we have at our meetings.”

DR RICHARD BRIGGS CBIOL FRSB Northern Ireland branch “I have been involved with the RSB/ Institute of Biology since my student days in the late 1960s and 1970s, and became a full member in 1975. I have served as a committee member for more than 30

The West Midlands branch join approximately half a million honeybees at an apiary in Worcestershire

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Contacts REPRO OP SUBS ART PRODUCTION

BEDS, ESSEX AND HERTS Dr Jacqui Piner • bedsessexherts@rsb.org.uk

NORTHERN Dr Cathleen Thomas • northern@rsb.org.uk

YORKSHIRE Dr Lynda Partridge • yorkshire@rsb.org.uk

DEVON AND CORNWALL Christine Fry • devoncornwall@rsb.org.uk

NORTHERN IRELAND Jonathan Shields • ni@rsb.org.uk

HONG KONG Dr Gert Grobler • hongkong@rsb.org.uk

EAST ANGLIA Natalie Lamb • eastanglia@rsb.org.uk

SCOTLAND Dr Andrew Spiers • scotland@rsb.org.uk

AUSTRALASIA Prof Lloyd Reeve-Johnson • australasia@rsb.org.uk

EAST MIDLANDS Rosemary Hall • eastmidlands@rsb.org.uk

SOUTH WALES Dr Rowena Jenkins • southwales@rsb.org.uk

KENT, SURREY AND SUSSEX TBC • kentsurreysussex@rsb.org.uk

THAMES VALLEY Dr Ray Gibson • thamesvalley@rsb.org.uk

LONDON ProfessorPatrizia Ferretti • london@rsb.org.uk

WESSEX Dr Hilary Otter • wessex@rsb.org.uk

NORTH WALES Peter Thompson • northwales@rsb.org.uk

WEST MIDLANDS Lesley Payne • westmidlands@rsb.org.uk

NORTH WESTERN Dr David Wareing • northwest@rsb.org.uk

WESTERN Alexander Nunns • western@rsb.org.uk

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OUR BRANCHES NEED YOU! Whether you are a university student, researcher,amateur enthusiast or professional biologist, joining a committee is your opportunity to organise and support the sort of events and activities you would like to see in your region. Contact regions@rsb.org.uk for more information.

The Society is sad to announce the death of three distinguished Fellows

LORD ROBERT MAY OBE HON FRSB (1936–2020) Influential ecologist, scientific adviser and life peer

PROFESSOR MICHAEL WAKELAM FRSB (1955–2020) Biochemist and director of the Babraham Institute

PROFESSOR WILLIAM MORDUE FRSB (1940–2020) University of Aberdeen entomologist and zoologist

Polymath Robert May pioneered influential mathematical approaches to ecology and other studies of complexity, and held several high-profile positions in UK science and politics.

Born in Sydney, Australia, he studied theoretical physics at the University of Sydney. He then developed an interest in population dynamics and ecological complexity and stability. His work led to the development of theoretical ecology in the 1970s and 1980s and the famous branch of mathematics known as chaos theory, and was later applied to areas of public policy, including the banking system.

From 1988 until 1995 he held a research professorship jointly at Imperial College London and the University of Oxford, and in 1996 he was knighted for services to science. He served in several high-profile roles, including as president of the Royal Society and chief scientific adviser to the UK Government, and became one of the first life peers in the House of Lords in 2001.

Professor Ben Sheldon, the head of Oxford’s department of zoology, said Lord May’s work had “changed entire fields” of science. The Guardian wrote that as chief scientific adviser to the UK Government from 1995 to 2000, Lord May “shook up the cosy relationship between politicians and the scientific community, and made both think about the public they served”.

Biochemist Michael Wakelam has died aged 64 of complications from a suspected COVID-19 infection.

His research interest was lipids, which were once thought to be somewhat inert and minimally biologically active. He drove many initiatives to improve and expand the study of these cellular fats, from new analytical tools and techniques to freeresource collections such as the Lipid Maps Lipidomics Gateway. His research and collaborations helped elucidate the role different lipids play in cell signalling and in many areas of health and disease, including groundbreaking work on lipids and cancer.

Born in Liverpool, Michael initially studied medical biochemistry at the University of Birmingham. Following postdocs at the University of Konstanz in Germany and Imperial College London, he was appointed to a lectureship at the University of Glasgow in 1985. In 1993 he moved back to Birmingham, a city he was hugely fond of, as professor of molecular pharmacology at the Institute for Cancer Studies. He joined the Babraham Institute as director in 2007.

An obituary from the Babraham Institute spoke of his warm personality and said he was “passionately committed” to providing an excellent training experience for the Institute’s PhD students and “was an active voice on the value of fundamental research and international science”.

William (Bill) Mordue was born in County Durham, the son of a Durham miner. He was the first member of his family to go on to higher education, studying zoology at the University of Sheffield and a PhD on the hormonal control of egg development in mealworms. He continued to study insect physiology for much of his career.

In 1967 he joined the department of zoology at Imperial College London as a lecturer, becoming a senior lecturer then Reader. He also spent periods in the Netherlands and British Columbia, with much of his work looking at ways to control insect pests via their hormonal systems.

In 1980 Bill moved to the University of Aberdeen to take up a chair in zoology. Not long after his arrival he took over as head of department. An obituary published by the Royal Society of Edinburgh describes him as having a “relaxed style of management” and “an open and engaging approach”. This was successful, with the department expanding to become one of the largest zoology departments in the country. He also took a strong interest in the environmental impact of the oil industry in Scotland in the 1980s and 1990s, and was elected to the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1987.

Professor Peter Morgan FRSE remembers “a warm and generous man”, who was widely liked and admired for his sense of humour.

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BIOFEEDBACK Readers’ letters

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VACCINATING AGAINST MISINFORMATION How timely Susana Keane’s article about vaccination is (‘An injection of facts’,The Biologist Vol 67 No 2) as the world awaits something to protect us against COVID-19.She points out how Finland, Sweden and the Netherlands incorporate critical thinking about online misinformation into school curricula.

Readers might recall that we used to do that in GCSEs in England (through ‘Science in the News’ and controlled assessment/coursework) until Michael Gove reformed them. Learners used to have to find sources and evaluate their reliability, a skill that the author highlights is vital now but no longer included explicitly in exam specifications. At least the consequences of catching coronavirus are foremost in the public mind, so it’ll be interesting to see whether the ‘anti-vaxxers’ will have any influence when a vaccine is eventually developed.

Dr Nicholas A Flores CBiol FRSB

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TO DIG OR NOT TO DIG? Professor Ronald S Jones OBE FRSB and Keith Virgo FRSB both wrote in regarding the article by Professor Dixon on how to improve biodiversity through gardening (‘Gardening the Planet’,The Biologist Vol 67 No 2) which, among various advice to gardeners, advocated digging the soil. Both readers commented that there is a growing body of opinion favouring a ‘no till’ or ‘no dig’ approach. According to modern ideas in conservation agriculture, digging “can disrupt soil flora and fauna, reduce soil porosity and structure, and invert anaerobic subsoil micro flora with the aerobic topsoil. No till, with mulch and crop rotation, reduces weeds, increases porosity/infiltration, inverses soil carbon and reduces fertiliser requirement”.

Professor Geoff Dixon FRSB responds: Arguments favouring the non-tillage of soils derive from desires to retain carbon and to mitigate against climate change, and from the perception that tillage damages the fabric of microbial activity in soil. These are perfectly valid suggestions when considering large farming acreages, but for the gardeners at whom my article is aimed there are different considerations when

Send your comments to Biofeedback, Royal Society of Biology, 1 Naoroji Street, Islington, London WC1X 0GB Alternatively, email tom.ireland@rsb.org.uk The Biologist reserves the right to edit letters where appropriate.

How should your garden grow?

cultivating their modest areas. I advocated tillage in the first instance for clearing new build or neglected areas of accumulated rubble and wastes. Grassing down is then suggested as a means of building soil health and fertility.

I also advocate digging vegetable land as a means of increasing friability, aeration and soil quality, plus providing the gardener with exercise and enjoyment. As the gardener increases their knowledge and skills they may well decide that non-tillage is a viable option.

CORRECTIONS AND CLARIFICATIONS In the review of Wolfgang Grulke’s Beyond Extinction: The Eternal Ocean (The Biologist Vol 67 No 2) tardigrades were described as ‘tiny arthropods’, when in fact they are now considered a phylum of their own, the Tardigrada.

In the same issue, we described a diagram from the website nextstrain.org as showing ‘strains’ of SARS-CoV-2 when they were in fact isolates.

OBITUARY JOHN BARKER (1929-2020) Teacher educator who edited the RSB’s Journal of Biological Education for 24 years John contracted COVID-19 in April and spent several weeks in Kingston Hospital, returning to his care home, Galsworthy House, a few days before his death. Having reached the wonderful age of 90 last June, he leaves behind rich memories of life as a biologist, educator, wine expert and friend.

We will all miss his quirky nature, anecdotes and a keenness to share a glass of champagne, whatever the time of day. John was a teacher educator at King’s College 46 / The Biologist / Vol 67 No 3

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London and before that at The Centre for Science & Mathematics Education, where he also worked on the influential Nuffield Project. He was an avid supporter of the Field Studies Council and edited the Journal of Biological Education for almost 25 years until 1998.

In normal times, we would all have gathered to tell tales of John and celebrate his life in a manner he would have approved of, but sadly that is not currently possible.

As we will not be able to hold a funeral, we would ask everyone to raise a glass of wine on 25th June – his birthday – and remember once again their friendship with John.

Chris Harrison and Sally Johnson

The biology brainteaser

This issue As usual, all across entries are from the world of biology and their clues just contain a subsidiary indication. Down clues are normal, combining a definition with the subsidiary indication.

You’ll love this issue’s summer sizzler and your chance to win a £25 book token Across 1/4/28/29 Initially represented by leaders of council not humble officials (6,8,8,6)

How to enter To be in with a chance of winning, send us your completed puzzles by Friday 26th June 2020. Please include your name, address and membership number with your entry – an email address would be handy too.

4 See 1 10 Nothing fluid is vapour (9) 11 This has no right to be fossil fuel (5) 12 Not quite a teacher of martial arts (5) 13 Hollow gate post (9) 14 Leaking badly (7)

Post your entries to: Crossword The Biologist Royal Society of Biology 1 Naoroji Street London WC1X 0GB

16 Second fossil fuel (4) 19 Noise ends, silence then starts (4) 21 I’m involved in almost all fabric design (7) 24 A1 introduces speed measure ban nabbing one (9) 25 Out from Plymouth at sea ... (5) 26 ... I rock boat (5) 27 Dancing bear? Object! (9) 28 See 1 29 See 1 Down 1 Not happily accepting power that’s found on car (5-3)

Volume 67 No 3 Compiled by Doug Stanford

9 Turn to have an amorous look – it’ll tell you all you need to know (6)

Last issue’s winners Well done to last issue’s winners: Douglas James CBiol MRSB and Alan Kingham MRSB. £25 book tokens are on their way to you.

15 Whipped cream on top of instant coffee (9) 17 Drive mum mad in middle of night playing instrument (8)

2 Ruler’s job to get Queen upset with couple of gin cocktails (8)

18 Heat on GP struggling to find source of disease (8)

3 Do this to an audience or a theatre that’s empty (5)

20 Going round limb the protection against puncture wounds (7)

Last issue’s solution Vol 67 No 2

21 Lightly handle lunatic fringe (6)

5 Isn’t sis out of order making demands (7)

22 Money secures degree and a secure place in the old city (6)

6 Banning such in playing musical chairs is form of discrimination (9)

23 Maintain Unionist grip, it’s about power (6)

7 Exotic long cigar that’s really pungent (6)

25 Plant extract detail a textbook can reveal (5)

8 Some vinyl on skin? Nothing so coarse (6)

Could you recommend a member?

The Royal Society of Biology represents, supports and engages with anyone who has an interest in the life sciences, and offers membership grades to suit all levels of expertise Existing members are uniquely placed to help grow our membership – and to increase the influence we are able to exert. A significant number of new members join as a direct result of a recommendation from someone they know and trust.

If you have a colleague, friend or family member who would benefit from Society membership, please email their details to us – and let us know if you’d like us to mention your nomination. email: membership@rsb.org.uk

www.rsb.org.uk

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MUSEUMPIECE Biological exhibits from around the world

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Exaerete smaragdina, a species of parasitic bee that lays its eggs in a host bee’s completed cell RIght: A shot of the bee ancestry exhibit from Bees!

#43 Beehind closed doors Bees! The Museum of the Earth, New York

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f museums near you remain closed due to the COVID-19 pandemic, you can still get your museum fix by visiting an online exhibition. The Museum of the Earth’s virtual exhibition, Bees! Diversity, Evolution and Conservation, allows you to explore the fascinating world of bees from the safety of self-isolation.

The exhibition uses high-resolution macro photography to introduce visitors to some of the 20,000 known living species of bees. From solitary bees to social, from jewel-coloured orchid bees such as Exaerete smaragdina from Costa Rica to monochrome spotted cuckoo bees (Thyreus sp.) from Ethiopia, the detailed and colourful imagery is reminiscent of an art exhibition.

It explores the habitats and niches of bees, ranging from deserts to rainforests, with bees found on every continent except

Antarctica. Virtual visitors can watch how Dawson’s burrowing bees make their homes in Australia, and learn about how Megachilid bees (including the largest bee in the world, Wallace’s giant bee, Megachile pluto) use diverse materials – from flower petals to pieces of plastic shopping bags – to construct their homes in a variety of places, from walls to snail shells.

Bees! offers details on biology, diversity, taxonomy, behaviour, diet, agriculture and current threats to the seven families of this important insect. Visitors learn how to spot bee mimics such as velvet ants (Dasymutilla occidentalis) which, confusingly, are hairy like a bee and shaped like an ant but are in fact ground-dwelling bee-hunting wasps.

The exhibit also explores the ancestry of bees through extremely rare fossils in amber, one dating back 100 million years.

Importantly, visitors can also learn about human impacts on bee health

and the consequences of dwindling numbers, and what we can all do to help these insects.

The original physical exhibition took Bryan Danforth (Professor of the Department of Entomology at Cornell University) and staff at the Museum of the Earth five years to create. One hope for the exhibition was to provide information about bee species that don’t get as much media attention as honeybees and bumblebees – that is, the other 96%. The exhibition achieves this while hopefully aiding the appreciation and conservation of all bee species, whether wild or managed. From schoolchildren to adults, the clear and informative writing and imagery of this exhibition offers something for everyone.

Words by Emma Wrake Visit Bees! Diversity, Evolution and Conservation at www.museumoftheearth.org/bees

48 / The Biologist / Vol 67 No 3

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Our work with young people – many of whom are from disadvantaged backgrounds and underrepresented groups – is giving them the knowledge and passion for ecology at a time when it has never been more important.

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Help us develop the next generation of ecologists.

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The future of our planet is in their hands – and yours.

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“ I have just completed my first ever will through the BES, and it couldn’t have been easier. I now have peace of mind that I have a professionally drafted and legal will without ever setting foot in a solicitor’s office. It is also a perfect opportunity to leave a gift to support ecology�.

Hannah Grist Knowledge Exchange Manager Scottish Association for Marine Science, Oban

To find out how to claim your free online will* visit britishecologicalsociety.org/wills or give Paul Bower a call on 020 3994 8246 or email paul@britishecologicalsociety.org To find out more about our work and make a donation visit britishecologicalsociety.org 7KLV IUHH ZLOOV RÄłHU RQO\ DSSOLHV WR (QJODQG 6FRWODQG DQG :DOHV ,Q 6FRWODQG \RX ZLOO DOVR QHHG WR FRPSOHWH D VKRUW telephone interview with a legal representative.

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British Eco Soc advert, 1

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LEAVE A LEGACY THAT MEANS THE WORLD

Leave us a gift in your free online will and inspire a new generation with the greatest responsibility of all: the future of our planet.

Oxford Primers advert, 1

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Published in partnership with the Royal Society of Biology, Oxford Biology Primers encourage students to explore biology for themselves.

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They are the only resource to introduce prospective and current students of undergraduate-level bioscience to a range of topics from this dynamic experimental science, enticing them to study further.

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PUBLISHING IN 2020 Biochemistry: The molecules of life Richard Bowater, Laura Bowater and Tom Husband 9780198848394 | 192 pages | March 2020 Cancer Biology and Treatment Aysha Divan and Janice A Royds 9780198813477 | 192 pages | March 2020 Genomics Julian Parkhill, Sarah J Lindsay, Phil Jones, Lia Chappell, Jonathon Roberts, Nancy Holroyd and Michal Szpak 9780198848387 | 216 pages | April 2020 Genetics in Medicine Barbara Jennings, Gavin Willis and Nandu Thalange 9780198841555 | 144 pages | May 2020

“The future of biological research rests in the minds of the current generation of students. The Oxford Biology Primers will play an important role in inspiring those students to want to understand more about the world around them, in so doing setting them on the path of exploration and enquiry.”

- Sir Paul Nurse Hon FRSB, Director of the Crick Institute and former president of the Royal Society “The Royal Society of Biology is delighted to have helped develop this invaluable series of biology textbooks.

The only resource of its kind, the series brings together foundational biological theory with research from the frontiers of modern bioscience, on topics spanning the full breadth of life on Earth.”

- Professor Dame Julia Goodfellow CBE CBiol FRSB, RSB President

Microbial Biotechnology Kay Yeoman, Beatrix Fahnert, David Lea-Smith and Tom Clarke 9780198822813 | 224 pages | July 2020

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