Energy on the Move Student Guide

Energy on the Move

Student Guide

e Introduction to Energy

What Is Energy?

Energy makes change; it does things for us. It moves cars along the road and boats over the water. It bakes a cake in the oven and keeps ice frozen in the freezer. It plays our favorite songs and lights our homes. Energy makes our bodies grow and allows our minds to think. Scientists define energy as the ability to do work.

Forms of Energy

Energy is found in different forms, such as light, heat, sound, and motion. There are many forms of energy, but they can all be put into two categories: potential and kinetic.

POTENTIAL ENERGY

Potential energy is stored energy and the energy of position, or gravitational potential energy. There are several forms of potential energy.

ƒ Chemical energy is energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules. It is the energy that holds these particles together. Biomass, petroleum, natural gas, propane, and the foods we eat are examples of stored chemical energy.

ƒ Elastic energy is energy stored in objects by the application of a force. Compressed springs, balloons, and stretched rubber bands are examples of elastic energy.

ƒ Nuclear energy is energy stored in the nucleus of an atom; it is the energy that holds the nucleus together. The energy can be released when the nuclei are combined or split apart. Nuclear power plants split the nuclei of uranium atoms in a process called fission. The sun combines the nuclei of hydrogen atoms in a process called fusion.

ƒ Gravitational potential energy is the energy of position or place. A rock resting at the top of a hill contains gravitational potential energy because of its position. Hydropower, such as water in a reservoir behind a dam, is an example of gravitational potential energy.

KINETIC ENERGY

Kinetic energy is motion; it is the motion of waves, electrons, atoms, molecules, substances, and objects.

ƒ Electrical energy is the movement of electrons. Everything is made of tiny particles called atoms. Atoms are made of even smaller particles called electrons, protons, and neutrons. Applying a force can make some of the electrons move. Electrons moving through a wire are called electricity. Lightning is another example of electrical energy.

Forms of Energy

POTENTIAL KINETIC

Chemical Energy

Elastic Energy

Nuclear Energy

Gravitational Potential Energy

Electrical Energy

Radiant Energy

Thermal Energy

Motion Energy Sound Energy

ƒ Radiant energy is electromagnetic energy that travels in vertical (transverse) waves. Radiant energy includes visible light, x-rays, gamma rays, and radio waves. Solar energy is an example of radiant energy.

ƒ Thermal energy, or heat, is the internal energy in substances; it is the vibration and movement of the atoms and molecules within a substance. The more thermal energy in a substance, the faster the atoms and molecules vibrate and move. Geothermal energy is an example of thermal energy.

ƒ Motion energy is the movement of objects and substances from one place to another. Objects and substances move when an unbalanced force is applied according to Newton’s Laws of Motion. Wind is an example of motion energy.

ƒ Sound energy is the movement of energy through substances in longitudinal (compression/rarefaction) waves. Sound is produced when a force causes an object or substance to vibrate; the energy is transferred through the substance in a longitudinal wave.

Conservation of Energy

Have you ever been asked to turn off the lights when leaving a room? To scientists, energy conservation is not just about saving energy. The Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy is neither created nor destroyed. When we use energy, it doesn't disappear, but rather changes from one form of energy into another. A car engine burns gasoline, converting the chemical energy in gasoline into motion energy. Solar cells change radiant energy into electric energy. Energy changes form, but the total amount of energy in the universe stays the same.

Efficiency

Energy efficiency is the amount of useful energy you get from a system. A perfect, energy efficient machine would change all the energy put in it into useful work—a technological impossibility today. Converting one form of energy into another form always involves a loss of usable energy.

Most energy transformations are not very efficient. The human body is a good example of this. Your body is like a machine, and the fuel for your machine is food. Food gives you the energy to move, breathe, and think.

Your body isn’t very efficient at converting food into useful work. Most of the energy in your body is transformed and released as thermal energy (heat). You can really feel that heat when you exercise! This is very much like most energy transfers. The loss of usable energy is often in the form of thermal energy (heat).

Sources of Energy

We use many different energy sources to do work for us. They are classified into two groups —renewable and nonrenewable.

In the United States, most of our energy comes from nonrenewable energy sources. Coal, natural gas, petroleum, propane, and uranium are nonrenewable energy sources. They are used to make electricity, heat our homes, move our cars, and manufacture all kinds of products. These energy sources are called nonrenewable because their supplies are limited. Petroleum, a fossil fuel, for example, was formed hundreds of millions of years ago from the remains of ancient sea plants and animals. We can’t make more petroleum deposits in a short time.

Renewable energy sources include biomass, geothermal energy, hydropower, solar energy, and wind energy. They are called renewable because they are replenished in a short time. Day after day, the sun shines, the wind blows, and the rivers flow. We use renewable energy sources mainly to make electricity.

Electricity

Electricity is different from the other energy sources because it is a secondary source of energy. We must use another energy source to produce electricity. In the U.S., natural gas is the number one energy source used for generating electricity.

Electricity is sometimes called an energy carrier because it is an efficient and safe way to move energy from one place to another, and it can be used for so many tasks. As we use more technology, the demand for electricity grows.

electricity, heating, manufacturing - Includes Propane

*Propane consumption gures are reported as part of petroleum and natural gas totals.

heating, manufacturing

Data: Energy Information Administration

may not equal 100% due to independent rounding.

Energy On The Move

Transportation Moves People, Goods, and Energy Products

Transportation is the way people get from one place to another. It is the way goods move around the country. It is also the way energy products move from where they are found to where they are used. Every vehicle moving people, goods, and energy products consumes energy. In 2024, 29.82 percent of the energy we consumed in the United States was used for transportation.

Moving people from place to place is one way we use transportation. In the United States, most adults like to drive themselves because it is very convenient. Around 90 percent of families own at least one car. That’s almost 267 million personal cars and trucks moving people around our country.

People regularly travel on public transportation, too. Some examples include buses, subways, trolleys, street cars, commuter trains, and ferries. People travel longer distances on passenger trains, airplanes, and ships.

Moving goods from place to place is another way we use transportation. Each year, 18.6 billion tons of goods are shipped nationwide. We rely on a transportation network, known as the freight industry, to make it happen. Trucks, trains, ships, airplanes, and pipelines move products for the freight industry, and they consume a lot of energy to do it.

Moving energy products from place to place is another way we use transportation. We depend on transportation to move sources of energy from where they are found, to where they are produced, to where they are sold to customers. Transporting energy products by pipeline, truck, ship, and rail consumes a lot of energy. Therefore, every time an energy product moves, it costs money. Some of this cost is passed on to consumers when they purchase the product.

Here are some examples of ways we move energy products from place to place:

ƒ Crude oil and refined petroleum products are transported by pipelines, tanker ships, barges, tank trucks, and by rail.

ƒ Natural gas is transported around the country by pipelines.

ƒ Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is moved over water by tanker ships equipped with pressurized, refrigerated, and insulated tanks. LNG is transported to fueling stations in tanker trucks.

ƒ Propane is moved over water by barges and tankers. Propane is moved on land by pipelines, trucks, and rail tank cars.

ƒ Coal is mainly hauled by rail. It is also moved on rivers by barges. For short distances on land, coal is moved by trucks or conveyor belts.

ƒ Ethanol is transported by rail and trucks. A small amount of ethanol is transported by barges and pipelines.

U.S. Energy Consumption by Sector, 2024

Data: Energy Information Administration

may not equal 100% due to independent rounding.

ƒ Hydrogen gas is transported by pipelines, trucks, rail, ships, and barges. Freight

Industry Miles of Infrastructure

2.8

COAL RAILCARS

Photo: Jiraphat.N/Adobe Stock

Modes of Transportation Require Energy

A vehicle that moves people, goods, or energy products from one place to another is called a mode of transportation. For example, your family car zipping along the highway carrying you to the movie theater, a cargo ship full of new cars crossing the ocean, or a train pulling 150 coal cars to a power plant. The car, ship, and train are modes of transportation. Moving people, goods, and energy products is physical work. To do work, you must have energy.

Changing Fuel Energy into Motion

Most cars today consume gasoline and trucks consume diesel An airplane consumes jet fuel, sustainable aviation fuel, or biojet fuel. An elevator consumes electricity. Some police cars consume propane autogas and some taxi cabs consume ethanol. Each of these modes of transportation uses a fuel in order to do work and generate motion. How do these transformations happen?

First, a series of energy transformations leads to the production of a transportation fuel. Then, the energy transformations continue through a vehicle’s system, changing energy stored in the fuel into motion. Let’s look at the series of energy transformations that occur in order for a gasoline-powered car to move.

Deep in the sun, hydrogen isotopes combine in a nuclear process called fusion. They form a helium atom with a transformation of matter. The matter is emitted as radiant energy. Radiant energy flows from the sun to the earth in electromagnetic waves. During the process of photosynthesis, plants convert radiant energy from the sun into chemical energy in the form of glucose, a sugar, which is stored in the plants’ cells. When animals eat plants for food, the chemical energy becomes stored in their cells, too. Hundreds of millions of years ago, oceans covered most of the Earth. They were filled with tiny sea plants and animals. When the plants and animals died, they sank to the bottom of the oceans. Here, they were buried by thousands of feet of sand and sediment, which turned into sedimentary rock. As the layers increased, they pressed harder and harder on the decayed remains at the bottom. The pressure and some heat changed the remains and, eventually, petroleum was formed. Petroleum contains chemical energy from ancient sea plants and animals.

Pipelines - A Vital Mode of Transportation

Pipelines are generally a safe, efficient, economical way to move energy products from one place to another. Pipeline systems move either liquids or natural gas.

There are more than 200,000 miles of liquid petroleum pipelines across the country. These pipelines transport raw petroleum products to refineries for processing, and move refined liquids such as gasoline, diesel, jet fuel, kerosene, and home heating oil to airports and fuel terminals to be distributed to consumers. Additional pipelines move highly volatile liquids like ethane, butane, and propane, and others transport carbon dioxide to storage sites.

Over 300,000 miles of natural gas transmission pipelines transport energy from areas of production to processing centers where the gas is purified, and liquids removed. From there, natural gas is delivered directly to homes and businesses through 3 million miles of underground gas distribution lines.

Spaced along the petroleum pipelines are pump stations. Spaced along natural gas pipelines are compressor stations. At these stations, workers monitor everything about the pipelines. Electricity is used to run the machines that help move energy products through the pipelines. It does cost money to move energy products using pipelines. Some of this cost is passed on to consumers when they purchase energy products.

Petroleum is pumped from the ground and sent to a refinery where it is separated into different fuels, including gasoline. Gasoline contains chemical energy. After being delivered to the local gas station, you arrive and fill the car’s tank with gasoline. The chemical energy stored in the gasoline is now inside your car ready to be used for fuel.

ABOVE-GROUND PIPELINE

Photo: Federico Rostagno/Adobe Stock

Photo: Klodien/Adobe Stock

Next, your car’s internal combustion engine burns the fuel in a process called combustion. In the engine are several cylinders. Each has its own fuel injector, spark plug, and piston. Gasoline needs oxygen in order to burn, so some air enters a cylinder through an air intake valve while gasoline is injected through a fuel injector. The spark plug provides an electrical spark to ignite the fuel. When the gasoline combusts, chemical energy is converted into motion energy as the large amount of energy released during combustion pushes down on the piston. As the piston comes back up, more fuel is injected, and the whole cycle repeats. A typical automobile engine will spark gasoline several hundred times a minute. The pistons are connected to the crank shaft, which transforms the linear motion of the piston into a circular motion that is transferred to the wheels of the car through the transmission and drive shaft. Finally, the wheels are turning and your car moves forward.

Like all thermal engine systems, an internal combustion engine is not 100 percent efficient at changing the stored chemical energy in fuel into mechanical energy for motion. Every time energy is transferred within the system, some energy is dissipated as thermal energy loss, sound, or motion.

Conventional Fuels

In the U.S., most transportation fuels are made from petroleum. The most common are gasoline and diesel. These common fuels are known as conventional fuels. Almost all of our cars, trucks, buses, trains, and ships are powered by conventional fuels. They are an important part of our economy as we depend on gasoline and diesel fuels in the freight industry to keep our goods and

From Oil to Energy in Your Car

Imports vs. Exports

The United States produces more barrels of oil per day than any other country in the world. We export some of our crude oil directly to other countries. We also export refined petroleum products, like gasoline, and petroleum liquids, like propane, to other countries. The United States also imports some of the crude oil we use, most of which comes from Canada. The crude oil may be stored or refined into products we use in the U.S. or ultimately exported to other countries. You may wonder, if we have enough oil to export it, why do we need to import it, too? Not all crude oil is created the same, so we may need a specific petroleum product we didn't produce. It’s a business, so it comes down to logistics, regulations, and quality control. For example, if buyers in the northeast can import cheap gasoline directly from Europe, a company that blends gasoline in our Gulf Coast region may find it more economical to ship its gasoline directly to Mexico instead of transporting it across the country.

materials moving around the country. Conventional fuels power our 267 million personal vehicles, too. The transportation sector uses 69.80 percent of the petroleum we consume in the U.S.

Conventional fuels are fossil fuels and fossil fuels are nonrenewable. Someday, our supply may be completely gone.

Internal Combustion Engine Cylinder

1. The process begins with the Piston creating a vacuum to pull air and fuel into the cylinder.

2. Both inlet and exhaust valves close and compress the air and fuel.

3. The spark plug ignites the mixture, causing the mixture to expand andpush the piston down generating power.

4. The exhaust valve then opens releasing the combusted gas out of the cylinder.

Graphic courtesy of NEED Designer

Alternative Fuels

Today, scientists and engineers are developing additional transportation fuels to help meet our needs. These are called alternative fuels because they are an alternative – a different option – to using gasoline and diesel. There are a wide variety of alternative fuels available.

Biodiesel and ethanol are two alternative fuels made with renewable sources of energy. Biodiesel is made from animal fats or soy bean oil. Ethanol is made from corn or plant materials. Biodiesel and ethanol are renewable fuels because they are made using resources that will not run out.

Propane and natural gas are alternative fuels, too. They are the cleanest burning fossil fuels. Propane and natural gas are nonrenewable.

Electricity and hydrogen are two more alternative fuels. They are secondary sources of energy, which means they must be manufactured from other sources of energy before we can use them. Electricity can be generated using nonrenewable or renewable resources. Currently, almost 40% of electricity in the U.S. is generated by burning natural gas. Electricity is used as an alternative fuel to charge a car’s battery.

Hydrogen is found naturally as part of water and methane gas. To use it as an alternative fuel source, it must be extracted as pure hydrogen gas. It is expensive to make hydrogen gas, and it requires a lot of energy during the manufacturing process. Scientists and researchers are working to make hydrogen a more affordable alternative fuel for the future.

Moving Toward Alternative Fuels

In 1992, our government passed a set of rules, known as the Energy Policy Act of 1992. The Act made it mandatory for certain car fleets to start buying vehicles capable of running on alternative fuels. It also gave tax deductions to people for buying vehicles that use alternative fuels. These new laws forced auto manufacturers, oil refiners, businesses, and consumers to accept alternative fuels.

Since 2005, oil refiners and blenders have been required by federal law to include renewable sources of energy in their fuels. This began with the Energy Policy Act of 2005, which established a new program, the Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS). More rules were added to the program in 2007 under the Energy Independence and Security Act. The Renewable Fuel Standard requires renewable fuel to be blended into transportation fuel in increasing amounts each year – up to 36 billion gallons by 2022. It also requires the renewable fuels to emit lower levels of greenhouse gases than the petroleum fuel it replaces.

Government laws such as these drive change in the automotive industry. Over time, consumers will have more vehicles to choose from using alternative fuels and technologies. It is important to educate consumers about the benefits and drawbacks of using both conventional and alternative fuels, so they can make an informed decision the next time they head to the fueling station or prepare to purchase a new vehicle.

Transportation Fuels and Vehicle Technologies

There are several automobile transportation fuels and technologies available today. We will break them into ten different types, since each is unique. Some are conventional and some are alternative. Some are made from renewable sources of energy, while some come from nonrenewable resources. Each offers advantages and disadvantages when using it. Each has positive and negative environmental impacts, too. Even if you can’t drive a car yet, educating yourself about the choices is a wise thing to do. In only a few years, you’ll be deciding what car you want to buy and what fuel you’ll use to power it!

PHEV CHARGING

TRANSPORTATION MODES

Photo courtesy of NRG eVgo via Wikimedia Commons

Photo courtesy of Adobe Stock/disq

Photo courtesy of NEED.

Gasoline Fuel

Gasoline is a transportation fuel made from petroleum, or crude oil. It has a distinct odor. It is clear but slightly yellowish in color. Since petroleum is a fossil fuel, gasoline is nonrenewable. Gasoline is considered a conventional transportation fuel.

After crude oil is pumped from the ground, it is sent to a petroleum refinery. There, crude oil is separated into different fuels including gasoline, jet fuel, kerosene, heating oil, and diesel. About 20 gallons of gasoline are produced from each 42 gallon barrel of crude oil. However, the gasoline product made at a petroleum refinery is not ready to put in your car. It is an unfinished gasoline known as gasoline blendstock. Unfinished gasoline is sent though pipelines to a blending terminal, where different items are added, or blended, with the gasoline blendstock, including fuel ethanol, finished gasoline, additives, and detergents. This creates finished motor gasoline in different grades and formulas. Tanker trucks are filled with the finished gasoline at the blending terminal, and transport it to retail fueling stations for consumer use.

Gasoline is very flammable, meaning it will catch on fire very easily. It is a good transportation fuel because it has a lot of chemical energy stored in it. The engine of a car burns the fuel in a process called combustion. It changes the chemical energy to thermal energy and motion.

In 2023, over 131 billion gallons of finished motor gasoline was consumed in the U.S. to keep the vehicles of our transportation sector moving.

History of Gasoline

Edwin Drake dug the first oil well in 1859. He boiled crude oil from the well to make kerosene, a fuel for lamps. When crude oil is boiled, it makes many different petroleum products, including gasoline. Since no one used gasoline then, it was just thrown away. In 1892, the first gasoline-powered vehicle was invented. Gasoline quickly became a valuable product. By 1920, there were nine million cars using it.

Originally, lead was added to gasoline. The lead helped car engines perform better. Burning leaded gasoline causes air pollution and is unhealthy to breathe. Scientists created unleaded gasoline in 1976. Since 1996, leaded gasoline is no longer used in the United States.

Gasoline as a Transportation Fuel Today

Most of the finished motor gasoline sold in the United States contains about 10% fuel ethanol by volume. Ethanol is added to gasoline mainly to meet the requirements of our country’s Renewable Fuel Standard, which is intended to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and the amount of oil that the United States imports from other countries.

Finished gasoline is sold in three gasoline grades , which indicate the octane rating Regular, midgrade, and premium are usually sold at retail stations, although some companies may label these grades as unleaded, super, and super premium.

Produc ts Produced From a Barrel of Oil, 2023

Data: Energy Information Administration *Total

PUMPJACK

GASOLINE PUMP

Photo Credit: Milan/Adobe Stock

Photo Credit: Zedspider/Adobe Stock

Gasoline blenders prepare different formulas of gasoline, too. The formula of the gasoline you are purchasing at the pump depends on where you live in the country and the season of the year.

Gasoline fuel is used by over 250 million passenger vehicles with internal combustion engines. These vehicles in the transportation sector consume 359 million gallons of motor gasoline every day. But, gasoline also fuels motorcycles, boats, recreational vehicles like golf carts, snowmobiles, and all-terrain vehicles. Some industrial equipment, like forklifts, are fueled by gasoline, as well as some farm and landscaping equipment, and some construction and mining equipment, too. All of these vehicles and machines together consume 375 million gallons of gasoline every day in the United States. There are 142,000 retail fueling stations that provide convenient gasoline refueling for consumers.

Gasoline is considered an efficient transportation fuel. It has a high energy content. Light-duty cars and trucks can drive a long way on a few gallons of gas. When needed, refueling is very convenient since there are so many stations throughout the country.

Impacts of Using Gasoline as a Transportation Fuel

As with any source of fuel, there are advantages and disadvantages when using gasoline as a transportation fuel.

EMISSIONS

Gasoline is a toxic and highly flammable liquid. it can make you very sick if you breathe in the vapors or get it on your skin. Gasoline will not mix with water, and if it spills on the ground, it is not biodegradable.

Burning gasoline produces mostly carbon dioxide and water vapor. Carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor are greenhouse gases. When energy is released into the atmosphere, greenhouse gases trap thermal energy, just like the windows on a greenhouse keep the inside of the greenhouse warm. Burning a fossil fuel like gasoline produces CO2 that cannot be removed from the atmosphere as quickly as more gasoline is produced and burned.

Burning gasoline also contributes to air pollution. In addition to CO2 emissions, burning gasoline can also produce other emissions. Nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, benzene, formaldehyde, methane, sulfur dioxide, and other particulate matter can be produced at the tailpipe. Some of these gases are smog forming emissions. Smog is formed when these emissions are trapped close to the ground and form a brownish haze. Ethanol, a renewable fuel, is blended with gasoline to help reduce tailpipe pollution from vehicles. Some areas of the country are also required to use special gasoline blends to reduce the amount of pollution coming from cars.

Reducing pollution from cars is a growing concern in America. The Environmental Protection Agency oversees a series of rules, known as The Clean Air Act. The rules require auto manufacturers to build cleaner engines, petroleum refiners must make cleaner fuels, and cities with poor air quality must run vehicle inspection programs. Even though individual cars produce fewer emissions, the impact of burning gasoline on the environment is still immense because there are so many vehicles in the U.S. driving so many miles.

FUEL ECONOMY

Fuel economy is a measurement of how far a vehicle can travel, typically on one gallon of gasoline. It is often measured in miles per gallon (MPG). MPG for gasoline-powered vehicles is usually higher on highways than it is for city driving conditions, as city driving typically involves moving at slower speeds, idling, and start-and stop conditions which contribute to higher revolutions per minute in the engine. A car is often listed with a combined MPG, or an average of the city and highway MPG ratings.

The fuel economy of a gasoline-powered vehicle can vary greatly, depending on the weight of the vehicle, the size and type of engine, the transmission, the drive train (front wheel drive, allwheel drive, or four-wheel drive), the grade of fuel used, and even the behavior of the driver.

COST

Gasoline vehicles typically have a lower up-front cost than most other types of vehicles, but a wide array of model types can impact the pricing. However, gasoline-powered vehicles may incur more costs than alternative fuel vehicles like hybrids or electric vehicles, due to maintenance and refueling costs. Gasoline prices vary widely from state to state, due to state taxes on fuel. Gasoline prices may also fluctuate widely based on season, and even based on major weather events or global politics.

MAINTENANCE

Gasoline-powered vehicles require regular maintenance. Regular oil changes and fluid replacements must occur to maintain the engine. In addition to the expected items that must be replaced such as tires and brakes, engine parts also wear out over time such as filters, sensors, belts, and plugs.

ENERGY SECURITY

Since petroleum is nonrenewable, it is possible we will run out of our supply of oil for producing gasoline and other products. Consuming less gasoline in our cars could mean depending less on other countries for our oil supply. Currently, we import 42 percent of the oil we use in the U.S. Just as if there is a storm in the Gulf of Mexico that impacts petroleum, and ultimately gasoline prices, global events can also impact our gasoline prices in the U.S., due to our reliance on foreign products.

The Future of Gasoline

Both internal combustion engines and gasoline have remained basically the same since their invention. In order to meet federal standards, auto manufacturers have teams of engineers focused on developing new technologies to make their engines more fuel efficient and to make their automobiles lighter. Changes like these allow vehicles to consume less gasoline.

One emerging technology under development involves making gasoline out of natural gas. During a chemical process, methane molecules are combined to form a new product, ethylene. Ethylene is made of hydrogen and carbon and is already widely used in the chemical industry. The ethylene is chemically processed again, combining carbon molecules. This forms new products like gasoline, diesel and jet fuel. This new technology could take advantage of the large supplies of natural gas we have in America today.

Ethanol Fuel

Ethanol is a type of alcohol. It is a clear, colorless fuel with a strong odor. In the U.S., ethanol is usually made from corn. Other countries use sugar cane or switchgrass as feedstock . Because ethanol is made from plant materials, it is renewable. It is considered an alternative fuel. In 2023, over 13.9 million gallons of ethanol was consumed in the U.S. to keep our vehicles moving. To make ethanol as a vehicle fuel, corn feedstock is grown and collected from a farmer’s field. It is taken to an ethanol production facility. Ethanol is made when bacteria or yeast turn sugar or starch into ethanol and carbon dioxide. This happens in a process called fermentation. It is the same process that turns grape juice into wine. However, unlike making wine, making ethanol to use as fuel requires that the alcohol be separated from everything else in the fermentation container. Extra sugar, starch, water, and the yeast or bacteria must be removed. Next, the ethanol is transported to a blender or fuel supplier who mixes the ethanol with gasoline. Finally, the blended fuel is distributed to fueling stations where consumers pump the mixture into their vehicles.

History of Ethanol

Fermenting sugar into ethanol traces back to ancient times. It was not used as an engine fuel until 1824. The very first car Henry Ford invented in 1896 used pure ethanol as its fuel. In 1908, his hugely successful Model T used ethanol as a transportation fuel, too. Then came the prohibition era. From 1919 through 1933, it was illegal to sell, manufacture or transport alcohol. Since ethanol is an alcohol, it became impractical to use ethanol fueled cars. In the 1930s, gasohol became popular in the Midwest. Gasohol was a mix of gasoline with six to twelve percent ethanol. Ethanol only became an important resource again in the 1970s, when high oil prices led the U.S. government to think about alternatives to buying oil from other countries. Since 2005, oil refiners and blenders have been required by federal law to include renewable fuels in their gasoline. This has contributed to large increases in the use of ethanol in the U.S.

Ethanol as a Transportation Fuel Today

Most of the ethanol fuel used today is E10. The letter E stands for ethanol and the number stands for the percent of ethanol that is mixed with gasoline. E10 is 10 percent ethanol and 90 percent unleaded gasoline. There are fueling stations all over the country that offer E10 in their pumps. All vehicles that run on gasoline can use E10 without making any changes to their engines. You will often see stickers at the gas pump telling you that the gas may contain up to 10 percent ethanol. Some cars are designed to run on higher ethanol blends. These cars are called flexible fuel vehicles (FFVs). They can use any blend of ethanol fuel from E10 to E85. E85 gasoline contains 51 to 83 percent ethanol, which varies depending on which season it is and where you live. Flexible fuel vehicles can run on regular gasoline as well.

ETHANOL DISTILLERY PLANT

FORD MODEL T

E85 FUEL PUMP

Photo Credit: Michael/Adobe Stock

Photo Credit: Richmond AACA/Wikimedia Commons

Photo Credit: Mariordo Mario Roberto Duran Ortiz/ Wikimedia Commons

There are about 20 million FFVs on U.S. roads today. It is unknown how many private citizens use E85 as their primary fuel. Some flex fuel vehicle owners don’t realize their car is an FFV and that they have a choice of fuels. Also, some drivers don’t have access to E85. There are currently over 4,000 public fueling stations with E85 pumps, however, the majority are spread across the midwest. Federal mandates and executive orders require federal and state government agencies to purchase fleet vehicles that use alternative fuels. Historically, the most widely available alternative fuel vehicles have been cars, SUVs, and trucks running on E85. Many government fleet vehicles run on E85 today. The U.S. Department of Defense and the U.S. Postal Service own almost 40% of all E85 fleet vehicles used by federal employees.

E15 and mid-level blends E20, E30, and E40 may become more available as government laws require blenders to mix more renewable fuels into their gasoline.

Impacts of Using Ethanol as a Transportation

Fuel

As with any source of fuel, there are advantages and disadvantages when using ethanol as a transportation fuel.

EMISSIONS

Ethanol is flammable, which means it catches on fire easily. It is also biodegradable. Ethanol has a lot of chemical energy and produces carbon dioxide and water when it burns. Carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor are greenhouse gases. When energy is released into the atmosphere, greenhouse gases trap thermal energy, just like the windows on a greenhouse keep the inside of the greenhouse warm. Since ethanol is made from plants that absorb CO2 and give off oxygen as they are growing, some scientists feel the carbon cycle is balanced. The CO2 released when ethanol is burned is balanced by the CO2 captured when the crops are growing to make ethanol. Compared to gasoline production and use, making and using ethanol reduces greenhouse gas emissions. Blending ethanol with gasoline reduces pollution from the tailpipes of vehicles, keeping the air cleaner.

FUEL

ECONOMY

A gallon of ethanol contains less energy than a gallon of gasoline. The result is lower fuel economy, or lower miles per gallon, than a gallon of gasoline. However, because ethanol is a high-octane

fuel, it offers increased vehicle power and performance. This performance makes it useful for heavy duty vehicles and is also used widely by the automotive racing industry.

COST & MAINTENANCE

Costs for ethanol-fueled FFVs is comparable to a conventional, gasoline-powered vehicle. Some states may offer rebates for the purchase of an FFV. Fueling costs can be widely variable, depending on the region and access to E15 or E85. The total cost of refueling may be higher if using E85, because of the reduced fuel economy. While E85 is often cheaper than gasoline, the difference in price may not make up for the reduced miles per gallon. Maintenance costs for FFVs is fairly similar to that of a gasoline-powered vehicle. Ethanol can keep engines running smoothly without the need for lead or other dangerous chemicals, which may reduce some wear and tear, but most costs and upkeep is similar.

ENERGY SECURITY

Ethanol is produced from crops grown in the United States, so it is a domestic fuel. Using ethanol as a fuel helps farmers by providing additional uses for their crops. Using ethanol also means we do not have to import as much petroleum from other countries.

The Future of Ethanol

Refining cellulosic ethanol into a transportation fuel is a fairly new technology. It is currently made from leftover, non-food, agricultural waste known as corn stover. Corn stover is the leaves, stalks, husks, and cobs normally left on the ground to decompose after the corn crop is harvested. Scientists and engineers developed new technologies that speed up the way these tough plant materials break down into alcohol. They are researching the use of other feedstocks, including wheat stalks, rice, organic landfill waste, algae, switchgrass, and wood waste.

There are several benefits to using cellulosic ethanol as a transportation fuel. Not only is it cleaner than gasoline, it is cleaner than regular ethanol. This reduces greenhouse gas emissions and carbon dioxide emissions even more. It benefits the farmers growing corn, too. Having less leftover plant material on the ground means less tilling, which is healthier for the soil. There’s also less need for fertilizers, as the sun and rain take care of decomposing any leftover corn waste, naturally enriching the soil.

Another important advantage of refining cellulosic ethanol, is that since there are many types of feedstock, refineries are not limited to just areas of the country that grow a lot of corn. All areas of the country could manufacture cellulosic ethanol fuel, which adds jobs and energy security.

In 2014, the first commercial scale cellulosic ethanol plant began making transportation fuel in the U.S. However, it was not economically advantageous for the producers, and there are currently no commercial cellulosic ethanol facilities operating to produce it in the U.S. In the future, cellulosic ethanol can be used to manufacture additional products, such as laundry detergent, plastics, chemicals, and jet fuel.

Crops like corn are nely ground and separated into their component sugars.

The sugars are distilled to make ethanol, which can be used as an alternative fuel that releases carbon dioxide that is reabsorbed by plants.

Carbon Cycle

Diesel Fuel

Diesel fuel is the common name for distillate fuel oil, a product refined from petroleum, or crude oil. Since petroleum is a fossil fuel, diesel is nonrenewable. Diesel is considered a conventional transportation fuel.

After crude oil is pumped from the ground, it is sent to a petroleum refinery. There, crude oil is separated into different fuels including gasoline, jet fuel, kerosene, heating oil, and diesel. About 12 gallons of diesel are produced from each 42 gallon barrel of crude oil. Most diesel is shipped from refineries through pipelines to storage terminals. The diesel is loaded onto local tanker trucks that deliver it to individual refueling stations.

Diesel is very flammable, meaning it will catch fire very easily. It is a good transportation fuel because it has a lot of chemical energy stored in it. A diesel engine burns fuel in a process called combustion. It changes chemical energy to thermal energy and motion.

Diesel fuel can only be used in diesel engines. For example, a dieselengine generator burns diesel fuel to produce electricity in remote locations, like villages in Alaska, or to provide an emergency power supply for hospitals during a power outage.

Diesel engines have a lot of power and can do the most demanding work. For that reason, most freight and delivery trucks have diesel engines. Most buses, trains, boats, military vehicles, and farm and construction vehicles do, too. The construction industry depends on diesel to run machines that dig foundations, trenches, drill wells, pave roads, and move soil, while our agricultural industry relies on diesel to operate farm machinery.

In 2023, the hard-working vehicles in the transportation sector consumed over 45.6 billion gallons of diesel fuel.

History of Diesel

In 1893, German engineer Rudolf Diesel invented a new type of engine. He built the first successful compression ignition engine in 1897. He originally designed the engine to use coal dust or kerosene as fuel. He also experimented with vegetable oil fuels. Petroleum products were not widely available until after his death in 1913. When an energy dense petroleum product called distillate was discovered, the compression ignition engine was redesigned to use this new fuel. The engine and its fuel were both named after the inventor Rudolf Diesel.

Diesel engines were first used to power industrial machines and to generate electricity, but it took a while for diesel engines to power automobiles. In America, the Cummins Engine Company built the first diesel powered car. In 1930 they drove it 800 miles from Indianapolis to New York City. They wanted to prove that diesel was a real alternative to gasoline powered engines. It has been used in millions of vehicles since then.

What’s Going On in a Diesel Engine?

A diesel vehicle has a lot of power, thanks to a unique type of internal combustion engine which uses a compression ignition to burn fuel. In the engine, air is compressed, or squeezed, by a piston inside a cylinder. The air heats up as it’s compressed. Diesel fuel is injected into the cylinder. When the fuel meets the hot air, it ignites, which means the fuel catches on fire. This explosion forces the piston back. The moving piston turns the crankshaft, which turns the wheels of the vehicle. The turning crankshaft pushes the piston back into the cylinder, pushing the exhaust particles out. The change in air pressure pulls the piston back out again, pulling fresh air into the cylinder, ready to be compressed. This happens many times a second. There are several pairs of pistons and cylinders working together inside the engine to power the vehicle. Chemical energy in the diesel is changed to thermal energy and motion energy. The moving piston provides mechanical energy to turn the wheels on the vehicle.

Rudolf Diesel

Internal Combustion Engine, Diesel

Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.

Originally, diesel fuel contained high quantities of sulfur, which is considered harmful to the environment when burned. In 2006, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) made a rule that reduced sulfur levels in highway diesel fuel by 97 percent. This reduced emissions from trucks and buses. Later, diesel fuel used by trains and ships and off road engines, such as farm and construction equipment, were required to reduce sulfur levels by 97 percent, too. Since 2014, ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) has been the only diesel sold in the United States. Ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) fuel is highly refined for clean, complete combustion and low emissions.

Diesel as a Transportation Fuel Today

Diesel fuel plays an important role in America’s economy, quality of life, and national security. As a transportation fuel, it offers a wide range of performance, efficiency, and safety features. It is the most commonly used fuel for public buses and school buses in the U.S. It also powers the movement of America’s freight in trucks, trains, boats, and barges. No other fuel can match diesel in its ability to move freight economically.

Diesel fuel powers some personal vehicles and some commercial vehicles. Most manufacturers have stopped producing diesel cars for U.S. consumers. However, auto manufacturers still offer dieselfueled light-duty trucks and SUVs. Light-duty trucks, like the Ford F150 Pickup and the Chevrolet Silverado, are typically driven as personal vehicles or for light commercial use, perhaps hauling small loads of building supplies. In addition, there are several heavy-duty truck models available, with larger diesel engines, capable of towing huge loads like a fifth-wheel trailer or a large boat. These trucks are often used commercially on job sites to carry large construction materials or pull heavy loads.

Diesel fuel pumps are available at over 71,000 retail gasoline stations in the U.S.

Impacts of Using Diesel as a Transportation Fuel

As with any source of fuel, there are advantages and disadvantages when using diesel as a transportation fuel.

EMISSIONS

Diesel fuel is less flammable than gasoline. However, a major disadvantage to using diesel is the harmful emissions and pollutants produced as it is burned. Diesel engines produce more CO2 emissions than comparable gasoline engines. They produce high levels of nitrogen oxides (NOx), a greenhouse gas which can form

acid rain and smog. Diesel vehicles also release carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, sulfur dioxide and particulate matter pollution, which leads to respiratory harm in humans.

Today’s clean diesel cars and trucks have advanced filters that trap particulate matter and improved exhaust systems. They are able to meet the same emissions standard as gasoline vehicles. With the use of ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) fuel, more efficient engines, and more effective emissions control technologies, new U.S. clean diesel trucks and buses have near-zero-emission levels. However, even though these clean diesel engine technologies are available, it will take time to replace all the older diesel engine vehicles on our roads.

FUEL ECONOMY

Diesel fuel contains about 10 -15% more energy per gallon compared to gasoline. Diesel engines are more powerful than similar-sized gasoline engines. Diesel engines are 20 - 35% more efficient than gasoline engines as well. This can all combine to provide better fuel economy and a higher combined MPG rating for most vehicles, however city mileage conditions may yield less efficiency for a diesel powered vehicle.

COST & MAINTENANCE

Diesel vehicles are similarly priced compared to gasolinepowered vehicles. However, while diesel engines often last longer, maintenance costs are typically lower for gasoline-powered vehicles.

ENERGY SECURITY

Diesel fuel is a petroleum product. Since petroleum is nonrenewable, it is possible we will run out of our supply of oil for producing gasoline and other products. Currently, we import 42 percent of the oil we use in the U.S. Just as if there is a storm in the Gulf of Mexico that impacts petroleum, and ultimately fuel prices, global events can also impact our fuel prices in the U.S., due to our reliance on foreign products. However, increased use of diesel technologies could help to reduce overall petroleum consumption and help to improve energy security.

The Future of Diesel

As the world grows more concerned about the environment, global climate, and human health, some countries are taking action, passing laws to stop selling diesel vehicles in the future. Several states have diesel bans in effect or taking effect soon. But, seeing how many sectors of our economy rely on diesel technology today, our government still believes it is essential, and is investing in the research and development of cleaner diesel engines that are also more energy-efficient.

Companies in the diesel industry know they must design new technologies and cleaner-running engines if they want to stay in business. One strategy is to lower emissions closer to zero. To do this, engineers need to design cleaner diesel fuel, advanced engines, and effective emissions controls. Another strategy is to improve the energy efficiency of the diesel engine using either low-temperature combustion or clean diesel combustion. A third strategy is to expand the use of renewable, low carbon biofuels. Biodiesel and renewable diesel are two alternative fuels that work in old or new vehicles, significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Biofuels will be a vital fuel source for zero-emission trucks in the future. A fourth strategy is to integrate battery and hybrid-electric drive systems into diesel vehicles.

Diesel is the transportation fuel for semi-trucks.

SEMI-TRUCK

Photo Credit: Adobe Stock

Biomass-Based Diesel Fuel

In the U.S., we produce and use two kinds of biomass-based diesel fuels: renewable diesel and biodiesel. Biomass-based diesel fuels are specifically designed for use in diesel engines and they are made directly from biomass or materials derived from biomass. While renewable diesel and biodiesel can also be used as distillate heating fuels, they’re mainly produced for transportation, as direct substitutes for petroleum diesel. A diesel vehicle can run on renewable diesel or biodiesel without modifying the engine. Using biomass-based diesel fuels reduces U.S. consumption of petroleum diesel made from crude oil. This may reduce the amount of crude oil we import from other countries. Biomass-based diesel fuel offers the same vehicle fuel economy as petroleum diesel, and it’s cleaner-burning, reducing pollutants and emissions.

Renewable Diesel

Renewable diesel, or green diesel, is an alternative transportation fuel. Renewable diesel is produced from cellulosic biomass materials such as crop residues, wood and sawdust, and switchgrass, through various thermochemical processes such as hydrotreating, gasification, and pyrolysis. Since renewable diesel is chemically the same as petroleum diesel, it may be used in existing petroleum pipelines, storage tanks, and diesel engines. Renewable diesel may be used in its pure form, called R100, or mixed and blended with petroleum diesel. A blend of 20 percent renewable diesel and 80 percent petroleum diesel is called R20, and a blend of 5 percent renewable diesel and 95 percent of petroleum diesel is called R5.

Nearly all the renewable diesel fuel manufactured in the U.S. is consumed in California to help meet state standards requiring the use of low-carbon fuels. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency estimates the U.S. consumed about 1.7 million gallons of renewable diesel in 2022.

Biodiesel

Biodiesel is a liquid fuel made from several feedstocks, including vegetable oils, animal fats, and greases. Today, most biodiesel is made from soybean oil, but some biodiesel producers specialize in using recycled oils such as restaurant grease. Since biodiesel is made from plant and animal materials, it is renewable. It is considered an alternative fuel.

Biodiesel is produced through transesterification —a chemical process that converts fats and oils into compounds called fatty acid methyl esters. The chemical reaction forms two products, biodiesel and glycerin. Glycerin is a sugar commonly used for manufacturing pharmaceuticals and cosmetics.

After the biodiesel is separated from the glycerin, it goes through a purification process. This removes any leftover chemicals used during the transesterification process. It is then "dried" to remove any remaining moisture before being stored in tanks. An additional distillation process may be necessary to make sure the biodiesel is colorless, odorless, and contains no sulfur.

Biodiesel is distributed by truck, train, or barge to petroleum distributors, fuel blenders, and bulk suppliers across the country. Suppliers distribute it to private and public refueling stations for consumers to purchase. In 2021, American vehicles consumed about 1.65 billion gallons of biodiesel fuel.

History of Biodiesel

In 1897, a German engineer named Rudolf Diesel invented the compression ignition engine. Originally, this engine burned coal dust or kerosene for fuel. For many years, Rudolf Diesel also experimented with using peanut oil as fuel because petroleum products were not widely available at the time. He believed the high energy content in vegetable oil would make it an excellent fuel, especially for rural farmers. However, soon after his death in 1913, petroleum products became widely available. This included an inexpensive petroleum product known to us today as diesel fuel. The design of Rudolf Diesel’s original engine was modified to run on this new fuel – and it's the diesel engine still in use today. In 1937, a European scientist's investigation into vegetable SOYBEANS

Photos courtesy of Priwo via Wikimedia Commons Photos courtesy of branex/Adobe Stock

oils as a fuel source for diesel engines first suggested the transesterification process. But, it was not until 1979 that South African agricultural engineers were able to sucessfully change sunflower oil into a replacement fuel for diesel. In 1987, an Austrian company used that technology to build the world’s first biodiesel production plant.

With our plentiful petroleum supplies and cheap diesel prices, the United States was slow to adopt biodiesel. One of the first biodiesel production plants began operating in 1996, recycling used cooking oil into biodiesel on the island Maui, Hawaii. In 1997, students in the Medford Township School District in New Jersey were the first to ride school buses powered by soybeans. In 2001, we consumed about 10 million gallons of biodiesel. Its use has increased substantially since then, partly because of government tax incentives, export demand, and the Renewable Fuel Standard Program created by the U.S. government under the Energy Policy Act of 2005 and the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007. The Federal Renewable Fuel Standard requires our nation to consume 3.35 billion gallons of biomassbased diesel yearly by the end of 2025. Almost all of this is consumed as biodiesel. In addition, some states require businesses with fleets to use renewable transportation fuels, too.

Biodiesel as a Transportation Fuel Today

Pure biodiesel is called B100. It is mixed into petroleum diesel in varying amounts to create different biodiesel blends, like B2, B5, and B20. Almost all light-duty, medium-duty, and heavy-duty diesel vehicles can use a biodiesel blend for fuel. The most common biodiesel blend is B20, which ranges from 6 to 20 percent biodiesel blended into petroleum diesel. Diesel vehicles can use B20 or lower-level blends without any engine modification. Some examples of local, state, or federal government agencies with fleet vehicles powered by B20 include public school buses, city transit buses, snowplows, garbage trucks, U.S. Postal Service mail trucks, and military vehicles. Private companies and utility companies use B20 in their fleets, too, powering ferries, delivery trucks, and utility trucks. Biodiesel is a practical option for fleets with their own refueling stations.

The most common low-level blend is B5, which has about 5 percent biodiesel and 95 percent petroleum diesel in it. B5 is a popular fuel in the trucking industry. This small amount of biodiesel helps lubricate the parts inside a diesel engine, keeping parts from wearing out and improving the engine’s performance. For model year 2024, auto manufacturers offered several different diesel-fueled light-duty trucks and SUVs. Light-duty trucks, like the Ford F150 Pickup and the Chevrolet Silverado, are typically driven as personal vehicles or for light commercial use, perhaps hauling small loads of building supplies. In addition, there are several heavy-duty truck models available, with larger diesel engines, capable of towing huge loads like a fifth-wheel trailer or a large boat. These trucks are often used commercially on job sites to carry large construction materials or pull heavy loads. There are presently 12 models of vehicles manufactured to run on B-20.

It’s estimated more than seven million diesel-fueled light-duty trucks and SUVs are on the road today - all capable of using biodiesel blends for fuel. However, finding a place to refuel may not be that easy. While diesel fuel is sold at about 71,000 retail gas stations across America, there are currently only 1,429 public biodiesel refueling stations, and 647 renewable diesel stations.

Impacts of Using Biodiesel as a Transportation Fuel

As with any source of fuel, there are advantages and disadvantages when using biodiesel as a transportation fuel.

EMISSIONS

Biodiesel is nontoxic and biodegradable. When burned it releases carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. It burns cleaner than petroleum diesel, producing fewer air pollutants such as particulates, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrocarbons, and air toxics. However, higher nitrogen oxide emissions are released when burning a gallon of biodiesel versus burning a gallon of petroleum diesel. Using biodiesel is said to reduce greenhouse gas emissions because CO2 released from biodiesel combustion is offset by the CO2 absorbed while growing soybeans.

B-99 REFUELING STATION

BIODIESEL BUS

Photo courtesy of Analogue Kid via wikimedia commons

Photos courtesy of Marcos/Adobe Stock

FUEL ECONOMY

Burning biodiesel is very similar to diesel in an engine. Biodiesel has a slightly lower energy content than that of traditional diesel, and the fuel efficiency of biodiesel is usually 5% less or lower. This difference is often not very noticeable to drivers.

COST & MAINTENANCE

Biodiesel can be used by most diesel engines, without much modification. Diesel vehicles are similarly priced compared to gasoline-powered vehicles, and while diesel engines typically have higher maintenance costs, using biodiesel has shown reduced engine wear and tear, leading to less maintenance. Biodiesel blends may clean out petroleum particles left in the fuel tank which could clog the vehicle’s fuel filter. Owners should install new fuel and oil filters during each oil change.

Biodiesel blends are sensitive to cold weather. Fuel blenders will typically add a chemical known as a cold flow improver to keep crystals from forming. Some retailers offer winter biodiesel blends specially formulated to use in low temperatures. Those driving in extremely cold temperatures should switch to B5 or B20 for the best engine performance during winter.

ENERGY SECURITY

Biodiesel can be produced domestically from resources grown in America. Using biodiesel may help the country be less dependent on importing foreign oil.

Additionally, using waste cooking oil as a feedstock diverts waste from landfills and sewer pipes by converting it into an energy source. According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), hotels and restaurants in the United States generate three billion gallons of waste cooking oil each year. Some businesses are required by law to collect the grease in traps and pay for its removal. However, much of the waste oil and grease ends up in landfills or dumped down the drain – which could clog city sewer pipes. Some cities also collect waste cooking oil from residents, recycling it into a domestically produced form of diesel.

The Future of Biofuels

Scientists are working to develop, test, and improve biofuel technologies. One promising new fuel source is algae. Algae farms grow microalgae in large, man-made ponds called raceways. A new crop of microalgae grows every few weeks. Microalage are small aquatic organisms that soak up sunlight and convert it into energy. The energy is stored as natural oil. By breaking down the cell structure of the microalgae, the oil can be extracted and refined into biofuel at a bio refinery. Since algae requires carbon dioxide to grow, it is considered a carbon-neutral fuel source. Someday, algae farms may be paired with fossil fuel power plants, so carbon dioxide released while generating electricity could feed the algae.

Scientists at the U.S. Department of Energy’s Bioenergy Technologies Office and Los Alamos National Laboratory are studying algae DNA, discovering new species of algae, and creating improved biofuel technologies. For example, the scientists are developing genetic engineering tools that introduce new genetic traits to make a specific type of algae grow faster and accumulate more biomass. Molecular biologists are studying whether the algae can be produced fast enough, and cheap enough, to compete with fossil fuels. They’ve also discovered some algae can grow in brackish

water because they are resistant to salt, while other algae can consume raw plants for food instead of using sunlight for growth. Researchers are using their new knowledge about algae to create sustainable, economical algae biofuels and bioproducts.

Scientists at Los Alamos are also developing and improving renewable jet fuels made from biomass. One challenge to using biomass-based fuels is that they don’t have as much energy in them compared to traditional fuels. This is important in aviation because jet fuel must meet specific fuel quality standards to ensure aircraft operate and fly safely. Chemists at the laboratory are developing new chemicals, made from biomass, that increase the energy content of biofuels. During the process of creating the chemicals, molecules are exposed to ultraviolet light. Ultraviolet energy is trapped inside each molecule, resulting in an overall energy increase. At the end of the chemical process, the molecules are ready to be added to renewable jet fuel. Once mixed in, the renewable jet fuel has more energy content than traditional jet fuel. A plane using renewable biofuel with more energy than traditional jet fuel might carry more cargo or fly further while consuming the same amount of fuel. Using renewable jet fuel reduces CO2 emissions, too.

Using energy-dense biofuels will be important for the future of the maritime shipping industry, too. According to the U.S. Department of Energy’s Bioenergy Technologies Office, worldwide shipping consumes 330 million metric tons of fuel each year. Most cargo ships run on a heavy fuel oil that is so thick it has to be heated onboard before use. Soon these massive ships will face new, stricter regulations requiring them to reduce their emissions. Scientists at our National Labs are studying biocrude and bio-oil as potential solutions. These biofuels are cleaner burning than heavy fuel oil, and since they need less processing than biodiesel and other more refined fuels, they are lower in cost. Scientists are testing blends of bio-oil and heavy fuel oil to create a useable marine fuel. Using biofuels will help reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the shipping industry.

Photo courtesy of CSIRO via Wikimedia Commons

MICROALGAE

Natural Gas Fuel

Natural gas is a gaseous mixture of hydrocarbons – mostly methane (CH4). It is odorless, colorless, and nontoxic. Natural gas is a fossil fuel and it is nonrenewable. It is considered an alternative fuel. Most natural gas is pumped from deep underground wells. Straight from the ground, it is a mixture of water, oil, hydrocarbons, and contaminants. It is called “wet” gas. It flows through a large pipeline to a natural gas processing plant. There, the natural gas is cleaned and separated into different products, including butane and propane. Once clean, it is called “dry” natural gas, and is ready for consumers. The dry natural gas is pumped through pipelines to local distribution companies, then on to homes and businesses. It is used to generate electricity, power industrial machinery, heat homes, and to fuel some vehicles.

Natural gas is a good transportation fuel because it has a lot of chemical energy stored in it. The engine of a vehicle burns the fuel in a process called combustion. It changes chemical energy into thermal energy and motion.

The transportation sector uses natural gas in two ways. Over 90 percent of the natural gas used by the transportation sector is used to power the compressors that push and move natural gas and other fluids through pipelines. The transportation sector also uses natural gas as a vehicle fuel such as compressed natural gas (CNG), and liquefied natural gas (LNG). In 2023, natural gas vehicles consumed about 53 billion cubic feet of natural gas, but this only accounts for about four percent of all the natural gas used for transportation. Most all of this natural gas vehicle fuel is consumed by government and private fleet vehicles.

History of Natural Gas

In America, natural gas was first used as a transportation fuel in the 1930s. After the oil shortages in the 1970s the government started thinking about alternative fuels. In 1979, the United States Postal Service began using natural gas vehicles to deliver mail. In the early 1990s, The Clean Air Act and Energy Policy Act forced auto manufacturers to build cleaner fleet vehicles with less emissions. Some fleets turned to natural gas vehicles as an option to help meet these requirements.

Natural Gas as a Transportation Fuel Today

To fuel a vehicle, natural gas must be compressed or liquefied first. Compressed natural gas (CNG), is a good choice for fleets that drive a lot of miles but stay close to the fueling station, such as taxi cabs or city buses. There are 738 public CNG fueling stations in the U.S. Most CNG stations compress the natural gas on-site using either fast-fill or time-fill technology. Fast-fill stations compress and store CNG in high-pressure cylinders. A vehicle can be refueled in minutes, like a traditional gas station. You pull in, fuel your vehicle, and off you go. This is good for the general public and fleets that need to refuel quickly during the work day.

Time-fill stations, on the other hand, compress natural gas as a vehicle is fueling. It is a slow process better suited to fleets that can refuel while vehicles are parked overnight, like school buses. It is also possible for a consumer to fuel their natural gas vehicle at home using a small fueling appliance attached to their home’s natural gas line.

Some ships, trucks, and buses have specially designed tanks to use liquefied natural gas (LNG) for fuel. These medium and heavy-duty vehicles typically travel long distances, for example, in the long-haul trucking industry. As a liquid, the energy density of LNG is greater than CNG, so more fuel can be stored onboard the vehicle. To change natural gas into its liquid state, it is cooled to -260°F at a liquefaction facility. Then the LNG is delivered to fueling stations by tanker trucks. There are 41 public LNG fueling stations in the U.S.

There are three types of natural gas vehicles. Dedicated vehicles use only natural gas. Bi-fuel vehicles have two separate fueling systems and can run on either natural gas or gasoline. Dual-fuel vehicles require both natural gas and diesel fuel, and are usually heavy-duty vehicles.

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Photo courtesy of Hanyou23 via Wikimedia Commons

NATURAL GAS PIPELINE

CNG BUS

Worldwide, there are about 23 million vehicles powered by natural gas. However, in the U.S., only about 50,000 vehicles use this transportation fuel. In model year 2024, there were no light-duty CNG or LNG vehicles available for sale from auto manufacturers. Instead, consumers have the option to order a pickup truck or van model that is “prepped” by the auto manufacturer, ready to be converted to run on natural gas by a qualified vehicle modifier. This ensures the vehicle doesn’t lose any of its manufacturer’s warranties. There are currently two pickup truck and van models capable of conversion to CNG.

Some of the heavy-duty natural gas vehicles you’ll see on the road today include transit buses, school buses, and waste collection vehicles. In the railroad industry, locomotive engines fueled by LNG and diesel are being used for long-haul routes. Locomotive engines that run on CNG are available, too.

Impacts of Using Natural Gas as a Transportation Fuel

As with any source of fuel, there are advantages and disadvantages when using natural gas as a transportation fuel.

EMISSIONS

Natural gas is a safe vehicle fuel. It is not toxic and does not catch on fire easily. Since it is lighter than air, if there is a leak, methane rises and dissipates quickly. Surrounding ecosystems and ground water will not be contaminated.

Burning natural gas releases greenhouse gases such as CO2 and water vapor. Burning CNG and LNG reduce life cycle greenhouse gas emissions about 10 percent, compared to their gasoline and diesel counterparts, because they release less CO2 per unit of energy than other fuels when burned. They release about half the particulate emissions of their counterparts as well.

FUEL ECONOMY

Natural gas vehicles cannot drive as far on a tank of fuel as comparable gasoline vehicles because natural gas is less energy dense than gasoline. Natural gas vehicles typically have slightly lower fuel economy than gasoline or diesel-powered vehicles.

COST & MAINTENANCE

There are very few natural gas vehicle models available for consumers to purchase. And, while the U.S. has an extensive natural gas distribution system in place, CNG and LNG refueling stations are limited for public access. Fleets may need to install their own natural gas infrastructure, which can be costly. However, the natural gas prices are often lower than those of other fuels, making it worth it for companies with many vehicles to fuel. Maintenance costs are similar, if not slightly more expensive for natural gas vehicles compared to gasoline or diesel vehicles.

ENERGY SECURITY

CNG and LNG are domestically produced, low priced, and widely available. Natural gas vehicles provide the same engine power, acceleration and cruising speed as conventional fuel vehicles. Since the U.S. has a large supply of natural gas, using CNG and LNG as transportation fuels may help reduce the amount of petroleum we need to import from other countries, increasing our energy security.

The Future of Natural Gas

The railroad and marine industries are currently developing new technologies enabling them to harness energy from cheap and clean natural gas for transportation fuel. In the railroad industry, engineers are building and testing locomotive engines fueled by LNG and diesel. In the marine industry, LNG is already in use fueling a few tanker ships sailing around the world. In the U.S., large ships such as tugboats, ferries, and container ships will benefit from using CNG and LNG to help them meet emissions standards set by the government. Hybrid ferries and car carriers fueled by both natural gas and bunker fuel oil are also in development.

Biomethane is an emerging source of energy that can be used as a vehicle fuel. When organic matter naturally decomposes it creates methane. New technology uses machines to speed up the process, decomposing plant and animal waste, sewage, and municipal solid waste (trash), into a biogas. Today, biogas is typically used to generate electricity at landfills or produce heat and electricity on-site at farms where it is produced. To be used as a vehicle fuel, biogas must be cleaned and refined to remove impurities. Once clean, it is called biomethane, and is ready to be compressed for use in natural gas vehicles. Blending even small quantities of biomethane with traditional natural gas can provide significant life cycle greenhouse gas benefits. Since there will always be sources of organic waste, biomethane could become an important source of renewable natural gas vehicle fuel.

Photo courtesy of Mario Roberto Duran Ortiz via Wikimedia Commons

Propane Autogas Fuel

Propane (C₃H₈) is a hydrocarbon gas liquid (HGL) produced during natural gas processing or crude oil refining. Since petroleum and natural gas are fossil fuels, propane is nonrenewable. Propane is colorless and odorless. At atmospheric pressure it is a gas. However, when cooled or put under pressure it becomes a liquid. It is normally transported and stored as a liquid since it is 270 times more compact in its liquid state. When it returns to normal pressure, liquid propane vaporizes and becomes a gas again allowing us to burn it.

In the U.S., most propane is produced from natural gas processing. Raw, wet natural gas, from natural gas wells or crude oil wells, is delivered to the natural gas processing plant by pipelines. When the raw, wet natural gas is cooled and pressurized, heavier hydrocarbons, including propane, turn into liquids and separate from the natural gas. These are known as hydrocarbon gas liquids (HGLs). The HGLs are further refined and separated into their final products, such as propane.

Oil refineries produce some propane as crude oil undergoes distillation. Modern refineries can also produce propane in the fluid catalytic cracker, which uses high temperatures and pressures to crack long-chain hydrocarbon molecules, breaking them into lighter hydrocarbon molecules, including propane.

Once made, propane usually travels through pipelines to either underground storage or bulk distribution terminals. It may also be shipped by railroad, transport truck, or tanker ship. Local propane dealers use small tank trucks, called bobtails, to move propane from bulk distribution terminals to fueling sites.

Propane is usually used for home and water heating, cooking, drying clothes, and powering farm and industrial equipment. It is used in the chemical industry as a raw material for making plastics. Propane is also used as a transportation fuel. It is an approved clean alternative fuel under the Energy Policy Act of 1992

As a transportation fuel, it is called propane autogas. It is a mixture of 90 percent propane and smaller amounts of other gases, such as butane. Propane autogas is a good transportation fuel because it has a lot of chemical energy stored in it. The engine of a propane vehicle burns the fuel in a process called combustion. It changes chemical energy into thermal energy and motion.

Of all the propane consumed in the U.S., less than one percent is used as transportation fuel. Most propane autogas users are vehicle fleets for delivery companies, and utility companies, government agencies, and public transit agencies, that are required by law to use alternative transportation fuels in their fleets.

Propane

Truck

The History of Propane

In 1910, a U.S. chemist named Dr. Walter Snelling discovered propane as a component of unrefined gasoline. He worked with a team of scientists to develop methods that change liquefied refinery gases into liquids and store them under pressure. They started the first commercial propane company. Dr. Snelling received a patent for his propane production method in 1913.

Vehicles may have used propane as a transportation fuel right from the start, but little historical information exists. We do know that in 1950, the city of Chicago put 500 propane buses into public service on city streets. That year the city of Milwaukee converted 270 taxi cabs to run on propane autogas. Converting personal vehicles to run on propane autogas had some following in the 1970s as rising gasoline prices led drivers to turn to more economical fuel sources. Private businesses began converting delivery trucks around the same time. One example is The Schwan Food Company, which continues to use propane autogas in its fleet today. The first school buses to use propane autogas began operating in 1992. Today, small businesses with just a few delivery trucks and mega businesses like UPS both use propane autogas in their fleets.

Bobtail trucks can carry up to 5,000 gallons of liquid propane to local distributors.

Dr. Walter Snelling

BOBTAIL TRUCK

A Fuel With Many, Many Names

Propane used as a transportation fuel has many accepted names. Most of the world calls it autogas, or simply gas. It is also known as LPG, LP Gas, and LPG Autogas. In the U.S., this transportation fuel is often called LPG or propane. However, many in the propane industry prefer the term propane autogas to clearly designate its use as a vehicle fuel.

Propane Autogas as a Transportation Fuel Today

About 6,000 propane vehicles are in use in the U.S. Over half of these belong to fleets, for example taxi cabs, police vehicles, school buses, and shuttles.

There are two types of propane vehicles. Dedicated propane vehicles are designed to run only on propane autogas. Bi-fuel propane vehicles have two separate fueling systems, allowing the vehicle to be powereed by either propane autogas or gasoline.

In model year 2024, there were no light-duty propane vehicles available for sale from auto manufacturers. Instead, consumers have the option to order a pickup truck or van model that is “prepped” by the auto manufacturer, ready to be converted to run on propane autogas by a qualified vehicle modifier. This ensures the vehicle doesn’t lose any of its manufacturer’s warranties. There are currently two pickup truck and van models for model year 2024 capable of conversion to propane autogas.

There are currently 2,433 propane fueling stations across the U.S. There are also numerous private stations owned by private fleets. There are some countries using propane autogas to meet their daily transportation needs. Propane autogas is the world’s third most common fuel after gasoline and diesel. Today, over 27 million vehicles run on autogas worldwide.

Impacts of Using Propane as a Transportation Fuel

As with any source of fuel, there are advantages and disadvantages when using propane as a transportation fuel.

EMISSIONS

At this time, all new vehicles face the same strict emissions regulations. Emissions from propane vehicles are the same as emissions from conventional vehicles with modern emissions controls. Also, like all fossil fuels, burning propane emits water vapor and CO2, a greenhouse gas. However, propane engines produce much fewer harmful tailpipe emissions and greenhouse gases than conventional engines.

Another benefit to the environment is that propane autogas is nontoxic. If there should be a leak, it presents no threat to soil, surface water, or groundwater, and it does not catch on fire easily.

FUEL ECONOMY

Propane autogas typically costs less than gasoline, but it contains less energy per gallon. This means propane vehicles have less fuel economy. One gallon of propane autogas powers a vehicle over fewer miles than one gallon of gasoline, so you will need to fill up more often.

COST & MAINTENANCE

Since propane autogas is labeled as an alternative fuel, it benefits any fleets required by law to use alternative fuels. However, new propane vehicles can cost several thousand dollars more than comparable gasoline vehicles.

Propane’s clean burning characteristics allow vehicles to have increased engine life compared to conventional gasoline engines. This may lead to lower maintenance costs for fleets with high mileage vehicles. Propane engines perform well in cold weather climates, too.

ENERGY SECURITY

Fueling with propane autogas helps diversify the transportation fuels used in the U.S. Using more propane as a transportation fuel could increase our energy security as well, since most of the propane we consume is produced here at home and distributed through our established infrastructure, reducing the need for foreign oil supplies.

The Future of Propane

According to the World LPG Association, autogas technologies are evolving. Propane autogas is used fairly widely across the globe. Engineers are developing more efficient engines, and manufacturers are switching to direct injection engines that produce much lower emissions. They are also developing autogas-electric hybrid vehicles powered by autogas and an electric motor. Finally, a renewable source of propane called BioLPG (biopropane), is becoming available for use in vehicles. Using this renewable fuel lowers carbon dioxide emissions as much as 80 percent. Industry experts expect the use of BioLPG in vehicles to increase in the future.

Here in the U.S., however, propane autogas remains a small market fuel in comparison to global use. While it helps offset our petroleum use, it does not have a substantial impact in the transportation market. Some fleet vehicles in the U.S., such as governments and utilities, do use propane autogas in their vehicles, as a way to help them meet emissions standards in certain states and once set by Federal government rules. The propane industry would need to expand its current infrastructure more for propane autogas to be come a more mainstream transportation fuel in the U.S.

Photo courtesy of the U.S. Department of Energy

PROPANE VAN

Hybrid Electric Technology

Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) are powered by an internal combustion engine and one or more electric motors that use energy stored in batteries. The internal combustion engine is fueled by gasoline, and the battery is charged through regenerative braking and by the internal combustion engine. HEVs combine high fuel economy and reduced tailpipe emissions with the power and range of conventional vehicles.

Gasoline & HEVs

The internal combustion engine that powers an HEV runs on gasoline. Gasoline is a transportation fuel made from petroleum, or crude oil. It has a distinct odor. It is clear but slightly yellowish in color. Since petroleum is a fossil fuel, gasoline is nonrenewable. Gasoline is considered a conventional transportation fuel. After crude oil is pumped from the ground, it is sent to a petroleum refinery. There, crude oil is separated into different fuels including gasoline, jet fuel, kerosene, heating oil, and diesel. About 20 gallons of gasoline are produced from each 42 gallon barrel of crude oil. However, the gasoline product made at a petroleum refinery is not ready to put in your car. It is an unfinished gasoline known as gasoline blendstock. Unfinished gasoline is sent though pipelines to a blending terminal, where different items are added, or blended, with the gasoline blendstock, including fuel ethanol, finished gasoline, additives, and detergents. This creates finished gasoline in different grades and formulas. Tanker trucks are filled with the finished gasoline at the blending terminal, and transport it to retail fueling stations for consumer use.

Gasoline is very flammable, meaning it will catch on fire very easily. It is a good transportation fuel because it has a lot of chemical energy stored in it. The engine of a car burns the fuel in a process called combustion. It changes the chemical energy to thermal energy and motion.

In 2023, over 131 billion gallons of finished motor gasoline was consumed in the U.S. to keep the vehicles of our transportation sector moving.

Electrical Energy Stored in a Battery

An HEV is also powered by an electric motor. The motor pulls electricity from a nickel-metal hydride battery as it is needed. The same motor also works as an electric generator. This happens during a process called regenerative braking. When the brakes are pressed, the electric motor applies resistance to the drivetrain causing the wheels to slow down. In return, the energy from the wheels turns the electric motor, which functions as a generator, converting energy normally wasted during coasting and braking into electricity. A regenerative braking system changes the vehicle’s motion energy into electricity. The electricity is transformed into chemical energy stored in the car’s battery – recharging it – until the electric motor needs it again. HEVs do not have plugs or cords. They never plug into an external charging unit.

Since electricity is an energy carrier, it is not labeled renewable or nonrenewable. Electricity is considered an alternative transportation fuel by the U.S. Department of Energy, as are the vehicles powered by it. So an HEV with an electric motor is an alternative fuel vehicle.

History of HEV Technology

Austrian Professor Ferdinand Porsche is credited with building the first gasoline-electric hybrid vehicle in 1900. In America, a few different hybrid cars and trucks were developed and built from 1905-1918. They were more expensive and less powerful than gasoline-powered vehicles at the time, and therefore sold poorly.

After the Oil Embargo in 1973 caused gas shortages and rising oil prices, interest in alternative fuels returned. In 1976, Congress passed the Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Research, Development, and Demonstration Act, which encouraged the development of new technologies including improved batteries and motors. However, it took decades before battery technology advanced enough for auto makers to build a commercially viable HEV in America.

In 1997, the Toyota Prius became the world’s first mass-produced HEV. It was originally sold only in Japan, then released worldwide in 2000. The Prius was powered by a nickel-metal hydride battery. The first HEV available for sale in the U.S. was the Honda Insight, in 1999. In 2004, the Ford Escape Hybrid became the first HEV manufactured in the U.S. In model year 2005, there were only seven hybrid models commercially available for consumers to purchase. Since model year 2021, consumers now have over 40 different HEV models to choose from.

HEV Technology Today

The Department of Energy estimates there are 7.39 million hybrid electric cars and light trucks on U.S. roads today. Each needs a full tank of gasoline to fuel the internal combustion engine. There are over 142,000 gasoline refueling stations across the United States.

HEVs use some advanced technologies to improve vehicle efficiency. In addition to regenerative braking, another technology used by HEVs, is the electric motor drive. The electric motor provides additional power to assist the engine in accelerating, passing, or hill climbing. The extra power allows a smaller, more efficient internal combustion engine to be used. In some hybrids, the electric motor alone propels the vehicle at low speeds, where gasoline engines are least efficient.

HEVs also use an automatic stop/start system. The vehicle automatically shuts off the engine when it comes to a stop and then instantly restarts it when the accelerator is pressed. This reduces wasted energy during idling – when the car is stopped at a red light, for example – ultimately consuming less gasoline.

HEVs are either mild or full hybrids. Mild hybrids, also called micro hybrids, cannot power themselves on electricity alone, but use the battery and electric motor for power. The engine shuts off when the vehicle stops, improving fuel economy. Mild hybrids generally cost less than full hybrids, but their fuel economy is not as good. Full hybrids have larger batteries and more powerful electric motors, which can power the vehicle using electricity alone for short distances and at low speeds. These vehicles cost more than mild hybrids but provide better fuel economy benefits. HEVs can use two types of batteries, nickel-metal hydride or lithium-ion. Lithium-ion is typically more expensive, but is more compact and has more power density.

In a full hybrid system, there are different ways to combine the power from the electric motor and the engine. The most common HEV design is the parallel hybrid, which connects the internal combustion engine and the electric motor to the wheels, allowing both to drive the wheels directly. In series hybrids, only the electric motor drives the wheels. The series system is more common in plug-in hybrid electric vehicles

Impacts of Using HEV Technology

As with any kind of technology, there are advantages and disadvantages to driving a hybrid electric vehicle.

EMISSIONS

HEVs typically produce lower tailpipe emissions than conventional vehicles. Emissions benefits vary by vehicle model and type of hybrid power system.

FUEL ECONOMY

HEVs usually achieve better fuel economy and have lower fuel costs than similar conventional vehicles. For example, www.fueleconomy.gov lists the 2024 Toyota RAV4 Hybrid AWD with an EPA combined city/highway fuel economy estimate of 39 miles per gallon. The estimate for the conventional 2024 Toyota RAV4 AWD is only 28 miles per gallon. The site also estimates the Hybrid RAV4 uses $500 less gasoline per year.

COST

HEVs can cost more to purchase than comparable conventional vehicles. Prices may decrease as more models continue to become available. Some states may offer tax incentives to consumers as well. Since HEVs provide good fuel economy and consume less gasoline, they have lower fuel costs than similar conventional vehicles. The nickel-metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries used in HEVs are very high cost. Research is ongoing to find ways to lower the cost of these batteries.

MAINTENANCE

Because HEVs have internal combustion engines, their maintenance requirements are similar to conventional vehicles. The battery, motor, and associated electronics will likely require minimal scheduled maintenance. Also, the regenerative braking system helps brakes last longer.

How a Hybrid Elec tric Vehicle Works

Hybrid elec tric vehicles combine the bene ts of gasoline engines and elec tric motors. Hybrid elec tric vehicles do not need to be plugged in to charge the batter y because they are charged by an onboard generator.

ENERGY SECURITY

Hybrid electric vehicles typically use less fuel than similar conventional vehicles, thanks to their electric-drive technologies that boost efficiency. Widespread use of HEVs could reduce petroleum consumption in the U.S. This could increase the nation’s energy security and lessen our dependence on foreign oil supplies.

The Future of Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Automotive Engineers who specialize in hybrid systems continue to research and develop ways to improve HEVs. They design electrical components to cost less to manufacture, they design the electric motor to run more efficiently, and they figure out ways to lighten the vehicle to give it better fuel economy.

When automobile manufacturers fail to meet the federal government’s rules for minimum fuel economy, the Corporate Average Fuel Economy standard, they must pay a fine for every mile per gallon they fall below the standard multiplied by every vehicle they sell. This is a huge financial penalty that greatly impacts the direction of the auto industry. The fastest way to improve fuel economy is offering electric vehicles for sale. Some auto manufacturers have dropped hybrids from their manufacturing lines in favor of all-electric vehicles. We may see a dramatic increase in the number of electric vehicles in the U.S. in the coming years.

Photo courtesy of NEED and Ford of La Plata

Plug-In Hybrid Electric Technology

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) use energy stored in highcapacity batteries to power an electric motor and use another fuel, such as gasoline, to power an internal combustion engine. The batteries are charged by an outside electric power source, by the engine, or through regenerative braking. As long as the battery is charged, the vehicle can use electricity for power in typical driving conditions, significantly reducing its petroleum use. Once the battery is depleted, the engine kicks in to power the vehicle. PHEVs use less gasoline and produce fewer emissions than similar conventional vehicles.

Electricity

For a PHEV, electricity must be generated, or made, using a fuel source such as natural gas, wind, or solar. Most often this takes place in a power plant. In a natural gas power plant, heat is given off as the natural gas burns boils water changing it into steam. The steam pushes against giant turbine blades making the turbine spin. Inside a generator there is a big coil of copper wire inside a ring of magnets. When the turbine spins, the coil of wire spins, and a magnetic field is created, pushing and pulling electrons in the wire. Electrons from the copper wire flow through power lines to your home and into a charging station, known as electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE). A vehicle battery is charged with electricity when it is plugged into the EVSE.

Since electricity is an energy carrier, it is not labeled renewable or nonrenewable. However, we do use both renewable and nonrenewable sources of energy to generate electricity. Electricity is considered an alternative transportation fuel by the U.S. Department of Energy, as are the vehicles powered by it. Currently, there is no way to determine how much of the electricity generated each year is consumed by charging plug-in hybrid electric vehicles.

Gasoline

PHEVs also rely on gasoline. Gasoline is a transportation fuel made from petroleum, or crude oil. It has a distinct odor. It is clear but slightly yellowish in color. Since petroleum is a fossil fuel, gasoline is nonrenewable. Gasoline is considered a conventional transportation fuel.

After crude oil is pumped from the ground, it is sent to a petroleum refinery. There, crude oil is separated into different fuels including gasoline, jet fuel, kerosene, heating oil, and diesel. About 20 gallons of gasoline are produced from each 42 gallon barrel of crude oil. However, the gasoline product made at a petroleum refinery is not ready to put in your car. It is an unfinished gasoline known as gasoline blendstock. Unfinished gasoline is sent though pipelines to a blending terminal, where different items are added, or blended, with the gasoline blendstock, including fuel ethanol, finished gasoline, additives, and detergents.

This creates finished gasoline in different grades and formulas. Tanker trucks are filled with the finished gasoline at the blending terminal, and transport it to retail fueling stations for consumer use.

Gasoline is very flammable, meaning it will catch on fire very easily. It is a good transportation fuel because it has a lot of chemical energy stored in it. The engine of a car burns the fuel in a process called combustion. It changes the chemical energy to thermal energy and motion.

In 2023, over 131 billion gallons of finished motor gasoline was consumed in the U.S. to keep the vehicles of our transportation sector moving.

History of PHEV Technology

In the United States, cars powered just by electricity, or just by gasoline, were available to the public in the 1890s. Using them both together to power a vehicle, though, is a more modern technology.

In the early 2000s, auto manufacturers began developing new battery technology using lithium-ion in place of nickel metal. This led PHEV technology to become commercially feasible. However, it took many years for the first PHEV to be available for sale.

In response to the recession that began in 2007, the government gave two billion dollars towards developing electric vehicle batteries through the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. This helped reignite the industry. Since 2010, improved battery technologies have improved plug-in hybrid electric vehicle range. The cost of manufacturing batteries has decreased while battery power, energy, and durability improved. Lower cost batteries meant a lower cost vehicle, making PHEVs more affordable for consumers. In 2010, the first vehicle with plug-in hybrid technology to be sold in America was the model year 2011 Chevrolet Volt.

In 2014, the U.S. Air Force began operating a 42 vehicle fleet of PHEVs at the Los Angeles Air Force Base in California. Some of the vehicles include vehicle-to-grid technology (V2G). These vehicles plug into a unique charging station that can move electric power both to and from the electric grid as needed.

In model year 2024, 21 different plug-in hybrid electric vehicles were available commercially for consumers to purchase.

2024 TOYOTA PRIUS PHEV

Photo via Wikimedia Commons

PHEV Technology Today

The Department of Energy estimates there are over 1.3 million PHEV cars and trucks on U.S. roads today.

There are two basic PHEV configurations, either a parallel or series design. Some PHEVs use transmissions that allow them to operate in either parallel or series, switching between the two as needed depending on how the vehicle is being driven. Either way, plug-in hybrids can run solely on electricity until the battery runs down. For short trips, these vehicles might use no gasoline at all.

In the parallel design, both the internal combustion engine and electric motor are connected to the wheels and propel the vehicle under most driving conditions. Electric-only operation usually occurs only at low speeds, and has a limited mileage range of 1550+ miles, depending on the model.

In a series design, only the electric motor turns the wheels. The gasoline engine is used to generate electricity that gets stored in the battery. When the battery is depleted, the engine burns fuel to power an electric motor generator which makes electricity. The electricity is stored in the traction battery, which then powers the electric motor that drives the wheels. The series configuration is less efficient than the parallel, as energy is transformed multiple times in the system-from chemical energy in fuel to heat in the engine, to electricity in the generator, to chemical energy, in the battery, to electrical energy in the motor drive, to mechanical energy in the wheels.

All PHEVs need an energy storge system. Most use lithium-ion batteries. In general, PHEVs have larger battery packs than hybrid electric vehicles. If you keep the battery fully charged, most of your car’s power will come from stored electricity. For example, someone driving a light-duty PHEV truck might drive to and from work on allelectric power, charge the vehicle overnight at home, and be ready for another all-electric commute the next day. In some models, the internal combustion engine will kick in some extra power during rapid acceleration, when the heating or air conditioning system is really working, or if the battery gets depleted.

PHEV batteries can be charged three ways. Typically, the batteries are charged with electricity from the grid, while a parked vehicle is plugged into an outlet or EVSE port at a charging station. The batteries can also charge while the car is in motion, either by the conventional engine or through regenerative braking. During braking, an electric motor acts as a generator. It captures motion energy that would have been lost and uses it to generate electrical energy to charge the battery.

To charge the battery using electricity from the grid, a PHEV uses charging equipment to connect to an outlet or a charging unit. The charging unit communicates with the vehicle to make sure the right flow of electricity is supplied. Charging equipment is classified by the rate at which it charges batteries. Charging times can range from less than 20 minutes to 20 hours or more depending on the type of battery and its capacity, how depleted it is, and the level of charging equipment being used.

There are different levels of charging. Level 1 and Level 2 provide AC power to the vehicle. The electronics inside the vehicle convert the AC to DC to charge the batteries. Level 3, the fastest type of charging, provides DC power to directly charge the batteries.

Level 1 Charging equipment uses a 110-volt cordset that can be plugged into any regular outlet. It is the slowest charging option, about 2-5 miles of driving range per one hour of charging.

Most PHEV owners will charge their vehicle at home, by plugging into Level 2 Charging equipment installed in a garage or on a wall of their home. Level 2 is the most common system for homes and businesses. It uses 240-volts for home charging or 208-volts in commercial settings. This does require a dedicated electric circuit, however most homes are already wired for 240V service to run their appliances. Level 2 typically provides 10-30 miles of range per one hour of charging.

Rapid charging is available using DC Fast-Charging equipment. You can expect 100-200+ miles of range in 30 minutes of charging. About 15 percent of public EVSE ports in the U.S. are DC Fast-Charging.

Public charging stations make driving an electric vehicle more convenient. While most drivers charge their vehicle at home, public and workplace charging stations can increase range and reduce the amount of gasoline consumed by PHEVs. Charging stations are often conveniently located near shopping centers, airports, hotels, government offices, and other businesses. The Department of Transportation is working to establish alternative fuel corridors along stretches of the U.S. highway system. Charging stations may be free to use or may require drivers to pay for the electricity they consume. There are currently over 66,000 electric vehicle charging stations across the United States. Of course, a PHEV owner can also rely on a full tank of gasoline to power their vehicle. There are over 142,000 gasoline refueling stations across the United States.

Image courtesy of outhworks/Adobe Stock

Impacts of Using PHEV Technology

As with any kind of technology, there are advantages and disadvantages to driving a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle.

EMISSIONS

Life cycle emissions considers all the ways emissions are generated over the entire life of a product. For a PHEV, emissions are generated during the manufacturing of the vehicle and when fuel or electricity is produced. Life cycle emissions largely depend on how the electricity is generated and how often the PHEV engine is used. These factors vary depending on where you live in the country. According to the U.S. Department of Energy Alternative Fuels Data Center, PHEVs generally produce less than half the emissions of conventional vehicles, considering both air pollutants and greenhouse gases. Increased use of renewable energy to generate electricity will further reduce emissions. Like all vehicles burning gasoline, PHEVs produce tailpipe emissions when using the internal combustion engine. But, PHEVs can have significant emissions benefits over conventional vehicles. This is because they produce no tailpipe emissions when operating in all-electric mode. However, it is important to remember that emissions may be produced when electricity is generated at a power plant to charge the battery. In the U.S., natural gas generates about 40 percent of our electricity. When fossil fuels are burned, pollutants and greenhouse gases are produced. In areas of the country that use relatively lowpolluting energy sources for electricity production, such as hydropower, wind, solar, or nuclear, PHEVs typically have a life cycle emissions advantage over similar vehicles running on gasoline or diesel. In areas of the country that use only conventional fossil fuels for electricity generation, PHEVs may offer little life cycle emissions benefit.

FUEL ECONOMY

Fuel economy for electric vehicles is not rated in miles per gallon like conventional vehicles. Electric vehicles are rated in miles per gallon of gasoline equivalent, or MPGe. The MPGe represents the number of miles a vehicle can drive using a quantity of fuel or electricity with the same energy content as one gallon of gasoline. According to the Alternative Fuels Data Center, most PHEVs achieve combined fuel economy ratings higher than 90 MPGe.

A PHEV uses an efficient electric motor and may consume less gasoline than a similar conventional vehicle. Fuel consumption depends on how far you drive between battery charges. For example, if the vehicle is never plugged in to charge, fuel economy will be about the same as a similarly-sized HEV. If however, the vehicle is driven entirely in all-electric mode, and plugged in to charge between trips, it may be possible to operate only electric power. Though, PHEVs have a shorter range than conventional vehicles, and charging takes longer than refueling with other fuels.

COST

PHEVs are generally more expensive to buy than similar conventional or hybrid vehicles. Some cost can be recovered through fuel savings and federal or state tax credits. Drivers can reduce fuel costs by using electricity to run their PHEV most of the time. Not only will the PHEV consume less petroleum, but electricity has a lower cost relative to conventional fuel. In electriconly mode, PHEV electricity costs range from three cents to ten cents per mile. Similar gasoline or diesel-powered vehicles cost ten cents to fifteen cents per mile.

MAINTENANCE

Because they have a conventional internal combustion engine, PHEVs require the same maintenance as conventional vehicles. However, the battery, motor, and associated electronics require no regular maintenance. Also, the regenerative braking system helps brakes last longer. The lithium-ion batteries in plug-in electric vehicles are designed to last the expected life of the vehicle.

ENERGY SECURITY

Widespread use of PHEVs could increase the nation’s energy security and lessen our dependence on foreign oil supplies, because driving PHEVs in all-electric mode helps reduce petroleum consumption. Addtionally, almost all U.S. electricity is produced from domestic resources and is typically more cost-efficient than gasoline. Electricity prices are more stable than gasoline as well. In some areas of the country, consumers can purchase electricity generated by renewable resources which will decrease their vehicle’s impact on the environment.

The Future of PHEV Technology

Automotive engineers who specialize in PHEV systems continue to research and develop ways to improve PHEVs and their batteries. They design electrical components to cost less to manufacture, they design the electric motor to run more efficiently, and they figure out ways to lighten the vehicle to give it better fuel economy.

When automobile manufacturers fail to meet the federal government’s rules for minimum fuel economy, the Corporate Average Fuel Economy standard, they must pay a fine for every mile per gallon they fall below the standard multiplied by every vehicle they sell. This is a huge financial penalty that greatly impacts the direction of the auto industry. The fastest way to improve fuel economy is offering electric vehicles for sale. Some auto manufacturers have dropped PHEV models from their manufacturing lines in favor of all-electric vehicles. We may see a dramatic increase in the number of electric vehicles in the U.S. in the coming years.

LITHIUM ION BATTERY PACK

Photo courtesy of Tennen-Gas via wikimedia commons

All-Electric Technology

The term “electric vehicles,” or EVs, commonly refers to vehicles that use electricity either as a fuel source or to improve vehicle efficiency. This includes all-electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, and fuel cell electric vehicles. All-electric vehicles run on electricity alone, they don’t have a conventional engine. They are driven by one or more electric motors powered by energy stored in batteries. The batteries are charged by plugging into an electric power source and through regenerative braking. Since their power source is a battery, the auto industry also refers to all-electric vehicles as Battery Electric Vehicles, or BEVs.

Electricity for an EV

Electricity for and EV, must be generated, or made, using a fuel source such as natural gas, wind, or solar. Most often, this takes place in a power plant. In a natual gas power plant, heat is given off as the natural gas burns boils water, changing it into steam. The steam pushes against giant turbine blades making the turbine spin. Inside a generator there is a big coil of copper wire inside a ring of magnets. When the turbine spins, the coil of wire spins and a magnetic field is created, pushing and pulling electrons in the wire. Electrons from the copper wire flow through power lines to your home, and flow into a charging station, known as electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE). A vehicle battery is charged with electricity when it is plugged into the EVSE. Since electricity is an energy carrier, it is not labeled renewable or nonrenewable. However, we do use both renewable and nonrenewable sources of energy to generate electricity. Electricity is considered an alternative transportation fuel by the U.S. Department of Energy, as are the vehicles powered by it. Currently, there is no way to determine how much of the electricity generated each year is consumed by charging all-electric vehicles.

History of All-Electric Vehicle Technology

Using electricity to power a vehicle dates back to 1832 when a Scottish inventor named Robert Anderson built a simple electric carriage. In 1891, William Morrison of Des Moines, Iowa, turned a wagon into America’s first electric vehicle. Electric vehicles were soon commercially available, and favored by the wealthy for short trips in the city. New York City even operated a fleet of 60 electric taxis in 1897. By 1900, about one third of all cars were electric vehicles. A few years later however, electric vehicles lost popularity with the public. There were several reasons. First, in 1908, Henry Ford’s gasoline-powered Model T began mass production. This new car was affordable for working-class families. Second, gasoline became widely available and inexpensive. Third, the design of internal combustion engines improved greatly during this time. They became more efficient and reliable. Finally, as America grew

How an Elec tric

Vehicle Works

Elec tric vehicles store elec tricity in large batter y banks. They are plugged into a wall outlet (either a 240-volt or standard 120-volt) for several hours to charge. An electric motor powers the wheels, and ac ts as a generator when the brakes are applied, recharging the batter y.

and built better roads and highways, the need for vehicles with a long range between refueling stops made gasoline-powered cars the technology of choice. EVs basically disappeared by 1935.

After the Oil Embargo of 1973 caused gas shortages and rising oil prices, interest in alternative fuels returned. In 1976, Congress passed the Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Research, Development, and Demonstration Act. This law encouraged the development of new technologies including improved batteries and motors. This lead to several car manufacturers building electric production vehicles in the late 1990s. A few thousand EVs were on the road during that time. Ultimately, the batteries were too inefficient and the technology just too expensive. Since auto manufacturers lost money on each vehicle built, they discontinued their electric production programs and recalled every EV in the early 2000s.

In response to the recession that began in 2007, the government gave two billion dollars towards developing EV batteries through the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. Another $115 million was given to build electric charging stations across the country. This helped reignite the industry, and new electric vehicle models emerged. In model year 2024, 134 different all-electric vehicles were available commercially for consumers to purchase.

All-Electric Vehicle Technology Today

The Department of Energy estimates there are 3.6 million all-electric cars and light-duty trucks on U.S. roads today.

All-electric vehicles use lithium-ion batteries as an energy storage system. The batteries are charged with electricity from the grid, while a parked vehicle is plugged into an outlet or EVSE port at a charging station. The batteries can also charge while the car is in motion through regenerative braking. During braking, an electric motor acts as a generator. It captures motion energy that would have been lost and uses it to generate electrical energy to charge the battery.

BAT TERY

PLUG

ELEC TRIC MOTOR

To charge the battery using electricity from the grid, an EV uses charging equipment to connect to an outlet or a charging unit. The charging unit communicates with the vehicle to make sure the right flow of electricity is supplied. Charging equipment is classified by the rate at which it charges batteries. Charging times can range from less than 20 minutes to 20 hours or more depending on the type of battery and its capacity, how depleted it is, and the level of charging equipment being used.

There are different levels of charging. Level 1 and Level 2 provide AC power to the vehicle. The electronics inside the vehicle convert the AC to DC to charge the batteries. Level 3, the fastest type of charging provides DC power to directly charge the batteries.

Level 1 Charging equipment uses a 110-volt cordset that can be plugged into any regular outlet. It is the slowest charging option, about 2-5 miles of driving range per one hour of charging.

Most owners will charge their vehicle at home, by plugging into Level 2 Charging equipment installed in a garage or on a wall of their home. Level 2 is the most common system for homes and businesses. It uses 240-volts for home charging or 208-volts in commercial settings. This does require a dedicated electric circuit, however most homes are already wired for 240V service to run their appliances. Level 2 typically provides 10-30 miles of range per one hour of charging.

Rapid charging is available using DC Fast-Charging equipment. You can expect 100-200+ miles of range in 30 minutes of charging. About 15 percent of public EVSE ports in the U.S. are DC Fast-Charging.

Public charging stations make driving an electric vehicle more convenient. Charging stations are often located near shopping centers, airports, hotels, government offices, and other businesses. The Department of Transportation is working to establish alternative fuel corridors along stretches of the U.S. highway system. Charging stations may be free to use or may require drivers to pay for the electricity they consume. There are currently over 66,000 electric vehicle charging stations across the United States.

Heavy-duty all-electric vehicles, such as city transit buses, require high power levels when charging. These fleets may use wireless charging equipment where an electromagnetic field transfers electricity directly to the batteries without any cords. Other heavyduty EV models on the market include school buses, motor coaches, trolleys, box trucks, cargo vans, and truck cabs.

Today, all-electric motorcycles are joining fleets, too. All-electric motorcycles and cars are currently in use by the United States Park Police in their Washington, D.C. fleet. Officers use the whisper quiet, zero-emissions motorcycles to patrol large crowds around the monuments and museums.

Impacts of Using All-Electric Vehicle Technology

As with any kind of technology, there are advantages and disadvantages to driving an all-electric vehicle.

EMISSIONS

Life cycle emissions considers all the ways emissions are generated over the entire life of a product. For all-electric vehicles, emissions are generated during the manufacturing of the vehicle and when electricity is produced. Life cycle emissions largely depend on how the electricity is generated, which varies depending on where you live in the country. According to the U.S. Department of Energy

Alternative Fuels Data Center, in general, all-electric vehicles produce a third of the emissions of conventional vehicles, considering both air pollutants and greenhouse gases. Increased use of renewable energy to generate electricity will further reduce emissions.

EVs produce zero tailpipe emissions. However, pollutants and greenhouse gases may be produced when electricity is generated at a power plant. Today, natural gas generates about 40 percent of our electricity. Burning fossil fuels to generate electricity produces more pollutants and greenhouse gases that generating electricity from nuclear, wind, hydropower, or solar power. In areas of the country that use mainly conventional fossil fuels for electricity generation, EVs may not demonstrate a strong life cycle emissions benefit. Regions of the country with high use of renewable energy will see stronger emissions benefits.

FUEL ECONOMY

Fuel economy for electric vehicles is not rated in miles per gallon like conventional vehicles. Electric vehicles are rated in miles per gallon of gasoline equivalent, or MPGe. The MPGe represents the number of miles a vehicle can drive using a quantity of fuel or electricity with the same energy content as one gallon of gasoline. According to the Alternative Fuels Data Center, most all-electric vehicles achieve combined fuel economy ratings higher than 100 MPGe. Studies show this covers daily household trips for most drivers.

Driving range for an EV can vary from 100-400 miles or more, depending on the vehicle. This is often shorter than comparable conventional fuel vehicles. Extreme outside temperatures tend to reduce range, because the battery uses energy powering the climate control system as well as the motor. Speeding, rapid acceleration, aggressive driving, and hauling heavy loads reduces range, too.

Photo courtesy of ZERO Motorcycles

ZERO DS ELECTRIC MOTORCYCLE

COST

EVs generally cost more to purchase than comparable conventional vehicles. However, lower fueling and maintenance costs make them a competitive option. Electricity is less expensive than gasoline or diesel on an energy-equivalent basis. For all-electric vehicles, electricity costs range from two cents to six cents per mile. Similar gasoline or dieselpowered vehicles cost ten cents to fifteen cents per mile. The U.S. Department of Energy estimates all-electric vehicle owners can save as much as $14,500 in fuel costs over 15 years.

Some all-electric vehicles qualify for a federal tax credit. Some states and utility companies offer tax incentives for consumers as well.

MAINTENANCE

EVs typically require less maintenance than conventional vehicles because the battery, motor, and associated electronics require minimal maintenance, and there are fewer fluids to change. Also, the regenerative braking system helps brakes last longer. A typical manufacturer’s battery warranty covers eight years or 100,000 miles. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory expects batteries to last 12 to 15 years in moderate climates under normal driving conditions.

ENERGY SECURITY

Widespread use of all-electric vehicles could dramatically reduce petroleum consumption. This could increase the nation’s energy security and lessen our dependence on foreign oil supplies. Electricity in America is produced almost entirely from domestic resources and is typically more cost-efficient than gasoline. Electricity prices are more stable than gasoline as well. In some areas of the country, consumers can purchase electricity generated by renewable resources which will decrease their vehicle’s impact on the environment.

The Future Of All-Electric Vehicle Technology

Automotive engineers who specialize in electric systems continue to research and develop ways to improve EVs and their batteries. They design electrical components to cost less to manufacture, they design the electric motor to run more efficiently, and they figure out ways to lighten the vehicle to give it better fuel economy. When automobile manufacturers fail to meet the federal government’s rules for minimum fuel economy, the Corporate Average Fuel Economy standard, they must pay a fine for every mile per gallon they fall below the standard multiplied by every vehicle they sell. This is a huge financial penalty that greatly impacts the direction of the auto industry. The fastest way to improve fuel economy is offering electric vehicles for sale. Nearly all of the major auto manufacturers have electric vehicle models, and some have pledged to only sell electric vehicles by 2030. We should continue to see a dramatic increase in the number of electric vehicles in the U.S. in the coming years.

What’s the difference between all of these types of vehicles?

Photo via Alexander-93 via Wikimedia Commons

Graphic by NEED Designer

Fuel Cell Technology

The term “electric vehicles,” or EVs, commonly refers to vehicles that use electricity either as a fuel source or to improve vehicle efficiency. This includes all-electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs).

FCEVs have a propulsion system similar to other electric vehicles, using electricity to power an electric motor to drive the wheels. While the other EVs draw their electricity from energy stored in a battery, FCEVs draw electricity from a fuel cell powered by hydrogen. Fuel cell vehicles are more efficient than conventional vehicles with internal combustion engines, and they produce no harmful tailpipe emissions.

Hydrogen

FCEVs are fueled with pure hydrogen gas stored in a tank on the vehicle. Hydrogen is abundant in our environment, for example, it’s found stored in water (H₂O), hydrocarbons (such as methane, CH₄), and organic matter. However, a challenge of using hydrogen as a fuel is efficiently extracting it from these compounds. Hydrogen can be produced from domestic resources, including fossil fuels, biomass, and water electrolysis with electricity. The environmental impact and energy efficiency of hydrogen depends on how it is produced.

There are several ways to produce hydrogen. Natural gas steam reforming is the cheapest, most efficient, and most common method. When natural gas is reacted with high-temperature steam, synthesis gas—a mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and a small amount of carbon dioxide—is created. The carbon monoxide is reacted with water to produce additional hydrogen. Almost all commercially produced hydrogen in the U.S. is made this way.

Another process, called gasification, reacts coal or biomass with high-temperature steam and oxygen in a pressurized gasifier, creating synthesis gas also caled syngas. Syngas gas contains hydrogen and carbon monoxide. It is reacted with steam to separate out the hydrogen.

In another method, electrolysis, an electric current splits water into hydrogen and oxygen. The process can be used on a small or large scale. It takes a lot of electrical energy to perform electrolysis. If the electricity is produced by renewable sources, such as solar or wind, the resulting hydrogen is considered renewable, too. Using excess renewable electricity when it is available to make hydrogen through electrolysis is known as green hydrogen

There are a few other ways to produce hydrogen today. Fermentation converts biomass into sugar-rich feedstocks that can be fermented to produce hydrogen, and renewable liquid reforming reacts ethanol with high-temperature steam to produce hydrogen. Ammonia cracking is a process that uses heat and a catalyst to split ammonia, NH4, into hydrogen and nitrogen gas.

Nearly all hydrogen consumed in the United States is currently used by the industrial sector for refining, treating metals, producing fertilizer, and processing foods. Hydrogen is typically produced on-site where it will be consumed.

There are currently three ways to distribute hydrogen to another location. The least expensive way is by pipeline. However, only 1,600 miles of hydrogen pipelines exist in the U.S., located near large petroleum refineries and chemical plants near the Gulf Coast. The other methods involve compressing hydrogen in highpressure tube trailers or liquefying it. Both ways allow hydrogen to be transported by truck, railcar, ship, or barge. These methods are expensive and meant for short distances.

At this time, there is no infrastructure to produce and distribute hydrogen into a nationwide network of hydrogen fueling stations. Creating the infrastructure presents many challenges. First, hydrogen contains less energy by volume than all other fuels. So transporting, storing, and delivering it to a fueling station is more expensive than conventional fuels. Second, building a hydrogen pipeline network will cost a lot of money. Third, hydrogen gas has unique properties which present a challenge for designing pipeline compressors and materials.

Since hydrogen can be produced from a wide variety of resources, local energy resources could be used to produce hydrogen onsite at fueling stations. This would cut out expensive distribution costs. However, it would be very expensive to build an on-site production facility every place one is needed.

Since hydrogen is an energy carrier, it is not labeled renewable or nonrenewable. However, we do use both renewable and nonrenewable sources of energy to produce hydrogen, and to generate the electricity used to produce hydrogen.

Hydrogen is considered an alternative transportation fuel by the federal government under the Energy Policy Act of 1992. FCEVs powered by hydrogen are considered alternative fuel vehicles.

Currently, there is no way to determine how much of the hydrogen produced each year is consumed by fuel cell electric vehicles as an alternative transportation fuel.

Photo

HYDROGEN MOLECULE

History of Hydrogen FCEV Technology

Scientist and researchers demonstrated the principles of fuel cells as early as 1801 using carbon based fuels. Using hydrogen and oxygen was first proposed by English professor Francis Bacon in 1932, although it took him until 1959 to develop it into a practical electric-generating system.

The world’s first fuel cell electric vehicle was developed by General Motors engineers in 1966. The Electrovan had an electric propulsion system powered by a hydrogen fuel cell. The hydrogen tank and fuel cell stacks took up most of the floor space in the demonstration vehicle.

The U.S. government started a fuel cell research program in the 1970s after the first oil embargo. This program led to new methods of building fuel cell electrodes and jumpstarted research and development in this field worldwide. From the 1970s-1990s, small demonstration projects tried out various hydrogen and fuel cell technologies. For example, hydrogen used in an internal combustion engine, or ammonia used in a fuel cell. Research projects focused on increasing the power density of fuel cell stacks, and developing hydrogen fuel storage systems, too. Demonstration fleets tested promising technologies. For example, the U.S. Postal Service test drove a fleet of hydrogen-fueled Jeeps in 1977. By the end of the century, most major automakers had active FCEV demonstration fleets.

Starting in 2008, a few Americans were able to test drive FCEVs, too. Honda was the first automaker to lease an FCEV to the public. The FCX Clarity was available to a small group of customers in California. Then, General Motors introduced a test fleet of Chevrolet Equinox hydrogen FCEVs. Hundreds of drivers from southern California, New York, and Washington, D.C. spent a few months each test driving a FCEV. In 2014, Hyundai’s Tucson Fuel Cell vehicle was the first commercially leased FCEV in America. Five fuel cell vehicle models are available to consumers in model year 2024. However, they are only for sale or lease in specific areas of California or Hawaii that have an adequate number of hydrogen refueling stations.

Hydrogen as a Transportation Fuel Today

Hydrogen can power passenger vehicles in two ways. An internal combustion engine can burn hydrogen for fuel, or a fuel cell stack can turn hydrogen and oxygen into electricity to power an electric motor.

The U.S. Department of Energy estimates there are 16,900 fuel cell electric vehicles in the U.S. today. Each uses pure hydrogen gas stored in a tank onboard for fuel. Currently, there are 55 public hydrogen refueling stations in America, most are located in California. There are also private stations supporting fleets and some stations primarily used for demonstration or research projects. California is focusing on adding hydrogen fuel pumps at existing gasoline stations in San Francisco, Los Angeles, and San Diego. Efforts are also underway to expand hydrogen fueling locations in Hawaii and across the East Coast.

FCEV Technology Today

There are different types of fuel cells that can be used for a wide range of applications. Small fuel cells have been developed to power laptop computers, cell phones, and military applications. Large fuel cells can provide electricity for emergency power in buildings and in remote areas that do not have power lines.

Vehicles typically use Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cell technology, combining hydrogen from an onboard fuel tank and oxygen from the air to generate an electrical current. These fuel cells produce less than 1.16 volts of electricity though, so to have enough power to move a vehicle, multiple fuel cells are combined into a fuel cell stack. The amount of power generated by a fuel cell stack depends on the size of the individual fuel cells, how many are in the stack, and the surface area of the PEM. Electricity generated by the fuel stack powers the vehicle’s electric motor.

To control how powerful the vehicle is, more fuel cells or bigger fuel cells could be used. To give a vehicle more stored energy – in order to travel a greater distance–a bigger hydrogen fuel tank could be used. Of course both of these changes have consequences. Adding weight to a vehicle with more fuel cells or a larger hydrogen tank will decrease efficiency and increase production costs. Automotive engineers must balance the need for power, range, fuel economy, safety, and the cost of manufacturing parts when designing a vehicle.

FCEVs are fueled with pure hydrogen which emits only water and heat. It takes less than four minutes to refuel with hydrogen. FCEVs have a driving range over 300 miles. To increase efficiency, FCEVs use a regenerative braking system, which captures the energy lost during braking and stores it in a battery. Electricity can be drawn from the battery to help power the vehicle when needed.

Photo taken by NEED at GM Heritage Center

How Fuel Cells Work

In a PEM fuel cell, an electrolyte membrane is sandwiched between a positive electrode (cathode) and a negative electrode, (anode). Hydrogen is introduced to the anode and oyxgen (usually from air) to the cathode. The hydrogen molecules break apart into protons and electrons due to an electrochemical reaction in the fuel cell catalyst. Protons travel through the membrane to the cathode.

The electrons are forced to travel through an external circuit to perform work (providing power to the electric motor) then recombine with the protons on the cathode side, where the protons, electrons, and oxygen molecules combine to form water.

Source: U.S. Department of Energy

Impacts of Using Hydrogen and FCEVs

As with any source of fuel, and any kind of technology, there are benefits and challenges to driving a hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicle. EMISSIONS

FCEVs can have significant emissions benefits over conventional vehicles. Fuel cells produce electric power without any combustion or carbon emissions. Using hydrogen in a FCEV produces no air pollutants or greenhouse gases. The only tailpipe emissions are water and warm air. Hydrogen burned in an internal combustion engine produces only nitrogen oxides (NOX). It is important to remember than in order to make hydrogen at a production facility, emissions are likely released. For example, the steam reforming process burns natural gas and results in carbon dioxide emissions. And, while the electrolysis process makes only hydrogen and oxygen, it requires a lot of electricity. If fossil fuels are burned to generate this electricity, pollutants and emissions are produced. Of course, electricity used to power electrolysis can also come from renewable or zero-carbon sources like wind, solar, and nuclear.

FUEL ECONOMY

Fuel economy for electric vehicles is not rated in miles per gallon like conventional vehicles. Electric vehicles are rated in miles per gallon of gasoline equivalent, or MPGe. The MPGe represents the number of miles a vehicle can drive using a quantity of fuel or electricity with the same energy content as one gallon of gasoline. According to the U.S. Department of Energy Alternative Fuels Data Center, most fuel cell vehicles achieve combined fuel economy ratings between 57 and 74 MPG e, depending on the model and have a range of 350-400 miles per tank of hydrogen.

FUEL STORAGE

Hydrogen contains much less energy than gasoline or diesel when compared by volume. This makes storing hydrogen a challenge. Hydrogen needs to be compressed at a very high pressure to be stored compactly. Ideally, there should be enough hydrogen stored on board to drive 300 to 400 miles before refueling. Currently, storing this much hydrogen requires a larger tank than other fuels. Light-duty vehicles have limited space and weight capacity for fuel storage. Medium- and heavy-duty vehicles may have more space to hold larger tanks onboard, but that could reduce the amount of load they can carry because of government regulations on weight limits.

COST

For FCEVs to be competitive in the marketplace, the cost of fuel cells will have to decrease substantially without compromising vehicle performance. FCEVs are currently more expensive to purchase than similar conventional vehicles. A limited number are available for sale or lease to the public. To offset the higher purchase price, FCEVs may qualify for federal and state tax credits.

ENERGY SECURITY

Hydrogen can be produced domestically from resources like natural gas, coal, solar energy, wind, and biomass. Using hydrogen to fuel FCEVs could offset petroleum consumption in the transportation sector. This could reduce the nation’s dependence on petroleum imports.

The Future of Hydrogen as a Transportation Fuel

The U.S. Department of Energy is funding research and development projects to make hydrogen a part of our nation’s energy system. One area of research is producing hydrogen for the same cost as conventional fuel, while minimizing environmental impacts. Some methods being investigated include: using solar concentrators or nuclear reactors to generate high temperatures and chemical reactions to split hydrogen from water molecules, using green algae microbes and solar energy to make hydrogen, and producing hydrogen from water using special semiconductors and energy from sunlight.

Another area of research involves improving technologies to costeffectively distribute hydrogen from where it is produced to where it is used. And finally, improving technologies so fuel cell vehicles can store enough hydrogen onboard to have a 300 mile driving range without taking up excessive space or adding excessive weight.

Engineers and scientists are researching new technologies for fuel cells, too. They want to reduce the size of the fuel cells, produce them cheaper, and improve their performance and durability.

Conservation Matters

Many Factors to Consider Fuel Economy Label

There is one more transportation “fuel” to consider. It is the concept of conservation. Conservation is making a choice to use less energy. Riding your bike to a friend’s house instead of asking for a ride in the car is conservation.

If you don’t drive yet, you may feel like conservation is out of your control, but actually, there are things you can do to help your family’s car use less gasoline. Start by taking your sports gear out of the trunk when you aren't on the way to sports. Storing extra stuff in the trunk, especially heavy items, wastes gasoline. You can also walk, ride a bike, carpool, or take public transportation whenever possible. Each time you skip riding in the car, you are saving gasoline. Finally, share what you have learned here with the person who drives your family’s car!

Fuel Economy Matters

Driving the most fuel-efficient vehicle you own is one way to conserve energy, use less gasoline, and save money on fuel. Using real data from the U.S. Department of Energy, let’s crunch some numbers to estimate how fuel economy affects fuel costs for passenger cars and trucks today.

The price of gasoline changes daily and varies greatly by where you live in the country. For this scenario, let’s use the average retail price of gasoline in July 2024. According to the U.S. Department of Energy, this was $3.75 per gallon.

The average passenger car drives 10,847 miles per year with an average fuel economy of 24.8 miles per gallon. This means an average passenger car driver can expect to spend $1,640 on gasoline each year. Light-duty trucks and SUVs have a lower fuel economy than cars, averaging 18.1 miles per gallon, while driving an average of 11,412 miles per year. So, the average light truck or SUV driver will likely spend $2,364 for gasoline each year. Let’s also consider some vehicles that are more and less efficient than the average. Using the same scenario, a person driving a fuel-efficient hybrid car getting 56 miles per gallon would spend only $726 per year on gasoline, while the driver of a less efficient standard pickup truck, getting 12 miles per gallon, would spend $3,589 per year for fuel.

Our side-by-side comparison clearly shows the fuel economy of the vehicle you drive directly impacts how much you spend on gasoline.

When buying a vehicle, choose a fuel-efficient model. All new cars and light trucks in dealer showrooms must display a Fuel Economy Label, often called a window sticker. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is responsible for providing the fuel economy data found on the label. There are labels specific to electric vehicles, PHEVs, FFVs, FCEVs, compressed natural gas vehicles, and of course, conventional vehicles fueled by gasoline or diesel. The label shows the estimated fuel economy for city, highway, and combined driving. It also gives an estimate of how much fuel or electricity it takes to drive 100 miles. Electric vehicle labels include information on the driving range and charging time, too. The fuel economy label shows the vehicle’s expected annual fuel cost and estimates how much consumers will save or spend on fuel over the next five years compared to the average new vehicle. There are also easy-to-read ratings showing how your vehicle compares to all others for smog and greenhouse gas emissions. Finally, there is a QR Code® on the label to access the vehicle’s online information on www.fueleconomy.gov.

What if you are purchasing a used vehicle? Used cars and trucks might not have a printed window sticker, but you can still compare their fuel economies on the website fueleconomy.gov. Choose the makes and models you are considering, and the website provides a detailed side-by-side comparison. Whether you purchase new or used, choosing a more fuel-efficient vehicle could save you thousands of dollars in fuel costs each year, while reducing your carbon footprint and environmental impacts, too.

Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards are set by the federal government. These standards push auto manufacturers to improve fuel economies and greenhouse gas emissions across all the vehicles they sell. If they don’t meet the average fuel economy requirement each year, they must pay a fine. To meet the CAFE standards, auto manufacturers will need to offer a wide range of vehicles, including alternative fuel and electric vehicles with high fuel economies and low emissions, to balance their sales of popular pickup trucks and SUVs that have lower fuel economies and higher emissions.

As manufacturers build more fuel-efficient vehicles and alternative fuels enter the market, the fuel economy of the cars we drive continues to improve. In the late 1970s, the estimated fuel economy of passenger cars was 18.7 MPG. In model year 2017, it was 39.2 MPG. By model year 2026, auto manufacturers will need to have an average fuel economy for passenger cars of 49.0 MPG.

Fuel Consumption Matters

Even with improved vehicle fuel economies, the total amount of petroleum consumed by the transportation sector has increased dramatically over the years – almost 60 percent since 1973. The transportation sector uses about 13 million barrels of petroleum each and every day.

Who is consuming all that petroleum? Mostly our personal cars, pickup trucks, and SUVs, which use 62.3 percent of the fuel. Commercial vehicles consume the rest. This includes buses, passenger trains, boats, and airplanes specifically moving people. As well as trucks, trains, ships, and airplanes working in the freight industry to move products across the country.

Trucks use more fuel than any other mode of commercial vehicle, about 22.8 percent of the petroleum consumed by the transportation sector. Almost all products are at some point transported by a truck. Trucks don’t have good fuel economy and they drive a lot of miles per year. Airplanes consume a lot of energy moving people and products, too. In 2023, more than 862 million passengers flew on commercial flights from one U.S. airport to another. Aircraft use about nine percent of the petroleum consumed by the transportation sector.

Transportation

Use by

Source: Transportation Energy Data Book, Edition 39

TRANSPORTATION AND CONSERVATION

One example of practicing conservation is choosing to use less gasoline each day. Here are several actions that lead to using less gasoline. Most are controlled by a car’s owner or driver.

ƒ Drive carefully.

ƒ Avoid speeding and making quick starts and stops.

ƒ Turn off the car’s engine whenever it is parked.

ƒ Use the cruise control to maintain a constant speed.

ƒ Remove surf boards, bikes, skis, or cargo carriers from the roof.

ƒ Inflate tires to the proper pressure.

ƒ Fix any vehicle maintenance problems.

ƒ Use the type of motor oil recommended by the vehicle’s manufacturer

ƒ Combine errands into one trip.

ƒ Drive the most fuel-efficient vehicle you own.

Why does it matter how much petroleum the transportation sector consumes? Americans like the freedom of driving cars – wherever, whenever, and as much as we want. We’re also embracing the growing world of ecommerce, ordering items online delivered right to our door. But it requires fuel consumption to live this way. The transportation sector uses 13 million barrels of petroleum each day so we can drive as we like and receive packages on the porch. Burning any fossil fuel releases greenhouse gas emissions, including carbon dioxide. According to the U.S. EPA, the transportation sector released more greenhouse gas emissions than any other sector in 2022. Consuming less fuel means emitting less carbon dioxide into the environment.

Cars, Pickup Trucks, and SUVs 62.3%

Personal cars, pickup trucks, and SUVs, which use 62.3 percent of petroleum fuel.

Aircraft use about nine percent of the petroleum consumed by the transportation sector.

PETROLEUM FUELED CARS

AIRCRAFT

Photo courtesy of Adobe Stock/ Tomasz Zajda

Photo courtesy of heychli/Adobe Stock

Energy Efficient Vehicle Technologies Matter

Using technology to reduce the amount of energy needed to move a vehicle is known as energy efficiency. The more efficient a vehicle is, the less fuel it needs to consume. Advanced technologies often focus on engine and transmission systems. Here are a few examples in use today.

ƒ Start-stop systems automatically turn the engine off when a vehicle comes to a stop and restarts the engine when the brake is released or the accelerator is pressed. With no idling, fuel isn’t wasted.

ƒ Regenerative braking is often used to convert mechanical energy lost in braking into electricity, which is stored in a battery and used to power the automatic starter.

ƒ Cylinder deactivation technology shuts off some of an engine’s cylinders when they aren’t needed. An 8-cylinder engine temporarily turns into a 4-cylinder engine, saving fuel.

ƒ Turbochargers and superchargers are compressors that force additional air into an engine’s cylinders. This allows more fuel to be injected as well. The additional air and fuel create more power. Vehicles can use smaller engines without losing any performance.

ƒ Adding gears to the transmission allows the engine to operate at a more efficient speed more often. The more gearing options a vehicle has, the more efficient it can be.

ƒ Some advances in technology aren’t tied to the engine or transmission, but still improve vehicle efficiency.

ƒ A tire in motion is continually deformed by the load of the vehicle on it. This causes energy loss. Manufacturers developed low rolling resistance tires by changing the tire shape, materials, and tread design in order to reduce rolling resistance and improve fuel economy.

ƒ It takes less energy to propel a lighter vehicle than a heavier one. Manufacturers are reducing weight by designing vehicles to use less material, using lighter weight materials, and downsizing the powertrain. Weight can be reduced without reducing vehicle size, safety, or riding comfort.

Emissions Matter

Life cycle emissions considers all the ways emissions are generated over the entire life of a product. For the transportation sector, there are many places where emissions may be generated and released into the environment. For example, emissions are released during vehicle manufacturing, including all the parts that go into each vehicle. Emissions are released as fossil fuels are extracted and moved to a refinery, as fuels are produced, and finally when distributed to where the consumer will purchase them. Emissions are released as fuels burn in vehicles for motion. Cars that use electricity for fuel produce zero tailpipe emissions, however, emissions may be produced as electricity is generated at a power plant.

All vehicles sold in the U.S. must meet emissions guidelines set forth by the government. Even with strict emissions standards in place, our passenger cars and pickup trucks released over one billion metric tons of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere in 2022, almost entirely as carbon dioxide. The hard-working trucks moving our goods and packages in the freight industry released an additional 413 million metric tons of greenhouse gases.

Sources: U.S. Dept. of Energy, Energy Information Administration and Transportation Energy Data Book

Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Sector,

Burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, into the atmosphere. Why does this matter? According to the Environmental Protection Agency, “The buildup of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and other greenhouse gases like methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) is causing the Earth’s atmosphere to warm, resulting in changes to the climate we are already starting to see today.”

Young people around the world are concerned about climate change. If you’re wondering how to make a difference, think about the car you use every day. Burning one gallon of gasoline creates about 8,887 grams of carbon dioxide emissions. Every action you can take to conserve fuel, using less gasoline, results in less greenhouse gas emissions.

There are ways to reduce CO₂ emissions from your family’s car. Start by driving the most fuel-efficient vehicle you own. Get the best fuel economy out of your car with good driving habits. Combine short trips and errands if possible. And finally, make an effort to leave the car at home. Bike, walk, or use public transportation instead. When you are ready to purchase a new vehicle, choose one with good fuel economy. You can also choose to purchase a vehicle that uses a low carbon fuel, such as ethanol or compressed natural gas.

Fuel Diversity Matters

It’s important to remember that there are advantages and disadvantages, as well as benefits and challenges, to using each transportation fuel and technology available in America. No fuel can meet all the needs of our current transportation sector on its own.

Energy Sustainability Matters

Sustainable energy use means meeting our energy needs today while making sure future generations will have their energy needs met, too. To do this, our generation must develop energy from renewable resources; consume energy more efficiently; and practice energy conservation.

Almost all vehicles on the road today use nonrenewable fossil fuels as their source of energy. Before these resources run out, we need to find new ways to power vehicles. While scientists and engineers work to develop new fuels and vehicle technologies, it makes sense to use current fossil fuel resources wisely. Efficiency and conservation are key components of energy sustainablility.

Decisions Matter

When it comes to choosing which car to drive and which fuel to use, your family must make decisions. Will you own a car or use public transportation? How important is the convenience of having a vehicle at home whenever you need to go somewhere? Are there any public transportation options near your home and work?

Will your family buy a car that uses gasoline or an alternative fuel? You might want to drive an alternative fuel car, but can you afford the purchase price? Is there a refueling station close to your home?

Your family may think about the environment while making these decisions. Does your vehicle produce emissions or air pollution? Does making the fuel you use produce emissions or air pollution?

Your family may think about the cost of fuel, too. Some fuels cost more to produce so they cost more to buy. Some vehicles have excellent fuel economy. Some vehicles consume more fuel than others. Purchasing more fuel costs your family more money.

Your family may think about energy use while making their decisions. Some vehicles consume more energy than others. Some fuels require a lot of energy to produce. Some fuels are renewable, while some are nonrenewable. What will happen in the future if we run out of certain fuels? Does it matter how much energy your family consumes?

Luckily, there are many transportation options for consumers. Each has benefits and challenges, advantages and disadvantages. Which car to drive and which fuel to use are important decisions every family must make.

Someday, these decisions will be yours to make. As a consumer, you will need to purchase fuel for your vehicle, food from the market, and products shipped right to your door. At work and at home, you will use electicity made from coal shipped by railcars or natural gas that flowed through a pipeline. You will depend on transportation and energy to meet your needs and make your life enjoyable.

Someday, you will choose which car to buy, what fuel to use, and if you will make an effort to use less energy for your transportation needs. Your decisions will impact how much energy is used for transportation in America. Your decisions will matter.

NEW ALL-ELECTRIC EQS

WMATA RED LINE TRAIN IN D.C.

Photo coutesy of WMATA

Photo coutesy of Pangalau via Wikimedia Commons

Pipeline Push

? Question

How do pipelines move products for the transportation industry?

 Hypothesis

Write a statement describing how you would model the movement of products through a pipeline.

Materials AT THE MODEL STATION

ƒ Container labeled "Crude Oil", filled with slurry

ƒ Container labeled "Incoming Refinery Storage Tank"

ƒ Container labeled "Outgoing Refinery Storage Tank"

ƒ Container labeled "Storage Terminal"

ƒ 2 Basters

ƒ Clean coffee filter

ƒ Funnel

Procedure

CHOOSE YOUR ROLE

Materials FOR EACH GROUP

ƒ 4 Flexible straws

ƒ Scissors

ƒ Index card

ƒ Tape

ƒ Safety glasses

1. There are many different occupations in the pipeline industry. These workers are all about fast, efficient, and safe delivery. They need to be excellent troubleshooters when things go wrong, and not mind getting muddy, wet, or dirty. Most pipeline jobs require a high school education. Read each job description below. Career descriptions courtesy of www.careeronestop.org.

PIPEFITTER

Assemble, install, alter, and repair pipelines or pipe systems that carry water, steam, air, or other liquids or gases. May install heating and cooling equipment and mechanical control systems.

PETROLEUM PUMP SYSTEM OPERATOR

Operate or control petroleum refining or processing units. May specialize in controlling pipe systems and pumping systems, gauging or testing oil in storage tanks, or regulating the flow of oil into pipelines.

WELDER

Use hand-welding, flame-cutting, handsoldering, or brazing equipment to weld or join metal components or to fill holes, indentations, or seams of fabricated metal products.

REFINERY OPERATOR

Operate or control petroleum refining or processing units. May specialize in controlling pipe systems and pumping systems, gauging or testing oil in storage tanks, or regulating the flow of oil into pipelines.

2. Write each person’s name next to their assigned role.

OPERATING ENGINEER

Operate several types of power construction equipment, such as motor graders, bulldozers, scrapers, compressors, pumps, derricks, shovels, tractors, or front-end loaders to excavate, move, and grade earth, erect structures, or pour concrete or other hard surface pavement. May repair and maintain equipment in addition to other duties. Work on pipelines is associated with orientation, digging, grading, bending drilling, and covering.

3. Read through the entire activity so you know what materials you need, what your job responsibilities are, and when you are expected to do them.

PART I: PREPARE THE PIPELINE

1. PIPEFITTER – Lay two straws on the table long end to long end. Use scissors to cut a notch from the long portion of one straw so it fits into the long portion of the other straw. Pass this section of pipe to the Welder. On an index card or scrap paper, make a small label that says "Transmission Pipeline" and give the label to the Welder.

2. WELDER – When you receive the pipeline from the Pipefitter, use tape to securely weld the joint. Weld the "Transmission Pipeline" label onto the straw where it’s easily visible and not close to either end of the pipe.

3. PIPEFITTER and WELDER – Repeat steps above to make and weld another section of pipeline, and label it "Refined Product Pipeline".

4. PIPEFITTER – Inspect all sections of pipe and welding to ensure the system is safe and will not leak. Certify the pipelines are ready for installation by notifying your teacher you are ready to use the model.

PART II: MODEL THE PIPELINE SYSTEM

When your teacher gives permission, follow these steps at the model station. Record your observations and draw a picture of the pipeline system model.

1. OPERATING ENGINEER – Carry the pipeline sections to the model. Hold the Transmission Pipeline over the container labeled Crude Oil, with the bendy end pointing up, and the other bendy end pointing down into the container labeled Incoming Refinery Storage Tank. See pipeline system photograph.

2. PETROLEUM PUMP SYSTEM OPERATOR – Fill your pump, (the baster), with some crude oil and pump it through the Transmission Pipeline until it flows into the Incoming Refinery Storage Tank. Continue pumping until you’ve collected a good amount of liquid in the container.

3. REFINERY OPERATOR – Put a clean coffee filter into the funnel and place it in the container labeled Outgoing Refinery Storage Tank. Slowly pour the contents of the Incoming Refinery Storage Tank into the coffee filter and let it drain – this could take a few minutes. Once the liquid has drained, remove the funnel and discard the wet coffee filter in the trash.

4. OPERATING ENGINEER – Hold the Refined Product Pipeline over the container labeled Outgoing Refinery Storage Tank, with the bendy end pointing up, and the other bendy end pointing down into the container labeled Storage Terminal

5. PETROLEUM PUMP SYSTEM OPERATOR – Fill your pump, the baster, with liquid from the Outgoing Refinery Storage Tank and pump it through the Refined Product Pipeline until it flows into the Storage Terminal. Continue pumping until all the liquid is in the Storage Terminal container.

6. REFINERY OPERATOR – Dump liquids and clean up the model station following your teacher’s instructions.

Data and Observations

Make a drawing of your pipeline system. Label all of the parts.

 Conclusions

1. Why does the transportation sector consider pipelines a mode of transportation?

2. Shipments of U.S. crude oil are moved by pipeline, tanker and barge, or rail. According to the Bureau of Transportation Statistics, in 2023, tankers and barges moved 22 million barrels of crude oil, railroads moved 65 million barrels, and pipelines moved 1,389 million barrels. Draw a graph of this data on a separate sheet of paper.

3. What are some advantages of using pipelines to move oil and gas products?

4. Describe something you would do to improve this model.

Freight Friction

? Question

What is the relationship between friction and work?

Materials

ƒ 1 Empty box lid

ƒ 1 Box lid filled with marbles

ƒ Wood block

ƒ Spring scale

Procedure

1. Attach the spring scale hook to the eye bolt in the wood block. Lay the wood block flat in the empty box, at one end. Slowly pull on the spring scale until the block is moving. Continue pulling the block slowly and steadily. Have a partner read the scale as the block is moving. Record the data in the table. Conduct two more trials.

2. Conduct the same investigation using the lid filled with marbles. Try to pull at the same steady speed each time.

3. Calculate the average of each data set.

 Data Trial 1

2

Conclusions

1. In your own words, explain friction.

2. Which set up required the least amount of energy to move? Cite your data in your explanation.

3

3. The world-wide shipping company, United Parcel Service (UPS), uses a system similar to the marbles in this experiment to move heavy shipping containers in and out of their airplanes. The floors of the cargo areas are covered in ball bearings – small metal spheres – embedded in the floor. Think about what you experienced in this activity. How would using ball bearings in cargo planes benefit UPS workers?

Block alone

Block on marbles

Build a Barge Challenge

Problem

Energy on the Move Shipping Company needs to update their fleet of barges. They are looking to award a barge building contract to a company that shows they have reliable, efficient, and economic barges. Your bid should include a specific barge design, and data that shows your maximum carrying capacity.

Design Criteria

ƒ Construct a barge that will carry a maximum load in the water.

ƒ Barge must stay afloat.

ƒ For each 100 tons you carry you will be paid $2.00.

Constraints

ƒ Barge Dimensions: width = 7.8 cm x length = 38 cm x depth = 3.8 cm

ƒ Construction Budget: $10.00

Procedure

1. In your science notebook, or on a spare piece of paper, brainstorm at least two barge designs and share your designs with your team, if working in groups.

2. Choose one design to move forward with. Draw a diagram of the design and explain why you think this design will be successful.

3. “Purchase” your supplies and record your transactions on your budget sheet. (Hint: You may want to save some money so that you can purchase extra supplies, should you need to revise your design.)

4. Build your barge.

5. Conduct at least three trials to test your design. Record your results.

6. Make any revisions to your design that would improve your results, and that you can afford. Test your design again.

7. Write a conclusion using the questions to guide you.

My Design Plan

Data and Observations

Building Center – Cost Sheet

ITEM

Tape (15 cm) ...@ $0.05

One plastic cup ......................................... ...@ $0.50

Aluminum foil (30 cm x 15 cm)............ ...@ $0.40

Staple (only one staple) ......................... ...@ $0.05

Construction paper (28 cm x 21.5 cm)..@ $0.30

Straw ...@ $0.20

Foam board (60 cm x 15 cm) ...@ $5.00

Cardboard (60 cm x 15 cm) ................... ...@ $3.50

Poster board (60 cm x 15 cm)............... ...@ $2.50

Corrugated plastic (60 cm x 15 cm) ... ...@ $5.50

Barge Budget Sheet

Conclusion

How much money did you put into the construction of your barge? How much cargo were you able to carry? How much money did you make for delivering your cargo? How many trips would it take before you start seeing a profit? Is there anything you could have done differently in this process to make more money?

Science of Electricity Model

Observe the science of electricity model. Draw and label the parts of this model. On the lines below, explain how electricity is generated.

Start Your Engines

START YOUR ENGINES! An Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines

Most of us don’t give much thought to the way the engines in our cars work. We make sure there is enough fuel, we turn the key, buckle the seat belt, and just drive. It is not until something goes wrong that we appreciate the complexity under the hoods of our cars.

No matter what fuel a vehicle uses, if it uses a fuel, it works on the same principle as all others: combustion. Burning fuel releases a lot of energy. Very simply, the energy from the fuel is used to push a part of the engine, which pushes another part of the car, which turns the wheels, which propels you down the road.

GASOLINE ENGINES

In order to burn properly, gasoline, like any other combustible substance, needs oxygen. In a gasoline engine, the gasoline and air are mixed together in an amount set by the car’s powertrain control module, or PCM. Air is inserted into each cylinder through the air intake valve, and gas is injected through a fuel injector into the cylinder. The amount of fuel injected into the cylinder is dependent upon the degree to which the driver depresses the gas pedal (accelerator).

Each cylinder has its own fuel injector, spark plug, and piston. The spark plug provides an electrical spark, which is the small amount of energy, called activation energy, needed to ignite the fuel. After the fuel and air mix is inducted into the cylinder, the piston compresses the mixture. The spark ignites it, causing the fuel to burn. When the gasoline burns, it releases a large amount of energy given the small amount of fuel in the cylinder. The energy released pushes down on the piston. The piston comes

Internal Combustion Engine, Single Cylinder

back up, more fuel is injected, and the whole cycle repeats. A typical automobile engine will spark gasoline several hundred times a minute.

The pistons are connected to the crank shaft, which transforms the linear motion of the piston into circular motion that is transferred to the wheels of the car through the transmission and drive shaft. Finally, the wheels are turning and your car moves forward.

The energy from the gasoline must be transferred several times before it actually turns the wheels on the car. Every time that energy is transferred from one part to another, some of the energy is dissipated as thermal energy loss. The actual efficiency of an internal combustion engine is very low – approximately 20% of the available energy in the gasoline is used to move the car forward, and the other 80% is lost.

A. Injection: Fuel and Air Mixture Spark Plug B. Compression C. Power: Fuel Burns and Forces Piston Down

DIESEL ENGINES

Diesel engines operate under the same essential idea, but the fuel is ignited differently. Diesel engines do not have spark plugs; instead, they rely on the high temperatures generated from compression. The air is injected into the cylinder, and compressed. As the air is compressed, its temperature increases, and into this hot air the diesel fuel is injected. The high temperature of the air immediately ignites the fuel because the temperature is above the flash point of the diesel fuel.

After the diesel fuel is burned, the engine functions the same way that the gasoline engine does, with a piston being pushed down, and the energy being transferred through a series of gears and other mechanisms, until it reaches the tires.

RACING ENGINES

Automotive racing vehicles are fundamentally no different than the vehicle you might have parked in your driveway. INDYCAR®, NASCAR®, Formula 1 cars, and even go-karts have most of the same parts. They all use an internal combustion engine and have transmissions, suspensions, wheels, and brakes. However, as these high-performance vehicles are used for speed rather than leisure, this is where their similarities stop.

Much of the design of an INDYCAR®, from the chassis down to the specific parts of the engine, is standardized, tested, and approved by INDYCAR® officials. All engines used in the INDYCAR® Series are manufactured by Honda or Chevrolet. These engines are all 2.2 liter, V-six-cylinder, twin turbocharged hybrid engines that run on an ethanol race fuel blend. Each cylinder has two inlet and two exhaust valves, one spark plug, and up to two fuel injectors. Turbochargers help to boost the engine’s horsepower by compressing the air let into the cylinder. By doing so, more fuel can be added to the mix, creating more of an explosion in each cylinder. This enables a racing team to optimize the power to weight ratio of their vehicle.

START THOSE ENGINES!

Starting a car is simple, right – you just turn the key, or push the button? There are actually a lot of parts involved in the starting of any car, which is something we may realize only after our car fails to start the first time. A starter is simply a motor or device used to rotate the internal combustion engine and also allow the engine to operate under its own power.

An electric starter motor is the most common type of starter used on smaller gasoline and diesel engines. Very simply, the starter sends electric current to crank the crankshaft and move the

Internal Combustion Engine, Diesel

E ciency)

pistons. Before your key or starter button is activated, the circle is open and current will not flow. When your key or starter button is activated, the battery sends current first to a device called a solenoid. This solenoid allows the circuit to be closed and current to continue to travel on to a starter motor. This motor is a DC electric motor that allows the engine to be set in motion. Electric motors use a magnetic field and a conductor to generate force. Once the engine is turned on, the starter switch (circuit) is opened, causing the starter motor to stop running and the engine to operate under its own power.

High-performance racing vehicles like INDYCAR® require a remote or external starter. This device is attached to the vehicle prior to race time by a technician and removed once the car is started, before it enters the race course. Using external starters allow teams to further control the power to weight ratio on the vehicles, as they do not need to house a heavy battery and motor.

Motors vs. Generators

1. Look at the disassembled motor. Pull out the rotor made of coils of wire and magnets. Examine the stator, or the casing with magnets inside. Record and illustrate the disassembled motor and label its parts below.

2. Fold a piece of tape like a flag onto the shaft of the assembled motor. Mark one side of the flag with a marker.

3. Connect the assembled motor to the 9-volt battery with the alligator clips. What do you see happening? Explain how the motor is working below.

4. Experiment with ways to make the flag rotate in the opposite direction. Describe how this was able to work.

5. Complete the Venn diagram below comparing the motor to the generator you observed.

MOTOR GENERATOR

6. Design a way to turn your science of electricity generator into a motor, like those used in electric starter motors. Describe what your design would change or incorporate. Draw a picture. Test it out if time allows.

Energy Bricks

? Question

Which transportation fuels have the most energy? Which transportation fuels produce the most carbon dioxide (CO2)?

Background

Most of the energy sources we use exist in the form of chemical energy – we get the energy from them by burning them. Biomass, coal, natural gas, petroleum, and propane are all burned, and the thermal energy released is used to do something useful for us. With transportation, the thermal energy is used by the engine to move the vehicle. Chemical energy is changed into thermal energy, and thermal energy is changed into kinetic energy, or motion of the car.

Not all transportation fuels have the same amount of energy. Did you ever wonder why large machines use diesel fuel instead of gasoline? And did you ever wonder why certain alternative fuels are researched and used for transportation uses while others are not? The amount of energy in those fuels is an important factor to think about. Another consideration is how much carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, will be produced when the fuel is used. This activity will help you understand the energy within fuels as well as the amount of carbon dioxide they produce.

 Hypothesis

Write a hypothesis stating which fuels you think have the most energy and produce the most carbon dioxide.

Procedure

1. Snap together or assemble brick blocks or shapes for each fuel to represent energy produced by 20 gallons of fuel from the chart on page 47.

2. Snap together or assemble brick blocks or shapes for each fuel to represent the CO2 emitted by 20 gallons of fuel from the chart on page 48.

3. Compare the sizes of bricks for each fuel in each scenario. Answer the questions below.

Conclusion

In complete sentences, explain which fuel you think is best for transportation. Use the data from your worksheets to support your answer.

How Much Energy is in Transportation Fuels?

Most family vehicles can hold about 20 gallons of fuel.

How Much Carbon Dioxide Do Transportation Fuels Produce?

One pound of carbon dioxide would fill a large, 65-gallon trash can almost to the top.

Transportation Expo Organizer

Name of fuel or technology:

How is the fuel made?

How does the fuel get to consumers?

Renewable or Nonrenewable?

Conventional or Alternative?

History of the fuel or technology:

How is it used today?

Number of vehicles or models:

Number of fueling stations:

Benefits and challenges of using it:

Positive and negative impacts of using it:

What’s the future look like?

Comparing Racing Fuels

The objective of this activity is to compare racing fuels, and list the pros and cons of different racing fuels.

Vocabulary

ƒ alcohol

ƒ atmosphere

ƒ automobile

ƒ bacteria

ƒ biodegradable

ƒ carbon dioxide

ƒ chemical energy

ƒ combustion

ƒ E15

ƒ E85

Student Background Information

ƒ efficient

ƒ ethanol

ƒ fermentation

ƒ flammable

ƒ fossil fuel

Henry Ford didn’t invent the automobile, rather he found a way to make cars at a price that most American families could pay. Henry Ford also developed race cars, and helped establish the Indianapolis 500 race. Today, many parts of the cars we drive were first developed in race cars. Stronger tires, lighter materials, better brakes, and even the rear view mirror came from the racing industry.

Improvements made to race cars also led to better fuels to power those cars. When building a race car, mechanics try to improve the safety of the vehicle, and how well the car performs. Cars don’t play musical instruments or sing songs, so the performance of a race car describes how fast it goes, how easy it is to control, and how much fuel it uses.

At first, race cars, like passenger cars, ran on gasoline. However, as the cost of gasoline has gone up, other fuels have been used. Formula 1 racing still uses gasoline, while NASCAR® use a mixture of ethanol and gasoline (E15). The fuel used in INDYCAR® is a 100% renewable fuel blend of ethanol from sugarcane and other renewable sources.

Gasoline is a transportation fuel made from petroleum, or crude oil. It is produced in a refinery and is very flammable, meaning it will catch on fire very easily. Gasoline has a distinct odor, is clear but slightly yellowish in color, and can make you very sick if you breathe in the vapors or get it on your skin. Gasoline will not mix with water, and if it spills on the ground it is not biodegradable. Things that are biodegradable can be broken down by bacteria, fungi, or other organisms, like the way a dead tree on the forest floor rots. Gasoline is a fossil fuel, and is nonrenewable

Ethanol is a type of alcohol. It is made when bacteria or yeast turn sugar or starch into ethanol and carbon dioxide. This happens in a process called fermentation. It is the same process that turns grape juice into wine. However, unlike making wine, making ethanol to use in a race car requires that the alcohol be separated from everything else in the fermentation container. Extra sugar, starch, water, and the yeast or bacteria must be removed. Because ethanol is made from things we can get from plants, it is renewable. Even though ethanol is biodegradable, large amounts of it can make you sick. Ethanol, like gasoline, has a strong odor and is flammable, too. Hospitals and science labs use ethanol to kill unwanted bacteria.

ƒ fungi

ƒ gasoline

ƒ greenhouse gas

ƒ mechanic

ƒ motion

ƒ nonrenewable

ƒ organism ƒ performance ƒ petroleum

refinery

renewable

thermal energy

vapor

Gasoline is a good transportation fuel because it has a lot of chemical energy stored in it. The engine of a car burns the fuel in a process called combustion. It changes the chemical energy to thermal energy and motion. Burning gasoline produces mostly carbon dioxide and water vapor. Carbon dioxide and water vapor are greenhouse gases. When energy is released into the atmosphere, greenhouse gases absorb the energy and get hot, just like the windows on a greenhouse keep the inside of the greenhouse warm.

Ethanol also has a lot of chemical energy, and also produces carbon dioxide and water when it burns. The biggest difference between burning ethanol and gasoline is that the carbon dioxide produced when ethanol burns was created by something recently living, and can be used by the next crop of plants used to make more ethanol. Burning a fossil fuel like gasoline produces carbon dioxide that can’t be removed from the atmosphere when more gasoline is produced. The plants and animals that formed the fossil fuel died hundreds of millions of years ago.

Passenger cars and trucks use their fuel much more efficiently than racing vehicles. Most passenger cars can drive twenty miles or more on one gallon of fuel, usually gasoline. Race cars can only usually travel 3 to 6 miles on one gallon of fuel. Passenger cars are usually heavier, and of course can hold more than just one person. Race cars have only the parts necessary to make them go very fast, and don’t have things like radios or air conditioners. Would you be willing to give up your favorite music to be able to drive a race car?

Teacher Demonstration: Comparing Properties of Ethanol and Gasoline

Observations

? Discussion Questions

1. How are the two fuels different?

2. How are the two fuels the same?

3. Do you think ethanol can replace gasoline as a fuel? Use what you have seen in the activity to answer the question. Write specific examples of what you saw to explain your answer.

Modeling Gasoline and Ethanol Combustion

Observations and Data

? Discussion Questions

1. Which fuel has more chemical energy stored in one liter?

2. Which fuel produces more carbon dioxide from one liter?

3. Which do you think is more important in one liter of fuel, producing less carbon dioxide or having more energy? Explain your answer with information from this activity and from the information you read earlier.

4. Why do you think race cars in NASCAR® and INDYCAR® use a mixture of gasoline and ethanol or 100% ethanol? Use information from this activity to explain your answer.

Venn Diagram

In the diagram below, write facts that are only true about gasoline in the oval on the left. Write facts that are only true about ethanol in the oval on the right. In the space where the ovals overlap, write facts that are true about both gasoline and ethanol.

MPG Matters

? Question

What is the payback period when purchasing a hybrid electric vehicle?

Conventional Hybrid Comparison

Vehicle

Combined Miles Per Gallon (MPG)

Manufacturer Suggested Retail Price (MSRP)

Fuel Cost Per Gallon $ $

Yearly Mileage

Yearly Consumption

Yearly Fuel Cost

Total Fuel Cost

15,000 miles

How many gallons of gasoline does this vehicle use each year?

Yearly Mileage ÷ MPG =

How much will you spend on gasoline each year?

Yearly Consumption X Cost Per Gallon =

How much will you spend in two years?

Yearly Fuel Cost X 2 =

How much will you spend in three years?

Yearly Fuel Cost X 3 =

How much will you spend in four years?

Yearly Fuel Cost X 4 =

How much will you spend in five years?

Yearly Fuel Cost X 5 =

How much will you spend in six years?

Yearly Fuel Cost X 6 =

How much will you spend in seven years?

Yearly Fuel Cost X 7 =

How much will you spend in eight years?

Yearly Fuel Cost X 8 =

How much will you spend in nine years?

Yearly Fuel Cost X 9 =

How much more does the hybrid cost to buy?

Hybrid – Conventional =

15,000 miles

How many gallons of gasoline does this vehicle use each year?

Yearly Mileage ÷ MPG =

How much will you spend on gasoline each year?

Yearly Consumption X Cost Per Gallon =

How much will you spend in two years?

Yearly Fuel Cost X 2 =

How much will you spend in three years?

Yearly Fuel Cost X 3 =

How much will you spend in four years?

Yearly Fuel Cost X 4 =

How much will you spend in five years?

Yearly Fuel Cost X 5 =

How much will you spend in six years?

Yearly Fuel Cost X 6 =

How much will you spend in seven years?

Yearly Fuel Cost X 7 =

How much will you spend in eight years?

Yearly Fuel Cost X 8 =

How much will you spend in nine years?

Yearly Fuel Cost X 9 =

How much less gasoline does the hybrid use each year?

Conventional – Hybrid =

How much money does the hybrid save each year?

Conventional – Hybrid =

How much money does the hybrid save in two years?

Conventional – Hybrid =

How much money does the hybrid save in three years?

Conventional – Hybrid =

How much money does the hybrid save in four years?

Conventional – Hybrid =

How much money does the hybrid save in five years?

Conventional – Hybrid =

How much money does the hybrid save in six years?

Conventional – Hybrid =

How much money does the hybrid save in seven years?

Conventional – Hybrid =

How much money does the hybrid save in eight years?

Conventional – Hybrid =

How much money does the hybrid save in nine years?

Conventional – Hybrid =

1. When purchasing a vehicle, consumers often focus on the purchase price. They look for a car that fits their budget. They may not consider how much they will pay for fuel while owning the car. Explain to someone purchasing a vehicle why MPG matters.

2. In your own words, explain the payback period.

3. Share at least one advantage and one disadvantage of owning a hybrid vehicle.

Pretzel Power

? Question

What is fuel economy and why is it important to getting around?  Materials

ƒ One 3” x 5” card or label

ƒ Bag of 10 pretzels or other snack from your teacher

Procedure

1. Think about the kind of car you would like to drive.

2. Go to the website www.fueleconomy.gov. Research the fuel efficiency of the car you choose.

3. On your card, record the name of the car, the year it was made, how many miles per gallon it travels, and how many passengers can fit in the car.

4. Your teacher will give you a bag of pretzels or snack item. Each item represents one gallon of gasoline and the bag represents one tank of fuel or equivalent.

5. For Round One: You will be “driving” from “Home” to work in “Near Town” and back home again while using only 5 gallons of fuel (5 items). You will be marking the distance driven by taking steps heel-to-toe. One step represents one mile driven.

ƒ Eat one item. Take as many heel-to-toe steps as your car would be able to drive on one gallon of fuel. Do not take any more steps than your car can drive.

ƒ Eat another item and again take as many steps as your car can drive on one gallon of fuel. Continue this until you have used five “gallons of fuel” (snack items).

6. For Round Two: In this round you will be traveling to “Far Town” in your car. Decide if you should carpool, and find passengers for your car, or join another person’s carpool.

ƒ If you carpool, all members combine their remaining snack items. Only one person may eat a snack item at a time.

ƒ When your teacher indicates the start of Round Two, begin stepping as a group as you drive to Far Town. Count the steps together for the car you chose to drive.

 Conclusions

1. During Round One, were you able to make it to Near Town and back Home? Did you have fuel remaining?

2. During Round Two, were you able to make it to Far Town and back Home? How were you able to travel this greater distance?

3. In your own words, explain what the MPG rating means. Why is the fuel economy of a car important?

4. Explain the benefits of carpooling. Describe the disadvantages, too.

School Bus Comparison

Your school district has approval to purchase ten new buses. The buses will be in service for the next 15 years. Since your class is studying alternative fuels, the superintendent wants your help crunching the numbers to determine the best economic purchase. Use the chart below to calculate and compare the costs of purchasing and operating both diesel and propane-fueled school buses.

CAPITAL COSTS

-

Fuel Consumed Each Year (Annual Mileage ÷ Fuel Economy = )

Annual Fuel Cost (Fuel Consumed X Fuel Cost = )

Lifetime Fuel Cost (Annual Fuel Cost X 15 Years = )

OPERATING COSTS – PREVENTATIVE MAINTENANCE

Lifetime Maintenance Cost (Service Visits + Other Maintenance = )

What is the total cost to purchase and operate one bus for 15 years?

(Bus Purchase Price + Lifetime Fuel Cost + Lifetime Maintenance Cost = )

What is the total cost to purchase and operate 10 school buses?

 Conclusion

Summarize your findings for the Superintendent. Which type of school bus is the better economic purchase?

Electric School Bus Case Study

? Research Question

What are the main advantages and disadvantages of electric school buses? Case Study:

Citation:

Research Notes and Data

School district demographics:

What was the motivation for purchasing electric buses?

Where did the money come from?

Capital costs (bus, electric vehicle supply equipment):

Operating costs (fuel and maintenance):

Life cycle greenhouse gas emissions:

How do bus drivers feel about driving an electric bus?

Advice or lessons learned:

 Conclusion

Answer the research question. Cite data from the case study to support your explanations.

What’s a Case Study?

A case study is a detailed look into a specific subject. It’s often used in business research to describe, compare, and evaluate a realworld problem.

An Amazin' Delivery

Gasoline-Powered Delivery Vans

2021 Ford Transit Connect Van FWD

20 City MPG, 348-mile range

Tailpipe CO2 = 397 grams per mile

Data: www.fueleconomy.gov

2021 Mercedes-Benz Metris (Cargo Van)

19 City MPG, unknown range

Tailpipe CO2 = 432 grams per mile

Delivery Van: _________________________________________________

ROUTE DATA:

Delivery #1

Delivery #2

Delivery #3

Delivery #4

Delivery #5

Delivery #6

Delivery #7

Delivery #8

Delivery #9

Delivery #10

Total miles driven: ___________________________

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) emitted: ________________

Electric-Powered Delivery Vans

2022 Ford E-Transit Cargo Van

126-mile range

Tailpipe CO2 = 0 grams per mile

GM’s BrightDrop EV600 Van

250-mile range

Tailpipe CO2 = 0 grams per mile

Data: Car and Driver, autoblog.com, Roadshow

Delivery Van:

ROUTE DATA:

Delivery #1

Delivery #2

Delivery #3

Delivery #4

Delivery #5

Delivery #6

Delivery #7

Delivery #8

Delivery #9

Delivery #10

Total miles driven: _____________

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) emitted: ________________

2021 Ram Promaster City

21 City MPG, 386-mile range

Tailpipe CO2 = 374 grams per mile

= ___________________

Rivian’s Custom Amazon Electric Van

150-mile range

Tailpipe CO2 = 0 grams per mile

Fuel Economy Myth Busters

There are several common fuel economy myths that many drivers believe. Unfortunately, believing these myths leads to bad driving habits that waste fuel and waste energy. Teaching the drivers in your community the facts about today’s fuel-efficient cars will help them waste less fuel – saving them money and saving energy!

1. First, find out which myths your family believes. Give the main driver in your house the “true or false” quiz found below.

2. Next, tally the survey with your classmates to figure out the five most popular myths in your community.

3. Choose one of the five most popular myths. Research the facts at www.fueleconomy.gov.

4. Finally, create a project that teaches drivers the truth about your chosen fuel economy myth. Project ideas include designing a poster, a door knob hanger, or a restaurant placemat; or creating a public service announcement video or commercial, etc.

FUEL ECONOMY QUIZ

Directions: Decide if each statement is true or false.

1. ______ You should warm up your car before driving it.

2. ______ You can improve your car’s fuel economy by installing aftermarket devices or using fuel additives.

3. ______ You have to drive a small car to get good fuel economy.

4. ______ A manual transmission gets better fuel economy than an automatic.

5. ______ Filling up with premium fuel will boost your car’s fuel economy.

6. ______ Starting the engine uses more fuel than idling.

7. ______ Replacing the air filter will help your car run more efficiently.

8. ______ Fuel economy decreases each year as a vehicle ages.

9. ______ The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) tests all vehicles sold in the U.S. for fuel economy.

10. ______ The EPA’s fuel economy estimates are a government guarantee for the fuel economy each vehicle will deliver.

BUST THOSE MYTHS!

MYTH #1: You should warm up your car before driving it.

FACT #1: You don’t need to warm up a car’s engine before driving it. Today’s cars can drive within seconds of starting. The fastest way to warm up a car’s engine is to actually drive it. One exception is when you are hauling a heavy load, such as pulling a camper. Then, you should let your vehicle’s engine reach its normal operating temperature before driving.

Here’s another important driver’s tip. Whenever you start the engine and leave a car running in order to heat up or cool down the interior –you are wasting fuel, wasting energy, and wasting money!

MYTH #2: You can improve your car’s fuel economy by installing aftermarket devices or using fuel additives.

FACT #2: Aftermarket devices and fuel additives do not improve fuel economy.

The EPA has conducted tests that show aftermarket devices and fuel/oil additives do not improve a vehicle’s fuel economy. In fact, they found these devices and additives can damage your engine and may increase tailpipe emissions.

Whenever gas prices rise, companies flood the market with potions and gadgets that claim to help your car use less gasoline or achieve better fuel economy. Believing the fancy commercials and false claims, drivers are fooled out of their money. The Federal Trade Commission warns drivers to stick to free actions you can take to increase your fuel economy, such as taking extra weight out of your trunk, not driving over the speed limit, and avoiding quick starts and stops, for example.

MYTH #3: You have to drive a small car to get good fuel economy.

FACT #3: You have to drive a fuel efficient car to get good fuel economy.

More important than the size of a car, are the advanced technologies found inside it. Standard-sized vehicles can be very fuel efficient if they use advanced technologies like hybrid drivetrains, diesel engines, direct fuel injection, turbocharging, advanced transmissions, low rolling resistance tires, and aerodynamic designs. In fact, for model year 2024, many of the top ten most efficient gas-powered vehicles are classified as midsize or SUVs, averaging 35 MPG and up.

The most fuel efficient cars for sale today are all-electric vehicles. Their advanced technologies give SUVs, midsize, and large electric vehicles excellent fuel efficiency ratings, as high as 115-132 MPGe.

MYTH #4: A manual transmission gets better fuel economy than an automatic.

FACT #4: Manual and automatic transmissions usually have the same fuel economy.

Advanced transmission technologies are used today in all vehicles, improving their fuel efficiency. In model year 2024, vehicles that offer both a manual model and an automatic model can be compared side-by-side on the government’s fuel economy website, www.fueleconomy.gov. Side-by-side comparisons show that the automatic model of a vehicle often gets the same or better fuel economy as the manual transmission model.

MYTH #5: Filling up with premium fuel will boost your car’s fuel economy.

FACT #5: Filling up with premium fuel does not affect your car’s fuel economy.

Vehicles with high compression engines, such as luxury cars and sports cars, may require using premium grade fuel. But, for most drivers, filling up with premium gasoline instead of regular will cost more money, and it will not change their car’s fuel economy. The recommended gasoline for most vehicles is regular 87 octane. Premium gasoline is usually 92 octane or higher.

The octane rating measures a gasoline’s ability to resist engine knock, a rattling or pinging sound coming from an engine cylinder. Using the recommended octane level for your vehicle will eliminate these engine noises. Using a higher octane level than recommended by your vehicle’s manufacturer will not make your car perform better, go faster, get better fuel economy, or run cleaner. Using it won’t hurt your car – just your wallet – since premium gasoline costs more per gallon. It is important for drivers to read their owner’s manual and use the type of gasoline that is recommended.

MYTH #6: Starting

the

engine uses more fuel than idling.

FACT #6: Starting the engine uses less fuel than idling. Modern fuel injected engines start very efficiently. Argonne National Laboratory did a study that shows starting an engine uses about 10 seconds worth of fuel. Depending on how big your engine is, and if you are running the air conditioner, idling uses between a quarter to a half gallon of fuel per hour. This means idling costs about one to two cents per minute.

Of course there are times when idling is necessary, such as driving in stop and go traffic or waiting for a traffic light. Turn off your engine any time your vehicle is sitting still. Remember, idling gets 0 MPG. Idling wastes gasoline, wastes energy, and wastes money!

MYTH #7: Replacing the air filter will help your car run more efficiently.

FACT #7: Replacing an air filter will not affect the efficiency of your car.

This myth was true several decades ago. Prior to 1980, vehicles were built with carbureted engines. Replacing a dirty, clogged air filter was part of a regular oil change. It did improve both fuel economy and acceleration in these vehicles.

Vehicles manufactured since the early 1980s have computers that control their fuel-injected gasoline engines. An on-board computer automatically adjusts the fuel-air ratio to the proper level. Changing a dirty air filter won’t increase your efficiency or fuel economy at all. It is still a good idea to change it though, since increased air flow can improve your engine's performance.

MYTH #8: Fuel economy decreases each year as a vehicle ages.

FACT #8: Fuel economy remains constant as a vehicle ages, if it is properly maintained.

According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), who tests vehicle fuel economy for the federal government, a vehicle’s fuel economy typically improves over the first several years of ownership. To account for this, the EPA does their fuel economy rating tests on vehicles with about 5,000 miles on the odometer. By following your manufacturer’s suggested maintenance schedule you can expect your vehicle to keep its EPA estimated fuel economy rating for 10 to 15 years.

If you do plan to keep your vehicle several years, carefully consider the car’s fuel economy rating. Selecting which vehicle to purchase is the most important fuel economy decision you’ll make. The difference between a car that gets 20 MPG and one that gets 30 MPG is almost $1,000 per year in fuel costs (assuming 15,000 miles of driving annually and a fuel cost of $3.75). That’s nearly $5,000 extra in fuel costs during the first five years!

MYTH #9: The EPA tests all vehicles sold in the U.S. for fuel economy.

FACT #9: The EPA only tests light-duty vehicles sold in the U.S. for fuel economy.

By law, every new car and light-duty truck sold in the United States is required to have a fuel economy label. The label includes miles-per-gallon estimates that are designed to help consumers compare and shop for vehicles. The EPA is responsible for providing the fuel economy data on the window sticker.

Currently, the EPA is required by law to test and rate the fuel economy of all light-duty vehicle models weighing up to 8,500 pounds, and passenger vans or sport utility vehicles weighing up to 10,000 pounds. The EPA is not required to test pickup trucks and cargo vans over 8,500 pounds, or any vehicle weighing more than 10,000 pounds. Some poular pickup trucks exceed this weight limit and are therefore not tested and have no official fuel economy rating. The EPA is not required to test motorcycles or off road vehicles either.

Auto manufacturers are required to test their vehicles for fuel economy as well. This happens long before a vehicle goes on sale though, usually while it is still in the prototype phase. All fuel economy test results are submitted to the EPA for review.

MYTH #10: The EPA’s fuel economy estimates are a government guarantee for the fuel economy each vehicle will deliver.

FACT #10: The EPA’s fuel economy estimates are a government estimate for the fuel economy each vehicle will deliver.

The EPA is a government agency that tests the fuel economy of new cars and light-duty vehicles sold in the U.S. Fuel economy data is posted on the window sticker of new vehicles. These fuel economy estimates provide consumers with a uniform unbiased way to compare the efficiency of one car to another.

The EPA’s testing is done in a controlled laboratory setting. It reflects real-world driving conditions for both city and highway driving. But, one test cannot accurately model all driving styles and real-world environments. So therefore, the EPA’s fuel economy ratings are an estimate. The actual MPG a car achieves depends on many factors, such as the traffic condition, outside temperature, terrain, and type of gasoline in the tank. A driver’s habits affect a car’s MPG, too. Speeding, fast starts and stops, and aggressive driving all lower MPG. So using fuel economy estimates to help you purchase the most fuel efficient car is just step one. To benefit from your car’s good MPG, you will need to be a smart driver, too.

Road Trip CONVENTIONAL FUELS

The Challenge

Energy is required to transport you from place to place. In the United States, the transportation sector consumes 29 percent of total energy supply and is responsible for almost 40 percent of the greenhouse gases emitted in the U.S. each year.

Plan a four day road trip vacation. Where would you go? What stops would you make along the way?

1. Select a gasoline or diesel-powered vehicle make and model for your trip, then find its fuel economy ratings at www.fueleconomy.gov. Fill in the information below.

Vehicle Make and Model: __________________________________________________________

Fuel Type: _______________________ Fuel Economy (MPG): ______________________

2. In the chart’s left hand column, plan out each segment of your trip. Use the data and formulas provided below to calculate how many gallons of fuel will be required, and the amount of CO2 emissions.

The U.S. Department of Energy and EPA use the following CO2 emission values. Circle the value you will use in your calculations.

Gasoline CO2 Emissions = 8,887 grams/gallon

Diesel CO2 Emissions = 10,180 grams/gallon

Miles Driven/MPG = Total Gallons Consumed Total Gallons Consumed x CO2 Emissions grams/gallon = Total CO2 Emissions TO FROM MILES GALLONS CONSUMED TOTAL CO2 EMISSIONS

Think it Over

1. What made you pick the vehicle you selected?

2. What is the total amount of CO2 emissions associated with your trip?

3. How might the size of your vehicle’s gas tank affect your trip planning?

4. Can you find a less expensive, less carbon intensive vehicle than your first vehicle choice? Find at least two alternatives and explain how they compare to your original vehicle.

Resources: For more information on alternative fuel vehicles, visit the U.S. Department of Energy Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicles Data Center at www.afdc.energy.gov.

Road Trip ELECTRIC VEHICLE

The Challenge

Energy is required to transport you from place to place. In the United States, the transportation sector consumes 29 percent of total energy supply and is responsible for almost 40 percent of the greenhouse gases emitted in the U.S. each year.

Plan a four day road trip vacation. Where would you go? What stops would you make along the way? When would your stops require charging?

1. Select an EV model for your trip, then find its fuel economy equivalent ratings at www.fueleconomy.gov. Fill in the information below.

Vehicle Make, Model, and Year: _____________________________________________________________

Range: _________________________________ Fuel Economy (MPGe): ______________________

kWh per 100 miles: _______________________

2. Find your GHG emissions rate from https://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/Find.do?action=bt2 by selecting the year and model. Enter your zip code. Fill in the information below.

Total Emissions in Your Zip Code: ______________________________________________ grams/mile

Total Emissions with U.S. Average Power Mix: ____________________________________ grams/mile

3. In the chart’s left hand column, plan out each segment of your trip, or plug in the information used from your conventionally-fueled trip. Use the data above to calculate your total distance and CO2 emissions.

Think it Over

1. Why did you choose the vehicle you chose?

2. What is the total amount of CO2 emissions associated with your trip?

3. How would the range of your battery impact your trip?

4. How many times would you need to charge? Are there other factors outside of miles driven that might impact how frequently you need to charge?

5. Calculate the total number of kWh your car consumed during the entire trip using the information from the top of the page. If electricity costs $0.15/kWh on average in the U.S., how much would your trip cost?

Resources: For more information on alternative fuel vehicles, visit the U.S. Department of Energy Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicles Data Center at www.afdc.energy.gov.

Green Careers in Transportation

Ever wonder what career opportunities exist for you? The list below includes green career opportunities in transportation related fields. What’s a green career? According to the U.S. Department of Labor’s Occupational Information Network, “A green career can be any occupation that is affected by activities such as conserving energy, developing alternative energy, reducing pollution, or recycling.” There are green careers in the transportation sector focused on increasing efficiency and reducing environmental impact of mass transit, freight rail, and the trucking industry. There are green careers in the renewable energy generation sector developing renewable transportation fuels, and there are green careers in the manufacturing sector, building green technologies like electric vehicles. Whether you want to work outside or in an office, whether you have good people skills or you’re good with computers, whether you want to solve problems or work with your hands, there are opportunities to work in a green career in a transportation related field.

The list is separated by careers that might be in a plant, in a lab, outdoors, or in the field; careers where you’ll work most days in the office; and careers that might offer a mix of the two, or hybrid. Keep in mind, this list, from the U.S. Department of Labor, highlights a few green careers in transportation that are brand new, currently in high demand, or requiring workers to learn new skills specific to green technology. There are hundreds of additional transportation related careers, from Office Clerk to Air Traffic Controller, so no matter what your level of education or experience, you can find a career in the transportation industry. Explore the list and links provided by your teacher.

In the Field

Aircraft Structure, Surfaces, Rigging, and Systems Assembler

Automotive Engineering Technician

Automotive Specialty Technician

Biofuels Processing Technicians

Biomass Plant Technician

Bus and Truck Mechanic and Diesel Engine Specialist

Bus Driver, Transit and Intercity

Electrical and Electronic Engineering Technologist and Technician

Engine and Other Machine Assembler

Fuel Cell Technician

Heavy and Tractor-Trailer Truck Driver

Industrial Machinery Mechanic

Industrial Truck and Tractor Operator

Laborer and Freight, Stock, and Material Mover

Locomotive Engineer

Machinist

Maintenance/Repair

Methane/Landfill Gas Collection System Operator

Railroad Conductor and Yardmaster

Rail-Track Laying and Maintenance Equipment Operator

Robotics Technician

Solderer and Brazer

Team Assembler

Transportation Vehicle, Equipment and Systems Inspector

Welder

In the Office

Commercial and Industrial Designer

Dispatcher

Freight Forwarder

Logistics Analyst

Software Developer

Transportation Planner

Hybrid

Aerospace Engineer

Automotive Engineer

Biofuels/Biodiesel Technology and Product Development Manager

Biofuels Production Manager

Biomass Production Manager

Electronics Engineer (except Computer)

Fuel Cell Engineer

Industrial Production Manager

Logistics Engineer

Logistics Manager

Mechanical Engineer

Mechatronics Engineer

Methane Capturing System Engineer/Installer/Project Manager

Robotics Engineer

Shipping, Receiving, and Traffic Clerk

Storage and Distribution Manager

Supply Chain Manager

Transportation Engineer

Transportation Manager

Résumé Template

First and Last Name

Address, City, State, Zip Phone number and E-mail address

Employment Objective

Brief one- or two-sentence statement describing the ideal or desired employment position for this applicant.

Experience

Most recent relevant job related to desired position

Company Name, City, State Responsibilities

Skills Acquired

Next most recent relevant job related to desired position

Company Name, City, State Responsibilities

Skills Acquired

Third employment position, may or may not be relevant

Company Name, City, State Responsibilities

Skills Acquired

Education

Month/year range in this position

Month/year range in this position

Month/year range in this position

Graduate School (if applicable) Years Attended City, State

Degree attained and date

Major

Anything else relevant, such as awards, honors, distinctions, or research area(s)

College or Trade School Years Attended City, State

Degree attained and date

Major/minor

Anything else relevant, such as awards, honors, or distinctions

High School Years Attended City, State

Year Graduated

Relevant classwork or focus

Career Networking Template

NAME:

Trading Card Template

My education and certification requirements are: I am good at: Fun facts about my job:

JOB TITLE:

JOB DESCRIPTION:

EPEV Challenge

The Challenge

In a world full of alternatively powered cars, you have been hired to design a new vehicle. Using upcycled materials, your team will build a vehicle that is powered by its own Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE). After testing your prototype, you will upgrade your hybrid vehicle to be powered by an Elastic Potential Energy source. The challenge is broken up into 2 parts:

GPEV: Build a car that most efficiently transforms Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE) to Kinetic Motion Energy (KE) as it rolls down the hill. The vehicle that most efficiently transforms GPE energy to KE wins this challenge!

EPEV: Improve upon your GPEV by adding an Elastic Potential Energy (EPE) source to transform into Kinetic Motion Energy (KE) in a final vehicle race. The vehicle that travels the farthest from the starting line wins this challenge!

PART 1: GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY VEHICLE (GPEV)

 Materials

ƒ Toilet Paper Roll

ƒ Push pin

ƒ Hole punch

ƒ Drinking straws

ƒ Digital Scale (shared)

ƒ Axles (2)

ƒ Wheels (4)

ƒ Ruler

ƒ Hot glue gun

ƒ Safety glasses

Procedure for Stock Model Build

These instructions are the easiest way to build a working model. Teams are encouraged to innovate and deviate from this design and set of instructions.

1. Fold the toilet paper roll in half to make it easier to modify.

2. Decide if you will use bigger wheels or not. If modifying the size of your wheels to be larger, glue a CD to each wheel.

3. Measure & mark the location you will place your wheels to ensure that at least one of your axles is as close to the center of the car’s body as possible. One of your axles will eventually have a drive shaft added that needs to spin freely. Mark where you’d like to place your wheels’ axels with a dot at the front and back of the toilet paper roll. (see Figure 1)

4. You can use a hole punch, pencil, or pin to make a hole for the axles. Be careful not to have your fingers behind the cardboard as you puncture the holes. (see Figure 2)

5. To help align your prototype’s wheels, you can use the drinking straws on your axles as spacers, so the wheels don’t slide. Cut four 5 cm pieces of straw for this.

6. To install the front wheels and axle, start by adding a wheel to an axle. Alternate a straw spacer, the car’s body, and another straw spacer before adding the second wheel to lock it in place. You can redesign your straws from here if the front end does not roll smoothly and efficiently. (see Figure 3)

7. To install the rear axle, you’ll follow a similar method. Alternate a straw spacer, the car’s body, and another straw spacer before adding the second wheel to lock it in place. You can redesign your straws from here if the front end does not roll smoothly and efficiently.

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3

EPEV Challenge

GPEV TESTING

1. Using the digital scale, measure and record the mass of your prototype car.

2. Take turns with the other teams testing your car on the ramp and measuring the velocity of the car.

a. Your teacher or a team member will record your team’s car driving down the ramp using a Camera Stopwatch, or their camera’s slowmotion mode. Camera Stopwatch allows the staff to adjust the video’s time to begin as the car hits the bottom of the ramp.

b. The recorder will measure and provide you with the time it takes for the car to travel 0.5 m.

3. Divide the 0.5m distance by the time given by the recorder to calculate your speed/velocity. Record your data on the data table.

4. Calculate your vehicle’s GPE at the top of the hill, KE at the bottom of the hill, and efficiency using provided equations and given information on the next page.

5. Once your team has finished the calculations and questions, you may move onto Part 2: EPEV Challenge.

Data & Analysis

Analyze your team’s Gravitational Potential Energy Vehicle. Collect data from the Test Hill and use that information to calculate the GPE, KE, and Efficiency of your GPEV.

1. How much Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE) is stored at the top? This is the car’s total energy.

GPE = Mass * 9.8 * Height

2. How much Kinetic Energy (KE) is powering the car at the bottom of the hill?

KE = ½ * Mass * Velocity2

3. How efficient was your Gravity Vehicle? Use this formula to calculate efficiency as a percentage.

Efficiency % = 100

Kinetic Energy Total GPE Energy

PART 2: ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY VEHICLE (EPEV)

EPEV Challenge

 Materials

ƒ Toilet paper roll car

ƒ Rubber bands

ƒ Stirrer straws

ƒ Scissors

ƒ Hot glue gun

ƒ Safety glasses

Procedure for EPEV Stock Model Build

These instructions and the included visuals are the easiest way to build a working model. Teams are encouraged to innovate and deviate from this design.

1. You will power this model with a rubber band “engine” that operates on elastic potential energy. To make it easy to access the rubber band engine, cut a rectangular opening in the back of the car over the back axle, leaving a hole in the back of your car. (see Figure 4)

2. Cut or poke a smaller hole in the front of your car to tie your rubber band to the toilet paper roll. If you cut multiple holes, you can modify your design as you build it. (see Figure 4)

3. To power your EPEV model , you’ll need to install your rubber band motor. Tie a cow hitch knot to attach the rubber band to the front of the car and pull the rubber band through the car’s body, (see Figure 4). For a tutorial on tying a cow hitch knot, check out https://youtu.be/iFkjbHrviUk?si=Zc8hubt-ypnNuGR3.

4. On the driving axle of your EPEV model car, install a drive shaft for the rubber band to latch onto. This can be done by securely hot gluing small pieces of stirrer straws parallel to the axel. Cut pieces of the stirrer and glue them onto the axel. Make sure that the stirrer can spin freely without dragging along the EPEV's body as you spin the driving axle. (see Figure 4)

5. To charge up your car’s elastic potential energy, loop the end of the rubber band onto the drive shaft, while holding the rubber band tight on the other end, and start spinning the drive wheels. The rubber band should start wrapping around the axle once it is hooked onto the drive shaft. (see Figure 5)

6. Spin the wheels to stretch the rubber band around the axle itself. As you increase the stretch length of the rubber band, you increase the amount of elastic potential energy.

7. Add friction to the drive wheels using rubber bands. This will prevent the EPEV from spinning out when you release the rubber band.

8. Practice winding and releasing your team’s EPEV to perfect it for the race!

Figure 4

Figure 5

EPEV Challenge

EPEV TESTING

1. Take turns with the other teams testing your car on the ramp and measuring the velocity of the car by seeing how fast it travels the length of one or two meter sticks. Time your car and race other cars if you desire. Redesign as needed.

2. Calculate average velocity for your car over three trials.

3. Conduct head-to-head races to test your car with the winners moving on. Which car is the fastest in the class?

Data & Analysis

Analyze your team’s Elastic Potential Energy Vehicle. Collect data from the track to calculate the velocity of your EPEV.

a AC

b Glossary

see alternating current (AC)

advanced technologies see advanced technology vehicles

advanced technology vehicles a vehicle that combines new engine, power, or drivetrain systems to significantly improve fuel economy, includes hybrid power systems, fuel cells, as well as some specialized electric vehicles

all-electric vehicle see battery electric vehicle

alternating current (AC) an electric current that reverses its direction at regular intervals or cycles; in the U.S. the standard is 120 reversals or 60 cycles per second; typically abbreviated as AC

alternative fuel transportation fuels that are not petroleum-based, including methanol, denatured ethanol, natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas (propane), hydrogen, coal-derived liquid fuels, fuels derived from biological materials (biofuels such as soy diesel fuel), and electricity

atom a tiny unit of matter made up of protons and neutrons in a small dense core, or nucleus, with a cloud of electrons surrounding the core

b battery electric vehicle (BEV)

an all-electric vehicle that receives power by plugging into an electric power source and storing the power in a battery pack; BEVs do not use any petroleum-based or other liquid- or gas-based fuel during operation and do not produce tailpipe emissions

bi-fuel vehicle a motor vehicle that operates on two different fuels, but not on a mixture of the fuels; each fuel is stored in a separate tank

biodegradable a substance or object that can be decomposed by bacteria or other living organisms

biodiesel a fuel typically made from soybean, canola, or other vegetable oils, animal fats, and recycled grease; it can serve as a substitute for petroleum-derived diesel or distillate fuel

biofuels liquid fuels and blending components produced from biomass (plant) feedstock, used primarily for transportation

biomass-based diesel fuel

biodiesel and other renewable diesel fuel or diesel fuel blending components derived from biomass, but excluding renewable diesel fuel coprocessed with petroleum feedstocks

biomethane also known as renewable natural gas (RNG), purified or cleaned biogas, methane gas created when organic waste breaks down without oxygen

blending plant (blending terminal) a facility that has no refining capability but is either capable of producing finished motor gasoline through mechanical blending or blends oxygenates with motor gasoline

bulk (distribution) terminal a facility used primarily for the storage and/or marketing of petroleum products, which has a total bulk storage capacity of 50,000 barrels or more and/or receives petroleum products by tanker, barge, or pipeline

c carbon dioxide a colorless, odorless, noncombustible gas with the formula CO2 that is present in the atmosphere; it is formed by combustion and by respiration

carbon footprint the total amount of greenhouse gas emissions generated by our actions and activities

cellulosic fuel ethanol fuel ethanol produced from the cellulose, hemicellulose, or lignin components of biomass, as classified by the Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS); feedstocks include agricultural and forestry residues and dedicated energy crops

chemical energy energy stored in the chemical bonds of a substance and released during a chemical reaction such as burning wood, coal, or oil

coal

solid fossil fuel rock transported by train and used for electricity generation

combustion chemical oxidation accompanied by the generation of light and heat

compressed natural gas (CNG)

natural gas compressed to a pressure at or above 200-248 bar (i.e., 2900-3600 pounds per square inch) and stored in high-pressure containers, used as a fuel for natural gas-powered vehicles

compressor station any combination of facilities that supply the energy to move gas in transmission or distribution lines or into storage by increasing the pressure

conservation reducing energy consumption

conventional fuels petroleum-based fuels such as motor gasoline or diesel fuel

corporate average fuel economy also known as CAFE standards, regulate how far our vehicles must travel on a gallon of fuel

crude oil

d DC

see petroleum

see direct current (DC)

dedicated vehicle a vehicle that operates only on an alternative fuel, as when a vehicle is configured to operate on compressed natural gas

diesel fuel a fuel made by petroleum refining; the boiling point and specific gravity are higher for diesel fuels than for gasoline

direct current (DC) an electric current that flows in only one direction through a circuit, as from a battery; typically abbreviated as DC

distillate fuel oil

a general classification for one of the petroleum products produced distillation; includes diesel fuels and fuel oils; some products can be used in trucks and automobiles, railroad locomotives, and agricultural machinery; other products are used primarily for space heating and electric power generation

distillation process used to separate liquid mixtures into parts using evaporation and condensation

dual-fuel vehicle a motor vehicle that is capable of operating on an alternative fuel and on gasoline or diesel fuel; these vehicles have at least two separate fuel systems which inject each fuel simultaneously into the engine combustion chamber

e E85 a high-level gasoline-ethanol blend containing 51% to 83% ethanol, depending on geography and season

efficiency the ratio of useful energy delivered compared to energy supplied

elastic energy energy stored through the application of a force to stretch or compress an item

electrical energy the energy associated with electric charges and their movements

electric generator generates electricity from the rotating wheels while braking, transferring that energy back to the traction battery pack; some vehicles use motor generators that perform both the drive and regeneration functions

electric grid

an interconnected system that maintains an instantaneous balance between supply and demand (generation and load) while moving electricity from generation source to customer

electric hybrid vehicle an electric vehicle that either (1) operates solely on electricity, but contains an internal combustion motor that generates additional electricity (series hybrid); or (2) contains an electric system and an internal combustion system and is capable of operating on either system (parallel hybrid)

e electricity a form of energy characterized by the presence and motion of elementary charged particles generated by friction, induction, or chemical change; electricity is electrons in motion

electric vehicle (EV) a general term for any on-road licensed vehicle that can plug into an electric power source and uses electric power to move; EVs plug into a source of electricity and store power in a battery pack for all or part of their power needs; includes Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) and Plug-in Hybrid Vehicles (PHEVs)

electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE) infrastructure that supplies electric energy to recharge electric vehicles

electrolysis the process of splitting a water molecule into its basic elements

electromagnetic having to do with magnetism produced by an electric current

electron a subatomic particle with a negative electric charge; electrons form part of an atom and move around its nucleus

emission discharges into the air or releases of gases into the atmosphere from some type of human activity (cooking, driving a car, etc.); in the context of global climate change, emissions consist of greenhouse gases (e.g., the release of carbon dioxide during fuel combustion)

energy the ability to do work, produce change, or move an object; electrical energy is usually measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh), while heat energy is usually measured in British thermal units (Btu)

energy carrier see secondary source of energy

energy conservation changing a behavior or action with regards to energy use; riding a bike rather than driving a car

energy consumption the use of energy as a source of heat or power or as a raw material input to a manufacturing process

energy efficiency the ratio of energy input to output; energy transformations have varying levels of efficiency, depending on the forms of energy involved; efficiency can be increased with the incorporation or substitution of equipment

Energy Policy Act of 1992 passed by Congress to enhance U.S. energy security by requiring federal, state, and alternative fuel provider fleets to implement petroleum-reduction measures

ethanol (C2H5OH) a clear, colorless, flammable alcohol; ethanol is typically produced biologically from biomass feedstocks such as agricultural crops and cellulosic residues from agricultural crops or wood; can also be produced chemically from ethylene

exports

f feedstock

shipments of goods from within the 50 States and the District of Columbia to U.S. possessions and territories or to foreign countries

a raw material that can be used as a fuel or processed into a different fuel or product fermentation the changing of a sugar into an acid, gas, or alcohol with the presence of bacteria or yeast

finished motor gasoline see motor gasoline (finished)

fission the splitting of atomic nuclei; this splitting releases large amounts of energy and one or more neutrons; nuclear power plants split the nuclei of uranium atoms

fleet vehicle

any motor vehicle a company owns or leases that is in the normal operations of a company; fleet vehicles include gasoline/diesel powered vehicles and alternative-fuel vehicles

flexible fuel vehicle (FFV) has a single fuel system to handle alternative and petroleum-based fuels, can operate on alternative fuels (such as M85 or E85), or 100-percent petroleum-based fuels, or any mixture of an alternative fuel (or fuels) and a petroleum-based fuel

fossil fuels fuels (coal, oil, natural gas, etc.) that result from the compression of ancient plant and animal life formed over hundreds of millions of years

fractionation the process by which saturated hydrocarbons are removed from natural gas and separated into distinct products, or "fractions," such as propane, butane, and ethane

freight any type of goods, items, or commodities that are transported in bulk by air transport, surface transport, or sea/ocean transport

fuel cell a device capable of generating an electrical current by converting the chemical energy of a fuel (e.g., hydrogen) directly into electrical energy; fuel cells differ from conventional electrical cells in that the active materials such as fuel and oxygen are not contained within the cell but are supplied from outside; it does not contain an intermediate heat cycle, as do most other electrical generation techniques

fuel cell stack an assembly of individual membrane electrodes that use hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity

fuel economy distance travelled by a vehicle compared to volume of fuel consumed

fusion when the nuclei of atoms are combined or “fused” together; the sun combines the nuclei of hydrogen atoms into helium atoms in a process called fusion; energy from the nuclei of atoms, called “nuclear energy,” is released from fusion

g gasification process for converting carbon-based fuels (coal, biomass) into a gas for fuel using high temperature steam and pressure, production of syngas

gasoline grades the classification of gasoline by octane ratings; each type of gasoline (conventional, oxygenated, and reformulated) is classified by three grades - Regular, Midgrade, and Premium; in general, automotive octane requirements are lower at high altitudes

generator a device that turns mechanical or motion energy into electrical energy; the motion energy is sometimes provided by an engine or turbine

goods merchandise or economic commodities that are tangible, movable, and generally not consumed at the same time as they are produced

gravitational potential energy energy of position or place

greenhouse gases gases that trap the heat of the sun in the Earth’s atmosphere, producing the greenhouse effect; the two major greenhouse gases are water vapor and carbon dioxide; lesser greenhouse gases include methane, ozone, chlorofluorocarbons, and nitrogen oxides

h hybrid electric vehicle (HEV)

see electric hybrid vehicle

hydrocarbon compound consisting of only hydrogen and carbon bonds, organic compound that is combustible

hydrocarbon gas liquids (HGL)

mixtures of hydrogen and carbon molecules found within natural gas and petroleum; can be extracted from other hydrocarbons as a gas or, if pressurized, can be turned into a liquid; include ethane, propane, normal butane, isobutane, and natural gasoline, and their associated olefins, including ethylene, propylene, butylene, and isobutylene

hydrogen a colorless, odorless, highly flammable gaseous element; it is the lightest of all gases and the most abundant element in the universe, occurring chiefly in combination with oxygen in water and also in acids, bases, alcohols, petroleum, and other hydrocarbons

hydrotreating process using hydrogen to remove impurities from petroleum and natural gas, improves fuel quality and reduces pollution

i imports receipts of goods into the 50 States and the District of Columbia from U.S. possessions and territories or from foreign countries

industrial sector the part of the economy having to do with the production of goods; the industrial sector is made up of factories, power plants, etc.

infrastructure the basic physical structures, facilities, and systems needed to operate a society or business, for example: roads, buildings, power supplies

internal combustion engine type of engine that has one or more cylinders in which the process of combustion takes place, converting energy released from the rapid burning of a fuel-air mixture into mechanical energy

isotope an atom of an element with a differing number of neutrons and atomic mass, but similar chemical behavior

k kinetic energy the energy of a body which results from its motion

l Law of Conservation of Energy the law governing energy transformations and thermodynamics; energy may not be created or destroyed, it simply changes form, and thus the sum of all energies in the system remains constant

light-duty vehicles vehicles weighing less than 8,500 lbs, including automobiles, motorcycles, and light trucks

liquefied natural gas (LNG) natural gas (primarily methane) that has been liquefied by reducing its temperature to -260 degrees Fahrenheit at atmospheric pressure

m methane (CH4) a colorless, flammable, odorless hydrocarbon gas which is the major component of natural gas; also an important source of hydrogen in various industrial processes; methane is a greenhouse gas

midgrade gasoline gasoline having an antiknock index, i.e., octane rating, greater than or equal to 88 and less than or equal to 90; octane requirements may vary by altitude

miles per gallon (MPG) a measure of vehicle fuel efficiency; mpg is computed as the ratio of the total number of miles traveled by a vehicle to the total number of gallons consumed

miles per gallon of gasoline equivalent (MPGe)

represents the number of miles a vehicle can travel using a quantity of fuel with the same energy content as a gallon of gasoline (33 kilowatt-hours)

mode of transportation a vehicle that moves people, goods, or energy products from one place to another

molecule a particle that normally consists of two or more atoms joined together; an example is a water molecule that is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom

motion energy the displacement of objects and substances from one place to another

motor gasoline (finished) a complex mixture of relatively volatile hydrocarbons with or without small quantities of additives, blended to form a fuel suitable for use in spark-ignition engines; includes conventional gasoline, all types of oxygenated gasoline including gasohol, and reformulated gasoline, but excludes aviation gasoline

n natural gas a gaseous mixture of hydrocarbon compounds, the primary one being methane

natural gas processing plant facilities designed to recover natural gas liquids from a stream of natural gas that may or may not have passed through lease separators and/or field separation facilities; these facilities control the quality of the natural gas to be marketed

Newton’s Laws of Motion three physical laws that govern the force and motion interaction of all bodies, for example, the Law of Inertia

nitrogen oxides (NOX) compounds of nitrogen and oxygen produced by the burning of fossil fuels

nonrenewable fuels that cannot be easily made or replenished; we can use up nonrenewable fuels; oil, natural gas, and coal are examples of nonrenewable fuels

nuclear energy energy stored in the nucleus of an atom that is released by the joining or splitting of the nuclei

o octane rating a number used to indicate gasoline's antiknock performance in motor vehicle engines

oil embargo often referred to as a crisis, where members of an oil exporting country or group of countries halt commerce or trade of oil with another country or group of countries; embargoes result in high prices and shortages in the nations affected; the U.S. has been affected by embargoes and crises in the 1960s and 1970s

p particulate matter also called particle pollution, a mixture of solid particles or liquid droplets found in the air, for example dust, dirt, soot, or smoke

petroleum generally refers to crude oil or the refined products obtained from the processing of crude oil (gasoline, diesel fuel, heating oil, etc.); petroleum also includes lease condensate, unfinished oils, and natural gas plant liquids

PHEV configuration plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) typically use one of two configurations to combine an internal combustion engine with an electric motor:

parallel hybrid operation connects the engine and the electric motor to the wheels through mechanical coupling; both the electric motor and the engine can drive the wheels directly

series plug-in hybrids use only the electric motor to drive the wheels; the internal combustion engine is used to generate electricity for the motor

photosynthesis the process by which green plants make food (carbohydrates) from water and carbon dioxide, using the energy in sunlight

pipeline a length of pipe that carries petroleum and natural gas from a refinery to the consumer

plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV)

polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM)

a vehicle that can both (1) plug into an electric power source and store power in a battery pack and (2) use petroleum-based or other liquid- or gas-based fuel to power an internal combustion engine

fuel cells used in automobiles—also called Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cells—use hydrogen fuel and oxygen from the air to produce electricity

potential energy the energy stored within a body, due to place or position

power plant a facility where power is generated

premium gasoline gasoline having an antiknock index, i.e., octane rating, greater than 90; octane requirements may vary by altitude

propane (C3H8) a straight-chain saturated (paraffinic) hydrocarbon extracted from natural gas or refinery gas streams, which is gaseous at standard temperature and pressure; a colorless gas that boils at a temperature of -44 degrees Fahrenheit

public transportation local forms of transport such as buses, trains, and subways, that travel on designated routes, charge set fares, and are available to the public; also known as mass transit

pump stations stations located along pipelines that monitor and control the movement of petroleum and natural gas products

pyrolysis heating organic materials without the use of oxygen at high temperatures

r radiant energy any form of energy radiating from a source in electromagnetic waves

rail a method of surface transport, shipments of goods moved to consumers by locomotives pulling cars

refinery an industrial plant that heats crude oil (petroleum) so that it separates into chemical components, which are then made into more useful substances

regenerative braking a feature of hybrid and plug-in electric vehicles that captures energy normally lost during braking by using the electric motor as a generator and storing the captured energy in the battery

regular gasoline gasoline having an antiknock index, i.e., octane rating, greater than or equal to 85 and less than 88; octane requirements may vary by altitude

renewable diesel fuel diesel fuel and diesel fuel blending components produced from renewable sources that are coprocessed with petroleum feedstocks and meet requirements of advanced biofuels

renewable fuels that can be easily made or replenished; we can never use up renewable fuels; types of renewable fuels are hydropower (water), solar, wind, geothermal, and biomass

Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS)

a regulation created under the Energy Policy Act of 2005 and implemented by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to ensure transportation fuel sold in the United States contains a minimum volume of renewable fuels and for these fuels to be blended into transportation fuel in increasing amounts each year

retail fueling station location where the public can purchase fuel from a retailer (a firm that carries on the trade or business of purchasing refined petroleum products and reselling them to ultimate consumers without substantially changing their form)

s secondary source of energy also known as energy carriers, these sources require another source of energy to be created; electricity is an example of a secondary source of energy

sedimentary a type of rock formed by deposits of earth materials, or within bodies of water; oil and gas formations, as well as fossils are found within sedimentary rock formations; coal is a sedimentary rock

smog

a form of air pollution

sound energy energy that travels in longitudinal waves

steam reforming producing syngas by reacting hydrocarbons with water, process used to create hydrogen

sustainable describing a behavior or practice that is capable of being continued with minimal effects on the environment

t tailpipe emissions emissions produced through fuel combustion during a vehicle's operation

thermal energy the total potential and kinetic energy associated with the random motions of the atoms and molecules of a material; the more the molecules move and vibrate the more energy they possess

traction battery stores electricity for use by the electric traction motor

transesterification

chemical process used to make biodiesel, converting fats and oils into fuel

transportation moving people and/or goods from one physical location to another

transportation sector the part of the economy having to do with how people and goods are transported (moved) from place to place; the transportation sector is made up of automobiles, airplanes, trucks, ships, trains, etc.

u ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) fuel

v volatile liquid

vehicle-to-grid technology

diesel fuel containing a maximum 15 parts per million (ppm) sulfur

liquid that easily changes into a vapor at a particular temperature, a liquid that easily evaporates in normal conditions

technology that allows electric vehicles to store energy (recharge) and also and discharge or return energy from the battery to the grid

AES

AES Clean Energy Development

American Electric Power Foundation

Appalachian Voices

Arizona Sustainability Alliance

Atlantic City Electric

Avangrid

Baltimore Gas & Electric

Berkshire Gas - Avangrid

BP America Inc

Bob Moran Charitable Giving Fund

Cape Light Compact–Massachusett

Celanese Foundation

Central Alabama Electric Cooperative CITGO

The City of Cuyahoga Falls

Clean Virginia

CLEAResult

ComEd

Con uence

ConocoPhillips

Constellation

Delmarva Power

Department of Education and Early Childhood Development - Government of New Brunswick, Canada

Dominion Energy, Inc.

Dominion Energy Charitable Foundation

DonorsChoose

East Baton Rouge Parish Schools

East Kentucky Power Cooperative

EcoCentricNow

EDP Renewables

EduCon Educational Consulting

Elmo Foundation

Enel Green Power North America

EnergizeCT

ENGIE

Entergy

Equinix

Eversource

Exelon

Exelon Foundation

Foundation for Environmental Education

FPL

Generac

Georgia Power

Gerald Harrington, Geologist

Government of Thailand–Energy Ministry

Greater New Orleans STEM

GREEN Charter Schools

Green Power EMC

Guilford County Schools–North Carolina

Honeywell

National Sponsors and Partners

Illinois Clean Energy Community Foundation

Illinois International Brotherhood of Electrical

Workers Renewable Energy Fund

Independent Petroleum Association of New Mexico

Interstate Natural Gas Association of

America Foundation

Intuit

Iowa Governor’s STEM Advisory Council -

Scale Up

Iowa Lakes Community College

Iowa State University

Iron Mountain Data Centers

Kansas Corporation Energy Commission

Kansas Energy Program – K-State Engineering

Extension

Katy Independent School District

Kentucky Environmental Education Council

Kentucky O ce of Energy Policy

Kentucky Power–An AEP Company

Liberty Utilities

Llano Land and Exploration

Louisiana State Energy O ce

Louisiana State University – Agricultural Center

LUMA

Marshall University

Mass Save

Mercedes Benz USA

Minneapolis Public Schools

Mississippi Development Authority–Energy Division

Motus Experiential

National Fuel

National Grid

National Hydropower Association

National Ocean Industries Association

National Renewable Energy Laboratory

NC Green Power

Nebraskans for Solar

NextEra Energy Resources

Nicor Gas

NCi – Northeast Construction

North Shore Gas

O shore Technology Conference

Ohio Energy Project

Oklahoma Gas and Electric Energy Corporation

Omaha Public Power District

Ormat

Paci c Gas and Electric Company

PECO

Peoples Gas

Pepco

Performance Services, Inc.

Permian Basin Petroleum Museum

Phillips 66

PowerSouth Energy Cooperative

PPG

Prince George’s County O ce of Human

Resource Management (MD)

Prince George’s County O ce of Sustainable Energy (MD)

Providence Public Schools

Public Service of Oklahoma - AEP

Quarto Publishing Group

The Rapha Foundation

Renewable Energy Alaska Project

Rhoades Energy

Rhode Island O ce of Energy Resources

Salal Foundation/Salal Credit Union

Salt River Project

Salt River Rural Electric Cooperative

Schneider Electric

C.T. Seaver Trust

Secure Solar Futures, LLC

Shell USA, Inc.

SMUD

Society of Petroleum Engineers

South Carolina Energy O ce

Southern Company Gas

Snohomish County PUD

SunTribe Solar

TXU Energy

United Way of Greater Philadelphia and Southern New Jersey

United Illuminating

Unitil

University of Iowa

University of Louisville

University of North Carolina

University of Northern Iowa

University of Rhode Island

U.S. Department of Energy

U.S. Department of Energy–O ce of Energy

E ciency and Renewable Energy

U.S. Department of Energy - Solar Decathlon

U.S. Department of Energy - Water Power

Technologies O ce

U.S. Department of Energy–Wind for Schools

U.S. Energy Information Administration

United States Virgin Islands Energy O ce

Vineyard Wind

Virginia Cooperative Extension

Virginia Natural Gas

Vistra Energy

We Care Solar

West Virginia O ce of Energy

West Warwick Public Schools

Williams