Interneuron - Issue 2 4

INTERNEURON Neuroscience and the Unknown

Why Do We Need Sleep?

Artificial Intelligence and the Singularity

FEATURE

Mindfulness: What Does it Do To Our Brain, and Why is it Good For Us? Interneuron. Volume 2 Issue 4. April 2015

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1

Letter from the Editors

2

FEATURE Why Do We Need Sleep?

3

Destruction of Sleep

4

FEATURE

10

The Love Drug: Oxytocin And Bonding

12

FEATURE Mindfulness: What Does it Do To Our Brain, and Why is it Good For Us

14

Levitinize / Organize Your Mind

Following the River: Paths to Alzheimer's Disease Therapy

6

OPINION Is What is Conceivable Possible?

8

FEATURE Artificial Intelligence and the Singularity

16

FEATURE An Interview With Dr. Cunningham

18

Greetings From IMS Magazine!

Letter from the Editors

Contributors Authors Ann Sheng

Dear Readers,

Danitsa Vasiteva

We are proud to present our final issue of Interneuron for the 2014/2015 year - Neuroscience and the Unknown. With the school year winding down and the anticipation of summer ahead, our team was looking for a theme to commemorate our second successful year in publication - how else, but to look to the ahead to the future? Our feature articles this quarter address the unknowns of the field, including why we need sleep, the emerging benefits of mindfulness, and an interview with Dr. Cunningham from the Department of Psychology, who delved into the murky future of social cognitive neuroscience and the unknowns of graduate school.

Alexandra Mogadam Susmita Sarkar Nicole Fogel Fiorella Wever Stefan Jevtic Susy Lam

We would like to take this opportunity to thank everyone who attended our appreciation get-together at the beginning of April. We had great conversation that led to many new ideas for the future direction of Interneuron. Next year, we hope to integrate an exciting social component for our readers, contributors, and executive members--and even faculty--with movie screenings, snacks, and discussion with like-minded individuals.

Speaking of next year, we are beginning the search for our next Editorial Team! If you have liked what you’ve seen this year and would like to join our team, consider applying for any of our executive positions. Applications have been posted and are due by May 15th. We look forward to hearing from you!

Finally, we would like to reflect upon how far Interneuron has come in only one year. It is a great achievement to have released four issues, but without your readership and contributions from authors and artists, Interneuron would not be where it is today. It goes without saying that these accomplishments are largely thanks to the efforts of our dedicated Editorial Team. As some of us are graduating and moving on, we thank you for your time, effort, and contributions.

Thank you so much for your support this year! We hope to continue to grow and bridge the gap between neuroscience and other disciplines. We wish you the best of luck on the rest of your finals, and a wonderful, relaxing summer‌ but remember to stay tuned for our next issue this September!

Regards,

Yannie Lai

Cover Art Oshien Lekhwani

Layout Yasmine Abdelaal Aileen Zhou

Executive Team Omar Bitar Theo Bruun Steven Meas Yasmine Abdelaal Alex Jacob

Sarah & Susmita

Editors-in-Chief

Toni Dayno Sarah Peters Susmita Sarkar

FEATURE Why Do We Need Sleep?

Denitsa Vasileva

We have all been there; the late nights, the pressing

theory has drawn criticism because while in-line with the

assignment, and the steaming cup of energy-infused bitter

Darwinian concept of evolution, it fails to note that organisms

black coffee. We draw on our inner resolve to resist the

are safest when alert to possible danger.

temptation of sweet sleep while we mutter promises of

Another theory about the necessity of sleep is the Energy

“never again”: promises which are inevitably broken when

Conservation Theory, which suggests that sleep reduces an

the next assignment comes along.

organism’s energy use during times when the organism is

We have all heard the grumblings and lecturing of parents

least able to procure food, for example at night (3). Given the

and well-meaning friends about the importance of sleep. It is

state of inactivity that sleep produces, it is logical that

clear that, much like healthy eating and exercise, sleep plays

metabolism, as measured by oxygen consumption, is

an integral role in our health. But if you ask people why we

significantly decreased during sleep. However, there is much

need sleep, many may be stumped.

doubt about the validity of the Energy Conservation Theory

According to the Center for Disease Control (1), adults

since the amount of energy saved by eight hours of sleep is

require between seven and eight hours of sleep every night

just 50kCal (2), the same as the energy we get from a piece

while teenagers need at least nine hours and young children

of toast.

up to twelve. However, despite the large portion of our lives

The third, and most prevalent explanation regarding the

that we spend asleep, very little is actually known about this

necessity of sleep, is known as the Restorative Theory and

mysterious state. The question of sleep’s importance, particularly its purpose in the grand scheme of human body function, has baffled scientists for decades.

Over the years, scientists have explored the subject of sleep from many aspects. Some have used deprivation models while others have explored the sleep patterns of different species. While these studies have yielded valuable insight into other aspects of sleep, the primary question of why we sleep remains unanswered (3).

Experimental results have led researchers to develop several theories about the integral role of sleep in our physical and cognitive well-being. The first proposed explanation, known as the Evolutionary Theory of Sleep (3), suggests that it evolved as a survival adaptation to keep an organism away from harm during its most vulnerable periods. According to this theory, organisms able to remain still during vulnerable periods (i.e. at night when the body temperature is lowest) had an advantage over those that remained active, and thus the concept of sleep evolved through natural selection. This

2

Source: https://metrouk2.files.wordpress.com/2013/11/toddlerdog1.jpg

Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 4 . April 2015

views sleep as "nature's soft nurse:" (2) an opportunity for

it is unlikely that any one of these theories will single-handedly

the body to rejuvenate itself. Scientists believe that one of

provide the answer to the fundamental question of why we

the major functions of sleep is to replenish glycogen levels

need sleep. What is clear, however, is that much like food and

(2) and a reduction in the levels of adenosine in the brain

water, sleep is (unfortunately for us students) an ingredient

(3). Adenosine is a chemical that builds up while we are

fundamental to the proper functioning of the body. So, close

awake and can cause the feeling of being tired (3). Further

that textbook and get some shut-eye!

support for this theory is drawn from experiments involving

References

deprivation models in animals which suggest that major

1.

Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and

restorative functions such as muscle growth and tissue repair occur during sleep (2). For example, sleep-deprived

Prevention, 1 July 2013. Retrieved From http://www.cdc.gov/ sleep/about_sleep/how_much_sleep.htm 2.

mice begin to lose body mass within a few days and lose all immune function within a few weeks (2).

Given recent findings and the current state of research

"How Much Sleep Do I Need?" Centers for Disease

Purves, D. et al. Neuroscience.2nd Edition. Retrieved From http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11108/.

3.

"Why Do We Sleep, Anyway?" Why Do We Sleep, Anyway? Harvard Medical School. Retrieved From http:// healthysleep.med.harvard.edu/healthy/matters/benefits-ofsleep/why-do-we-sleep.

Destruction of Sleep Yannie Lai Complaining of sleeplessness, apathy, difficulties in

are structurally stable and will not break down in the presence

concentration and low energy, a middle-aged woman was

of defensive enzymes. These proteins cause structural

admitted to a psychiatric hospital to confirm a diagnosis of

damage to DNA, leading to the formation of long protein

depression and cognitive dysfunction (1). She had no past

chains; these chains may form plaques that cause cell death

psychiatric medical history, but her family reported that her

(7). FFI is caused by a combination of mutations of the prion

brother was receiving pharmacological treatment for

protein gene reading frame (5). The first mutation is at codon

depression and that her father died of dementia. During her

178, where arginine is changed to asparagine. The second

stay at the psychiatric hospital, her memory suffered and she

mutation is at codon 129, and this location has a polymorphic

became increasingly agitated at night. Bloodwork was normal

effect. If the point mutation inserts a valine, the disease

and her EEG results showed mild slowing of brain waves.

becomes Creutzfeldt-Jacob Disease, a human form of mad

Eventually, her symptoms progressed to the point where she

cow disease. If the mutation inserts a methionine, the disease

experienced an irregular circadian cycle; she also developed

becomes FFI (5). In FFI patients, prions cause the

dementia-like cognitive dysfunction. The patient died three

neurological degeneration of the thalamus, which is part of

months after admission to the hospital and a genetic

the sleep wake circuit, resulting in the patient’s inability to

investigation confirmed the presence of a mutation (1). What

sleep (6).

was this devastating disorder?

Late stage FFI patients only exhibit light sleep.

This patient had Fatal Familial Insomnia (FFI), a rare

Different stages of sleep, stages 1 through 4 and REM sleep,

prion disease characterized by non-specific symptoms. Prion

have varying functional significance (2). Light sleep is stage

diseases can be sporadic, genetic or acquired by infection,

1, where an individual drifts in and out of sleep and can be

and are propagated by protein transmission. Prion proteins

easily awakened. In comparison, deep sleep—stages 3 and

3

4- is the time when important neuronal reorganization can

susceptible individuals may have already passed down the

take place (2). FFI patients do not exhibit deep sleep;

disorder. Nevertheless, the future looks promising: the

because of this, patients’ brains do not have a chance to ‘take

scientific community is paying more attention to this type of

a break,’ so it becomes overworked, causing the slow

prion disease, several diagnostic tools such as protein

destruction of normal brain functioning.

Without sleep,

assays are becoming available to detect prion proteins, and

humans would have difficulty performing daily tasks,

genetic screening can be conducted to confirm inheritance of

focusing, and learning. Research shows that procedural

FFI through the detection of high-risk mutations (4). This

memory, daily task type of memory, improves with longer

disease tells us that sleep is important in maintaining proper

sleep duration; similarly, declarative (factual) memory

brain functioning, and life without sleep can be fatal.

improves with specific timing of sleep (3). It is also suggested that synaptic homeostasis occurs during sleep to ensure that unnecessary neuronal connections are pruned away and important ones are enhanced (7). Thus, presence and duration of sleep are important in the functioning of a healthy living being. Perhaps the absence of deep sleep contributes to the patient’s inability to focus, encode memory, and exhibit synaptic pruning, ultimately leading to death.

Inheritance of FFI is devastating because individuals do not experience symptoms until mid-life, the point at which

References 1. Gistau V.S., Pintor L., Matral S. and Saiz A. (2006). Case Reports: Fatal Familial Insomnia. Psychosomatics. 47:6: 527-528.

2. Dan Crean. Good Sleep for Good Health, Stages of Sleep. Retrieved from: http://www.sleepdex.org/stages.htm 3. Diekelmann S. and Born J. (2010). The Memory Function of Sleep. Nature reviews. Vol 11: 114-126.

4. Krasnianski A., Sanchez Juan P., Ponto C., Bartl M., Heinemann U., Varges D., Schulz-Schaeffer W.J., Kretzschmar H.A. and Zerr I. (2013). A proposal of new diagnostic pathway for fatal familial insomnia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 85: 654-659.

5. Prusiner S.B. and Hsiao K.K. (1994). Human Prion Disease. Annals of Neurology. 35:4: 385-395.

FEATURE

6. Saper C.B., Scammell T.E. and Lu J. (2005). Hypothalamic regulation of

Following the River:

Paths to Alzheimer's Disease Therapy Stefan Jevtic

Greek mythology tells the tale of two rivers in the

emerging research in the field of AD therapy offers promises

underworld: the river Lethe and the river Mnemosyne. To

that the future may hold an answer.

drink from Lethe is to forget all memories and slip into oblivion,

The first documented case of AD was recorded in 1901with

while Mnemosyne grants rejuvenation of memory. Although

Auguste D., a patient of psychologist Dr. Alois Alzheimer,

these stories are fiction, the condition of memory loss is a

after whom the disease is named (1). Upon Auguste’s death

striking reality for those individuals who suffer from

in 1906, Dr. Alzheimer performed a brain autopsy and

Alzheimer’s Disease (AD). Characterized by severe loss of

discovered unusual clumps and fibrillary tangles of protein in

cognitive function and memory that ultimately lead to death,

the axons of neurons. Today, these are characterized as

AD is currently estimated to affect five million individuals in the

amyloid-beta (Aβ) plaques and tau fibrillary tangles,

US alone (2). Unlike the tale of Mnemosyne, there are no

respectively (2). The exact correlation of the accumulation of

therapies to stop or reverse symptoms. However, recent

these proteins with the onset of AD is as of yet unknown, but

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Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 4 . April 2015

there are many hypotheses on this matter. One of the most

Although young blood may not be the fountain of youth, a

prevalent, the Aβ hypothesis, has dominated the field for over

recent study in Nature Medicine found that transfusing blood

a decade; it stipulates that the formation of Aβ plaques and

from young mice to old mice led to significant physiological

toxic oligomers causes onset of the disease. The Aβ protein

repair (9). The authors used a parabiosis model to join the

is formed in the brain throughout our lives, but as individuals

blood circulation of a young and old mouse; what they found

age, these proteins begin to aggregate. Aggregation results

was that the vasculature of old mice significantly improved

in inhibition of synaptic connection, ultimately causing toxicity

after the transfusion.

and neuronal death. Many drugs, such as scyllo-inositol

subventricular zone showed growth and proliferation. The

(discovered at U of T), function to inhibit aggregation of Aβ,

subventricular zone is a particularly important area of the

and have improved cognitive function in animal models (5).

brain, as it houses neural stem cells that can differentiate into

However, some believe that neuronal loss may occur much

neurons and other cells. Following the increased vasculature

earlier than the formation of plaques in the brain, indicating an

around the subventricular zone, there was also an increase in

alternate pathway (4).

neurogenesis. This study isolated and identified a particular

In the brain, vasculature in the

Although the exact mechanism leading to AD is not yet

protein in the blood that was responsible for this

known, many treatment options are being investigated based

vascularization, and may prove to be a potential target in

on their ability to relieve symptoms. One such technique,

regulating the aging process. Although the study was not

called MRI-guided focused ultrasound (MRIgFUS) was

done on AD models, the method could be applied in the future

developed at the University of Toronto (3). For many years,

to determine whether similar results will be seen.

the blood brain barrier surrounding the brain was known to be

The final topic regarding AD therapy focuses on the role

penetrable to only a select few molecules; however, using

of the immune system in pathogenesis of the disease. Similar

MRIgFUS, temporary opening of the blood brain barrier at

to other tissues in the body, the brain has resident

specific locations can be achieved (3). This technique uses

macrophages called microglia that are considered the

targeted ultrasound waves to excite lipid spheres injected into

‘guardians’ of the CNS (6). These cells have been implicated

the blood, leading to a temporary opening in the barrier (7).

in phagocytosis of pathogens, neuron clearance, and general

This opening allows for molecules such as endogenous

maintenance of the brain. However, in AD, these cells lose

antibodies to enter the brain, resulting in improved cognitive

their ability to properly clear Aβ from the brain, resulting in

function in AD models (3). Neurogenesis resulting from this

chronic inflammation and disease progression.

procedure has also been demonstrated (7). However, the

studies have demonstrated that inhibition of these

possibilities available with such a powerful tool are even more

inflammatory processes can lead to an improvement in

fascinating. Molecules for genetic engineering techniques,

symptoms, but the long-term effects of such a treatment are

such as CRISPR, could be targeted to the brain to selectively

unknown. A less inhibitory option involves the use of bone

add or remove genes, yielding greater control over

marrow-derived macrophages to help clear plaques and

experiments and treatment trials.

Familial AD, which

strengthen the brain’s immunity. Studies have shown that

constitutes 10% of all cases and arises from known genetic

bone marrow stem cells derived from one mouse can

mutations, could directly benefit from such advancements, in

differentiate into macrophages in the brain of a host mouse,

addition to the rest of the AD community (2). However,

and increase plaque clearance (8). The reason for the

although this technique has shown no short-term adverse

improved efficacy of these newly-derived macrophages is still

effects, the long-term effect remains to be determined.

unknown, but may be linked to the aging process or another

One of the more recent potential AD therapies seems as if it emerged from the storyline of Bram Stoker’s Dracula.

aspect of AD pathogenesis.

Certain

5

Ultimately, the road to a cure is made up of many paths, some of which may converge to yield a multi-faceted treatment option. However, there remains much work to be done before this goal can be realized. Long-term human clinical trials for techniques such as MRIgFUS are required, and the mystery of AD pathogenesis remains to be solved.

As the era of the brain continues to unfold, treatment for a disease discovered over a century ago remains elusive— but current breakthroughs leave hope that the effects of the Mnemosyne river may turn into reality.

References

transcranial focused ultrasound. Exp. Neurol. 248, 16-29 (2013).

4. Kim, Taeho, et al. "Human LilrB2 is a β-amyloid receptor and its murine homolog PirB regulates synaptic plasticity in an Alzheimer’s model." Science 341.6152 (2013): 1399-1404.

5. McLaurin, J. et al. Cyclohexanehexol inhibitors of Abeta] aggregation prevent and reverse Alzheimer phenotype in a mouse model. Nat. Med. 12, 801-808 (2006).

6. Salter, M. & Beggs, S. Sublime Microglia: Expanding Roles for the Guardians of the CNS. Cell 158, 15-24.

7. Scarcelli, T. et al. Stimulation of Hippocampal Neurogenesis by Transcranial Focused Ultrasound and Microbubbles in Adult Mice. Brain Stimulation: Basic, Translational, and Clinical Research in Neuromodulation 7, 304-307.

8. Simard, A. R., Soulet, D., Gowing, G., Julien, J. & Rivest, S. Bone Marrow-Derived Microglia Play a Critical Role in Restricting

1. http://www.alz.org/research/science/ major_milestones_in_alzheimers.asp.

2. http://www.nia.nih.gov/alzheimers/publication/alzheimersdisease-fact-sheet

Senile Plaque Formation in Alzheimer's Disease. Neuron 49, 489-502 (2006).

9. Villeda, S. A. et al. Young blood reverses age-related impairments in cognitive function and synaptic plasticity in mice. Nat. Med.

3. Jordão, J. F. et al. Amyloid-β plaque reduction, endogenous

20, 659-663 (2014).

antibody delivery and glial activation by brain-targeted,

OPINION

Is What Is Conceivable Possible?

Nicole Fogel

There is a long-standing debate in neuroscience and

Here, we have a debate between the philosopher and the

philosophy about whether or not it can be true that what is

neuroscientist: the philosopher holds that the conceivability

conceivable is guaranteed to be possible, at least in a broad

argument can apply to a logically possible world, a world

sense. One of the fundamental problems that stand at the

beyond the natural world; on the other hand, the

centre of the conceivability-possibility debate is that of

neuroscientist holds that the world we live in, the natural

consciousness. While the exact neuronal mechanisms of

world, is really the only world and argues that the link between

consciousness are not yet clear, the brain is considered to be

the natural and logically possible worlds must be made

essential for consciousness (2). How can we make sense of

apparent for the conceivability argument to have any

consciousness, then, if our understanding of it is more or less

relevance to us (2).

limited to the fact that the brain is essential for it? That being

Before we can even begin to understand whether or

said, can we really posit that the ability to conceive of

not it is true that what is conceivable is possible and how this

something, like a zombie, is necessarily tied to its possibility?

premise can elicit two very different responses–rejection or in

To philosophers, zombies lack consciousness but

a broad sense, it can be generally agreed that possibility can

can be conceived of. Nevertheless, neuroscientists know that

be defined as follows: to be the case or what could be the case

brain lesions can alter consciousness or lead to its absence.

at a later point in time. In the case of the conceivability-

Again, does this conceivability translate into possibility?

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Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 4 . April 2015

possibility argument, the conclusion entails actual physical

depending on the proposition’s surrounding premise or

and natural possibilities. acceptance– to an argument, it is

conclusion and on the view of the person making the

necessary to define what is meant by conceivable and

argument or criticizing it. Let’s start with the claim that the

possible. There are multiple ways to approach defining these

proposition ‘what is conceivable is possible’ can be true, if it

terms (1), providing evidence for the complexity of this

is surrounded by the right premise and the right conclusion.

problem. Based on the literature, it seems that a broad

To establish my point, suppose I define the term ‘drug’ to

definition of conceivability can at least be agreed upon: to be

generally mean something that is external to the body, that

able to form a mental image of x (whatever x is), where x can

when ingested, causes bodily effects. This definition can be

be an object of thought. Also, in a broad sense, it can be

accepted for the most part; there doesn’t seem to be much

generally agreed that possibility can be defined as follows: to

controversy about this. Yet, consider this argument:

be the case or what could be the case at a later point in time.

Athletes take drugs.

In the case of the conceivability-possibility argument, the

Taking drugs benefits one’s health.

conclusion entails actual physical and natural possibilities.

Therefore, athletes benefit their health by taking drugs.

However, the problem arises when it becomes necessary to define the terms conceivable and possible more

Now, if I apply the same second premise to the following

precisely. Since neither term has one precise definition which

argument, look what happens:

can apply to all cases, it is my view that in the absence of

Patients who have leukemia take drugs.

having a single standard for defining conceivable and

Taking drugs benefits one’s health.

possible, the meaning of either term can be manipulated

Therefore, patients who have leukemia benefit their health

given the surrounding context and by the viewer himself. In

by taking drugs.

my opinion, this provides reason why the proposition, what is conceivable is possible, can make one argument true and

The second premise can be controversial, but

another false. That is, if one merely states ‘what is

without precisely stating a descriptor such as ‘street’ or

conceivable is possible’, but does not make a precise claim by

‘prescription’ before ‘drugs’, it is hard to tell whether the

adding something to conceivable or possible, then the

second premise is in fact controversial. It is up to context,

proposition is allowing too much and is oversimplified. In other

namely the first premise and the conclusion, to determine

words, it is up to context to decide what is meant by or allowed

whether the argument is accepted or disputed. In the

to be conceivable and possible.

foregoing case, given the surrounding premise and

In order to eliminate ambiguity, we should be thinking

conclusion of the arguments, it is apparent that even though

about the two terms in a more specific way: conceivable and

the same premise is used in both arguments, the former can

possible are primarily conceivable and primarily possible,

be controversial (if athletes take non-prescription, street

given a list by David Chalmers (1). This is what I meant by

drugs) while the latter can be widely accepted (since street

‘adding something’ to the terms. Now, the above-mentioned

drugs would not be used to cure a patient with leukemia, we

definition of conceivability can be added: to form a mental

can assume it is meant that the drugs are prescribed and

image of x that will actually be the case. Similarly, possibility

legal). I wanted to use this example to illustrate the point that

can be defined in a more precise way: to be the case or what

whether an argument is accepted or refuted–given the same

could be the case at a later point in time in accordance with

premise, and without that premise being precisely defined–

the laws of nature.

greatly relies on the context in which the argument is

I assert that what is conceivable can at least be possible, but given that a precise definition of the terms (which is needed for a strong argument) applies in certain contexts,

presented, specifically in relation to the second premise’s surroundings–the first premise and the conclusion.

7

Similar to the two examples presented above in

The

relationship

between

conceivability

and

which ‘drug’ was not precisely defined, there is no precise

possibility is an important one, as it attempts to make sense

term like ‘primary’ in front of conceivable and possible.

of our mind and the limits of existence, as well as the

Therefore, we cannot be too certain what conceivability and

relationship between psychology and biology. Yet, if it is the

possibility really are or what they are supposed to be, in which

case that the terms conceivability and possibility can be

case, it is up to context, or the surrounding premise and

manipulated by context, maybe it is wise to refocus our

conclusion, to sway our view of the argument and of the

curiosity from ‘is what is conceivable possible?’ to ‘should we

second premise. It is difficult to precisely define conceivability

even use the terms conceivability and possibility?’.

and possibility, and even if the terms were precisely defined, the precise definition would not be agreed upon by every individual, as is generally the case. Given what I have outlined here, however, we can at least have some guide of what conceivability and possibility are supposed to be.

References 1. Chalmers, S. (2002). Does Conceivability Entail Possibility?. In Gendler, T.S. & Hawthorne, J. (Eds.), Conceivability and Possibility (145-200). Oxford: Oxford University Press 2. Northoff, G. (2014). Minding the Brain: A Guide to Philosophy and Neuroscience. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

FEATURE Source: http://yanko.lib.ru/books/philosoph/chalmers=the_conscious_mind=en.files/image011.jpg

Artificial Intelligence and the Singularity Ann Sheng

As citizens of the Internet era, we are all familiar with the

current growth of "smart" technologies: from Apple's voice

were designed to execute. After all, no one would trust Watson to drive a car.

recognition tool Siri to IBM's Jeopardy! winner Watson to

As we develop more weak AI's like Watson, many

Google's self-driving cars. Artificial intelligence (AI) is

researchers believe that we are on our way to achieving the

shaping our world into a safer, more convenient, and more

next milestone, one that is much more daunting than

efficient place. Despite these spectacular advances, the

programming a machine with language understanding and

power of these algorithms are only limited to the task that they

answering trivia questions: the creation of a system with

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Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 4 . April 2015

human-level intelligence: also known as Artificial General

higher resolution now than ever before. The chessboard

Intelligence (AGI). In his controversial book The Singularity

analogy

Is Near: When Humans Transcend Biology, inventor and

skyrockets after the 32nd doubling - what Kurzweil calls "the

futurist Ray Kurzweil argues that completely understanding

second half of the chessboard". Based on the observation

our brains and reverse engineering it in a machine is not only

that computing power has already doubled 32 times since the

possible, it will also be completed within our lifetimes.

invention of the first computers he suggests that we are about

Although it might initially have the mental capacity of an infant,

to make the vital crossing. If true, he predicts that progress

AGI's non-biological substrate gives it great advantages over

afterwards will be "so rapid and so profound that it represents

the human brain. These include an impeccable, expandable

a rupture in the fabric of human history" - a state he dubbed

memory reserve and instantaneous information transfer, all

as "the Singularity". The nature of that change will depend

working 24/7 without fatigue. Once achieved, AGIs can

heavily on careful design; most notably to incorporate human

improve their own neural architecture, bypassing the slow

values, ethics, emotion intelligence and safety mechanisms

and error-prone mechanism of evolution. Because of its

in such a way that moral, intelligent machines can coexist with

advantages in computing power, it will soon become

humans and improve our lives in ways unimaginable to us.

exponentially more intelligent than all of human mental

However, given our poor understanding of the neural basis for

capacity combined - an Artificial Super Intelligence (ASI).

morality it is difficult to conceive how this might be done

also

demonstrates

that

exponential

growth

One of the key assumptions underlying Kurzweil's

successfully in the first try. After all, if invented, an amoral but

argument is the Law of Accelerating Returns, which states t

intelligent machine may outsmart us and destroy human

hat technological progress occurs exponentially, not linearly.

civilization: meaning that we may not get a second chance at

Thus, each new advance lays the foundation for several

AI.

future advances. By analogy, consider the story of the wheat

To assess how AI experts view the progress of artificial

and chessboard problem.

When the inventor of chess

intelligence and its potential risks, Vincent Muller and Nick

showed his emperor patron his new game, the emperor was

Bostrom of the Future of Humanity Institute at Oxford

so delighted that he promised to grant the inventor whatever he wanted. The clever inventor replied that he would like some wheat - specifically, one grain on the first square of the chessboard, two on the second, four on the third, and so on, doubling his way across all 64 squares. It was not until the treasurer calculated the total amount of wheat that the emperor realized how impossible this request was: 264 grains of rice would make a pile larger than Mt. Everest! The emperor was not able to foresee the consequences of his promise because like most humans, his thinking tends to be linear, not exponential.

This

effect

of

exponential

growth

has

been

demonstrated in multiple fields, including digital electronics (Moore's Law), genetic sequencing, and neuroscience. Noninvasive brain scanning, for example, is done faster and at a

9

conducted a survey that asked philosophers and AI

are no compelling reasons to stop AI research and that

researchers when we will likely see the emergence of

potential risks are massive enough to potentially destroy

human--level machine intelligence, how long after will it

humanity, the authors urge the scientific community to

advance to superintelligence, and what its impact will be. The

investigate more into what may well the most important

median prediction from 170 respondents was a 50%

breakthrough in human history.

probability that high level machine intelligence will be developed by 2050, and by 2075 the prediction increased to 90%. Experts expected that superintelligence will follow in less than 30 years, with a 1 in 3 chance that it would turn out to be "bad" or "extremely bad" for humanity. Given that there

References 1. Schaller, R. R. (1997). Moore's law: past, present and future.

Spectrum, IEEE,34(6), 52-59.

2. Kurzweil, R. (1999). The Law of Time and Chaos. In The age of spiritual machines: When computers exceed human i ntelligence. New York: Viking.

The Love Drug: Oxytocin and Bonding Fiorella Wever For centuries the mystery of love has always been embraced by humanity and emphasized especially by artists, poets, and songwriters. But what if love is really not as mysterious as it seems? What if there is a basic chemical understanding for what causes love?

Who thought that endocrinology - never considered one of

Source: http://www.ggznieuws.nl/home/oxytocine-niet-geschikt-voor-postnatale-depressie/

hormone. It is a natural hormone that is produced by the

the most romantic of professions – could have a lot to say on

hypothalamus and stored and secreted by the posterior

how and why people love each other?

pituitary gland (Rogers, 2015). The structure of the hormone

They found that oxytocin, the hormone that facilitates

is the same in every placental mammal: it’s a nine-amino acid

childbirth and breastfeeding in women, is also crucial for how

peptide and it acts primarily as a neuromodulator in the brain,

we form and maintain romantic relationships.

meaning it regulates the activity of different populations of

Some endocrine scientists even predict a future where

neurons.

love is guaranteed, as it can be provided chemically by

The discovery of oxytocin dates back to 1906, when Sir

hormonal manipulation (Magon, 2011), pointing to a potential

Henry Dale first discovered the uterine-contracting properties

application of oxytocin as a “treatment” in couple’s therapy.

of this hormone (Magon, 2011). He found that extracts from

But is it really so clear-cut as it seems? Is oxytocin really the

the human posterior pituitary gland contracted the uterus of a

“love drug”?

pregnant cat. This discovery led this unknown substance to

Being on the World Health Organization’s List of Essential

be named oxytocin, originating from Greek words meaning

Medicines, oxytocin is definitely considered an important

“swift birth”. A few years later Ott and Scott first described its

10

Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 4 . April 2015

milk ejecting properties, showing that oxytocin also facilitates lactation after childbirth.

Oxytocin was the first polypeptide hormone ever to be synthesized. This was done by Vincent du Vigneaud, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1955 for his outstanding work (Rogers, 2015).

Since its initial discovery, oxytocin has been best known

Another interesting finding was that the couples with the highest levels of oxytocin were the ones who were still together six months later, leading to the conclusion that oxytocin is also correlated with the relationship’s longevity.

From these findings, it is no surprise that researchers started wondering about oxytocin’s applications as a “treatment” in couple’s therapy.

for its important role in female reproduction. It is released in large amounts during labour, facilitating childbirth and

A couple therapist and researcher at the University of Zurich

lactation (after the nipples have been stimulated) (Rogers,

conducted experiments in which couples were tested after

2015). It also promotes maternal bonding, by inducing a

adding extra oxytocin to their system (Gravotta, 2013). These

calm, relaxed mood and promoting responsiveness to the baby. Research has found that the amount of oxytocin present in the mother during the first trimester of her pregnancy is a strong predictor of the level of attachment between mother and child; women with higher doses of oxytocin tend to have a stronger bond with their child after birth.

Later research, however, has shown that oxytocin’s effects span wider than just between the mother and child.

Experiments done in the 1990’s_ _showed that it was essential for prairie voles to have high levels of oxytocin receptors in their brains in order to pick a lifelong, monogamous mate (Stix, 2014) . Later studies then demonstrated that the chemical contributes to trust and social interactions in various animals, including humans.

Research on the effects of oxytocin then naturally shifted its focus from mother-child bonding to romantic relationships.

Researchers discovered that the increase in oxytocin when falling in love is the highest ever found and that new lovers had twice the amount of oxytocin normally found in pregnant women (Gravotta, 2013). It was also shown that high levels of the hormone are released from both sexes during sexual intercourse.

couples were given a spray with liquid that contained oxytocin, which they then sprayed up their noses to ensure that the hormone would get to their brain. After the oxytocin entered their system, the couples had to talk about a topic that would often lead to discussion and fighting. The researcher then monitored how these couples communicated compared to couples that weren’t given oxytocin.

What resulted was that oxytocin lead to an increase in the quality of communication and a decrease in the level of cortisol,

a

stress

hormone.

The

improvement

in

communication was a result from increases in behaviour that are needed for resolving conflict in a peaceful way. This was the case for both men and women and thus improved the way these couples engaged with one another.

There is no doubt oxytocin influences social behaviour, but the effect it has may strongly depend on the circumstances (Stix, 2014). Even though research has shown that oxytocin used in couple’s therapy improves communication between partners, this won’t guarantee a successful relationship in the long run. If a couple is not connected at all, oxytocin won’t magically make them fall in love.

Scientists therefore advice us to be careful about using false labels such as “love drug”, as it may be misleading

11

the public to think that there is one single chemical component that explains it all. Although oxytocin does explain the different components of loving behaviours, such as trust, bonding and communication, the mystery of love still lives on.

www.scientificamerican.com/article/be-mine-forever-oxytocin/ [2] 3. Rogers, K. (2015). Oxytocin. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved from: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/437006/oxytocin[3] 4. Magon, N., Kaira, S. (2011). The orgasmic history of oxytocin: Love, lust, and labor. Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism. 15(Suppl3), S156-S161. doi: 10.4103/2230-8210.84851

References 1. Stix, G. (2014). Fact or Fiction?: Oxytocin Is the “Love Hormone”. Scientific American. Retrieved from: http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/factor-fiction-oxytocin-is-the-love-hormone/ 2. Gravotta, L. (2013). Be Mine Forever: Oxytocin May Help Build LongLasting

Love.

Scientific

American.

Retrieved

*Editor's Note: We would like to apologize to Fiorella Wever for the oversight in failing to include her article in the last issue of Interneuron: Neuroscience and Emotion.

from:http://

FEATURE

Mindfulness: What Does It Do To Our Brain And Why Is It Good For Us? Fiorella Wever

In our ever-evolving and constantly busy student life, we

seems detached from and almost alien to everyday life.

barely have time to sit still and think about the present moment. We are always on the move, mulling over what the

Contrary to popular belief, mindfulness is not the act of

future may bring. Our restless lifestyles are impacting our

eliminating all thoughts from your mind. Instead, it is about

physical and mental health, often resulting in heightened

taking a look within and focusing your attention on the

levels of stress and anxiety, making it more important then

emotions, thoughts, and sensations occurring in the here and

ever to take a moment to sit still. Fortunately, many

now. It is a whole-body-and-mind awareness of the present

mindfulness practices, such as yoga, meditation, and

moment. Being mindful means being fully present, not lost in

relaxation are becoming increasingly popular.

anticipation, daydreams, or worry.

Originally an ancient Buddhist meditation technique,

We are all aware that meditation has various health benefits,

mindfulness practice has been rapidly gaining popularity in

but the exact science behind mindfulness remains a grey

the West. Meditation – sitting down in stillness, closing your

area. As recent studies have been showing, mindfulness is

eyes, and spending a few minutes with no company other

associated with the grey matter of the anterior part of the

than yourself – can sound absolutely terrifying because it

frontal lobe.

12

Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 4 . April 2015

therefore have a considerable impact on the way we think and respond.

Mindfulness is not only a great method to handle the emotions and stressors of everyday life, but the practice is also being used more frequently in psychology. Mindfulness practice has been found to alleviate a diversity of psychiatric conditions, such as obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) Source: http://www.brown.edu/academics/medical/news/2013/02/mindfulness-meditation-can-helpmanage-chronic-pain-and-depression

and anxiety. Also, it has been recently used for the prevention of relapse in depression and drug addiction.

One experiment found that this area, called the prefrontal

A specific type of practice called Mindfulness-based

cortex (PFC), became thicker after an 8-week course of mindfulness practice. Not surprisingly, the PFC plays a role in higher-order

brain

functions

such

as

awareness,

Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) has been shown to be as effective in

reducing

recurrence

of

depression

episodes

as

concentration, emotional control, and decision-making. This

antidepressants. MBCT reduced the recurrence rate over a

experiment also revealed another interesting result: the

12-month

amygdala seemed to shrink in size after the 8-week

conventional care methods.

meditation period. The amygdala is not only associated with the brain’s “fight or flight” system, which controls the body’s

period

by

40-50%

compared

with

more

Research on mindfulness is still in its early stages. There’s a lot about this practice that is still unknown, ranging from the

responses to stress, it also plays a role in emotion and memory.

Interestingly, the effects of meditation are not limited to

extent of its effects on our minds and bodies, to the very state of the human brain during one's immersion in it.

shrinking one brain region and thickening another. Meditation

Studies have shown that wandering thoughts take up

may also alter the functional connectivity between the two

about 45% of our time; this “busy” state of the brain has been

aforementioned regions: the connections between the

correlated with psychological unease. Thankfully, there is

amygdala and the rest of the brain are weakened, whereas

something we can do about it: being present. Even as little as

those linking the PFC with the rest of the brain are strengthened. Such changes in connectivity can improve emotional stability and response to stress, as well as refine concentration and focus. The more you meditate, the more

10 minutes of mindfulness practice a day can help train your mind to be calmer, clearer, and kinder. In the end, the result is a happier you!

you help stimulate such changes in your brain.

The results of this study were obtained from the participants outside of their meditation practice, which shows that the effects of participating in these practices last beyond their duration.

As many brain imaging techniques are revealing, this ancient practice can profoundly change the way different regions of the brain communicate with each other and

References 1. Ireland, T. (2014). What Does Mindfulness Meditation Do to Your Brain?

Scientific American. Retrieved from: http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/ guest-blog/2014/06/12/what-does-mindfulness-meditation-do-to-yourbrain/ 2. The Science of Mindfulness. Oxford Mindfulness Centre. Retrieved from: https://oxfordmindfulness.org/science/ 3. Andy Puddicombe: All it takes is 10 mindful minutes. Retrieved from:https://www.ted.com/talks andy_puddicombe_all_it_takes_is_10_mindful_minutes

13

Levitinize / Organize Your Mind Alexandra Mogadam Exam season is descending upon us with many gruelling

technology and information-saturated 21st century.

science examinations ahead. In these challenging times, one

As the title of the book implies, Levitin’s main message

often develops a knee-jerk averse reaction to anything that

is mind “organization.” He explains how a mind that is

reminds us of science and studying. However, is there

organized lends itself more easily to creativity and also allows

perhaps a way that scientific knowledge can help us study

for optimized and heightened cognition. His assertions rely on

more effectively for our science tests? In short, can we learn

the idea that the human mind is not naturally suited for our

to embrace the foe in order to conquer it?

current environment: the brain evolved before a time

Although there are no magical miracle solutions there is

characterized by constant bombardment of information. The

currently a growing body of research on cognitive

incessant stream of information that engulfs us in this century

optimization. Daniel Levitin has made a name for himself in

results in a constant fight for our limited cognitive resources:

this field through the publication of his recent self-help-esque

meaning that it is not always the most salient stimuli that

book “The Organized Mind.” Levitin, based out of McGill

“wins” and grabs our focus. Because of our innate tendencies

University, is a cognitive neuroscientist specialized in the

to avert our attention to novel stimuli, we keep superficially

cross-talk between music and the brain, with an additional

consuming excessive information, ultimately doing ourselves

interest in the workings and struggles of the mind in our

a disservice and exhausting our minds. Ultimately this

Source: http://www.thepartnerstrust.com/blog/2012/01/04/creating-a-mind-map/

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Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 4 . April 2015

inefficient use of our cognitive resources makes it harder for us to attend to the pressing things at hand and results in us feeling more stressed.

3. Prioritize Have a clear view of what you need or intend to get accomplished every day. One way to do this is to write out a

In his book, Levitin weaves together snippets of scientific

list first thing in the morning and indicate the priority of each

findings, anecdotes, as well as basic cognitive optimization

point. The idea here is to externalize your “to-do’s” for the day

rules. Nothing that he presents comes across as extremely

such that you have a clear view of them and can prioritize

revolutionary, yet he backs up his tips with scientific findings

them. This way you are not wasting cognitive resources on

that lend credence to his work. Recognizing that you have

trying to remember what you need to get done and can

enough to read already, here are our top 5 suggestions to give

efficiently tackle the most pressing things first.

you

4. Naps

a

head

start

on

cognitive

optimization:

1. Externalize

This is perhaps one of my favorite suggestions – who

Externalize aspects of your memory to your physical

doesn’t love a little mid-day siesta? Levitin explains how our

environment and use it to help you remember things – this

minds have natural “mind wandering modes” which allow for

way you free up more “internal” memory to be used on other

neural resetting and attentional refreshment. These are

things. For example, if you know in advance that you need

relaxing for the mind and most easily attained through a quick

certain things for your exam the next day, assemble those

nap. However if napping isn’t your cup of tea you can also

things right away and put them by the door. This way the

choose to meditate for half an hour or go for a little walk.

environment helps remind you to bring your exam-aids along,

5. Do not multitask!

as opposed to having to rely on a stressed-out-you first thing

Our generation likes to pride itself on being professional

in the morning.

multitaskers but according to Levitin our brains do not function

2. Write things down

in this manner: instead our mind quickly but sequentially shifts

This may seem like a straight forward one, but nonetheless

attention between the things we are juggling at the time. This

it is an activity that is becoming increasingly unpopular in our

lack of focus results in decreased work efficiency. Therefore,

computer age. It would seem that compared to typing or

try to focus one thing at a time and minimize your smartphone/

thinking abstractly, the act of writing something down allows

computer usage when working. If this is hard for you try

for deeper encoding in the memory structures of our brain.

downloading apps which block Youtube and Facebook or

Levitin also suggests that when you’re stressed you write

disable your Internet connection altogether. In addition, make

down what is causing your distress. Putting it on paper might

an effort to incorporate breaks in your work schedule –

make your angst more tangible and allow you to tackle it more

however, this break should not involve the consumption of

easily and directly.

useless information. Instead of going on the Internet consider taking a break by going for a walk or even take a mini-nap to refresh your mind.

15

FEATURE Faculty Profile:

An Interview with Dr. Will Cunningham Susmita Sarkar

– social, developmental, cognitive, neuroscience. Not the

Interneuron contributing author Susmita Sarkar introduces us

essay that a potential supervisor would be interested in. I

to Dr. Will Cunningham from the Department of Psychology.

never understood that the fields of psychology were supposed to be different and non-overlapping, and so I ended

Can we start with a bit about your background?

up being curious about everything.

My path to psychology is not very straightforward. In

Well that leads to my next question. You teach social

undergrad at William & Mary, a small liberal arts college in

cognitive neuroscience which seems very nebulous.

Virginia, I started as a computer science and chemistry

Would you mind breaking it down a little?

double major – because that is what I was good at in high

Social cognitive neuroscience, that’s a funny one. I’m

school. After taking several classes, I realized what I was

not quite sure what it actually means. At some level, it’s

interested and what I was good at were different things, and

everything. Trying to explain behavior though multiple lens

I switched to studying philosophy and religion. Psychology

simultaneously. As a field, I find it exciting because it’s a place

ended up being a perfect combination of these skills and

where you can take a topic like emotion, or prosociality, or

interests.

prejudice, and rather than putting blinders on and only

I was lucky to attend Yale for graduate school to work

thinking about it from one perspective, you are forced to deal

with Marcia Johnson and Mahzarin Banaji. It was a great time

with everything simultaneously, which makes it kind of

to be there – cognitive neuroscience was just beginning to

exciting and hard.

really pick up speed, and we had access to an fMRI scanner in the evenings. Also, Yale at that time was getting rid of the

Do you think that’s inherent to the field, or do you think

distinctions between the “areas” of psychology at that time,

that because it’s such a new field, data is coming in all at

and so I was able to spend time in cognitive, social,

once, so you’re forced to consider everything at once?

developmental, and neuroscience labs. It allowed me the

Well I don’t think you have to. You can have a very

flexibility to try weird things.

narrow way of looking at things. For example, if I’m interested in how a certain brain regions responds to faces, I can have

So how did you get interested in neuroscience and

a really narrow question and not consider a sociological

psychology? Your background seems to flow there

perspective. But, I think that most of psychology is becoming

naturally, but it could have lead down lots of different

interdisciplinary. You are starting to see job searches for

paths.

‘social cognitive development’ or ‘social clinical science’. My I think not starting in psychology and taking a non-

ideal would be to get rid of the category of social cognitive

direct path was very helpful for me. Coming from a liberal arts

neuroscience entirely and just simply say psychology. Really,

school, I didn’t know that you were supposed to do one and

once you’ve added everything together, it’s really just a series

only one thing. My interests were everywhere, and

of questions : How does emotion work? Or what’s prejudice?

psychology and neuroscience is where they all came

And instead of defining our questions in terms of something

together. Strangely, because of this I was rejected to every

like social process or neuroscience, to me, it’s more

graduate school that I applied to. Looking back at my personal

interesting to take a problem like ‘what is an emotion?”, and

statement it makes sense. I said I was interested in everything

try to answer it with all the tools available.

16

Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 4 . April 2015

Currently, what are your research interests then?

I’m right now at the point of defining what I want my next question to be, and I think it’s going to relate to goals and how goals shape our perceptions, actions, and how we relate to the world. If you change the way you’re thinking about the world, your very early perceptual processes change. You categorize people in a certain way and it changes everything.

I want to think about how we can do things strategically to change the most automatic aspects – getting rid of the idea that you have an automatic response and then, you control it.

What can we do to prepare the mind to interact with the world in certain ways and understand that from a neuroscience perspective?

I think we’re about to see a very different social cognitive neuroscience in about four years as we start thinking about what are the core questions? What are the core computations? Rather than labeling a brain area as ‘the self’, we can label it with some other term that relates to a process that might be used in multiple things. Because of that, it will be recreating the whole brain map at a very different level of resolution.

For many of our readers, graduate school is a big unknown. As either a former graduate student, or from a professor’s point of view, could you speak about what to expect going in?

I think graduate school is an amazing opportunity

Do you have any major influences that helped you gain this new perspective?

Randy O’Reilly: I think his perspective is very powerful – he’s trying to, computationally, answer what the mind does and how it interacts to give rise to these more emerging concepts. What I like about it is that it doesn’t

when done right. I think that it comes with perspective – again, I was rejected to grad school the first time I applied, but I think that’s the best thing that’s ever happened to me. If I had started graduate school at that moment, I was not thinking correctly about what I wanted to do and accomplish.

Graduate school isn’t school and nor is it a job. It’s a weird thing that looks like nothing else. It’s an opportunity to

Right now, social cognitive neuroscience is going through a growing phase. It’s coming out of infancy and is now having to deal with some harder questions.

explore some topic that you’re passionate about. The trick is to be passionate about it, and not figure out that out after you show up. See where your mind goes naturally, and explore that. I go to sleep worrying about what the amygdala does, or worrying about what consciousness is, or I was obsessing the other day about what the concept of ‘now’ is. One way that people think about it is : omg I have to work 12-13 hours/day, but I don’t think that’s the right way of thinking about it. The right way of thinking about grad school is that you have the

ask: where is emotion, cognition, perception, and memory? He’s asking: what are the basic processes that the mind does and how do they combine in different ways to give rise to things that we call memory, attention, and emotion?

This is a very interesting way to think about the mind.

opportunity to think about something for 12-13 hours/day. So you better want to think about whatever it is. One of the critical things is having intrinsic motivation. You have to be willing to let something get under your skin, and if approached that way, it is the most amazing time in someone’s life. If you don’t have that, it’s like this grueling, terrible experience. You might not

Our theme this issue is Neuroscience and the Unknown, and you’ve hinted that your future is unknown. How does this theme apply to the field of social cognitive neuroscience in its current state?

In the first few years, there was the assumption that “the self” is going to be somewhere in the brain or that “social cognition” or “facial processing” is going to be somewhere else. That was very important step for building an encyclopedia of information about localization, but we’re now realizing that this might not be the best way of characterizing how the brain does social things.

know exactly what it is that you will study, but it is best when you can allow yourself to let it take over and be open to that happening.

We would like to thank Dr. Cunningham for taking the time to lend us his insights!

17

Greetings from IMS Magazine: Who We Are, and a Brief Reflection on Graduate School Susy Lam On behalf of the IMS Magazine, I thank Interneuron for the courteous invitation to be included in this issue.

IMS Magazine serves to link one of the University of Toronto’s largest graduate departments, the Institute of Medical Science, by bringing together cutting edge research into a well-designed magazine masterpiece. With a heavy translational research focus, we showcase bench-tobedside works from teaching hospitals and research facilities across the Greater Toronto Area--to unite the University of Toronto’s best research!

As co-editor, I’ve been privileged to work with very talented journalists, photographers, design illustrators, and of course, our dedicated IMS graduate students and faculty. Being involved with IMS Magazine has been a tremendously rewarding experience, and I am excited to continue coordinating the publishing process!

That being said, I, myself, am also a graduate student, pursuing a MSc. with Dr. Robert Chen at Toronto Western Hospital, with a particular focus on motor learning neurophysiology in human subjects using transcranial magnetic stimulation. My graduate experience has been very much enjoyable, so I’d like to comment more about it.

Transitioning from undergraduate student to graduate

18

student is a dynamic change. During undergraduate studies, more often than not we are accustomed to a specific class schedule, and time is tight--assignments are due, midterms will approach, etc. In a project-based master’s, things change dramatically! I was left with so much time on my hands that it became a little overwhelming. Eventually, I got into the groove of it by allotting time to planning my project from scratch, applying to scholarships, hitting the gym, meeting friends, and of course, managing the IMS Magazine.

Graduate life becomes a different challenge, and it’s about self-discipline and having the drive and ambition to make the best out of yourself, with the time that you are given.

This dialogue between Interneuron and IMS Magazine is a great start to facilitating a smoother transition between undergraduate studies and graduate school! Check out the magazine’s website at www.imsmagazine.com. Here, we make regular blog posts of both print and online-exclusive articles written by our IMS students and faculty. If you click on the link “Print Issues”, you will be able to access current and past issues of the print magazine in PDF format.

I wish you all the best in your studies! If you are interested in pursuing graduate studies in the IMS, some exciting news— the IMS has recently approved a new professional Master’s degree in Translational Research! Check it out here: www.trp.utoronto.ca Cheers to you all!

Susy Lam Co-editor, IMS Magazine MSc. Candidate, Dr. Robert Chen’s Research Laboratory

Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 4 . April 2015

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