Koreana Autumn 1991 (English)

KO A

quarterly on Korean culture

Apex of Korea's Cultural Heritage Editor's Note I Incomparable Gems from Korea's Ceramic Past 2 Contemporary Scene I6 Profiles in Excellence 24 Grandeur & Decline of Korea's Pottery Yoon Yong路i 25 Glories of Jade Green Mark Potters' Genius Kim )ae-yeol 37 The Merit Lay in "Absolute Purity" Chung Yang路mo 46 Koreans Shaped Base for japan's Pottery Yoon Yong路i 50 In Praise of Tradition in Porcelains of Korea Edward B. Adams 56 New Art Philosophies Slow to Take Root Choi Kon 60 Japan's Big Brother Is No Longer Korea Seizo Hayashiya 70 Long in History. Short in Technology Lee Hee-soo 72 Ceramic Artists at a Crossroads Lee Kyung-sung 79 KOREANA Interview/Crepuscle on Cultural Past Chung Yang路mo 87 Review/Dance New Approach to Theatrical Dance Kim Chae-hyun 90 Review/Theater Business Community Begins to Help Out Han Sang-chul 94 Review/Music Fine Concerts Mark Kickoff of Summer Han Sang-woo 97 Daniel D. Holt 99 Review/Book Korea's Old Tales Lovingly Retold

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I Editor's Note

KOREANA A

quarterly on Korean culture

Vol. 5 No.3 1991 KOREANA is published quarterly by INTERNATIONAL CULTURAL SOCIETY OF KOREA 526. 5-ga. Namdaemunno. Chung-gu. Seoul KOREANA was registered as a quarterly magazine with the Ministry of Information.

Republic of Korea. on August 8. 1987.

Registration No. Ba-1033

Water Dropper in the Shape of a Duck First half of the 12th century National Treasure No. 74 H eight: Bcm Kansong Art Museum, Seoul

©international Cultural Society of Korea 1991 A/1 rights reserved . No part of-this publication may be reproduced in any form without the prior permission of the International Culturpl Society of Korea.

Apex of Korea's Cultural Heritage Glorified by Nameless Ceramists

PUBLISHER/EDITOR: Hyuck-ln Lew

he late Korean architect Kim Swoo Geun always loved to use the untranslatable word mot. As he explained. the term characterized the essence of Korea's cultural and artistic heritage. According to Kim. mot underlines the state of the Korean mind that instinctively shuns the inhumanity of symmetry and delights in the splendors of human elegance.

If Kim's definition were correct. nothing might underline the point more eloquently than the finest of Korea's ceramic arts.

Featured in this issue is a long succession of articles from Korean experts on pottery. Indeed. the leitmotif of most of these articles might seem to endorse invariably the brilliant architect's view. As a matter of fact. Kim is said to have turned to Korea's punchong stonewares for inspiration in ~esigning Seoul's Olympic Main Stadium. · The annals of the art in Korea tell the story. To begin with . there was a strong influence from China that made itself felt.

Soon it evaporated. In its place grew ceramic styles and techniques that for all the world seem dedicated to stressing the importance of mot in art. And like the case of many another cultural splendor elsewhere in the world. the basis of Korean pottery was established firmly by a long and exceedingly talented parade of nameless artisans.

One irony is plain . though. In Japan. Korean pottery has down the ages been so treasured that today there exists in the city of Osaka a full-scale museum in praise of it. No such edifice exists in Korea. though practically all .Korean museums · have a good pottery section.

EDITORIAL BOARD: Choe Chungho. Hahn Man-young, Rhee Sang-woo. Yoo Young-ik EDITOR IN CHIEF: S. Chang MANAGING EDITOR: Lee Kyong-hee ART DIRECTOR: Kim Shi-joong ASSOCIATE EDITORS: Song Jung-sok (text) Cho Sang-in. Ahn Chong-sun (design) CIRCULATION: Overseas/C.P.O. Box 2147 , Seoul. Korea Tel: (02) 753-6464 Fax: (02) 757-2049 Domestic/C.P.O. Box 7852. Seoul. Korea Tel: (02) 274-5443. 269-2209 U.S. Subscriber Service: KOREANA P.O. Box 312 Hartsdale. New York 10530 Tel: (914) 472-4587 Fax: (914) 472-1195 Advertising inquiries should be addressed to AD Seoul. RM 601. Lions Bldg .. 50. 2-ga.

Chungmuro. Chung-gu . Seoul. Korea Tel: (02) 274-8336 Fax: (02) 274-8337 LAYOUT: Yong Ahn Graphics TYPESETTING: World Compugraphic PRINTING: Samhwa Printing Co. (Ryu Sung-keun) Printed in Korea. October 21. 1991 Price per copy: US$5 (W3.500)

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Vol 5 No. 3 KOREANA 1991

INCOMPARABLE GEMS FROM eatured in the following 14 pages is a selection of the most celebrated ceramic masterworks from various collections in Korea. Many of them have been designated as national treasures by the government.

Down the ages. generations of critics and connoisseurs have competed with each other in bestowing superlatives on them. KOREANA will not try to outdo them.

F

KOREA'S CERAMIC PAST But one look at these photographs. and many of our readers will agree with each other on one fact. When it comes to the question of what scholars nowadays call avant-garde art. some of the nameless potters who produced these gems centuries ago seem to have known what to do far more than the most avant-garde of artists at work anywhere in the world today.

From the KORYO Period (918--1391)

Celadon Maebyong Incised with Lotus and Arabesque Designs First half of the 12th century National Treasure No. 97 Height: 43.9cm National Museum of Korea

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Ce/adon Bottle with Bamboo Design in Relief 12th century National Treasure No. 169 Height: 33.6cm Ho-am Art Museum, Yongin

Plain Celadon Bottle in the Shape of a Melon First half of the 12th century National Treasure No. 94 Height: 22.Bcm National Museum of Korea

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Celadon Maebyong Inlaid with Designs of Cloud and Cranes Mid-12th century Height: 39cm National Museum of Korea

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Celadon Openwork Incense Burner First half of the 12th century National Treasure No. 95 Total Height: 15.3cm National Museum of Korea

Celadon Kundika Inlaid with Designs of Willow, Bamboo, Lotus, Reed, and Mandarin Ducks

Mid-12th century National Treasure No. 66 Height: 37cm Kansong Art Museum, Seoul

Celadon Incense Burner with Unicorn-shaped Lid First half of the 12th century National Treasure No. 65 Height: 15.4cm Kansong Art Museum, Seoul

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Celadon Jar Inlaid with Peony Design Mid-12th century National Treasure No. 98 Diameter of the mouth: 20.6cm National Museum of Korea

Celadon Pillow Inlaid with Designs of Peony, Cloud, and Crane Mid-12th cen tury Length: 22.8cm National Museum of Korea

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Gourd-shaped Celadon Bottle Inlaid with Peony Design Mid-12th century National Treasure No. 116 Total Height: 34.4cm National Museum of Korea

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From the CHOSON Period (1392--191 0)

White Porcelain Bowl 15th century Height: 22.5cm Horim Art Museum, Seoul

White Porcelain Placenta Jar with Inlaid Lotus-Arabesque Designs 15th century National Treasure No. 175 Diameter of the mouth: 17.5cm National Museum of Korea

1.

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White Porcelain Jar 18th century Height: 40.7cm National Museum of Korea

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Blue and White Porcelain Angular Bottle with Bamboo Design The first half of the 18th century Height: 40.6cm Ho-am Art Museum, Yongin

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Blue and White Porcelain Water Dropper in the Shape of a Peach with Design Painted in Underglaze Copper The first half o f the 18th century Height: 10.8cm Ho-am Art Museum, Yongin

r

Blue and White Porcelain Paper Stand with Plum, Orchid, Chrysanthemum, and Bamboo Design The first half o f the 18th century Height: 14.2cm Ho-am A rt Mu seum, Yong in

Blue and White Porcelain Jar with Inscription of Hongchi and Pine and Bamboo Design 1489 A.D. National Treasure No. 176 Heig ht: 48.7cm Dongguk University Museum, Seo ul

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White Porcelain Jar with Grape Design Painted in Underglaze Iron Th e second half of the 17th century National Treasure No. 107 Height: 53.8cm Ewha Womans University Museum, Seoul

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Blue and White Porcelain Bottle with Chrysanthemum Design in Underglaze Iron and Copper The first half of the 18th century Treasure No. 241 Height: 42.1cm Kansong Art Museum, Seoul

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Punchong Flask with Fish Design Incised on White Slip 16 century National Treasure No. 178 Height: 22.6cm National Museum of Korea

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Punchong Bowl with Cover with Inlaid Design of Peony 15th century Treasure No. 348 Height: 16cm Kansong Art Museum, Seoul

Punchong Jar with Inlaid Dragon Design The first half of the 15th century Height: 49.7cm National Museum of Korea

Punchong Bottle with Sgraffito Design 15th century Treasure No. 287 Height: 20.4cm Kansong Art Museum, Seoul

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CONTEMPORARY SCENE

}<

OREANA takes pleasure in repro-

ducing photographs of ceramic masterworks by some of the best-known contemporary potters in Korea. Some are traditionalists dedicated to emulating the styles and techniques of ancient masters. while others are

modernists with tons of creative urge and passion. Though the traditionalists are better known abroad than the modernists, most Korean critics are still uncertain about which side of the art will become the mainstream in the future.

Modem Traditionalist Potters

Celadon Vase by Hwang ln-chun (1894-1950) H: 25cm, 0: 11cm

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Vol. 5 No.3 KOREANA 1991

Celadon Bottle with Inlaid Design

by Yu Kun-hyong (1894), H: 17.8cm

Today' s Creative Ceramic Artists Dotomite Glaze Bottle (1989) by Kwo n Soon-hyung H : 22.3cm, 0: 23.3cm

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Punchong Bowl with Brush-marked Design (1990)

by Hwang Chong-nye, H: 29cm, 0: 20cm

Inlaid Earthenware (1991) by Cho Chung-hyun H: 30cm, 0: 45cm

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Yolimun Vase (1989)

by Roe Kyung-joe 16x16 x 31cm

From the Earth's Surface (1988) by Won Kyung-hwan Material: Iron net+clay, H: 90cm, 0: 60cm (3 pieces)

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AN ARTIST IN SEOUL Once a chemical engineering major at Seoul National University.

Kim Yikyung is among the most venturesome of creative potters at work in Korea today. One irony about her career is that she was first enlightened in the glories of her country's ceramic past by British potter Bernard Leach while she was studying in the U.S. She returned home in a hurry to study it seriously before making her debut as a creative potter. Photographs here show Prof.

Kim at work at Kookmin University and some of her recent works.

Ritual Tray, porcelain 42(h)

Stone Plant, porcelain blue slip 19(h) x 22 x 32cm

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Domain Series, porcelain 21(h)x14x21cm

Vase, porcelain ash glaze 17(h) x 28 x 19cm

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AN ARTIST DEEP IN THE COUNTRYSIDE At the foot of storied Mt. Chiri. in the southern part of Korea. potter Min Yong-ki works hard at his kiln with no assistants but his wife and cous in. Min at 45 is among one of the many little-known Korean potters who are convinced that their reason for being lies in helping to enhance the glories of ceram ic art. just as their ancestors did centuries ago.

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Min is happy working deep in the lovely countryside. These photographs show the artist working with the wheel. studying his work in front of his kiln and relaxing with his wife.

Photographed also are some of his recent works.

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Profiles In Excellence

Monument for Mun

l- - MUN IK-CHOM (July)

AHN

EAK~T A Y

(August)

1329~ 1398

1906-1965

ould a smuggler be a patriot? The answer is yes. Consider the case of Mun. whose life and work were commemorated with an exhibition. fashion show and semi-

ike Chopin and Paderewski. Ahn was ~n expatriate composer whose heart and mind never wandered far from his homeland.

He lived in Europe and the U.S. before and during World War II. and. through his music . inspired patriotism in the hearts of Koreans suffering under Japanese rule. In l 936 he wrote a stirring tune that eventually became the melody for South Korea's national anthem-Aegukka (Song of Love for the Homeland) . Mussolini's Italy, then an ally of Japan, expelled him for introducing at a Rome concert his symphony, Korean Fantasy , which originally incorporated the tune. Ahn persevered. By the time he died. he had become the best known Korean maestro abroad.

C

nar in Seoul last summer. In 1363, then secretary to a Koryo envoy, he chose to ignore Yuan China's ban on taking cotton seeds out of the country and took some home. The transplants thrived. thanks to the ingenious care of Mun's father-in-law. The outcome touched off a sartorial revolution in Korea. Up until then. hemp was a thing for clothing material. Now cotton began to replace it. Sure enough, there are historians who insist that Korea's booming textile industry was born in 1363.

L

HO CHUN (September) 1546~1615

¡T o Oriental medicine. Ho might be what Claude Bernard is to Western medicine.

Consisting of 25 volumes. his Donguibogam (The Treasury of Oriental Medicine) is. in the eyes of many experts around Asia, about as monumental a work as Bernard's Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine. What's remarkable about The Treasury is not ;::,nly Ho's brilliant scholarship but also the fact that he wrote much of it in the wake of a war triggered by Japanese shogun Hideyoshi. a con-

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Vol. 5 No.3 KOREANA 1991

Ho 's Medical Book

flict that left nearly all of Korea in a shambles.

A herbal doctor by training. Ho remains highly respected in Korea today. Last year a modern version of The Treasury was a bestseller.

GRANDEUR & DECLINE OF KOREA'S POTIERY From Koryo to Choson Period Yoon

Yong~i

f all the cultural and artistic achievements in Korea throughout its long history. pottery is among the most noteworthy. Korea's traditional pottery is rich in artistry and expresses the aesthetic and practical concepts of the Korean people more vividly than any other form of art or craft.

Ancient Korean pottery. which can be divided into the three major types of Koryo celadon. the punchong and white porcelain ware of Chason. is almost unique in the world when it comes to distinctive qualities. Appreciating the beauty of individual pieces is highly important in the study of ceramic art. But no less important is understanding the evolution and general characteristics of ceramic art.

Let us take a searching look at the development of Korean pottery and its changing styles and concepts from the Koryo (918-1392) to the Chason period ( 1392-191 0).

0

EARLY KORYO WARE In order to trace the origin and development of Koryo ware. it must first be understood that unglazed earthenware and stoneware were turned out in Korea several centuries before Koryo. Especially in the south. experiments were already being made with low-temperature green and brown glazes in the late Shilla period (57 B.C.-A.D. 93 5) that preceded the Koryo period. Here I take the liberty of dividing Koryo's ceramic history into three periods. although there are other opinions as to the boundaries of each period and the characterization of each of them.

The Koryo ware during its formative period (918-1 I 00) can best be understood by considering the political development of the new-born kingdom and its relations with China.

Generally speaking. the ruling elite of Koryo were familiar with Chinese culture. Especially in the area of ceramics. they knew much about Chinese ware and were in possession of many pieces. thanks to active cultural exchanges with Tang China conducted since the ninth century in the Unified Shilla period. Fine examples of Chinese ware unearthed at the Miruksa Temple site in Iksan and the Kwangnyongsa Temple site and the Anapchi royal resort lake in Kyongju as well as the celadon and white porcelain bowls and yellow-glazed jars produced in the ki lns of Yue-zhou and other famous ancient pottery centers in southern China. offer telling evidence of brisk imports of Chinese pottery products at this time.

It is believed that the aristocracy of early Koryo mainly favored Chinese ware imported by way of sea routes connecting southern China and the southwest coast of Korea. In the second

Yoon Yong-i. born in 194 7. is a professor of art history at Wongwang University in !ri. Chol/abuk-do Province.

He majored in history at Sungkyunkwan University and its graduate school. and was formerly the curator of the National Museum of Korea. He also served on the Cultural Property Committee of the Ministry of Culture.

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half of the I Oth century, however. the political and administrative advancement under the reigns of King Kwangjong (r. 949-975) and King Songjong (r. 982-987). aimed mainly at building a strong, centralized government and brought about notable changes in the lifestyle of Koryo's aristocrats.

Among his various administrative reform efforts. Kwangjong set up a civil service examination system in 958. adopting the proposal of Chinese scholar Shuang Ji (Ssang Ki. as Koreans know him). Kwangjong wanted to employ in the bureaucracy new civilian officials, men of learning, in place of the old military officials from the ranks of those who had participated in the founding of the dynasty. He also instituted gradations in court robes in 960 in order to give a heightened degree of hierarchy to this newly established bureaucratic structure.

King Songjong went further. relying on the views of Confucian scholar-officials like Choe Sungno. who advocated the creation of an aristocratic society with a centralized power structure.

Under Songjong's reign, officials were dispatched for the first time from the capital to head the provincial administrative units.

With the new aristocratic order expanding, the construction of posh residences for rich noblemen as well as royal palaces. public offices and Buddhist temples became inevitable. Demand for high-quality ceramic ware to decorate these new buildings grew" accordingly. The everspreading influence of Buddhism emphasizing son meditation. or zen in the more widely used Japanese terminology, also necessitated ceramic ware for serving tea.

The early requirements could be satisfied mainly with imports from China's Five Dynasties.

But gradually, Korean potters began to produce their own wares after Chinese models.

Specific requests for different types of vessels and decorations from their aristocratic patrons who had easy access to Chinese culture. and the advice of Chinese immigrants. are believed to have influenced the works of these early potters.

It can be assumed now that a number of Chinese potters from the state of Wu-Yue visited Korea at this time to teach their prized skills to the Koreans. It may not be mere coincidence that most of the Korean kilns at this time were built in areas near the west coast facing China, such as Yongin. Koyang, Sosan. Kochang, Kangso and Pongchon.

It is interesting to note that these ancient kiln sites have a sprawling layer of broken pieces of unsuccessful vessels.

Among these ancient kiln sites. Yongin. Kochang, Sosan and Pongchon deserve special mention. They yielded shards of dishes and bowls, all painted with similar glazes in greenish-brown, yellowish-brown and dark green. as well as cylindrical saggers and rectangular, grayi:;h-black bricks used for building kilns. All these items form mounds. measuring some 40 meters by 50 meters. and some five meters deep.

The latest investigation of the kiln site at So-ri. Yongin County, in the central western province of Kyonggi-do. brought to light an old layer of shards preceding even the earliest known celadon ware. The celadon shards unearthed here. bearing notable affinity with Chinese ware from the Five Dynasties produced at the Yue-zhou kilns. are also very similar to those found in Sosan. Koyang and Pongchon. The Yongin site drew even greater attention when it was learned to include the remains of a brick kiln preserved in a relatively orderly state.

A significant conclusion was thus reached that skillful craftsmen were employed at these early Koryo kilns to produce high-grade wares. comparable to China's Yue wares of the late I Oth century, for use by the royal court and aristocracy. Side by side with this more advanced type, the manufacture of unglazed stoneware continued at numerous rural kilns for daily use by much of the populace.

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A fortunate discovery in this light has been a wide-mouthed jar covered with celadon-type glaze. which is kept at Ewha Womans University Museum in Seoul. This remarkable piece. though it appears to be a waster. or damaged piece rejected for use and recovered from the kiln site. bears an inscription on the base stating that it was made in 993 for the ancestral shrine commemorating the founding monarch of Koryo.

In 1983 . another important investigation was conducted at a celadon kiln site in Vonggye-ri.

Asan-myon. Kochang-gun. in the southwestern province of Chollabuk-do. shedding some light on Koryo celadon making in the early II th century. Along with a flat roof-tile fragment bearing an inscription revealing its year of production as I 022. this particular kiln site provided shards of celadon ware in various forms. including dishes. bowls. jars. bottles. covered boxes and cups with stands. These vessels were made of grayish-white clay and coated with thin. pale blue glaze. Deserving special attention among these vessels are the tea bowls with Vuetype spur marks at the base. that were formed by firing the tea bowls upon small clay supports in the kiln . They were mostly undecorated and fired very carefully without stacking.

Similar tea bowls have been discovered at the Miruksa Temple site in Iksan. also in Chollabukdo Province. Buddhism was flourishing as the state religion in Koryo. and obviously encouraged tea drinking as a means of obtaining a clear state of mind needed .for meditation. Celadon tea bowls were in great demand among temples and aristocratic households. forming a new culture in upper-class Koryo society.

Plain celadon wares with Vue-type spur marks. which were still evidently coarse in potting and glazing techniques. formed the mainstream of the ceramic industry in Koryo until the early II th century. But sporadic kiln site evidence shows that. in addition to these cflongja. or celadon ware glazed in varied bluish-green shades. the Koryo potters also produced white and black wares in this period. White porcelain was produced at Vongin. among other kilns. and black ware at Kohung. Chollanam-do Province.

Koryo celadon displayed a maturing in all respects including form. decoration and glaze in the second half of the II th century.

Under northern Chinese influence represented by the Song ware. more kilns were built in Kangjin and Haenam in South Cholla Province. which later became famous pottery centers. as well as in other regions across the country. A greater variety of forms appeared. such as bottles with a wide mouth and a long neck. ewers. bowls. dishes and cups with stands. Many of these vessels were decorated with designs incised. carved. molded in relief. or rendered in underglaze iron.

Also of interest about wares from this period is that the walls became thin. Vessels were placed upon supports made of a mixture of fireclay and ordinary clay for the firing.

Dating to the last years of this period is a wide-mouthed celadon bottle and a celadon headrest with underglaze iron and incised decoration. which were unearthed from an ancient tomb in Maewol-ri. Vangpyong-gun. Kyonggi-do. Considering that the tomb was built around 1085. these celadon wares are believed to have been produced earlier than that.

The kiln sites in Chinsan-ri. Haenam. at the southernmost end of the country. have yielded many specimens of low-grade celadon ware produced in the same period. They include bottles and ewers decorated with flower and grass designs in underglaze iron. and jars decorated with incised grass designs. All these vessels were made with coarse-grained clay containing impurities. They have crude surfaces covered with glaze in darkish colors such as dark green. greenish-brown and grayish-black.

In 1984. archaeologists salvaged from the seabed off Wando Island. near Haenam. similar

Vol. 5 No. 3 KOREANA 199 1

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low-class celadon ware totaling 30.672 pieces. The discovery led to confirmation that in the late II th century. the ceramic industry of Koryo had two major streams: the manufacture of high-grade ware at kilns in the Kangjin and Puan areas. and the production of low-grade ware at kilns in the Haenam and Inchon areas. The former catered to royalty and the aristocracy in the capital city, while the latter met demand from local temples. public offices and rich peasants in the countryside.

It is interesting to note that the celadon ware ot these two types differed in quality but shared common forms and decorative designs. Also. the production method did not show any notable difference from one type to another. Such a tendency continued well into the first half of the 12th century, when the Koryo ceramic industry entered its middle period (II 00-12 50).

The society of Koryo had entered upon a period of remarkable stability by the early 12th century. The aristocracy was firmly instituted under the reign of Yejong and lnjong. There was little border strife and Buddhism attained its zenith. contributing to a golden period in cultural development.

SCHOLAR XU JING Chinese scholar Xu )ing's famous account of his trip to Korea in 1123. entitled Xuan-ho Fengshi Gao-li Tu-jing (Travelogue to Koryo of a Chinese Envoy), is the chief literary sou rce of information on the ceramic ware of the Koryo period. His remarks about Koryo ceramic ware in this celebrated book. more often called simply Gao-li Tu-jing (Koryo Togyong in Korean). are brief but very much to the point.

Xu ling devotes three chapters to the subject of Korean "Wares and Vessels." of which the third contains specific references to pottery. His account reads as follows: The pottery wares are green (qing) in color and are called 'kingfisher colored' (fei-se) by the people of Gao-li. In recent years they have been made more skillfully. These are fine pots of a gourd shape with small covers in the form of a duck amidst lotus flowers. They also make bowls and dishes. cups and tea bowls. flower vases and hot-water bowls. all copied from the forms of Ting ware. so they are not illustrated here. but the wine pots are specially shown because these are

" different....

A lion emits incense and is likewise 'kingfisher colored': the beast crouches on the top. supported by a lotus. This is the most distinguished of all their wares: the others resemble the old mi-se (secret color) of Yue-zhou and the new kiln wares of Ru-zhou."

Xu ling's description is often interpreted as signifying that the finest Koryo celadons were superior.in glaze color even to the celebrated Song wares of the time. Such a view is readily justified by four plain celadon wares excavated from the tomb of King lnjong who died in I 146. They comprise a taiL slender vase with lobed sides. a small deep bowl with a cover. a square stand. and a round box with a cover. Although excellent in glaze color. these celadons are devoid of decoration. The bodies are close-grained and in fine proportion. reflecting the quiet and refined taste of the Koryo noblemen of letters. The second half of the 12th century witnessed the flowering of Koryo's aristocratic culture and also its rapid decline. Domestic tranquillity was disturbed by the misrule of the pleasure-loving King Uijong. who succeeded lnjong. and a revolt by military officers in I I 70.

According to Koryosa (History of Koryo). Uijong. who excessively indulged in aesthetic pleasure. had a royal pavilion covered with celadon roof tiles constru.cted beside an artificial lake in Kaesong. the capital city of Koryo. in I I 57. The claim is supported by many roof-tile frag-

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ments discovered in Kangjin in 1965 by a kiln site investigation team from the National Museum of Korea.

The roof-tile fragments were found along with numerous broken pieces of celadon dishes. incense burners. water droppers. ewers. and cups with stands. These discoveries present important clues to dating various celadon wares existing today. Some of the flat roof-tile fragments were incised with peony designs. A roof-end finial with a peony design in relief was discovered in an almost perfect state. Also of great interest is the fact that simple inlaid decoration appears for the first time on some fragments of these roof tiles and vessels.

CROWNING ACHIEVEMENT The essentially Korean character of the Koryo celadon wares produced at this time is seen in their form and style. The shapes were often derived from Chinese pottery. as Xu )ing observed. but they were modified to suit Korean tastes. In many cases. the Korean potters went farther than simple modification . They developed the uniquely Korean lines and flavor. which may be described as quiet and tasteful.

Korean individuality showed fascinating expression in decoration as¡ well . Floral designs such as the lotus. peony and chrysanthemum continued to be popular. but there was also a notable trend toward motifs from Korea's native scenes. such as the much-loved ducks. reeds and willow trees. and flying cranes among clouds. They were incised. impressed. rendered in relief or openwork. Iron and copper-red ornamentation also appeared frequently in this period. Glaze. too. acquired admirable translucence and luster.

It must be noted here that. along with these celadon wares using various techniques for ornamentation. the Koryo potters also produced white porcelains with similar decorations as well as black wares. some with a celadon-type glaze. At major pottery centers like Kangjin and Puan. which was also in the southwestern province of Cholla. fragments of all these types have been unearthed in great abundance. mingled together and clearly made at the same time.

The Koryo potters. who are presumed to have begun experimenting with inlaying sometime in the early 12th century. continued to develop it. making a monumental contribution to ceramic art. It is true that the Chinese employed the same method. but only rarely. whereas the Koreans exploited it to the full and made it their chief style and crowning achievement. Celadons produced after the military officers¡ revolt in I 170 display marked progress in inlaying skill.

Outstanding pieces from this period include an ink stone with inlaid peony design. which is dated 1181. and a celadon bowl with inlaid eggplant. dated 1202 at the latest. ¡ The development of Koryo-style celadon continued into the 13th century. The famous celadon plum vase (maebyong) with inlaid clouds and cranes. graceful in form and adroit in decoration. which is in the collection of the Kansong Art Museum in Seoul. represents the art of inlaying at the height of its development.

Regretfully. however. the great period of Koryo ceramic art came to an end before long. even before the Mongol invasion of 12 3 I . Probably the long. dark years under alien oppression began to cast their shadow beforehand. In any case. ornamentation was growing profuse and firing techniques were deteriorating. The glaze color became impoverished and even the forms lost their spontaneous beauty.

In spite of the dwindling inspiration and the Mongol armies sweeping down in a brutal campaign. the potter's craft continued to be practiced and. as soon as the Mongol tyranny was somewhat relaxed. ceramic art flowered again for a short while. A celadon gourd-shaped wine

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pot decorated with lotus petals in underglaze copper. in the collection of the Ho-am Art Museum. which is dated 12 57. is among the finest pieces from these twilight years of the splendid history of the Koryo celadon. The glaze color grew markedly deeper. but the graceful form of Koryo celadon still remained evident.

Soon the widespread economic distress began to be reflected in pottery production. however.

At the same time. the barbaric Mongol impact began to appear in the increased baroque tendency accompanied by a lavish use of ornaments.

WANING SPLENDOR After a long armed resistance. Koryo eventually made peace with the Mongols and the royal court returned to Kaesong from its wartime capital. Kanghwa. off the west coast. in 12 70. The kings of Koryo thereafter married Mongol princesses. made frequent visits to Beijing. built their palaces in the Mongol style. and even allowed the use of Mongol costumes in the royal court.

Such a state of affairs is reflected in the ceramic productions of the period. Gilding and copperred were favored for decoration and inlaid designs became bolder and more pretentious. but their execution was less accomplished. It was obvious that both technical skills and care were waning.

There are not many celadons ornamented with gold existing today. And all of the known gilded wares are inlaid celadons and. in most cases. the gold has almost entirely disappeared. leaving only the imprint of a design on the glaze. A large section of a jar with an inlaid decoration of a monkey seated under a tree in overglaze gilt. dug up from the site of the royal palace in Kaesong and preserved at the National Museum in Seoul. well testifies to this style.

The traditional high-shouldered maebyong seemed to be losing its popularity. while the widemouthed jars with flat sides began to appear. The walls grew increasingly thick and the clay became coarse. even containing sand from time to time. The glaze color turned pale with a grayish tone. while the decorative motifs tended to be stylized. Bottles. bowls and covered boxes were often ornamented with overall flower scrolls. Phoenixes flying among clouds. dragons and fish were also popular motifs. and were often executed in stylized patterns.

The Koryo celadons were essentially palace or court wares. and a great majority of specimens were found in the tombs of kings. priests and important officials. The largest kilns. like those in Kangjin and Puan. were all government-operated and their products were presented to the state as a special tax. There probably were local supervisors of these kilns who were responsible for collecting the best wares. storing them at warehouses and arranging shipment from nearby ports. Thus the finest products were always sent to the capital city by ship along the west coast for use at the royal palace. public offices and noblemen's houses.

There are records that potters working at these official kilns fled frequently as they could not stand the constant pressure from aoove to pay more tributes. This led to a move to cut the compulsory tributes in I I 08. though it is not clear to what extent such a move eased the hardship of potters. In ancient Korea. potters came from a low social class. like the craftsmen working for other official factories producing various goods such as paper. ink and metalware.

It was an old tradition. though not desirable from the viewpoint of modern ceramic students. that Korean potters inscribed neither their names nor the date of production on their wares .

So researchers in modern times have to rely mostly on the form and decoration or the production method. or the date of the tomb where an object was found. to date ancient pottery

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works. Potters remain totally anonymous because there are no literary sources to reveal their names.

Sometime in the late 12th century, however, some potters began inscribing Chinese letters on the base of their wares that are believed to be either their names or the offices for which the wares were presumably made. Some celadon wares bear such inscriptions as "hyo mun," "hyo ku kak," "hyo kwang," or "ho chong jo." These do not help much in identifying the potters but it seems that potters with names beginning with "hyo," meaning filial piety, once worked at the kilns in Puan.

It also appears that the practice of inscribing dates became prevalent among the Koryo potters in the late 13th to the early 14th century. The dates, which usually take the form of Chinese characters inlaid, or painted at the center of bowls or on the side of vases, are almost invariably in the traditional Oriental cyclical series which recurs every 60 years. This has helped in establishing the correct sequence in the evolution of wares to some extent though the dates in this form can never be completely convincing.

In the second half of the 14th century, the Koryo Dynasty, under the reign of Kongminwang and Uwang, weakened quickly toward its fall in 1392, while in China also, the Yuan Dynasty had succumbed to the rising power of Ming in 1368. Pottery making in Koryo in this transitional period showed a tendency to place greater emphasis on the mass production of practical and sturdy wares for daily use, obviously departing from the elegant and tasteful Koryo-style celadons. Such a shift in style was necessary to satisfy the newly emerging class of sadaebu, or the scholar-bureaucrats. These land-owning aristocrats from the countryside successfully joined hands with the military to establish the Choson Dynasty.

The Japanese pirates who frequently encroached upon the Korean coast at the time destroyed the pottery kilns in Kangjin and Puan. New kilns were built in inland areas thereafter and they numbered 324 by the time of King Sejong of the Choson Dynasty in the mid-15th century. according to the Annuals of King Sejong's Reign (Sejong Shillok).

There may be various opinions as to determining periods for the ceramic history of the Choson Dynasty, but here the system has been drawn up as the early years ( 1392-15 50), the middle years ( 15 50-1700) and the late years (1700-191 0).

The early Choson period had a succession of able rulers who built the political and social system of the new-born kingdom. Taejong, the third monarch who ruled from 1400 to 1418, revamped the old administrative and military structure inherited from Koryo to consolidate the power of the throne. Sejong, who succeeded Taejong and ruled until 14 50, established Chiphyonjon, or the Hall of Worthies, assigned outstanding scholars to it and had them take the central role in rearranging the governing system. Under his leadership, early Choson saw brilliant progress in various academic disciplines as well as culture and the arts. Creation of the Korean alphabet hangul, was the primary achievement of Sejong who accomplished what may be called a cultural renaissance in medieval Korea.

PUNCHONG WARE The ceramic industry of this early Choson period is represented by the punchong and inlaid white porcelain wares.

There were several different classes of punchong ware, but this widely acclaimed staple product of early Choson potters should be described as stoneware made of the same grayish clay as Koryo celadon though somewhat coarser in texture and covered either partially or wholly

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with a coating of brushed white slip on the surface before the glaze was applied. The volume of its production throughout the first two centuries of the Choson period was enormous. Numerous punchong kilns studded the central and southern regions of the country.

The earliest kind of punchong ware is actually so close to inlaid celadon that classification and dating have been controversial. The principal design is usually inlaid with much of the former care and skill. though it is larger and freer in conception. but there are subordinate areas of profuse white hatching or floral decoration.

The standard type is one decorated with overall patterns of white mesh and hatching. often called the "rope curtain pattern." or numerous tiny. white flower-heads. The designs were normally stamped into the body. after which white slip was brushed over the whole surface. The excess slip was then wiped off. leaving the pattern filled with the residue. In short. this may be regarded as a hasty. superficial and mechanical way of making inlaid decorations. The result was not comparable with the earlier inlay. but punchong was essentially a utilitarian ware and its technique reached the peak of its progress by the mid-I 5th century.

Among outstanding specimens of this type of stamped punchong ware is the placenta jar of Prince Wolsan decorated with flower-heads. It is believed to have been produced between 1454 and I462.

A different class of punchong ware developed from this transitional type. Bold floral designs were carved out and filled with white slip. a technique which followed that of the Koryo period. though the inlay was broader and shallower. This carved punchong ware was produced only on a smaller scale.

There was still another type. in which an overall coating of white slip was incised and cut away in broad areas down to the gray body to make a bold design in sgraffito technique.

The designs were usually of arabesques. flowers. birds or fish .

Included among the general category of punchong but very different in style and appearance are the so-called "brush marked" wares. These plain wares were coated with white slip using a brush. which left its mark of unique. unassuming beauty all over the surface. The final class of punchong to be mentioned. the vessels with underglaze iron decoration. was developed from I480 to the 1490s around the kilns in Kongju in the central western province of Chungchongnamdo. In this particular type. the white slip was applied all over the grayish-brown body and designs were painted in iron-brown under the glaze. Designs appearing frequently on these wares are flowers such as the poeny and lotus. arabesques. birds. willow trees and fish. Rendered in abbreviated forms with a quick brush. peonies and fish look especially free and gay.

WHITE PORCELAIN White porcelain. or paekcha. was also manufactured during this period. often in the same kilns whose main product was punchong. it was at this time. too. that the much-admired Choson-style white porcelain was perfected.

A reliable literary source of information regarding white porcelain production during this period is Annals of King Sejong's Reign. It has an account from 142 5 that says kilns in Kwangju. Kyonggido. were ordered to make I 0 sets of white porcelain tableware at the request of a Ming envoy to be presented to Emperor Ren Zong. There is another reference. from 144 5. that says Kim Chong-so. a high-ranking official. admired the beauty of white porcelain vessels on his drinking table during an official trip to Koryong. a famous pottery center in southeastern Kyongsang Province.

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A contemporary source. Yonqjae Chonqhwa (Collected Essays of Yongjae) by Song Hyon. says that white porcelain was used exclusively by the royal household of Sejong. These records may lead to the assumption that the skills for producing white porcelain reached a considerable height at this time. though nowhere near the level of punchonq A petition was submitted in 1466 to the king requesting that the manufacture of white porcelain be restricted to wares ordered by the royal household. This request was granted and the technique for white porcelain production achieved drastic improvement with the establishment of the official kilns. Punwon. which belonged to Saong-won. the office in charge of the preparation and serving of food for the king and his court Meanwhile. punchonq ware. downgraded to vessels for the general public. began to decline.

Plain white wares were most highly valued during these early years of the Chason period. though white porcelains with painted decorations in cobalt blue and oxide or iron or copper under the glaze were also made in small volume. There was another variety of white porcelain. which had inlaid designs in iron slip. Specimens of white porcelain with this type of decoration are extremely rare, but the effect of inlaid iron-black decoration is striking.

Several inlaid white porcelains. including a pilgrim flask and a stem cup, were discovered in the tomb of a Lady Chong. They were found along with a white porcelain epitaph tablet with characters also inlaid in black and a date corresponding to 1466. Other remarkable pieces from this period include white porcelain placenta jars made in 14 76, 1481 and 148 5, and a blue-and-white porcelain jar with a pine and bamboo design, dated 1489.

Chason society in the first half of the 16th century was operating under the growing influence of Neo-Confucianism. The Neo-Confucian literati expanded their power through the private academies (sowon), the village code (hyanq-yak) and their agricultural landholdings, strengthening their base in provincial regions.

White porcelain production continued to make progress around the Punwon kilns in Kwangju, south of SeouL The fulL robust forms of vessels and a warm. bluish toned glaze typified the beauty of Chason white wares at this time. Cobalt blue decoration was used on a limited scale only for wares for the royal household. The 1466 interdict on the production of white porcelains for use outside the palace was short-lived. The growing demand from the powerful class of Neo-Confucian literati further stimulated their manufacture toward the last years of the 16th century until the JapaJlese invasion of 1592. On the other hand, punchonq ware lost its indigenous quality.

The No. 5 Kiln site in Punchon-ri, Kwangju-gun, yielded a great variety of plain white wares including dishes, bowls, bottles, jars, cups, ritual wares and a cup mounted on a horse:shaped stand. These vessels were unearthed along with numerous white porcelain shards with underglaze iron or cobalt decorations. They were coated with grayish or pale bluish toned glaze. and fired upon sand or clay supports. A majority of the vessels have a recess inside the rim on the base, or a "bamboo joint" base.

The Japanese invasion of 1592 to 1598 was an unmitigated disaster for Korea and its ceramic industry. Not only was the greater part of the country devastated and many kilns either destroyed or abandoned. but hundreds of potters were taken captive and carried off to Japan .

Public morale was undermined amidst the widespread suffering and starvation following the war. Even before the scars from the hard-fought struggle against the Japanese were healed, Korea suffered another destructive invasion in 1636, this time by the Manchus from the north.

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WARS The ceramic industry faced a serious recession. The blue-and-white porcelain could not be made in 1618 because no cobalt had been imported since the Japanese invasion. Economic conditions were so bad that in 1628. the official manufacture of pottery was suspended for one year. Decoration in iron-brown and copper-red was used extensively in this period as a substitute for cobalt-blue. Probably the greatest change in ceramic manufacturing as a result of the Japanese invasion was the disappearance of punchong ware. Famous punchong kilns were abandoned and never revived. Various stonewares continued to be made at local kilns for common use. however.

Still. the main ceramic product in the first half of the I 7th century was white porcelain glazed in grayish or pale bluish tones. The jars. bottles. ritual vessels in various shapes and epitaph tablets were often decorated with underglaze iron paintings of dragons and clouds. plums and bamboos. and grass motifs. or Chinese characters.

Painting with iron pigment had been employed since the 12th century through the early period of the Choson Dynasty. constituting a distinguishing feature of pottery produced mostly at Kyeryong-san kilns in the central inland region. After the Japanese invasion. hundreds of kilns including those around Kyeryong Mountain were closed. but other local-kilns around the country produced white or gray porcelains and stoneware with underglaze iron ornamentation. and these continued to be made until the end of the dynasty.

Painting with iron pigment is not always marked by the calligraphic skill and artistic excellence seen in the Chinese wares from Ci-zhou. but it possesses a wild. free beauty of its own and achieves a high standard in some of the abstract designs. The paintings are often very natural as if growing out of the shape of the vessel. as exemplified by a jar ornamented with a plum and bamboo design at Ewha Womans University Museum.

One reason for the popularity of iron painting at provincial kilns was the difficulty experienced in obtaining cobalt ore for the production of underglaze blue decorations and the consequent restrictions placed on its use. Iron painted wares were made at numerous local kilns across the country, but some higher-grade wares of the same kind were made at the official kilns in Kwangju and other kilns in the vicinity of Seoul. These were often decorated by skilled artists in the more elaborate but artificial style favored by the court. such as clusters of grapes or monkeys swinging on grapevines. ¡ In the second half of the I 7th century. Choson society was recovering from its wars. NeoConfucian studies made further progress. giving rise to an intellectual movement called Shirhak (Practical Learning). The major concern of the scholars of this group was to illuminate 'the history and contemporary workings of political. economic. and social institutions to build an ideal society. which they envisioned as a modern nation state. A new trend was also vivid in the fine art. Korean artists came to depict Korea's natural surroundings as seen with their own eyes rather than portraying idealized scenes on the model prescribed in manuals on Chinese landscape painting. Chong Son (16 76-1 7 59) was the most prominent painter in this school.

White porcelain continued to form the mainstream of ceramic production appealing to a broader spectrum of consumers through the second half of the I 7th century. The glaze tended to turn milky white and the old grayish tone seemed to be less favored. A notable development in this period was the emergence of plain white jars. full and round in form. which earned the nickname "moon jars."

The early 18th century brought about greater stability in politics. Farming technology amelicr rated and the currency economy advanced. owing to growing manufacturing. The Diary of the

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Royal Secretariat (Sungjong-won Ilgi) says that the Punwon kilns were moved to Ohyang-ri in Kwangju along a tributary of the Han River in 1717, apparently for a better supply of fuel and other materials. The kilns were moved to Kumsa-ri in 1726 and again to Punwon-ri on the banks of the Han River itself in 1752. No doubt the reason for these frequent moves was that the broad Han River afforded facilities for the transport of clay and wood-fuel from other localities.

The political scene remained relatively stable under the reigns of Yongjo (r. 1724-1776) and Chongjo (r. I 77 6- I 800), thanks to their policy of appointing officials without regard to factional affiliation. It was also during this period that significant progress was made in Korean studies as well as in culture and the arts.

The efforts of scholars of the school of practical learning stood out as in the case of Yi Ik (1681-1763). Following in the footsteps of Yu Hyong-won (1622-1673), who propounded the so-called institutional approach to government (kyongse chiyong), Yi conducted almost encyclopedic research in various disciplines including physical environment human conditions, the economy, government education and literature. and made detailed proposals for reforms.

Another group of scholars. represented by Pak Chi-won (1737-1805), contributed to the introduction of Western sciences through their frequent contacts with Oing China. Literature. music and fine art made remarkable progress, acquiring a broader basis of understanding among the general populace.

BLUE-AND-WHITE The official kilns of Punwon during these years were engaged mostly in the manufacture of white porcelains, often employing cobalt-blue decorations. The designs were usually of simple flower and grass motifs in the early years while the kilns were located in Kumsa-ri. but grew more elaborate after they moved to Punwon-ri. The later wares were more meticulously decorated but lost much of the unique Korean taste.

The most typical of Korean-style blue-and-white wares, called chonghwa paekcha, are large jars with short, low necks, faceted bottles and pilgrim flasks, decorated very sparingly with designs of irises, orchids, lotuses, bamboo, or "autumn plants and grasses." The most famous among these are probably the "window picture" pots, on which a floral or scenic design is portrayed within a circular or polygonal frame. In other cases, a straight line was drawn round the jar in cobalt blue about one third the way above the base, and the floral design was painted immediately above this line.

Such a mode of decoration was obviously encouraged by the scarcity of the cobalt pfgment which had to be imported from Persia via China. But it was actually a very effective artistic style, successfully displaying the Korean love of restraint and simplicity.

The wares produced at the Kumsa-ri kilns are also differentiated by their pure white glaze. without any bluish tinge, as well as their sparing decorations. The simple and attractive style was abandoned in the later Punwon-ri wares, which have a decidedly bluish tone as a rule and are marked by the extravagant use of decorations.

Among the commonest types of Punwon-ri wares are the large jars with tall necks or collars and blue decorations of dragons, which were made for use at important ceremonies, and the wine bottles with tubular necks and broad bases. There are many examples of these wares with blue decorations of dragons, lotus bands, plums and birds, deer. cranes and other symbols of long life and good fortune, as well as human figures .

While these large pieces grew increasingly stereotyped with the influence of Chinese wares

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of the Oing period. the smaller stationery articles. such as brush holders and water droppers. continued to afford scope for inventiveness and originality. Water droppers in particu lar were made in a fascinating variety of shapes. They were decorated with cobalt blue or copper-red designs of flowers. butterflies. birds and scenery. A great number of these water droppers were modeled in the form of frogs. toads. rabbits. carp. peaches and mythical beasts - - all pleasant motifs vividly expressive of a typical Korean sense of the whimsical and carefree .

Brush holders were also decorated with various designs like pine trees, orchids and birds.

Some were made in openwork designs of plantains. grapes and lotuses. all favorite plants of the Choson period scholar-aristocrats. as well as geometric patterns.

Among the important porcelain wares made in this period are the numerous epitaph tablets.

These burial objects have been found with the characters written in cobalt blue. The epitaph usually consists of a brief biography and eulogy of the dead person. with particulars of his rank. offices held. important relatives and so on. Chinese characters were also used as part of the decoration of many Choson blue-and-white wares like dishes. Verses composed by famous poets were inscribed on these wares. that are obviously important pieces specially commissioned or decorated by scholars and artists of note.

All this reflects the peaceful life en joyed in th is period, from the ¡reign of Yongjo to that of Choljong (r. 1850-1863). But the luxury went so far that. according to the Memoirs of tfle Kings (l lsongnok). Chongjo gave "a strict order to prohibit the production of all fabulously shaped vessels" in 1794. Yi Kyu-gyong ( 1788-1856) wrote in Random Expatiations (Oju Yonmun Cflangjon Sango) that white porcelains ca rved with floral designs began to be made after the use of painted vessels was banned in the royal ancestral rites. Yi writes that the ban did not last long and blue-and-white wares were used again after a while. and carved white porcelains continued to be made.

DEATH OF TRADITION The nation was driven into a period of great turmoil in the second half of the 19th century.

Civil uprisings erupted in various regions across the country as the economy and politics deteriorated. The dogmatic Regent Hungson. the father of King Kojong. strenuously resisted foreign powers But the fragile government of Choson fell quickly to the aggressive Japanese who won over the rival powers of China and Russia. and eventually annexed Korea and made it Japan's first colony in 19 10.

The maintenance of Punwon had become so costly that in 1883 it was decided to terminate government support But the kilns continued under the joint management of 12 private financiers. Japanese craftsmen were invited from such famous pottery centers as Arita and Kutani. and foreign methods like transfer printing came into use. This brought about a rapid deterioration of the nation's time-honored pottery traditions. Moreover. traditional ceramic wares could not compete with the inexpensive nickel silver vessels mass-produced in factories.

Finally, the ki lns of Punwon and those across the country closed their doors one by one from the 1920s to the 1930s. Most of the areas where Korean potters once practiced their prized skills became farming districts. @ (Tfle original text of tflis article was written in Korean and contributed for exclusive use by KOREANA. Tflis is a translation)

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Vol. 5 No. 3 KO RE ANA 1991

GLORIES OF JADE GREEN MARK POITERS' GENIUS Celadons of the Koryo Kingdom Kim Jae-yeol

he Koryo Kingdom is characterized by its sophisticated culture. even though it suffered numerous invasions and internecine conflicts. Through the span of 500 years. extending from its founding in 918 to its demise in 1392. the dynasty placed a high value on Buddhism. uplifted a political system run by its aristocracy and maintained complex relations with various Chinese dynasties. like Five Dynasties. Northern Song. Southern Song. Oidan. )in. and Yuan. For geo-political reasons. Koryo was often invaded by Oidan. lin and Yuan.

Most of all. Koryo kept itself in close contact with culturally advanced Song. Th is explains why Koryo, in spite of its political instability. managed to reach a towering cu ltural level. a level that was even comparable to that of the Song Dynasty.

That development culm inated in the creation of the first movable metal printing type in the world. some 80.000 woodblock-Tripitaka Koreana. ceram ics. and Buddhist paintings. All of this constitutes the mainstay of Korea's cultural heritage. Above all. ceramics. including celadons. produced during the Koryo period rema in exceedingly high in value because of their beauty and uniqueness. a result of the strong influence of Chinese ceramics coupled with Koryo¡s own astounding technological advancement. Koryo ceramics were treasured even by the proud Ch inese and exported to China and Japan.

Still and all. it was only I 00 years ago that Koryo ceramics started to attract international attention and acclaim. Through the 500 years of the Choson Dynasty that followed the collapse of the Koryo Kingdom . the splendors of Koryo celadons seem to have been all but forgotten in Korea.

Koryo celadons were "discovered" again in the 1880s when foreigners residing in Korea Japanese. Britons. Americans and French - manifested a keen interest in those Koryo celadons unearthed at that time from ancient tombs around Kaesong. once the capital city of Koryo and now a city just beyond the Dem ilitarized Zone (DMZ) in North Korea .

After the turn of the century. a large number of lovely Koryo celadons happened to be dug up in the course of a railroad construction project. a project that was being rushed by the Japanese in preparation for the Russo-Japanese war ( 1904- 1905) Collecting Koryo celadons in no time came into vogue among Korea's foreign residents. Th is by necessity touched off waves of illicit grave-digging around Kaesong and on Kanghwa Island. an interim capital of Koryo during the Mongol invasion. This article deals with the types. origins. development. and characteristics in general of Koryo ceram ics.

T

Born in 1954 . Kim Jae-yeol graduated from the Department of Archaeology. Seoul National Un iversity and received his M.A. in Korean ceramics history from his alma mater. He worked for the National Museum of Korea for a few years and has served as chief curator of Ho-am Art Museum since 1982. He produced a number of books and discourses on ceramics of the Koryo period including "A Study of Koryo White Porcelain."

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TYPES OF KORYO CERAMICS Celadons were a dominant type of ceramics produced throughout the Koryo period A small quantity of white porcelains and stonewares was also turned out. Since the Three-Kingdom period (57 B.C.-668 A.D.), stonewares had been made for use as ordinary household utensils.

There were large jars too for storing food . Although there is a relatively large number of stonewares that presumably date back to the Koryo period. their importance in the annals of the dynasty is minimal.

Thus. Koryo stonewares will not be taken up in this article. White porcelains of the Koryo Kingdom. on the other hand. will be described together with celadons because they were made at celadon kilns with celadon techniques and underwent changes similar to those of celadons.

The most representative type of ceramics in the Koryo Kingdom is the blue celadon. In making celadons. clay and glaze that contain a small amount of iron are used. Then a deoxidizing flame at a temperature of I. I 00-1 .200 degrees Celsius is required. Koryo celadons are categorized according to their materials. the techniques involved in making them and their shapes.

Celadons without any design or decoration are called plain celadons (somun chongja). There are incised celadons (umgak chongja) and celadons in relief (yanggak chongja). They are classified in light of their designs and decorations.

Inlaid celadons (sanggam chongja) are unique in the technique used in fashioning them. This was developed by potters of Koryo. First. designs are incised on the clay, and filled up with white clay or red clay that contains a great amount of iron before firing. When fired. the white clay and red clay produce the effect of white and black colors. respectively. Such a technique of inlaying clay is called sanggam.

The know-how. presumed to have been borrowed from the method of making lacquerware inlaid with mother-of-pearl designs or copperware inlaid with gold and silver. was most popular during the Koryo period. This is found only in Koryo ceramics. A variation of it is the celadon with no inlaid surface designs. Th is type is called yok-sanggam chongja. or reverse inlaid celadon.

Figurative celadons (sanghyong chongja) are shaped like animals or plants. Incense burners. water droppers and kettles are often included in this type. Many of the most sought-after celadons are figurative celadons. There are also celadons in openwork decoration (tugak chongja).

Iron glaze celadons (cholsa chongja) have dark-brown or black designs on their surfaces. They were drawn by means of brushes and a glaze containing a great deal of iron was used. These celadons truly look dynamic and vibrant. The color of some of the iron glaze celadons is yellow as a result of an oxidizing flame. In white porcelains. the iron-glazing technique has been often used. ¡ In making celadons with white slip designs (toehwa chongja), a brush is also put to use for drawing designs in the case that they are iron glaze celadons. In addition to glaze containing iron. potters took advantage of white clay. The technique is¡ often utilized in providing decorative designs in relief.

Celadons decorated with iron glaze (cholhwa chongja) are made by applying such glaze all over the surface. And this has to be done before the celadon glaze treatment begins. The color now turns black like ash glaze celadons.

Celadons painted with gold (hwakum chongja) are made by applying it to pure or inlaid celadons.

Designs are painted with gold. or the area around inlaid-designs is grooved. Then the groove is filled with water mixed with gold powder. Only a limited number of celadons of this type are in existence.

When celadons are made with copper glaze. they are called celadons with underglaze cop-

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per (ciiinsa ciiongja). The copper glaze is applied to the whole surface or to designs of dots. When heated with an ox idizing flame. the copper glaze turns red. This copper glaze is called cli insa.

Potters of the Koryo Kingdom came out with this variety of glaze about 200 years before the Chinese did.

Ash glaze celadons (iiukyu ciiagi) came into being during the early period of Koryo. Unlike the case of China where they were used as tea cups. these celadons served as bottles in Koryo.

Mixtures of clay with two or three different colors did end up making designs look like marbles. Pieces with these designs are called marbled wares.

Some tiles for interior use and roof tiles were also produced with the celadon technique. contributing to the diversity of the ceramic culture of Koryo.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT Various reports and theories have been presented by scholars concerning the origin of Koryo ceram ics. Generally speaking. though. it is believed that they came into ex istence under the influence of the Yue-zhou kilns located in Zhejiang Province. southeastern China.

About the origin. there are two major theories. The first is of the opinion they came to be produced in the 9th century. or the final part of the United Shilla Kingdom (668-918). and the other traces the origin to around the mid-I Oth century. or earl y in the Koryo period. The author supports the first theory.

In the case of celadons. some I 0 primiti ve kiln sites have been discovered on Korea's west coast and in the western part of the south coast. From these sites. a huge amount of remains of kab-pal (an earthenware devised to prevent polluted materials from sticking to ceramics when fired in ki lns) was unearthed along with bowls with wide foot-rings.

The bowls with wide foot-rings are akin to those excavated at historical sites or kilns of the Tang Dynasty. This clearly proves that the origin of Koryo celadons is closely related to celadons made during the Tang Dynasty. Especially, the shapes and glaze colors of the Koryo celadons are quite similar to those of celadons produced at Yue-zhou ki lns. Still. it is very difficult to tell those of Korea and Ch ina apart.

Kab-pal discovered at early celadon kilns in Korea are almost the same as those found in the celadon kilns in south China. including Yue-zhou kilns. This fact strongly supports the view that Korean potters started to make celadons under the influence of ceramics from the Yuezhou region .

In China. celadons with wide foot-rings were popular from around the 8th century to the early part of the 9th century. After the mid-9th century. they were no longer made. It is believed that ceramics with similar shapes were also made in Korea in almost precisely the same period.

In the 8th and 9th centuries. Korea. China and Japan were under the same Buddhist influence. and kept close cultural relations with one another. The Unified Shilla Kingdom was strongly influenced by the culture of Tang China in almost every field of culture. like stonewares. Buddhist fine arts. and tomb systems.

From the 9th century. Zen Buddhism became popular in Unified Shilla and the habit of drinking tea spread through all walks of life. The demand for celadon bowls needed for drinking tea inevitably soared.

In the early 9th century. Chang Pogo of the Unified Shilla Kingdom championed maritime trade between Korea. China and Japan. This man opened his main base of operations on Wando

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Island off southwest Korea. In Kangjin , South Cholla Province, which is near Wando Island, there existed many kilns where celadons similar to those made at the Yue-zhou kilns were produced. Hence the speculation that Chang Pogo might well have controlled much if not all of the export of celadons, a major trading business back then.

When Korean potters started to produce celadons, they also made white porcelains. In kilns at Yongin, Kyonggi Province, there still remain a lot of shards that indicate one thing: a huge production of white porcelains with wide foot-rings went on back in those days.

During in-depth investigations of the kiln sites in 1987 and 1988, an 83-meter-long earthen kiln and about a 40-meter-long brick kiln were excavated. Also in a 6-meter wide pile, celadons and white porcelains were found. They are presumed to have been made earlier than white porcelains with wide foot-rings.

The general belief is that the production of celadons and white porcelains of Koryo started at the end of the Unified Shilla period under the strong influence of the Yue-zhou kilns. But it sti ll is not clear whether they were made by the Chinese who had come to Korea or by Koreans themselves with their own techn iques.

ARTISTIC QUALITY Koryo ceramics developed in three phases in terms of artistic quality: the initial stage, the middle stage (golden age) and the declining stage.

Initial Stage (9th century-1122) This stage covers the period from the birth of Koryo pottery to the establishment of its standard shape and quality that assumed an almost purely Koryo style during the reign of Yejong, the 16th king of Koryo.

Green celadons and white porcelains dating from the late Unified Shilla period gradually rose in quality and gained too in the variety of shapes and designs. The first ceramic output took the form of cups with no extra decorations. In the I I th century, carvings in intaglio and relief. iron glaze, and white slip designs appeared. Then under the Chinese influence, pots, bottles and maebyonq came to be featured in the output. However, pottery at that time had not reached the level of refinement that marked the Koryo style, and was still somewhat disproportioned and rigid in silhouette.

The color of celadon was dark green and sometimes yellow because of an oxidizing flame.

But the celadon was becoming thinner and more durable, showing a definite technical amelioration.

From the mid-I I th century, Koryo society grew more stable as a result of political centralization. Now its culture for once began to bloom. In the field of pottery, most of the early kilns which had been scattered along the eastern and southern coasts stopped production . New developments were centered around two major areas: Taegu-myon, Kangjin County; and Poanmyon and Chinso-myon, Puan County, both in South Cholla Province. There were a few kilns in other regions, too. But the two areas were largely responsible for the rapid development of the Koryo celadon. partly because kilns there were under direct government guidance and control.

From the mid-I I th to early 12th century, a great quantity of Chinese ceramics was imported

by Koryo. They included the Yao-zhou ware with carvings in intaglio or in relief. which represents northern China's celadons, the Ci-zhou ware of Guang-dong Province, Hobei Province's fa-

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mous Ding ware. )ingde-zhen¡s ceramics and the Xiuwu celadons.

The Chinese pottery's influence on Koryo celadons was immense and induced further diversification and refinement in celadon types. shapes and designs (for example. iron glaze and white slip designs were very popular). and Koryo pottery achieved basic development.

Middle Stage (golden age: I 12 3-12 31 ) Koryo ceramics wh ich had been gradually achieving their own style reached the apex of refinement under the reign of lnjong. the I 7th king of Koryo. For I 00 years henceforth it was the golden age of Koryo ceramics. This came to an end with the Mongol invasion of 12 30.

Most of the great masterpieces were produced during this period. Now Koryo pottery reached the highest level both technically and aesthetically.

In the first half of the 12th century. Koryo's so-called jade color of celadon achieved perfection. Not even the proud Chinese people could prevent themselves from praising the jade color glaze as the finest in the world.

Xu ling. who visited Koryo in 11 23 as an envoy of Huizong from Northern Song Dynasty. wrote in Gao-li Tu-jing (Travelogue to Koryo of a Chinese Envoy) as follows: Koreans call the green color of ceramics jade. The recent techniques are more sophisticated and the glaze is even more beautiful. ... They imitate the Ding ware .... Above all. the lion-shaped incense burner is most intricately made. and the rest of the ceramics have color similar to the mysterious green of the Yue-zhou kiln or Ru-zhou kiln.

It seems that in the early part of the 12th century. Koryo ceramics had chalked up considerable artistic and technical improvement under the influence of those Ding and Ru-zhou kilns that were under the direct control of Northern Song's government. It also appears that some Koryo celadons. the lion-shaped incense burners for instance. were good enough to take even the Chinese by surprise. In Xiu Zhong )in. written by Taiping Laoren in the last days of the Northern Song Dynasty. Koryo celadon is described as having the most beautiful jade color in the world.

We can understand from these accounts and from the masterpieces of pure celadon which still exist including particularly those figurative celadons. that Koryo potters at that time had already established a unique style of their own. Their style was quite different from that of the Song celadon. Their achievement evidently was acknowledged abroad.

Glazing for celadons further improved to attain a semi-transparent jade color which was even clearer and lighter than before. It also became possible to carve highly elaborate designs in intaglio or in relief. which was quite difficult in the case of Chinese celadons because of their non-transparent glaze. Such technical development made the Koryo celadon look more mysterious and beautiful The most famous and unique among the Koryo ceramics is the inlaid (sanggam) celadon. of which the origin is unclear. But it had been considerably developed by the mid-12th century.

A celadon bowl excavated from the tomb of Mun Kong-yu. who died in I 159. shows the beauty of shape and the artistry of the inlay at its best. The inlaid celadon. made according to the then-popular inlay technique for metal crafts and produced with Koryo potters' thorough understanding of soil and refined craftsmanship. was a purely Korean product. This clearly required the best technique of that period. The production of it was confined to kilns in Kangjin and Puan. which were government-controlled. With it the Korean potters went one step beyond the realm of the jade color celadon and opened a new chapter in the history of world pottery.

Sanggam inlay. elaborate and smooth as if drawn by a brush. shows a notable harmony be-

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tween black and white. The most popular inlay design of the period. a design of clouds and cranes. is representative of the Koryo celadon inlay designs. The jade color glaze was even more refined and gave prominent play to the inlays. The glaze. for one thing. generated less bubbles. For another. it induced a brighter sheen and sleeker lines. further upgrading the beauty and elegance of the Koryo celadon.

Potters also paid keen attention to supports that hold pottery for firing. The supports made of fire-resistant clay which had been popular in the initial stage were replaced by small silica substitutes originating from Northern Song kilns. Now even the bottom of the ceramics became clean and smooth .

On the other hand. the Koryo porcelain which used to be bluish and hard in the early stage became softer and yellowish with numerous minute cracks on the surface. The porcelains were very thin and were intricately inlaid or carved in intaglio or in relief. just like the celadons.

Experts detect a heavy influence from Northern Song's Ding kiln over both the quality and design. These celadons are thought to have been produced strictly for use in royal palaces.

In addition to the green celadon and the white porcelain. various kinds of ceramics were refined. They include iron glaze celadons, copper glaze celadons. and ash glaze porcelains.

Here it should be noted that the copper glaze celadon was first made.by Korean potters 200 years ahead of the Chinese. The Koreans also succeeded in producing bright red ceramic surfaces through the use of underglaze copper oxide.

Declining Stage (12 3 1-1 391 ) The Mongol invasion of 12 3 I was a blow to Koryo. Small wonder. The glories of its ceramics immediately began to decline. The following year the Koryo government moved to Kangwha Island to avoid contact with invading Mongol troops. Until 12 59, the kingdom was continuously attacked by the Mongols. The system of Koryo went to pieces. Finally in 1270. Koryo surrendered to the Mongols. and the royal court returned to Kaesong. Koryo thus became a subordinate to Yuan. The spirit of independence waned. There was an inevitable influ x of the Yuan culture that never was sophisticated. Koryo ceramics gradually lost their refined quality and continued to decline until the fall of Koryo in 1391.

The inlaid celadon persevered in the period. But the colors lost their appeal. Now the green was dark and dull. The lines had lost too their original gracefulness.

Pictorial inlay designs of the former stage were replaced by simple. plain designs which were either too omissive or too complicated and accordingly lacked balance. Harmony between black and white was also broken. and celadons looked either hard and strong (too black) or weak and feeble (too white) . The celadons produced at that time give a strong impression that they were made without any artistic enthusiasm. They were short on class. and grace.

Such changes are evident in the series of inlaid celadons with dating inscriptions given in terms of the Oriental zodiac. The inscriptions indicate that they were made between 1269 and 1287.

While the Koryo celadons went through artistic decay, new influences from the Arab and Western worlds. transmitted through Yuan in the late 13th century. began to make themselves felt. Flattened bottles (bottles with flat sides) and arabesque and dragon-and-phoenix designs. as well as many-columned designs. were first introduced. Large jars more than 70 centimeters long appeared. obviously under the influence of Yuan ceramics. Even though celadons produced in deoxidizing flames were still prevalent. many yellowish and brownish celadons were also made through oxidizing-flame techniques. and sand supports also emerged.

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Additionally. inlaid celadons painted with gold were made. and according to Koryo-sa (History of Koryo). some of the works were presented to Kublai Khan of Yuan as a tribute from Koryo.

In the 14th century. the Koryo celadon further deteriorated. with the color of glaze changing to almost black. and the inlays turning coarser. Even stamped decoration appeared. And the Koryo celadon all but lost its ingenuity. Nevertheless. the number of celadons produced was higher than in the prior stage. and kilns were scattered around the country. preparing the basis for the punchong ware production that would follow.

This period saw the production of bluish porcelain become stronger than that of the standard Koryo porcelain. But the quality was inferior. In the 1930s. a set of porcelains bearing the inscription of the year I 391 were excavated on Kumkang-san. They were typical of the stuff dwelt upon in the foregoing passage. This kind of porcelain is believed to be the prototype of Chason porcelains that flourished subsequently.

CHARACTERISTICS It can be safely said that the Koryo celadon is outstanding in its beauty. Especially in blue celadons which were produced only in a handful of countries includihg Vietnam and China.

Koryo excelled.

There are a number of characteristics which set Koryo celadons apart from others. As to their aesthetic characteristics. Uchiyama Shozo. the Japanese ceramic specialist of the 1930s. once expressed his admiration by saying that "the Koryo celadon is my religion." He went on to say that "the Oriental spirit is epitomized in tranquillity and in turn tranquillity is epitomized in nothingness. The Koryo celadon. which is born out of this nothingness. is the essence of the Oriental spirit."

To enumerate a number of characteristics of the Koryo celadon. it has a unique color. elegant shape. diverse designs and originality in techniques such as sanggam and painting in underglaze iron.

The first and foremost trait of the Koryo celadon lies in its color called "jade green."

Xu ling noted in his Travelogue to Koryo that to Koryo potters the color of Koryo celadon was jade green. In China. the color of celadons. especially those produced in Yue-zhou kilns. was called a secret color. But Koryo potters. who were initially under Chinese influence. kept developing techniques of their own and finally outdistanced their Chinese confreres in blue celadons. Koryo potters' pride is well expressed in the term "jade green." .

The unrivaled beauty of the Koryo celadon earned it high esteem among the contemporary Chinese. and Taiping Laoren of Song praised the color of Koryo celadons as the finest in the world.

If in Buddhism (then the dominant religion in the regionl purity was the goal. the jade green was almost like a materialization of it. It reached perfection in the 12th century. The celadons excavated from the tomb of King lnjong (r.ll2 3-46) are rare examples. With a somewhat deep jade-color tone. the celadon has minuscule air bubbles just beneath the glazed surface which give it a semitransparent quality. The subtle celadon reminds us of the clear water flowing between rocks in a deep valley. The esoteric jade color cannot be produced by glaze on ly.

The gray clay and glaze had to join together to create this subtle color.

This phenomenon also distinguishes the Koryo celadon from those of government-run kilns or Longchuan celadons of Song China. The Song celadons pursued an austere beauty in color and shape. As a result. though precise. properly exaggerated and of cool grace. they lack the clear and serene beauty of the Koryo celadons.

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Gourd-shaped Celadon Wine Pot Inlaid with Design of Lotus in Copper Fi rst ha lf of the 13th century National Treasure No. 133 Height: 32.7cm Ho-am Art Museu m, Yo ng in

The thick and therefore not-transparent glaze covered all the clay and accordingly prevented any delicate designs from being incised on the pottery. This is believed to have induced even the proud potters of government-run kilns to praise the perfect beauty of the Koryo celadon.

The second trait is the elegance of Koryo celadons. The Koryo celadons made at the height of their development demonstrate a noble taste which was prevalent throughout the cultural spectrum of the Koryo period. That taste was completely free from Chinese influences when it came to shape and design.

The smooth. free-flowing and yet balanced configuration underlines resi lience and _vitality.

The unique and original shape of the Koryo celadon can be best observed in melon-shaped vases. The small and neat mouth. the resilient and voluminous shou lder and the smooth configuration remind us of a refined and elegant lady, subtle but fu ll of vitality.

As for the figurative celadons. an imals like the lion. giraffe. turtle. dragon. and duck and plants like bamboo. melon. pomegranate. peach and lotus petals were the most endearing of motifs for Koryo potters. The smooth yet voluminous shape and realistically vivid description once again demonstrate the outstanding talent of Koryo potters.

The th ird feature of Koryo celadons is the ,development of diverse designs in keeping with shape and color. The delicate designs. incised or carved in relief, are in perfect harmony with the color, and the harmonious black and white inlay designs are magnificent.

The painting in underglaze iron and white slip design provide us with another sphere of aesthetics. that of boldness and vitality altogether different from jade color celadons.

The rich and diverse techniques delineating rather decorative and geometric designs of

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peonies. chrysanthemums and scrolls express the refined sensitivity of Koryo people.

The delicate shift and variation in the thickness of line and composition create an entirely different effect Among the designs used in Koryo pottery. most favored were cranes flying amidst clouds. and birds on a pond surrounded by wi llows. Those picturesque yet lyrical designs were definitely a Ia mode during the Koryo period. This seems to reflect the lyrical and poetic penchant of Koryo people.

As the greatest achievement of Koryo potters. the invention of the inlay technique is most frequently mentioned.

It was hard to expect a celadon with designs inlaid even with homogeneous clay to come out of a kiln fired at a high temperature without a crack or fissure. Therefore. the sanggam inlay technique in which designs were incised and filled up with heterogeneous clay was really a great feat of the time.

Only with a complete mastery of the nature of clay and with strict control of the deoxidizing flame was it possible to achieve the sanggam technique . The appealing designs made with the sanggam technique. the subtle contrast of black and wh ite with the undertone of gray clay produced the happy effect of a fine brush painting. The potters used extra care to guarantee that peonies. chrysanthemum. cloud and crane designs. though somewhat stylized. retained their natural beauty.

Herein lies the fine craftsmanship. and delicate sensitivity of the Koryo potters. In particular. the cloud and crane design. representative of the Koryo celadon designs. was an expression of the aspiration for an ideal spiritual world of Buddhism. Accordingly, the celadons with cloud and crane designs were. without exception. made with the utmost care.

With the advent of the sanggam inlay technique. the Koryo celadon departed completely from the influence of China in almost all aspects. Its originality was so admired by the Ch inese that Koryo celadons were frequently excavated from the tombs of Song and Yuan China. It is believed that the advent of the inlay technique provided a decisive impetus for the development and maintenance of the originality of Korea's ceramic culture which continued to flourish into the Choson Dynasty The last to be mentioned is the painting in underglaze copper To acquire the scarlet color. oxidized copper was employed for the first time in the world - some 200 years ahead of China. This was also another achievement made possible with the advanced metal smelting techniques of the Koryo people.

The Chinese. with an innate preference for red. had to wait till the 14th century to overcome technical barriers in creating the red color. Still. the impure quality of copper made the resultant red color dark and thick. Only during Ming China did the Chinese come to see a genuine red color.

Another feature of painting in underglaze copper is the way Koryo potters used the red color. Unlike the Chinese who used red profusely. the Koryo potters exerted extreme restraint in their use of red color. Red was applied to a minuscule part of the design such as the head of a crane. the center of a flower. with an accentuating effect.

It seems that the Koryo potters worried themselves sick over the possibility that red might disturb the serene and peaceful atmosphere of their works.

The pursuit of balance and restraint by subduing brilliant elements. embodied in the Koryo celadons. was the aesthetic principle of Koryo potters. ~ (This article was originally written in Korean and contributed for exclusive use by KOREANA. This is a translation.)

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THE MERIT LAY IN "ABSOLUTE PURITY" White Porcelain of Choson Dynasty Chung Yang-mo ottery production by mankind continued its evolution along with the progress in human wisdom and civilization since primitive man began to make earthenware. Stoneware came in the next stage. and then glaze was devised to give vessels durability and luster. Celadons. black wares and white porcelains represented the most refined artistry in ancient East Asian pottery making. in wh ich the Chinese were always far ahead. Korean potters. who were usually inspired by Chinese wares. made a unique contribution to ceramic art in a few significant areas.

In 1976. an assortment of Chinese pottery wares was hauled up in a fishing net off the southwest coast of Korea. near Shinan in South Cholla Province. This accidental discovery led to a sensational sa lvage of some 20.600 pieces of antique pottery from the wreckage of a Chinese trade ship. which is believed to have been sunken in 1323. Undersea excavators said that they believe the ship was carrying tens of thousands of Ch inese export wares when it met its misfortune. The pottery wares salvaged included some 12.300 celadons and 5.300 white and blue-and-white porcelains The proportion of porcelain wares to celadons provided the historians of ceramic art with interesting evidence of a transition in Chinese pottery production in the 14th century Demand for celadons was declining notably at the time. whi le the popularity of white porcelains was ever rising. Consequently. the quality of celadons produced at this time was obviously inferior to wares made in the preceding centuries. White porcelains. on the contrary. were growing diverse in kinds and shapes.

It is interesting to note that the Korean pottery industry was undergoing similar changes about this time. The Koryo celadon. which was once the object of admiration from the contemporary Chinese of the Song Dynasty. began to deteriorate in quality from the late 13th century. Celadon production in the 14th century increased in quantity but rapidly degenerated in quality From the I 5th century onward. the manufacture of wh ite porcelains continued to grow and the potters' ski ll also improved remarkably. Korea's ceramic industry underwent an even faster transition from celadon to white porcelain than that of China. It must certainly be mentioned here that the Korean potters during this transitional period developed a very indigenous technology for producing the widely admired punchong ware.

The division of periods is as important in the history of ceramic art as in any other art and craft. There is no doubt that the stream of development in ceramic art can be best understood by tracing it in relation to the political. economic. social and cultural conditions of each period.

P

Chung Yang-mo. born in 1934. graduated from Seoul National University as a history major in 1958 and began his service with the National Museum of Korea in 1962 . He was formerly the director of the Kyongju National Museum and is currently chief curator of the National Museum of Korea in Seoul. Also he is now president of the Art Historical Association of Korea and a member of the Cultural Property Committee.

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particularly in connection with other arts. In such an endeavor. pottery objects. historical records and kiln site evidence all offer valuable information.

Research materials obtained from the ancient kiln sites around Kwangju, south of Seoul. where the official wares of the Choson Dynasty were produced. played a crucial role in taking a chronological overview of the Choson porcelain. popularly called paekja. or the white porcelain. in this paper The structure of kilns. forms of vessels. types of glaze. and changes in the shape of the base and the spur marks served as major points of interest.

FIRST PERIOD: 1392-1649 King Sejong, the fourth monarch of Choson who reigned from 1418 to 14 50. stood out among a succession of able rulers who laid the foundations of the dynasty during its early years. Under his prominent leadership. the new-born kingdom achieved a cultural flowering on the basis of political and social stability and strong defense of borders.

The Sejong Shillok. or the official annals of the reign. contains several references to ceramic production. The most important of these is probably the census of pottery factories. which was carried out in 1424 to 142 5 and produced a list of 324 kilns across the country. including 139 for porcelain and 185 for stoneware manufacturing. All these kilns were classified into three grades in accordance with the quality of their products and their locations were presented. Ki lns in Kwangju. Kyonggi Province. and Sangju and Koryong in Kyongsang Province were rated the best porcelain factories.

The annals also has an account that. at the request of a Ming envoy, kilns in Kwangju were ordered to make white porcelain wares in various sizes to be presented to the Chinese emperor. Th is serves as clear testimony to the high quality of Korean wh ite porcelain at this early date.

A contemporary source. Yangjae Chonghwa (Assorted Writings of Yangjae) by Song Hyon. says that "white porcelain was used exclusively in the royal household of Sejong." The Kwanghaegun llgi (Record of the Reign of Kwanghaegun: 1603-1628) also notes that the king used white porcelain.

It is obvious that no type of porcelain was more highly valued in Korea during the Choson period than the plain white porcelain wares. This high regard for white porcelain actually dates back to the Koryo period. when Korean potters at first had little success in producing wh ite wares of high quality. As a result. a large number of Chinese wares were imported to meet the demand. The Korean potters used these Ch inese wares as their models. but at about the end of the 12th century, typically Korean white porcelains were being produced.

By the I 5th century under the reign of King Sejong of Choson. a new and distinctively Korean type of white porcelain had been developed. The high quality of these wares may be judged from the fact that a Chinese envoy from the Ming imperial court requested a number of the wares for presentation to the emperor.

The wh ite porcelain. highly admired for its absolute purity which was derived from the beauty of form and the tone of glaze. was produced in a larger volume than any other type of ware throughout the Choson period. The whole country was blessed with a rich reserve of fine china clay. and the porcelain production at official ki lns was supervised by the government. The public craved the pure beauty of white porcelain but its general use was prohibited. at least for a time. by court order in 1466. restricting manufacturing to pieces specially ordered by the royal household.

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As shown in the census taken during the reign of Sejong. kilns located near Seoul produced white porcelains of the highest quality Particularl y. the annals of the reign of Sejong notes that there were four ki lns which produced first-grade wares across the country. including one in Ponchon-ri. Chungbu-myon. Kwangju-gun. The Kwangju kiln produced white wares of all grades during the early years of the dynasty but tended thereafter to limit its production largely to first-grade wares. Kilns in Sangju. Kyongsangbuk-do. and Koryong. Kyongsangnam-do also produced white porcelains of the finest quality Investigations of the kiln sites in Kwangju and Koryong established that they produced first-grade wares. but the Sangju site has not yet yielded evidence of its high-quality products.

The first-grade wares were made of the finest white china clay and coated with pure glaze with a pale bluish tint. The thick. lustrous glaze was applied evenly all over the surface. wh ich is nearly devoid of cracks or scorch marks. These wares would give the viewer a uniquely wa rm feeling.

The second-grade wares were usually made of clay in pale gray color. which contains a little iron. Glaze for these wares also contained a small amount of iron that wou ld give the vessel surface a pale grayish-bl ue tone. Tiny cracks wou ld appear in the course of firing on the surface of these vessels that normally have sand spur marks on the bottom.

White wares of the lowest grade were modeled on the wheel with pure white clay. Glaze contained a little iron to result in a pale bluish tinge after the firing. Vessels in this category often have traces of wheel on the surface. They frequently have a bamboo-shaped base with clay spur marks.

The Japanese invasion in 1592 to 1598 turned the greater part of Korea into rubble. Korea's ceramic industry was ruined beyond measure as most pottery kilns were destroyed and potters were taken captive to be carried off to Japan. There was sufficient reason for the war to have the nickname of a "pottery war" or "tea bowl war" as it marked the nadir of Korea's ceramic industry while Japan acquired a momentum for dramatic development in its porcelain manufacture.

Thanks to the advanced technology of the Korean potters who settled on its soi l in the wake of the war. Japan began to produce high-quality porcelains that wou ld eventually influence the ceramic industry in Europe.

In the meantime. the sufferings of the Korean people across the sea had not come to an end with the close of the devastating seven-year war with Japan. The country was repeatedly swept by famine and the plight of the people was further added to due to another foreign invasion. th is time by the Manchus from the north in 1636. The ceramic industry had to wait to be resurrected from the ruins of the two major armed confl icts.

SECOND PERIOD: 1651-17 51

\

Porcelain manufacturing regained vitality very slowly following the wars with Japan and Oing China. White wares came to be used by a broad class of people and their manufacture grew increasingly active. Subtle but definite changes took place in the style of vessels and glaze color. Vessels were modeled in refined forms. some with faceted surfaces. The tone of glaze was either pure white or bluish white. giving a feel ing of more warmth and vitality. A number of wares were turned out with a fine network of cracks and even some scorch marks because saggars were not used in the firing.

The primary qualities of the Choson white porcelain. which appear most vividly in the wares

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produced during this second period. are in its scu lptural effect and the impression of warmth and humanity which it conveys despite a stark simplicity The boldness and vitality of form. as seen in large pots and jars. is particularly striking, wh ile many smaller objects. including such stationery objects as brush stands and water droppers for the scholar's writing desk, were made in various intriguing shapes It was also during this period that white porcelain wares bega n to be used for ancestral rites in the homes of commoners.

THIRD PERIOD: 1752-1 9 10 In 17 52, the official factory of Punwon was moved to a site along the banks of the Han River since most of the wood-fuel and timber for Seoul came by this route. The kiln therefore needed no longer to move from one spot to another periodically for easier acquisition of fuel and other materials. By 1883. however. the maintenance of the kiln out of state revenues had become so costly that a private management system was introduced.

The cessation of state support and employment of Japanese craftsmen as well as alien methods like transfer printing brought about a quick dereliction of the time-honored traditions of Korean porcelain manufacture. Cheap Japanese wares mass-produced at factories in the Kyushu area further accelerated the deterioration of Korea's ceramic industry.

However. the last year of the Chason period from the late 18th to the early 19th century witnessed the manufacture of the most practical wares. The walls grew thicker. so did the glaze wh ich contained more iron and consequently more bluish tint Simple and stolid forms characterize the wh ite wares of th is final period. when their functional aspect drew greater attention.

There is little doubt that white porcelain was most highly valued by Koreans throughout the five centuries of the Chason Dynasty. Yi Kyu-gyong, a prominent scholar in the early 19th century, made an acute observation in his Random Expatiations (Oju Yonmun Changjon Sango) by saying, "The greatest merit of white porcelain lies in its absolute purity. Any effort to decorate it wil l on ly undermine its beauty " @

(The original text of this article was written in Korean and contributed for exclusive use by KOREAN A This is a translation .)

A potter reviving the beauty of Chason porcelain

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KOREANS SHAPED BASE FOR JAPAN'S POITERY Origin of Satsuma & Arita Wares Yun Yong-i n 1597, the Korean Navy was soundly defeated by the Japanese after the invincible Admiral Yi Sun-shin was dismissed as admiralissimo due to false accusations by a jealous colleague. News spread that the Japanese were rapidly advancing northward both on land and by sea. Panic seized the entire nation.

The I OO.OOc5 invaders, who made their way to the southwestern province of Cholla-do under the command of Yukinaga Konishi, launched brutal attacks on the town of Namwon on August I 5 that year. Chinese troops who had been defending the town all fled . Most of the Koreans. including Magistrate Yi Pok-nam. chose death. Among a handful of survivors was Kim Hyo-ui, an officer who later reported details of the bloody fighting to Prime Minister Yu Song-nyong so that they could be recorded in his wartime memoir. Chingbirok.

I

The battle of Namwon was among the bitterest encounters in the seven-year war. which was provoked by the Japanese warlord Hideyoshi and devastated the greater part of the Korean Peninsula. But little has been written about the 80-odd Korean potters who resisted the Japanese troops till the last moment but who were eventually taken captive and carried off to the foreign land across the sea.

Pak Pyong-ui and some 80 other potters with 22 different family names, who had been working at kilns around Namwon. were captured by the troops of Yoshihiro Shimazu. the daimyo of Satsuma Province in southern Kyushu . They were taken to the Kagoshima and Naeshirokawa area where they later began making pottery that initiated the much-acclaimed tradition of the Satsuma ware.

CAPTIVITY IN KYUSHU The Korean potters led an extremely ¡hard life for a good while after their arrival because they had no other means of making a living but cultivating wasteland. It took them al:iout five years and backbreaking labor to establish themselves . Then they were able to resume making pottery. The Japanese were never supportive from the beginning. The Korean potters at first had to confront their jealous neighbors who obstructed their work by destroying kilns. They were even attacked by neighborhood Japanese and had to move their kilns.

In a petition they wrote. "Give us land on a hill overlooking the sea and facing our fatherland. Choson. so that we can build a town of our own. We were taken to this strange land. leaving behind our hometown. because we lost the favor of heaven. But we would like to build an altar for our ancestral spirits here and observe rites for them. Then we are sure that they will certainly be moved."

For a bio of the contributor of this article. turn to page 2 5.

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The daimyo granted their petition and "Koryo Town" was built. In the I 780s in the middle period of the Tokugawa shogunate. a medical doctor of Kyoto wrote about his trip to the town in his travelogue. Record of a Journey from East to West. Under the heading. "The Descendants of Koryo," he wrote that he visited the house of an elderly resident of the town with a letter of introduction from a local Japanese official. He said that he was entertained there with courtesy beyond his expectations. His account runs as follows: All of the residents of the town of Naeshirokawa. located some 70 ri (one ri is about four kilometers) west of Kagoshima in Satsuma Province. are people of Koryo. It is said that the daimyo of the province took captive all the residents of a Korean village. men and women. and old and young. while on a campaign there during the Hideyoshi invasions. The daimyo gave land to the Koreans so that they could settle here. The descendants of these Koreans still speak their native language. wear their clothes. and keep their customs. Now they are quite prosperous. forming hundreds of households.

The book says that the population of Koryo Town at that time was about 1.500. It seems they impressed the author with their undying love for the homeland of their ancestors. The passage continues: When 1 said that I didn't think they should miss Korea so much almost 200 years after their ancestors came here. my host replied that he would very much love to go back to Korea any moment if he was only allowed to. though he didn't mean to be oblivious to all the favors of his host country. My heart filled with sorrow when I heard him say how he could never forget his homeland.

The book says that nearly half the entire population of Koryo Town were potters. It goes on to note that they employed the same firing technique as their ancestors from Korea and the white porcelains they made were "truly worthwhile to see and as admirable as the Choson wares." All of the ceramic products of these Koreans were rated first-grade and presented to the daimyo. according to the book.

With regard to the lifestyle of the Koreans. the book has this account: The men wear horsehair hats over their topknots. and broad-sleeved gowns like the robes of Buddhist monks. The women had their hair pulled up in the Korean style. Watching these people plowing the field by using horses. I could not but think that this cannot be japan but Korea.

KOREAN SHRINE The Koreans built a shrine dedicated to their national founding forefather. Tangun. at the rear of the town. The shrine. called Oksandang. still stands there today as a monument to the deep love of the Koreans for their ancestral land. They worshiped Tangun as their tutelary god and held rites for him when they made fire in the kilns or produced important wares.

The saggers were usually placed to face the direction of the shrine. and this has been a firm tradition to date among the potters in the region. as reported by Shim Su-gwan. a 14th generation descendant of a Choson potter who settled there. Shim also is a famous ceramic artist himself.

From the hill where the Oksandang shrine stands. one can see blue waters to the west. It is the very sea that generations of these Koreans longed to cross to "return" to the homeland of their forefathers .

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5I

Plain tea bowls that have traditionally been made here look exactly like the rice bowls of Korean farmers in the mid-Choson period. Indeed. tea bowls made by the Korean potters in Japan at the beginning were Korean wares in every respect they were made by Koreans using clay brought from Korea.

As they ran out of the white china clay they had brought from Korea. Pak Pyong-ui and his son. Chong-yang. set out to look for similar clay in Kyushu. It took them more than 20 years to discover clay good enough for making stoneware. The Korean potters made their stonewares look similar to the white porcelains of Chason.

SUPPORTIVE DAIMYO Daimyo Shimazu was very pleased with the work of the Korean potters. saying that their wares looked precisely like the Chason porcelains. He stayed at Naeshirokawa when he traveled to this part of his territory. even joining the potters working at their wheels and presenting them with silver coins. This became a tradition for other daimyo of the province coming after him.

The Korean potters were thus encouraged to hand down their prized skills through generations. At the same time. Koryo Town was kept off limits to the Japanese popu lation and marriage between Koreans and Japanese was discouraged. Seemingly as a way to preserve the unique style of their ceramic wares. the Koreans were also instructed to keep their native customs. By the early 19th century. a great majority of the Paks had learned the pottery making skill and their business thrived. The Satsuma ware then became popular overseas in the mid-I 9th century.

Another group of Korean potters were taken to Saga Prefecture. also in Kyushu. by its liege lord. Naoshige Nabeshima. Among these potters was Yi Sam-pyong. who is said to have come from an area along the Kumgang River in Chungchong Province. central Korea. and arrived in Japan sometime between I 594 and I 596. He founded another famous tradition in Japanese pottery. called Arita ware.

Yi first landed at Hakada Bay. near Karatsu. and produced stoneware for everyday use for

Monument for Vi Sam-pyong in Arita. japan

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over I 0 years. which came to be known as Karatsu ware . Closely following the Korean style.

Karatsu ware was made in various shapes for common use in daily life and was plain and simple.

In 16 16, Yi discovered deposits of kaolin-rich clay suitable for porcelain production on a mountainside near Arita, Hizen Province. in northern Kyushu. He built his kiln at Tengudan i and moved there with his 18 family members to open a new chapter in the history of Japanese ceramic art.

All of the I 55 Korean potters who were taken to Japan together with Yi gathered there to build a pottery center. Later in 1631. they were joined by a far larger group of 906 potters led by Paik Pa-son. the widow of Chongjon. who had been taken captive in Kimhae in southeastern Korea.

Arita. which had been an obscure. mountainous area. quickly grew famous for its fine porcelain products. Its name began to appear on maps for the first time in the 1650s. It is said that 13 kilns were operating in the inner Arita area under the supervision of the local administrative office in 1637. but the number of kilns increased to 180 by 1672 .

CLIMBING KILNS A report on the excavation of the Tengudani kilns. published in 197 4 by the educational board of Arita. includes a preface which notes that the report is "dedicated with admiration and respect to the potter ancestor Yi Sam-pyong (Japanese name Ri Sampei). who made Arita a prosperous center of the ceramic industry and thus built the foundation of its further development in the future."

Yi was not simply a potter with outstanding ski ll but a master artisan who overlooked the mining of clay and ceramic manufacture in the entire Arita region. His descendants in Arita recently erected a monument to their great ancestor in Hakpong-ri. Kongju-gun. Chungchongnam-do. where they believe he was born. In Arita. his second home. a shrine and a stone tablet were set up in his honor as early as the late I 7th century In Arita today, there are over 200 kiln sites and remains of potters¡ workshops built since the 17th century. Some of these remains. including the Tengudani sites. have been investigated to obtain valuable information concerning the development of pottery production. A significant discovery made through these excavations has been that the Tengudani kilns followed the style of the so-called "climbing kilns" built by the potters in ancient Korea. particularly those of the Kwangju and Sungju areas.

Also of remarkable interest is the fact that these kiln sites have produced ample shards of plain white porcelain bowls. dishes and bottles as well as white porcelain vessels with underglaze cobalt blue decoration. They are strikingly similar to the wares unearthed from the late 16th century kilns in Kwanum-ri and Chongji-ri. both in Kwangju-gun. Kyonggi-do. central Korea.

Celadon shards, also similar to Korean models. have been discovered mingled with fragments of white porcelain.

It is believed that Yi Sam-pyong. who was born in Chungchong-do. had made all these varied types of ceramic wares at the official kilns in Kwangju before he was taken to Japan He played a central role in bringing about dramatic progress in Japan's ceramic production by discovering fine china clay and introducing the advanced technology of pottery making that he had acquired back in Korea. His contribution did not end there. though. The Korean potters under his direction laid the foundation for producing Japan's export wares which would later influence the ceramic industry in Europe.

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ARITA WARE The ceramic products of Arita were shipped from the nearby seaport of Imari to markets across Japan. Hence their other name. lmari ware. came into use. They were also called Hizen ware because Arita was part of Hizen Province (now Saga Prefecture). In the following years. the Arita ware developed in a few different styles. called lmari ware. Kakiemon ware and Nabeshima ware.

The early Imari ware. produced mostly at the inner mountainside kilns of Arita. was characterized by simple cobalt blue decorations of flowers and grasses. From the second half of the 17th century. however. enamel painting began to be executed over the glaze. Pottery in this style constituted the mainstream of the Japanese tableware and vessels for storing food.

Mechanization brought about mass production of these vessels from the Meiji era.

The Kakiemon ware. which began as painted white porcelains in the second half of the 17th century. employed colorful and elaborate decoration in red, green. pink. blue and brown in later years. Dishes. jars. bottles. incense burners and ceramic figures in this style best represent Japanese taste and aesthetics. They also accounted for most of the Japanese wares exported to Europe from the late I 7th century.

The Nabeshima ware. named after the daimyo who patronized its production. was represented by celadon trays and white porcelain bowls and dishes decorated with overglaze enamel painting in refined taste. These official wares were made mostly at the outer mountainside kilns of Arita for use in the household of the daimyo and for presents to the court of the shogun The Arita ware in these different styles has largely represented traditional Japanese pottery which has enchanted the world's ceramic art lovers. Now one cannot but wonder. however. whether the effort of so many nameless potters of Korean ancestry has been duly recognized and appreciated. A monument dedicated to some 800 anonymous Choson potters standing on the outer mountainside of Arita may be regarded in this light as a small. silent token of such recognition.

POTTERY WAR The "lmjin Waeran" (Japanese Invasion of Korea in I 592) is sometimes nicknamed "the pottery war." No territory changed hands in this bloody armed conflict between two neighboring nations. But many potters moved from Korea to Japan. either by force or by choice. causing drastic changes in Japan's pottery industry. Not only in the Satsuma and Arita regiQns but also many other areas throughout the island of Kyushu and westernmost part of Honshu like Agano. Takatori. Yatsushiro and Hagi. Korean potters worked hard on their wheels producing wares loved by the Japanese.

Among all the wares produced by the Koreans. tea bowls were undoubtedly the most highly valued pieces. Japan's tea masters had already been highly impressed by Choson ceramic bowls and were using them in their ceremonies even before the war - since the early part of the 16th century.

The tea masters felt that the simple, unpretentious rice bowls of Korea's late 15th and early 16th century were exactly appropriate for wa8i-clia, or the "poverty tea ." They said that zen's principles of understatement and frugality were expressed in the works of the provincial potters of Korea.

Ceramic wares made by the Koreans fascinated not only Japan's tea masters and powerful daimyo and shoguns but also the aristocratic elite of Europe. They were loaded onto Dutch

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merchant ships at Nagasaki and arrived in Amsterdam after a long voyage by way of Taiwan.

Indonesia. Calcutta and the Cape of Good Hope. And from there they made their way to royal courts and aristocratic mansions throughout Europe.

The British and the Dutch were leading the exploration of Asia at the time after the Spanish Armada was fatally defeated in 1588. The British established their East India Company in 1600 for trade with Asia. and the Dutch set up their own two years later to establish a monopoly on trade east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Strait of Magellan. The Dutch merchants introduced the Chinese blue-and-white porcelains made at the )ingde-zhen kilns to European aristocrats. The high society of Europe marveled at the exotic beauty of the chinaware from a faroff country which they called China afterwards.

In China. however. the port of Guang-zhou was closed following the advent of the Oing Dynasty of the Manchus in 1644. And the kilns at Jingde-zhen were destroyed during the threedecade-long revolt by Wu San-guei against the Manchus. It is deemed therefore that the Korean potters in Kyushu began their ceramic production very much on time to draw the interest of the Dutch traders who had to look for substitutes for the popular Chinese wares.

DUTCH MERCHANTS The Dutch were vigorously expanding their commercial activities in Japan at this time. They moved their trade office from Hirado to Nagasaki in 1650. Records of the Dutch East India Company say that the company purchased 14 5 pieces of Japanese pottery in 1650 and then placed orders for as many as 56.700 pieces of Arita ware in 1659.

The Arita wares satisfied the Europeans with their unique Oriental charm for about a century. Major museums as well as royal courts and old castles throughout Europe still keep tens of thousands of these export wares from Tukugawa-period Japan.

In Germany, alchemist Johann Friedrich Boettger discovered fine china clay in Dresden in 1709. He began to produce Europe's first true porcelain at Albrechtsburg Castle in Meissen the next year. thereby building the tradition of the famous Meissen porcelain which dominated the style of European porcelain until about I 766. Soon the European pottery markets had other popular names like Wedgwood of England and Delft of the Netherlands.

These European pottery wares could not compare with Japan's export wares made by Korean potters in terms of quality and technique. but improvements were made during the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century.

Archaeologists of the 20th century have unearthed shards of the Arita export ware near the ports of Jakarta and Calcutta. These fragments of old porcelains attest to their popularity among the Europeans of centuries ago as well as their contribution to the pottery industry of Europe.

ÂŽ

(The original text of this article was written in Korean and contributed for exclusive use by KOREANA. This is a translation.)

Vol. 5 No. 3 KOREAN A 1991

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IN PRAISE OF TRADITION IN PORCELAINS OF KOREA Edward B. Adams t is difficult for Westerners to comprehend the mysticism of Korean porcelain as it embodies the very essence of the country and its people. The Shilla stoneware and Koryo celadon speak of the past while the porcelain of the period of Chason kings with its unassuming beauty and warm trait defies logic Only those who have come to love this pottery can understand such a feeling of unsophisticated elegance. These porcelains portray the modesty and humility of their artistic creators.

As might be imagined. the development of porcelain during this period progressed along different paths of aesthetic characteristics . However. there are still many examples where the porcelain shares a similar style to the folk pottery cal led punc!ionq. such as hasty execution and heaviness.

Commonplace porcelains also contain the marred marks of spurs on the interior. indicative of the manner in which they were stacked during kiln firing, one upon the other. The use of clay spurs in stacking was also prevalent with punc!ionq pottery and lower quality Koryo celadon wares.

It is known that from the late 9th century porcelain was being produced in Korea. This came to be known because of the 1988 excavations of the West Village in the Yongin district of Kyonggi Province. near Seoul However. the magnificent style of white porcelain made during the Chason period was predominantly used by the royal court for official Confucian ceremonies.

Great attention was given to design and technique. A protective sagger was often used as a firming support for the vessel. which resulted in a higher degree of total refinement in the final product.

As the celadons of Koryo, with their grace and color tinged with feminine beauty, symbolized an aristocratic Buddhist culture. the white porcelains of the Chason period are thought to typify the bureaucratic and scholarly Confucian society which was essentially masc:uline in tone. vigorous and orderly. Better suited for the numerous Confucian ceremonies. the porcelains of this period were invariably preferred by royalty and the nobility.

Deposits of excellent porcelain clay were abundant throughout Korea. According to records surviving from the reign of King Sejong in the I 5th century, there were 136 kilns producing porcelain. However. by far the most important kilns of the late Chason period were those grouped along the banks of the Han River in the district of Kwangju, not far from eastern

I

Seoul Born in 1934. Edward B. Adams received !iis BA in education from W!iitwort!i College and !iis MAin educational administration from Eastern Was!i inqton University He served as principal of t!ie Department of Defense sc!iools in Seoul and Taequ. Korea. from 1965 to 1973. He is currently !ieadmaster of Seoul International Sc!iool and lias aut!iored many books on t!ie !iistory, culture and art traditions of Korea. Two of !iis books are a;; t!ie pottery !ieritaqe of t!ie S!iilla and Koryo periods

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KILN SITES Water transportation along the Han River was preferable in bringing the fragile porcelains to the city of Seoul. Also as an enormous quantity of firewood was required by these kilns, the choice of a kiln site had to take into consideration the existing forest reserve.

Shard evidence in immense quantity has been found as testimony to the importance of these official government kilns. These kilns known as the Punwon Kilns, were responsible for the finest of all Korea's white porcelain wares. However, this vicinity was used for porcelain production centuries before the royal Punwon Kilns were established in this area.

Shards found at a kiln site in Usan Village were decorated with incised arabesque in cobalt during the late Koryo period. The official government Punwon Kilns began in the late I 7th century and during their peak over 500 potters served at about 60 government-sponsored kilns. The term punwon literally means the "Bureau for Ceramic Manufacturing Adm inistration ."

The beginning of the Yi family rule coincides with the early Ming period of China when bluewhite porcelain had reached unparalleled heights of production technique. There is little doubt that Chinese influence on the Korean potters was established. Yet in 142 5 the Ming emperor of China, through his resident diplomat expressed his desire to be presented with white porcelain wares from government kilns.

According to the records, over 200 porcelain pieces were presented as an imperial gift. The quality of Korean porcelain must have been exceptional and unsurpassed to attract the appreciation of the Chinese emperor, who was undoubtedly well endowed with his own Chinese ceramics.

Centuries later. a royal edict was promulgated to say that white porcelain from the official kilns of Punwon would be restricted to the king's household. Also this edict stated that the cobalt blue underglaze white porcelain would be reserved only for use by the crown prince.

Any potter who secretly made official wares would not on ly be punished by death but his entire family would perish.

The preponderance of early porcelain was undecorated because generally the cobalt blue oxide required for decoration was scarce and at one time valued higher than gold. High grade cobalt oxide mineral was obtainable on ly through China. Though relations with China were friendly supplies of cobalt could not always be assured, as this mineral actually came from the Middle East across the trade routes.

Because of the high cost it was sparingly used. Eventually a native supply of cobalt was discovered at Sunchon but the quality was not good. The Kwangju Punwon Kilns flourished until 1883 at which time royal support was withdrawn because the government had declined into desperate financial difficulties. Fifteen years earlier, the rebuilding of Kyongbok Palace by the Regent Taewon-gun for his son, King Kojong, may have been a contributing factor.

The pottery kilns continued to operate under private management with imported Japanese workmen from Arita and Kutani who carried on the craft. Ironically this was the area where Korean artisans were taken as captives during the Hideyoshi Wars of the late 16th century.

From 1883 the white porcelain deteriorated and lapsed into a state of mediocrity. The location of these original Punwon Kilns is now difficult to identify.

KILLING KOREAN POTTERY During the Japanese occupation of the 20th century authorities made a sincere effort to eliminate the Korean pottery industry as they did with many other creative indigenous activi-

Vol 5 No.3 KOREANA 1991

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ties. Within three years over 7,600 kilns in operation were reduced to only 400. Primarily these were kilns for kimchi pots and simple ceremonial wares. Japan began subsidizing ceramic production in Kyushu for delivery to Korea . Japanese products were able to undercut the local prices and Koreans were encouraged to buy the cheaper Japanese wares.

Thus, the death of Korea's pottery heritage was accomplished by the nation which now probably admires Korean ceramics the most and has done the most research into its historical development. Japanese scholars like Asakawa and Yanagi were daringly outspoken in the denouncement of Japanese imperialism in Korea and accused the government of criminal acts in stifling the creative efforts of the Korean artisans.

Though the body color of porcelain is basically white, there is a wide range of tones including grayish-white, milky-white, greenish-white, and even white flushed with pink. These accidental shades of white are often much sought after by connoisseurs of Korean porcelain.

During this Confucian period of 500 years the Koreans had a special predilection for white and a keen sensitivity to it. In the ancestral or funeral ceremonies the traditional attire of white cloth or hemp was worn . During eras of the late dynasty members of the royal family died in such numbers that the commoners were continually wearing the mourning attire of white that was required for three years. The Koreans became known to Western foreigners as the "people of the white clothes."

Like the simple white attire of the people, the white porcelain was essentially simple in form.

Upright sturdy and lacking pretension, it is precisely this simplicity inherent in porcelain wares which has attracted ceramic admirers from all parts of the world.

To try and determine for certain an exact period that a particular porcelain vessel was potted by color analysis is almost impossible. Both early and late periods produced a wide variety of white shades though the tonal ranges in the late dynasty period appear more limited.

The degree of opacity often is a better criterion than color tones.

A soft dense and opaque quality of the glaze is often typical of early porcelain while it was rarely achieved in the later era. The glaze of the late dynasty period is more characteristically thin and glassy. Sometimes the names of potters did appear but little is known about them as their social position was the lowest and they had no patronage from the noble class as was sometimes the case in Japan.

The porcelain industry during the Yi family rule provides a perfect example of Korean conservativeness. During the entire 500 years of the dynasty period, both the potters and their patrons never forgot their heritage of Confucian tradition .

The potters of this dynasty, like their Koryo ancestors, reveled in the multitude of threedimensional modeling. Some pieces are so sculpturesque that they can be compared with certain abstract trends of 20th-century pottery. To a greater or lesser degree, all Choson Dynasty porcelain portrays this sculpture-like quality, no matter what period it was created in.

FOR SCHOLARS' DESKS The patrons of nobility were responsible for an inexhaustible demand for small sculptured

\

items for scholars' desks. Though the unpretentious white and sturdy porcelain was eminently adaptable to Confucian ritual and conservative royal tradition, there also was abundant porcelain ware decorated with underglaze designs in the latter period.

In appreciation of the Ming influence from China, it was unavoidable that potters experimented with cobalt oxide. Fortunately as it was scarce a greater demand was placed on the potters

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to use iron and copper oxides more frequently. indicating a need for more ornate porcelain products. The greater use of copper and iron became a distinguishing characteristic of Korea's ceramic tradition.

The white porcelain which used underglaze cobalt oxide for the decoration was restricted during most of the early dynasty period to royalty and certain high-rank nobility. During the Japanese and Manchu invasions. the use of cobalt blue became an unthinkable luxury. However. late in the 17th century the blue-white porcelain was again produced in greater quantity.

By the mid-18th century King Yongjo became alarmed over the expense involved in the importation of cobalt oxide ore. He forbade it to be used except on the "dragon jars" required for Confucian rites . However. by the mid-19th century kiln sites were frequented by men of literary and cultivated tastes. Cobalt oxide during this period was plentiful and often used in excess.

The precise characteristics of early Chason Dynasty blue-white porcelain are still very vague. though shards dating to this period have been recovered from the Kwangju area near Seoul.

These shards and some datable pots show designs that are mostly indigenous in decorative tradition. However. some early porcelain with cobalt designs of flowers and leaf scrolls demonstrate a close affinity with early Ming China's blue-white porcelain of the same period.

In recent years the identification of porcelain has become more confused day by day with the appearance in Seoul's antique shops of a number of vessels. purportedly found at Korean kiln sites. but that appear identical to the early Ming blue-white porcelain of China. It may be that they were mistakenly identified as Ming Chinese pieces in the past rather than Korean.

Over 400 years ago the Japanese Momoyama tea master. Sen-no-Rikyu. discovered in the pottery of the Yi family period the spirit of austere simplicity, natural tranquillity and absence of any artificiality. In respect he gave Korean pottery human characteristics as he elaborates: A Choson pottery piece may be likened to that rare type of person who radiates an aura of warmth and harmony that makes others feel comfortable and calm in his presence. This person is perfectly natural and unimposing. exhibiting nothing artificial or self assertive in his deportment....

Though not without shortcomings. the person makes no effort to disguise them. Either despite the blemishes or because of them the person fascinates those nearby and stirs the imagination with his inborn capacity to transform imperfections into charm and merit. Because this person is carefree. spontaneous. trusting yet full of hidden vitality. this person makes those people nearby feel relaxed and natural.

These combining traits of unassuming dignity and straightforward sturdiness are a fundamental distinction between the porcelain of Korea and those of other Asian nations. Korean ceramics over the centuries are unaffected and uprententious while bred by the instinct of the potter's tradition.

Utterly lacking in artificiality or self-consciousness but playfully indigenous. the experimentation by the Korean potter has consistently been one of his most engaging traits. The world of beauty and ugliness is not a conflict in the minds of the Korean potters. who over the years have created ceramic beauty without any guile.

ÂŽ

(This article was originally written in English and wntributed for exclusive use by KOREANA.)

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NEW ART PHILOSOPHIES SLOW TO TAKE ROOT Korea's Modem Ceramic Art Choi Kon ny analysis of "modern Korean ceramics" must be prefaced by a clear definition of what we mean by the term "modern" because that term has come to imply "Western" to many people. The Korean people's life style. social structure and way of thinking have changed so rapidly over the course of our national modernization that we now view events and practices of just I 00 years ago as ancient history. outmoded and antiquated. The material culture of the West. on the other hand, has been seen as new and advanced. a model for all to attain.

As a result. one of the great contradictions of Korea's process of modernization has been the indiscriminate rejection of the "old" - that is the traditional - in favor of the "modern" as defined in Western terms. even in matters as intimate as our basic customs.

The field of ceramics is no exception to this trend. Korean ceramics began to undergo rapid change some I 00 years ago. This change was. of course. not entirely due to external forces.

A number of systemic and structural inconsistencies have. over the years. impeded the development of Korean ceramics. and the failure to promote technical advancement and the expansion of the domestic ceramics market is also to blame.

During the Enlightenment Period (Kaehwa-gi) of the late 19th century, the introduction of ceramics commercially produced with advanced technology from Japan and the West dealt a fatal blow to the Korean ceramics industry which suffered from both inferior technology and structural defects. The enormous ceramics factory at Punwon in Kwangju run by the Choson Kingdom for nearly 500 years was transferred to private management in 1884 and. by the 1890s. was incapable of producing ceramics. The collapse of the Punwon plant. the standard bearer of the great Choson ceramic tradition for so many centuries. shook Korean ceramics to their very roots and signified the breakdown of the traditional concept of ceramics as an art form.

It wasn't until the 1960s that we saw the beginnings of renewed interest in ceramics as social stability was gradually restored after decades of indifference during the Japanese colonial period. the tumultuous post-liberation period and the disastrous Korean War. During this period a small group of intellectuals sought to revive the magnificent tradition of Korean ceramics.

However. the movement's narrow concern with classicism left it out of sync with Korean society and so the works produced by these intellectual artists never managed to rid themselves of the label "ceramics for overseas exhibition." In addition. the 1960s were a time of great poverty during which the Korean people were narrowly focused on overcoming the in-

A

Born in 1950. Choi Kon is a graduate of the Hongik University Department of Art History and Hongik University's Graduate School of Fine Arts where he majored in ceramics. He has worked as a researcher at the National Museum while teaching at Mokwon University. At present. he is chief curator of the Haegang Ceramics Museum.

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stability and hardships of the post-war period and building an industrial society. It was during this period that numerous artists were forced to leave their work places. and countless kilns were left in ruin.

A new generation of modern ceramists. some carrying on traditional techniques and others working strictly with modern genre. was born during this period. Some were traditional artisans who had refused to buckle under to Japanese colonial rule. others learned the art of modern ceramics in art schools in Japan during the colonial period while still others were educated in the United States after liberation in 1945. These new artistic leaders were few in number but they have dedicated themselves to bringing pre-modern Korean ceramics into the modern age.

The focus of this article should be an analysis of the development of Korea's modern ceramics. but it is my firm belief that the terms "evolution" or "unfolding" better suit the process of change that Korean ceramics have undergone because the art form has changed so rapidly and has been subject to such powerful external influences from both Japanese colonial rule and the advanced nations of the West since liberation. For this reason I have written this article in the hope of recovering Korean ceramics¡ past glory and contributing to the art's future development from a critical point of view and without. when possible. engaging in a selfcongratulatory narrative.

As I have suggested in the foregoing passage. there has never been a period in Korean history when so many changes have been forced upon society at one time. The arts were no exception to the rapid changes that swept through Korean politics. social structure. thoughts and economics over the last century. The results of these changes were especially great in the field of ceramics. The I 00-year period that will be discussed here can be broadly divided into four stages: I) the late Choson period: 2) the Japanese occupation: 3) the post-liberation period of civil strife: and 4) the industrialization period.

LATE CHOSON PERIOD (19th century through 191 0) The rapid deterioration of Korean ceramics following the 1884 privatization of the governmentrun paekcfta (white porcelain) factory which had played such a central role in the advancement of the art form is difficult to explain. Perhaps the most significant cause of this rapid decline was the public's lack of interest in the paekcfta produced during this period. Paekcfta first became the ceramics of choice for the Choson court during the reign of Sejong in the late I 5th century. It was from this period that the production of paekcfta was controlled and restricte.d by the government. and the use of paekcha by the general population became a crime.

This royal restriction was relaxed somewhat in the latter Choson period but over this period the public demand for such porcelain increased greatly. With the expansion of international trade from the 18th and 19th centuries. this growing public demand was gradually filled by Chinese porcelain imported from the mainland and later by imitations of this Chinese porcelain imported from Japan.

By the latter half of the 19th century, domestic production of ceramics was severely threatened by the use of high quality porcelain imported from abroad and mass-produced commercial ceramics in both the royal court and among the general public. An editorial in the Tonqnipsftinmun (Tfte Independence) points out the evils of imported goods and urges popular recognition of the problem: "Nearly two-thirds of the people in the capital wear imported clothes and they even use imported ceramics. " This editorial reflects the pervasiveness of imported goods. particularly from Japan. Of course. most of these imports were not brought in by the

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choice of the Chason Kingdom but rather were forced upon the Koreans by high-handed Japanese trading techniques. Nevertheless. the Korean ceramics industry suffered seriously as a result.

Under these conditions it is hardly surprising that the paekcha factory in Punwon fell on difficult times after it was privatized. and by the early 1900s. the central force in the Chason era ceramics industry had all but disintegrated. The craftsmen who had worked at the factory dispersed. some taking jobs producing low quality pottery in the provinces in order to make ends meet.

It was around this period that Japanese technology and capital was introduced to produce ceramics on Korean soil. Japanese investors began buying up ceramics manufacturing sites throughout Korea from the late 19th century and launched production of ceramics for the Japanese market using low-cost but high-quality materials and specialized personnel. Japanese consumers were particularly interested in imitations of Koryo celadon and punchong ware. chinaware decorated with a white slip and covered with a grayish-green overglaze. which were produced in these colonial-style ceramics factories. However. skilled jobs at these factories were reserved for Japanese specialists and Korean potters were only used for heavy work.

Koreans did not relinquish all interest in ceramics during this period; however. The Korean government sent industrial missions abroad and established royal arts and crafts centers as part of its domestic industrial promotion policy, but pressure from the Japanese regime and a lack of financing undermined the success of these efforts. Some sectors of the general public recognized the importance of the ceramics industry and established manufacturing plants at private expense, but these facilities could not overcome the overwhelming financial and technical advantages of the Japanese and so one by one they fell into the hands of the Japanese.

One example of this trend was the collapse of the Pyongyang Ceramics Company established by Yi Sung-hun. a businessman and independence fighter who played a leading role in the promotion of national education through institutions like the Osan Academy.

In 1907. Yi. together with a number of other powerful individuals, founded the Pyongyang Ceramics Company to help raise funds to provide a financial foundation for the promotion of national industry and education. The company was one of the largest Korean enterprises of its time but fell into Japanese hands after Yi was imprisoned as one of I 05 nationalist leaders implicated in the assassination of the Japanese governor general in 191 I. Thus the collapse of the Korean ceramics industry was complete by the beginning of the Japanese occupation of the peninsula in 191 0. Most major production sites were alre.ady in the hands of Japanese industrialists or at the very least producing ceramics which suited the tastes of Japanese consumers who constituted the largest market for Korean ceramics.

COLONIAL PERIOD (1910-194 5) Korean industry was absorbed into the Japanese colonial industrial complex following the occupation of the Korean Peninsula in 191 0. With the enactment of laws regulating the establishment of commercial enterprises. the process of absorption of Korean ceramics companies

by Japanese entrepreneurs expanded. Nearly all such firms that dealt with high value-added and relatively high cost merchandise were taken over by Japanese while factories producing lower value-added and relatively low- priced crockery and pottery remained in Korean hands.

As a result the long tradition of Chason Kingdom paekcha which had played such an important role in the ceramics industry ceased to exist and the dark brown crockery (onggi) which had

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been used by commoners for cooking and storing for centuries became the only traditional form of truly Korean ceramics to survive.

In an effort to further expand its East Asian ceramics industry. the Japanese colonial regime established the China-Japan Ceramics Company which encompassed the ceramics industry on both the Korean Peninsula and the Shandong Peninsula in northeastern China. In Korea the infiltration of Japanese capital and technology made further inroads into the local economy thanks to the protection of colonial laws governing enterprises under Japanese rule. but one could hardly say indigenous Korean ceramics were advanced as a result since Koreans were used solely as a source of cheap labor in Japanese-owned ceramics factories. thus thwarting any significant transfer of advanced technology. All that the Japanese wanted from Korea was cheap raw materials and labor.

In addition, nearly all the ceramics produced in Korea during this period were made for export to Japan and so were produced to suit the tastes and customs of the Japanese people.

As a result the Korean people's positive and progressive attitude toward their own indigenous ceramic art forms began to change. ultimately deteriorating into a complete lack of interest.

It was during this period. however. that a new group of innovative leaders dedicated to carrying on the rich tradition of Korean ceramics began to emerge. The creative spirit of these artists is still not fully recognized today, but there is no denying that these men formed the foundation for what Korean ceramics has become today. These artists were trained in Japanesemanaged factories but were each charged with a personal mission to cultivate and pass on the Korean ceramics tradition. Nevertheless. since the development of the Korean ceramics industry was distorted during this period because of the narrow focus on the imitation of Koryo celadon and punchong ware suiting the classical tastes of the Japanese home market Korean ceramists had little room for artistic expression.

Indeed. the only truly new developments of the Japanese colonial period were the introduction of the imitations mentioned above and the emergence of the new group of Japanesetrained Korean artists waiting for their chance to carry on their own culture's unique tradition.

POST-LIBERATION PERIOD (194 5-19 50) At the time of liberation from Japanese rule in 1945, Korean ceramics were in near collapse. devastated not only by the political and economic discord that raged on the peninsula at that time but also by the general deterioration of the very foundations of the genre brol)ght on by 35 years of colonial exploitation.

A lack of capital at plants producing commercial ceramics and the failure to achieve muchneeded technological transfers led to an inevitable development: most factories were forced to close. In addition. the market for high quality imitations which had been so active prior to the end of World War II shrunk to an infinitesimal level as a result of the Japanese defeat in World War II. Nevertheless. the production of lower quality paekcha and crockery (onggi) at the local level began to increase in response to the demand for everyday household goods.

It was during this period that Korea's modern ceramics first began to grow with the emergence of ceramists educated at art schools in Japan and the United States as opposed to those who had learned their craft as artisans' apprentices. Of course, these artists did not always pursue valuable careers after their return to Korea.

Indeed. their debut on the Korean art scene was not so much a spontaneous development as the result of a small number of Korean ceramics enthusiasts' efforts together with fragmen-

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tary government support. As a result. we must view the emergence of this group as a momentary trend rather than evidence of any development continuity.

The Korean Arts and Culture Research Center was established with the support of the National Museum and the Kansong Art Museum in 1954 after a certain degree of stability was achieved following the Korean War. The center was a private organization funded by the American Rockefeller Foundation. As part of its program to promote uniquely Korean ceramics which carried on the great indigenous tradition. the center established a ceramics studio at the back of the Kansong Art Museum in Seoul which soon became a gathering place for artisans from around the country.

The leading figures in this operation were the art director of the National Museum. Choi Sun-u. the woodblock artist and ceramicist. Chong Kyu. woodblock artist Yu Kang-won. the paekcha specialists from Punwon. Yi lp-chun and Yu Kun-hyong. who was already well-known during the Japanese colonial period for his work in celadon. and a number of unknown ceramists. Despite this impressive list of participants and active support from people throughout the cultural and arts community. the ceramics studio ultimately closed because of a lack of domestic interest and a cut in its funding from the Rockefeller Foundation.

Shortly thereafter a ceramics studio was established by sculptor Yun Hyo-chung's Korean Formal Arts Research Center in Seoul's Taebang-dong with some limited government support.

Yun joined forces with Yu Kun-hyong from the Kansong Museum and other young artists including Chi Sun-taek to restore Koryo celadon to its past greatness but they too failed in the end.

A number of ceramicists from this period including Won Tae-chong. Kwon Soon-hyung and Kim Yikyung began their careers at the Ministry of Commerce's Korean Industrial Arts Center and moved on to the United States or Japan for further studies. After completing their studies overseas. these artists and others. such as Chong Kyu and Kim Chae-sok. returned to take posts at universities in Korea teaching future generations of artists. Celadon specialist Hwang ln-chun. well-regarded for his work with Yu Kun-hyong. passed his vast knowledge onto his children Hwang Chong-gu and Hwang Chong-nye. Hwang Chong-gu has dedicated himself to teaching and the development of a modern celadon genre while his sister Hwang Chong-nye has launched a modern ceramics program at the university level.

Thus the period from the 1950s through the early 1970s was characterized by the birth through the university education system of a new generation of specialized artists practicing what has been called "modern ceramics" as opposed to artists who were carrying on pre-existing traditions . However. domestic social conditions had not yet changed to the point where there was any true appreciation of these artists' work . As Chong Kyu has said of this era: "It was only natural that the development of a ceramic culture in Korea at this time was difficult because the Korean people were not accustomed to using ceram ics." Ceram icists who also taught at universities were destined to focus their efforts on participation in the National Art Exhibition and private shows and neglected the cultivation of any popular support from society in general.

INDUSTRIALIZATION PERIOD ( 196(}-1970) The 1960s and 1970s were marked by the proliferation of university-educated ceramicists although domestic conditions were not conducive to the actual creation of ceramic works.

The works of these academically oriented artists were recognized at public exhibitions and private shows but did little to further the development of the genre in society in general. In addition. the work of modern ceramists educated abroad was not focused on the needs of

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Korean society at the time. These artists did. of course. attempt to carry on Korea's ceramic tradition and establish a new modern aesthetic for the genre but their work was so thoroughly artistic in nature. so focused on cultivating an appreciation of art for art's sake. that they were never able to overcome the enormous gap between their own values and the practical needs of a developing nation.

Artists specializing in the transmission of traditional ceramic arts were in much the same position because Korea was still a developing nation and so was in no position to appreciate such works . A minuscule group of devotees could hardly sustain the expansion or improvement of traditional ceramics .

A new wave of active interest in Korean ceramics among Japanese consumers began with the conclusion of the Korea-Japan trade agreement in the latter part of the 1960s. Korean ceramicists expanded their production facilities which had fallen into serious disrepair during the 1940s and 1950s and began producing imitations of Koryo celadon and puncfwng wares in earnest. These works differed somewhat from those produced during the Japanese colonial period in that they were true recreations of traditional works and not distorted to suit Japanese tastes.

This traditional ceramic art was criticized by the academically oriented ceramics community as unimaginative imitation. The traditionalists in turn sneered at the academics with their foreign educations for creating useless museum pieces. and soon a severe split divided the domestic ceramics community. While both sides of this debate had valid points to make. neither established a firm basis for itself within Korean society.

During this period commercially produced ceramics were able to lay the groundwork for future development thanks to the government's policy of active support for domestic industry. However. since these ceramics were adopted from the designs of advanced countries.

Korean society had little opportunity to develop its own tastes. and thus grew accustomed to these copies. As a result. when the market for household goods was liberalized in the late 1980s. locally produced ceramics could not compete with the foreign "originals" sought after

by Koreans with money to spare.

TRADITIONS Few people understand what a blessing it is for a society to be able to develop by building on the magnificent traditions of its ancestors instead of being forced to overcome the legacy of the past and create a whole new tradition . The era when Korea could boast of its welldeveloped ceramics culture is long past. Do we even have anything we can call a ceramic culture today? And if we do. is it a desirable one that offers hope for future development?

Although this is a problem faced in all areas of Korean society today. those of us involved in the field of ceramics are particularly vexed by this question and hard pressed for a reply.

The heirs of the glorious cultures of Mesopotamia and Egypt clearly have not carried on their ancestors' tradition. On the other hand. the Japanese have come to dominate the international ceramics world today. thanks to decades of dedication which helped them not only overcome the backwardness that plagued their ceramics culture some 400 years ago but also surpass the more advanced Korea a century ago. The negative conditions plaguing Korean ceramics today and the Korean people's unhealthy attitude toward the genre are the result of the century-long process of deterioration I have described above. Our efforts to restore and promote Korea's modern ceramics within the context of tradition can be divided into two broad aspects: the formal and the attitudinal.

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CERAMIC FORM When discussing ceramic form. we can distinguish between shape and decoration. In any craft. shape is related to function. and that function is the product of the customs of a society and thus subject to endless change For this reason I bel ieve that shape changes. sometimes advancing and sometimes regressing. in tandem with changes in society. and so a "Korean" form cannot be a static concept but rather must constantly transform to reflect changes in the society it represents.

Thus whi le there may be significance in the restoration or the transm ission of past traditions in the recreation of a Koryo celadon bud vase. that act cannot be construed as the inheritance and advancement of the art form.

The ceramicists Hwang ln-chun. his son Hwang Chong-gu and Kim Yikyung represent this approach. Hwang Chong-gu has inherited the techn ique and formal conceptions of his father. a master in the celadon genre. and attempted to make them modern. wh ile Kim Yikyu ng has dedicated himself to the reconstruction of Choson era paekcha within the context of a modern aesthetic consciousness. Both artists have contributed greatly to a better understanding and appreciation of traditional ceram ics in modern Korean society.

Chong Kyu and Won Tae-chong have pursued the creation of folk ceramics focusing on the un ique decorative techn iques found in Choson paekcha I believe. however. that these artists have been unable to make a major contribution because they have focused on decorative aspects and have not achieved any notable results in the modernization of shape. Kwon Soon~ hyung and Kim Chae-sok have. on the other hand. played an important role in the development of glazing techniques. Kwon Soon-hyung has pursued a varied career experimenting with glazing techniques on vessels reminiscent of Choson paekcha and Chinese ceramics of the Song Dynasty official kilns.

Kim Chae-sok is the on ly artist to focus on decoration using low temperature firings of gold and variegated glazes. All these artists are also university professors who focus their creative activities on art exhibitions and so have enjoyed relatively little acceptance from society in general.

The families of Yu Kun-hyong and Hwang ln-chun have been unique in their transmission of traditional techniques down through the generations. Chi Sun-taek has also dedicated himself to the recreation of the formal beauty of Koryo celadon. These artists have focused their efforts on the recreation of traditional genres rather than inheritance and further development and so have had difficulty evoking popular interest in their work.

I would thus be remiss if I failed to point out that all forms of Korean ceramics today. whether examined from the point of view of form or from their significance in the transmission and development of tradition. have had little influence on our society as a whole.

AITITUDE

\

The changes discussed above are directly related to changes in traditional attitudes about ceramics. The ceramics of the Choson Kingdom were created under the general principle of puguk pumin or "rich country. rich people." The Shirhak (Practical Learning) philosophers of the late Choson period believed the ideal of a "rich country. rich people" could be achieved through the use of ceramics . The philosophy of the early 20th century promoter of Korean ceramics. Yi Sung-hun. can be seen as precisely this . Indeed from ancient times the people of East Asia have believed that one can understand a government through that country's

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Variety of modern -....;;.;..; _ ___.. Kore3 n pottery

ceram ics so if a government rules ski llfully. its people will live well and its ceram ics culture will prosper.

This ideal began to change toward the end of the Choson period The deterioration of the paekcha genre as a result of the Japanese colonizing forces¡ export policies and the production of high quality ceramics with no consideration for the indigenous tastes of the Korean people were sufficient to destroy the Korean people's interest in ceramics. In addition. the destruction of the many small local production facilities scattered throughout the country as a resu lt of the large-scale imports of mass-produced Japanese goods caused Korean people to take a negative attitude toward ceramics produced at new facilities.

Following liberation in I 945. household goods such as nickel and stainless steel cooking and storage vessels were imported as part of the foreign aid supplied by the United States and other Western nations. because the domestic demand for such goods could not be satisfied by Korean industry. As a result the Korean people's traditional attitude toward these objects was destroyed. The idea of a vessel reflecting the concept of "rich country. rich people." of a bowl embodying frugality and modesty. courtesy or contemplativeness was lost as people embraced the convenience of unbreakable metal cookware and vessels. The Korean people's traditional metaphysical conception of a vessel did not fit into a stainless steel bowl.

I noted above the Korean ceramists' disinterested attitude. I would say this attitude was inevitable, given the change in the Korean people's attitude toward ceramics. their belief that ceramics could not hold a candle to stainless steel.

To transmit a ceramics tradition means to transmit the traditional philosophy that surrounds that art form. If the spiritual aspect of an art form changes. it loses its meaning even if the technique used to create it is the same. Similarly, if we do not carry forth the spirit behind this art form into modern times as the structure of our life styles and conception of beauty change. we will never be able to truly advance the reality of ceramics.

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MODERN CERAMICISTS I have mentioned the best-known modern ceramicists above. However. I must emphasize the fact that in addition to these well-known artists. there are numerous anonymous ceramicists who play a significant role in the promotion of Korean ceramics today. These nameless artists have been successful in creating a new and varied genre based on the Koryo celadon and puncfwng styles. In addition. the hundreds of nameless artists recreating the beauty of Chason era paekcha at studios around the country will most certainly form the foundation for Korea's future ceram ic culture.

Following is a brief introduction to the best known Korean ceramicists today.

Yu Kun-hyong (1894- ) Yu Kun-hyong graduated from Posong Middle School and played a leading role in the revival of Koryo celadon even in the darkest days of the Japanese colon ial period. He first worked at the Hanyang Koryo Ceramics Factory run by the Japanese in Shindang-dong. Seoul. He scoured the Korean Peninsula in his research into ki lns used for celadon . During the 1930s he achieved fame both in Korea and Japan by successfully reproduc(ng celadon. In the years since then he has dedicated himself to the restoration of the celadon genre. working first at the Songbuk kiln at the Korea Arts and Culture Research Center at the Kansong Art Museum in 195 4 and later at the Korean Formal Arts Research Center in Taebang-dong.

Yu founded the Haegang Celadon Research Center with his sons Yu Kwang-yol and Yu Sungyo! in 1959 and the Haegang Ceramics Museum in 1990 using the many materials he had collected over his decades of research in the field.

Hwang In-chun (1894-1950) Hwang ln-chun began his pursuit of Koryo celadon when he joined the Hanyang Celadon Factory at the suggestion of Yu Kun-hyong. Hwang was recognized as a master of the genre during the Japanese colon ial period and handed down the secrets of his art to his son Chonggu and daughter Chong-nye. Since 1950 Hwang Chong-gu has worked as a professor at Ewha Womans University where he has cultivated a new generation of ceramicists and made significant contributions to the modernization of celadon through his establishment of the Ewha Womans University Cera mics Research Center. His sister. Hwang Chong-nye. graduate from Ehwa Womans University and is presently teaching at Kookmin University in Seoul.

Kim Chae-sok (1916-1989) In 1940 Kim went to Japan to attend the Musashino Art School where he studied the use of glazes and pigments. After returning to Korea. he was active as an educator and a judge at the National Art Exhibition but did not produce many works.

Chong Kyu (192 3-1 97 1) Chong Kyu returned to Korea after completing his studies in Tokyo in 1944. Chong worked as both a ceramicist and a woodblock artist at the Korea Arts and Culture Research Center but focused his efforts on ceramics. After studying at the Rochester Institute of Technology 68

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Celadon Pot !left: 7. 5 x 8cm) and Puncfwng Bottle (right: 12 x 7cm) by Hwang ln-chun.

Celadon Maebljong Vase with inlaid cranes and clouds designed by Yu Kun-hyong (H: 4 7cm)

in the United States in 1958, Chong returned to Korea where he dedicated himself to the teaching of a new generation of artists at Hongik University and Kyung Hee University.

In the latter half of the 1950s, Chong launched a movement aimed at promoting the development of modern Korean ceramics while at the same time carrying on the great traditions of traditional ceramics, especially Choson paekcna. Chong's work reflects a strong tendency toward modernism in design and shape based on the formal beauty of late Choson paekcna.

In the latter part of the 1960s Chong dedicated himself to the popular promotion and distribution of ceramics after he took over a traditional ceramics factory in !chon, the heart of the ceramics industry in the Kyonggi region.

(Mr. Cfloi's original text covered tflree otfler contemporary artists. Won Tae-cnong, Kwon Soon-nyung and Kim Yikyung. We regretfulluy bypassed tnis passage because of KOREANA's coverage of tflese artists elsewhere in tflis issue. Please refer to pages 81, 82 and 85.- Ed.)

CONCLUSION While Korea's modern ceramics have achieved a certain degree of quantitative development within the context of a rapidly changing society largely uninterested in the ceramic arts, the genre has ultimately failed to make any truly significant contribution to the Korean ceramics culture or society in general. We can. however. find evidence that this is changing. I believe that we are now witnessing a transitional period in which existing attitudes about ceramics are changing to make way for new artistic philosophies. @

(Tne original text of tnis article was written is a translation .)

in

Korean and contributed for exclusive use by

KOREANA. Tflis

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JAPAN'S BIG BROTHER IS NO LONGER KOREA Japanese View of Korean Pottery Seizo Hayashiya apan today might be a big brother to Korea in business. In the realm of pottery, the relationship for centuries was the other way around. Korean artisans way back in history taught the Japanese what to do and how to do it.

Those kind of ties date back to the fifth. or even the fourth century when earthenware knowhow was introduced to Japan. But obviously the major point of transfer falls in the 16th century.

Then. following the samurai invasion of Korea. Japan came to learn much of what could be learned about Korean pottery. But not all. perhaps. for Ch ina down the ages was the greatest source of influence over ceramic arts in Japan.

But here again I may have to qualify my statement. When I point to Chinese influences. they made themselves felt far more strongly in artistic domains than in technological aspects.

Therefore I should put it more succinctly, like this: Where potting is concerned. the big brother to Japan was China in artistry and Korea in technology. This might strike you as too much of a sweeping generalization. Nevertheless. it would. I believe. typify the major trend in history.

And then you have to consider sado. or the way of tea. This of course is the uniquely Japanese and accordingly stylized cult in which ceramic tea bowls used by masters are among the most treasured of paraphernalia for ceremonies.

The fact of the matter is generations of sado masters were intrigued by those ceramic bowls destined originally for everyday use by common folks in Korea. The great stonewares I talk of are collectively classified as punchong over there and over here as ido-jawan. mishima or korai-

J

chawan.

Why did punchong wares leave Japanese sado masters excited? The reason might require miles of explication. But to put it in a nutshell. you could safely say that with the punchong style of pottery there is hardly anything that could be called artificial or self-conscious.

This. to quote a renowned foreign critic. forms a study in contrast with China's "supremely refined classicism." It forms a contrast too with Japan's studied ingenuity in potting.

What to me is far more important is another fact. Such artistically masterful pots were turned out by nameless artisans who did not care about a thing called aesthetics.

Still and all. there is something about punchong wares that persistently con jures up so much of the presence of nature. And that someth ing in fact fired the imagination of the finest of Japanese sado masters. And they went all out collecting and treasuring the finest of punchong wares from Korea.

Once again. that particular something amounts to what none of the Japanese potters have

\

Long a distinguished curator in charge of ceramics at the National Museum of Tokyo, Seizo Hayashiya is perhaps the most authoritative of japanese commentators on pottery. He has been a frequent visitor to Korea. where he sees yesterday's glories in ceramic arts continue to outdistance today¡ s. Nevertheless. Hayashiya remains convinced that today's Korean ceramic arts in Korea are bound to improve tomorrow.

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Ce/adon Bowl with Peony Design in Relief First half of the 12th century Diameter of the mouth: 19.2cm National Museum of Korea

been able to achieve. Why? Clearly because it is based on nothing less than "the psyche of the nation." The Japanese critic Tetsuzo Tanigawa. among others. was full of praise for what marks the punchong wares . Though not so refined technically. he said. about the best of them there is always a good deal of unmistakable class.

The total effect of the best of them is sturdy. unassuming and beautifully earthly, like nature itself. Sure enough, that kind of effect. perhaps first discovered in Japan. is deeply appreciated in the world of sado. And sado exemplifies in Japan the apex of good taste.

If punchong wares in Korea were originally for use by common folks. I have to dwell briefly on those magnificent white porcelains turned out for admiration by the aristocracy in feudal Korea .

When they first appeared in Korea. these works were profoundly influenced by their counterparts imported from China. That was back in the I 5th and 16th centuries.

By the time the curtain went up on the 17th century, the Chinese influences were all but gone. Instead. what now came out of the kilns were white porcelains that were in complete sympathy with the Confucian aesthetic sense of the aristocrats.

This tells volumes about the genius of Korea's artisans in the Korean history of pottery So does the kind of effect achieved by these white porcelains. You could categorize it as an exercise in serenity never surpassed by any other potters in the world.

And today? Evidently in Korea today the legacies from yesterday make themselves constantly felt. I have seen many of the contemporary potters dedicate themselves to copying ancient masterpieces. But even the finest of copies are nothing but copies.

In ceramic arts. Korea was once was a big brother to Japan. No more. As far as I can see. it is the other way around when it comes to the relative positions of the two countries in ceramic artistry.

Once more. why? Apparently because many of today's Korean potters find it hard to liberate themselves from the yoke of tradition. Perhaps this would have to be said of even the most audacious of avant-garde potters in Korea today To take advantage of the heritage is one thing. To take off from it with a creative elan is another. The world of pottery in Korea today seems to find itself in the horns of this dilemma.

Obviously, sooner than later there is bound to be a dramatic breakthrough in what must be described as an artistic stalemate. Many of the artists indeed are struggling to do just that.

The works and styles of two of them are featured in the color section of this ceramic issue.

@ (The original text of this article was written in Japanese and contributed for exclusive use by KOREANA.

This is a translation.)

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LONG IN HISTORY, SHORT IN TECHNOLOGY Future is Uncertain for Old Industry Lee Hee-soo ottery is one of the oldest industries in Korea. Various industries have down the ages undergone many changes. Not the ceramic industry in Korea. Instead. from the latter half of I 990. the industry has ventured forth into a virgin field: fine ceramics.

The industry has made tremendous progress through the long history of Korea not on ly because of the daily need for its products but also because of nature's endowment in the country and a great tradition among its craftsmen. The reasons for the industry's continued vigor are many. But first and most of all we have to point to the rich deposits in Korea of raw materials. like kaolin. pottery stone. feldspar. quartz. limestone. agalmatolite and exceedingly fine clay.

Then consider the finest of Shilla (668-9 I 8 A.D.) earthenwares. the best of Koryo Dynasty (9 I 8- I 392) celadons as well as the glories of Choson Dynasty (I 392- I 91 0) white porcelains and punchong (powder blue-green) wares . All this underlines a great Korean tradition in craftsmanship that might belong to a category by itself in the world.

But the story is complex. A decline in the number of accomplished potters and a rise in their wage level today are making the future look not exactly rosy for the old industry Even in the middle of this century. labor was still cheap and plentiful in Korea. Then the official view was that ceramics was a labor-intensive industry. Sure enough. the Korean government gave it tons of help as a means of alleviating unemployment at home and earning at the same time some much-needed American dollars from abroad. Indeed the Korean government played a crucial role in helping the industry After liberation from the Japanese. Korea's officialdom went all out to boost the industry's output. Not surprisingly. the industry boomed through the I 970s.

No more. Why? Once again the reasons are many. One concerns the industry's time-honored structure. Its backbone has traditionally consisted of small-to-medium plants. The amount of investment in automation hardware has been limited and as a consequence the industry is taking far more time than suits the government to modernize itself.

To sharpen their competitive edge in the international market. products from Korea have to have an exceedingly high added value. But most of the firms in the field have not been living up to the government's expectations in quality control. It is the same story with the industry's inability to develop high-grade materials.

There is still another minus factor. Most existing plants own integrated production systems.

Each of the plants handles everything from the treatment of materials to the final phase of

P

Born in I 92 5. Lee Hee-soo majored in ceramic engineering at Seoul National University. He earned his Ph.D. in ceramic engineering at Hanyang University. He served as dean of the College of Engineering at Yonsei University in I 977 and is currently professor of ceramic engineering at the universit~. His major publications include: Ceramic Raw Materials. Ceramic Dictionary and Material Science and Engineering.

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production. And this runs counter to what's obvious. To elevate product quality, the process has to be split up to make it possible for various plants to specialize in various stages of production . And this cannot be done easi ly in Korea today. But let us for now review our past.

HISTORY When clay is mixed with water and is made into various forms and dried. the result is called the green body. To make it keep its form. the body is fired. Once ¡fired. it becomes more solid than before and will not disintegrate in water. Thus is made earthenware. the ancestor of ceramics. The oldest group of earthenwares discovered in Korea is believed to date back to the Neolithic Age (circa 6000-4000 B.C.). The group features geometric patterns (often called comb-pattern pottery). During the Bronze Age. undecorated pottery seems to have been put into use. In the Iron Age (circa 3000 B.C). colored pottery made its appearance. During the Samhan period (circa 2000 B.C.). the so-called Kimhae-style earthenware was made by means of what up until then was unknown: the potter's wheel. In the 3rd and 4th centuries. gray-blue earthenware registered its existence.

The higher the firing temperature. the more solid the earthenware. It is presumed that the firing temperature reached 800 degrees Celsius during this period Periodic or intermittent ki lns. to begin with. were the workhorse. From the 3rd to the 7th century. uphill kilns. or semicontinuous kilns. began to do the job. Kilns of this style generated heat whose temperature reached 1.200 degrees. In the 7th century. glaze was first applied.

Techniques became more sophisticated. In the 9th and 1Oth centuries. blue-green celadons beaming with chaste and pure aura were turned out. At the end of the 1Oth century, white porcelains followed.

In the 12th century from Koryo under the reign of King Munjong. pure celadon (sun-chongja) and celadon with underglaze copper (chinsa chongja) of mystic ivory color were unveiled. In the mid-1 2th century, under the reign of Kings lnjong and Uijong the inlaying technique made its debut. From that time on. Koryo celadons of dynamic and dazzling beauty started flourishing. The one-chamber climbing kilns were improved with several internal walls.

In the early Choson period. punchong wares and white porcelains all but replaced declining Koryo celadons. Punchong wares. which are indigenous to Korea. are noted for their warm. down-to-earth flavor. White porcelains are famous for their uniquely simple. practical. yet warm contours.

To be made into punchong pieces. gray or natural earth-color bodies are smeared with white clay and then glazed. Punchong thrived until the 16th century. Soon it was overpowered by white porcelain.

Porcelains were produced from the late 1Oth century during the Koryo period. In the Chason period a brave new variety of patterns and forms. as well as sophisticated techniques of coloring made it necessary to coin fitting names for them. like pure porcelain (sun-paekja). blue-and-white porcelain (chonghwa paekja) and white porcelain decorated with underglaze copper (chinsamun paekja).

The golden age of Korean pottery spanned 200 years from the onset of the Choson period.

Only at the outbreak of the 1mjin Waeran. the Japanese invasion of Korea in 1592. did it run into a brick wall .

During the Koryo period. records say that there were as many as 82 5 kilns. The number. according to one source, dropped sharply to 321 during the Choson period. In 1883. the pres-

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tigious state-run kiln in Kwangju, Kyonggi Province, which had served as the center of the ceramic industry in Korea. was finally compelled to close down.

How then is porcelain made? First pure clay and crushed stone clay is elutriated. Then the result is left in water for two to three weeks. The water is drained and the clay is again kneaded and molded into forms. They are subsequently trimmed on the potter's wheel operated by the artisan's feet. After being dried. they are put into clim bing kilns and fired with wood.

For the crushing of earth. granite-made millstones are used.

Glazing is carried out after bisque firing when the potters are following the multiple firing method. In the case of the single firing method. glaze is applied to the green body.

The primitive methods of firing were mechanized to a great extent in Korea under Japanese colonial rule. Kilns with rectangular or round shapes came into being. Firewood was replaced by coal. At the end of Japanese rule there emerged tunnel kilns in which firing could take place continuously. But such advanced workshops back then numbered only a few and were operated by the Japanese. Koreans were in the picture. yes. but only as manual workers charged with simple jobs.

In I 917. a fine ceramics factory was established in Pusan by the Japan Fine Ceramics Company. The name of the factory was later changed and it became Korea Pottery Co. Eventually it was shut down. But this is the factory that heralded the advent of much-needed modernization of the old industry in Korea.

After Korea was liberated from the Japanese in 194 5, ceramic factories mushroomed in number because of Korea's rich natural resources. ceramic tradition and wide use of ceramics as kitchenware. The factories were usually equipped with ball mill crushing apparatus. mechanical potter's wheels and downdraft rectangular kilns.

The Korean War ( 195(}5 3) temporarily halted the growth of the ceramic industry. But after the 195 3 truce. rehabilitation ensued. In 1955. tiles were manufactured by the dry-pressing method; until then such tiles had been only imported. In 1957. sanitary wares and electrical insulators were produced by the slip casting method. In 1959. Korea Pottery Co. adopted tunnel kilns. the first Korean plant to do so.

Modernization continued at great speed until 1963, when Korea began exporting ceramics.

As ceramics emerged as an important export. the government tried to spur overseas sales.

In 1980. exports topped $100 million and in 1988 they peaked at $ 144 million. In 1990. ceramic exports. comprising kitchenware. tiles. sanitary ware and novelties. stood at $103 .5 million.

EARTHENWARE World-famous Korean ceramics are represented by earthenwares. celadons and punchong and white porcelains. From around 1970, a movement to revive the spirit and flavor of the traditional ceramic culture gained ground. At present there are some 2 50 pottery shops devoted to this movement with more than half of them clustered around the historic ceramic towns of Kwangju. !chon and Yoju. all in Kyonggi Province. Most of those workshops use climbing kilns that essentially are identical to those opened in olden times and burn firewood. while a few others are equipped with periodic kilns whose fuel for firing is oil or gas.

A new tendency of using plastic bodies supplied by a handful of specialized firms in the neighborhood has also appeared. Now. let's look at the technical variances of different kinds of ceramics.

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Earthenware can be called crude pottery but not porcelain. Unpurified and colored earth is used for earthenwares. They are fired once at a comparatively low temperature. Earthenware is a nonvitreous ceramic that is capable of holding more than three-percent moisture.

Earthenware making seems to have started with the hand-molding of clay and drying in the shade. After being dried. the bodies are piled up in the open. covered with firewood and fired continuously. The bodies seem to have colored buff as the iron in the clay was oxygenated in the air. while being fired in the open.

Such an early technique was maintained until the Three-Kingdom period (57 B.C.-668 A.D.). but from the Unified Shilla period (668-918) the potter's wheel came into use. Now firing was done in the climbing kiln and the ceramic bodies were glazed to give them a shiny surface.

The earthenware culture of Unified Shilla served as the basis of the Koryo celadon which reached its zenith in the 12th century.

Earthenwares of the Confederated Kingdoms are often called Kimhae-style pottery. They were made between the 1st century B.C. and 300 A.D. They serve as a bridge between the prehistoric. no-pattern earthenwares and Shilla earthenwares. The green bodies are supposedly made of pure earth but contain a small amount of sand.

On their surface were usually printed straw rope patterns and checkers. They are either gray or buff. and generally softer than potteries of the Three-Kingdom period. Hence they are called buff-colored or gray-colored soft-paste china.

The colors materialized as iron was contained in the green body. From the fact that they were of two colors. it is presumed that the firing was done in both oxidizing flames and reducing flames. Buff color comes from the oxidizing flames and gray from the reducing flames .

They were soft-paste because. like the earthenwares without patterns. they were fired in the open and the temperature was not high enough to sinter.

It is safe to say that earthenwares of the Shilla and Kaya kingdoms followed the Kimhaestyle gray-bluish models. By Shilla earthenwares we mean those made between the 3rd and 6th centuries . They were distinctive because of the engravings and hard nature. Kaya earthenwares date back to between the I st and 6th centuries.

Paekche earthenwares are marked by techniques blending the skills used before the advent of the Christian era. or soon after the opening of it. with those used in Koguryo's hard-paste china. Paekche. Koguryo and Shilla were the components of Three-Kingdom Korea.

A few Koguryo earthenwares were created by firing in a low- heat. oxidizing flame. The majority of the Koguryo earthenwares. however. feature green bodies made on the potter's wheel.

The bodies were molded with sticky clay containing a small amount of sand and fired in closed kilns. Koguryo earthenwares are similar to the gray. soft-paste works of China.

Earthenwares of Unified Shilla are those produced from the emergence of stone-piled tombs to the late Shilla period. or from the mid-7th century to the first half of the I Oth century. Around the 8th century, the technique of glazing the surface of earthenwares was first introduced.

At first. natural glaze was used but later an artificial glaze was added.

CELADONS Celadons are made with bodies molded in clay, which is a plastic raw material. or silica. a non-plastic material. or feldspar. which is a flux. Before the bodies are fired in the reducing flame. some milk of lime is applied to the surface. The bodies usually contain two- to threepercent iron and the glaze also contains between one-percent and three-percent iron.

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Celadons are mostly grayish green. bluish white or bluish green. Bluish green was dominant.

Koryo celadons reached their apex with greenish blue colors in the 9th and I Oth centuries .

Celadons come in the pure or inlaid types. The pure celadons (sun-chongja) reached their peak in the first half of the 12th century and then trailed off in the second half. The inlaid ones were at their best in the mid-12th century and formed the mainstream through the end of the Koryo period.

Pure celadons are usually thin and ash-glazed. The surface is usually rugged as the glaze did not spread over the bodies smoothly. The bodies often contain sand and other foreign matter. These celadons were named variously according to their form and style: plain. relief. openwork. and figurative. There also were such variations as underglaze iron. white slip. underglazed copper. painted with gold. iron glaze and ash glaze.

Pure celadons are glazed and semitransparent. The glaze has many blowholes and is bluish.

The surface is well treated and you seldom see crazings. The absence of crazing means good harmony between the thermal expansions of the body and the glaze.

Inlaid celadons (sanggam chonja) are divided into black and white categories. At first. black ones were dominant but later white ones were favored.

Inlaying processes start with engraving patterns on the body surface and proceed by filling up the engraved parts with red or white clay. Glazing and firing follow. The red clay brings out black inlays and the white clay. white inlays.

Generally speaking. glaze applied to the inlaid celadons has little blowholes. They are thick. yet clear and transparent. so that the inlaying looks clear. The celadons. however. had many crazings. as the thermal expansion of the body. and that of the clay used to fi ll the engravings. and that of the glaze reacted to each other. Crazings also appeared when glaze was too solid.

The manufacturing process of Koryo celadons was unique. First. at the time of glazing the potters removed glaze from the bottom of the body. Second. firing was done in reducing flames.

Third. firing was done after the celadons were produced with only fire-resistant clay or by adding sand. and were placed on stands in several folds. Later. sagger was used for firing.

PUNCHONG Punchong wares were made by smearing the gray or black bodies with white clay and by applying ash blue-green glaze. Punchong wares are indigenous to Korea as are the inlaid celadons.

Punchong wares were turned out in the early Choson period. but disappeared with the Japanese invasion of Korea in 1592. It can be said that they stood between the celadons and porcelains.

Punchong was made like this: pottery clay was mixed with water and elutriated through sedimentation. Until the advent of modern technology. this method was always used.

The elutriated clay was mixed with water (2 5 to 30 percent) and the mixture was trodden by feet.

The dough was covered with rag and left untouched for several weeks or months for the agent to turn it into plastic bodies. The dough was made into various forms by using the potter's wheel. This method is prevalent in Korea even today.

The plastic bodies were half-dried before paintings or patterns were added to the surface and then were dried completely. Bodies. obtained through the process. were glazed and were put into the sagger and fired in an oxidizing or neutralizing atmosphere in the climbing kiln.

Techniques for painting and providing patterns were varied: stamped. inlaid. sgraffito. iron glazed. brush marked. incised and the dipping method.

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WHITE PORCELAINS Porcelains were first made in Korea in the late Shilla and early Koryo periods. but they flourished during Chason. Punchong wares and porcelains formed the mainstream in the early Chason period. From the latter part of the 16th century. punchong gradually began to disappear.

After the Japanese invasion in 1592. porcelains formed the backbone of pottery in Korea.

The method of making porcelain is basically the same as that for celadons and punchong wares.

The only difference is that porcelains are made of exceedingly pure clay.

Before the 20th century when firing was done in climbing kilns. only soil. such as kaolin and plastic clay. was used as there was no way of milling stones. The plastic bodies were attained by elutriating the materiaL Since the introduction of the periodic kiln in the 20th century. modern mills have been developed and such stone materials as feldspar and quartz have been used. increasing the kinds of plastic bodies. Climbing kilns used firewood only; periodic kilns use coal and oiL Most recently, tunnel kilns have been developed for continuous firing. Such kilns contribute to lowcost mass production by saving energy and increasing productivity.

In brief. kilns in Korea started in the form of holes where firing was done in the open air. and developed into the semi-continuous climbing kiln. and into the periodic kiln (which is an intermittent kiln). and then into the continuous tunnel kiln.

While the bodies of punchong and bluish-green celadons contained two- to three-percent iron. white porcelains should "in principle" be free of iron . As in the case of punchong and bluishgreen celadons. only iron-free glaze was applied to white porcelains.

Celadons are glazed thick and many blowholes appear on the layer of glaze after firing; white porcelains were glazed thin and transparent and their surface is smooth. having no blowholes or crazing.

CURRENT STATUS The ceramic industry recorded steady growth in the 1980s. thanks to a sharp rise in domestic demand and high-quality production. Factories did have a go at automation and ceramic technology developed to the level of industrialized countries with the manufacture of bone china and fine ceramics.

Materials are abundant. even with the surge in production. as new sources have been found.

However. materials for high-quality products are imported because of the lack of pur_ification skills.

Of late. molding. drying. firing and decorating have been automated. Related technology has developed commensurately and factories specializing in the manufacture of such support materials as sagger. stain and copying paper are in operation.

Specialization in each process has been called for to enhance the quality of products and a few factories specializing in bodies have appeared. However. there are not enough plants like these.

Annual exports of ceramics stood at around $100 million in the 1980s. and exports of high added value items. such as novelties and dishes. tended to expand in the latter half of the decade.

For instance. in 1985. tiles were sold for $510 per ton while dishes were $1.540 per ton.

The price of novelties: $ 4.81 0.

Korean ceramic products in 1990 were exported to the U.S .. Japan. Canada. Australia. Brit-

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Cermamic Exports Amount: in thousand USS. Composition (Comp.): in percent

~

Dishes

Tiles

Novelties

Sanitary Wares

Others

Total

r

Amount Comp. Amount Comp. Amount Comp. Amount Comp. Amount Comp. Amount Comp

1981 1985 1988 1990

61.809 52.348 94.565 72.841

54 64 65 70

34.628 7.350 24.3 13 12.473

31 9 17 12

16.637 20.204 23.125 16.909

15 25 16 16

287 237 1.022 633

-

I I

-

-

1.171 998 722

2 I I

113.361 81.310 144.023 105.578

100 100 100 100

(As of the end of 1990. based on a survey of 115 members of the Korea Ceramic Industry Cooperatives.)

ain. Germany. France. Belgium. Hong Kong. the Philippines and the Netherlands. The U.S. imported 61 .8 percent of the Korean-made dishes. followed by Canada (618 percent). Germany (618 percent) and Britain (54 percent) .

The U.S. also became a major importer of Korean-made tiles by purchasing 46.7 percent of the exports followed by Australia ( 18.3 percent) and Japan ( 17.5 percent) . As for novelties.

46.2 percent of exports went to the U.S .. 254 percent to Japan and.6.9 percent to Britain.

Exports to other countries hovered around less than 5 percent of the total.

FUTURE PROSPECTS When domestic demand. exports and ever-intensifying competition from developing countries are considered. it is certain that the Korean ceramic industry will stagnate unless it succeeds in producing products exceptionally high in quality. To attain this goal. high-quality and standardized raw materials are needed more than anything.

At present. some well-purified materials are imported. Efforts should be made to purify locally available resources at low cost so that domestic ceramic firms can buy them more cheaply than imports. Such efforts have been made. but the result has not been so encouraging.

Fine ceramics were first seen in Korea around 1970. It is no exaggeration to say that they have developed through the introduction of pottery technology. When the superiority of fine ceramics was recognized in advanced countries. major enterprises in Korea conducted feasibi lity studies with the belief that. with a long tradition of making pottery. Korea should be able to do well in this field.

The belief is amply justified. But there is still a lot to be done to prevent that belief from becoming mere wishful thinking.

ÂŽ

(The original text of this article was written in Korean and contributed for exclusive use hy KOREANA. This is a translation.)

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CERAMIC ARTISTS AT A CROSSROADS Searching for New Styles Lee Kyung-sung orea¡s pottery falls into two categories: traditional and modern. The first is represented by the great celadons of the Koryo period (918- 1392). the world-famous porcelains of the Choson period ( 1392-191 0) and the like. All this has down the ages been treasured in Korea itself and in many other countries around the world. By the second category I mean Korea's contemporary pottery. that in turn consists of two types: traditionalist and creative. And it is this subject that I will discuss in this article- Korea's contemporary ceramic art.

Ceramic works of the traditionalist type are turned out mainly at kilns scattered throughout towns and cities like !chon. Yoju. Kyongju and Inchon. By and large. the output is dedicated to emulating the glories of pottery from the Koryo and Choson periods.

Outstanding potters in this group include Hwang Chong-ku.Ahn Tong-o.Yu Kun-hyong and Chi sun-taek. Their works are sold at commercial galleries and department stores in Seoul as well as Pusan. the port city in the southernmost part of Korea.

Of the four ceramists mentioned in the foregoing paragraph. Yu. Ahn and Chi have had several successful shows in japan. Perhaps they are better known in japan than in Korea.

There is one irony of which I am often reminded. None of these three potters have had a college education. Because of th is fact and nothing else. in Korea's art circles they are dismissed as mere artisans. or worse. as professional copycats of the ancient masterpieces -not artists.

It is altogether a different story in japan. Over there none of the Korean potters with a college education are known. Instead. it is the "uneducated" ceramists who are deeply respected for helping to preserve their country's great cultural heritage.

And so the question is. which of the views is right? To me. one thing is incontrovertible.

You cannot make good pottery by only reading books or attending pottery classes at college.

You could only begin by absorbing the skill. the spirit and the state of mind associated with the finest of ceramic works. ¡ Fascinatingly. most of the traditionalist potters I have mentioned have become well-known because of their altogether down-to-earth stance on life and art. Their works are not for displaying at art shows but for enriching the lives of other people and. of course. themselves.

They have had to toi l as potters to live. yes At the same time. they have taken great pride in their craft Perhaps they form an unsung group of cu ltural guardians. They have been all but oblivious to the fact that they are at times called copycats The reason is not complicated They know

l<

A graduate of Tokyo's prestigious Waseda University. Lee Kyung-sung is among tfle finest of authorities in Korea wflen it comes to contemporary art. Not surprisingly. Fie is director of Korea's National Museum of Contemporary Art. Long a deeply respected art critic and professor. Lee is so FiigFily regarded overseas tflat Fie is compelled to spend mucfl of Fiis time traveling to serve on tfle panels of judges for a long roster of international art sflows.

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that their mission in life lies in protecting and invigorating the great ceramic tradition of their country, a fact that generates a persisting respect for them in Japan and elsewhere around the world.

Now let us take a good look at creative artists. Who are they? Nearly all of them have majored in ceramics at college and/or studied abroad - in the U.S. or Europe. And they insist on keeping a distance between themselves and their country's weighty tradition in pottery.

There is something else too to their trademark . These artists often despise their traditionalist counterparts and denounce them as imitation experts. They say they stand for creating what they call "pure pottery."

Whatever that might mean. it is what college ceramic majors in Korea are told to study.

And sure enough, it is the guiding philosophy behind the pottery courses given at these advanced halls of learning.

But the realities of art are not that simple. Under the banner of creativity, many of the practitioners of this school of pottery seem to pay little attention to fundamentals about pottery.

Take for instance the question of function and shape. Common sense makes one thing plain.

In pottery, shape or form is determined by the functions and usages of objects to be created.

These artists are of the opinion that it should be the other way around.

Indeed, works created by them are often like sculptures for which there is no place in our daily life. And they use all manner of unconventional glaze and colors - like greenish or yellowish hues. Green and sandy colors. on the other hand, are in fashion among college pottery students.

Though these colors have never appeared in the annals of Korean pottery, I too believe that artists have the right to use whatever colors they please. Even so, the question remains.

Should the works by these artists be regarded as the modern expression of Korean pottery?

Indeed their brand of pottery has nothing to do with the Korean way of life. Nor does it reflect in any way the ceramic history of Korea.

And where do they come from? The roots perhaps could be traced to various galleries and artists like the late Chong Kyu, who studied pottery in Rochester. New York . And he has cast a powerful influence over the ceramic art department of Korea's Hong Ik University.

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Other roots might include Kwon Soon-hyong. who also studied pottery in the U.S. and ended up becoming a source of inspiration for students at the Arts College of Seoul National University. Similar ties might be discerned between potter Hwang Chong-ku and the College of Art at Ewha Womans University. The same could be true with potters Hwang Chong-nye and Kim Yikyung and Kookmin University .

And which wi ll become the mainstream of pottery in the future. the traditional ist school or the creative style? It is as yet hard to say. Critics' interests and the public's fancies shift and .change from one generation to another.

Consider those quaint countryside kilns. Once they were all but forgotten . Not now. With folk arts rising fast in popularity again. some of them have swung right back into the focal point of popular interest.

PERSONAL ROSTER The following is my very personal roster of creative ceramic artists of Korea. who in one way or another might justify ample attention .

Kang Sok-yong We first met while we tackled pottery at Hong lk University . We came to know each other better when we began studying in Paris.

At the university he was a lanky and easygoing fellow. Then our friendship was not deep enough for me to pay much attention to what he was doing with pottery. Once in Paris. he began to work at a fine art institute. Then I came to see his style develop a character of its own.

Kang wouldn't make separate dishes or plates. Instead. his piece wou ld often feature an assemblage of broken ceramic pieces. Perhaps this is his way of reflecting the residue of modern civilization in the form of pottery This kind of work by Kang often reminds me of those shards from all manner of pottery stuck together and dug up fr.om ancient kiln sites around Korea.

Probably he seeks a form of what might be called destructive aesthetics. He destroys the shape and form of pottery and assembles the result and seeks in the process to achieve an altogether fresh effect an attempt never before made in Korea .

Kwon Soon-hyung Kwon is regarded as the man who represents creative pottery in Korea. On graduation from the Fine Arts Department of Seoul National University, he decided to move to the U.S. and become a potter. The artistic significance of his transpacific move is something that often makes itself felt in his artistry He cou ld well be called a pottery painter. so unique are his choice of glaze colors and patterns. And that artistic trademark of his has over the years come to be identified with his alma mater. where on his return from the U.S. he began to teach pottery.

He seems dedicated to reconfirming his raison d'etre with his art. Though he is perfectly capable of transforming himself artistically. there is one thing he wou ldn't change. Every year he would have a show without fail. and his annual exhibition is now a fixture with the world of modern pottery in Korea.

Kwon's artistic interests are varied. Consider his delight in working with tiles. One example

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of his work in this field. a remarkable ti le fresco. adorns Seoul's Sheraton Walker Hill Hotel.

Indeed in the focal point of his current zeal are tile paintings of this kind. With it he seems dead set on bridging the distance between pottery and architecture.

Kim Yikyung There are many factors that mark her as a fine potter. Before she becilme a full-time potter. she studied ceramics as a chemical engineering major at Seoul National University. This scientific background has since stood her in good stead. On graduation from the university. she went to study at the Alfred Art School in the U.S. It is here that British potter Bernard Leach. then on a visit. en lightened her to the glories of ancient pottery of her own country It's a small world. Leach had first come to know those glories decades earlier in Korea and Japan. and had gone back to England to open a kiln of his own to emulate the ancient masters of Korea and Japan.

Kim's encounter with Leach left her filled with an urge to know more and more about those glories. She went back home in a hurry and began studying them at the best place to do so: the National Museum of Korea. Now a museum employee. she was free to move about for study in the museum's repository of its vast col lection of the finest from Korea's ceramic past. including many pieces designated as national treasures.

If the best of ceramic masterpieces in yesterday's Korea achieved a state of lasting beauty. she was determined to know the secret. The development of modern civilization has changed the way of life around the world. By necessity this has led to a sweeping shift in value systems.

In turn some aspects of art have undergone a bourleversement. Thus has pottery. once an art based on functions. transformed itself to include a new form of art and cover man's needs for spiritual elans.

Kim. always dedicated to conveying what to her is truth. has accordingly had to revise her basic stance as an artist. As a result. there must be two vantage points in assessing her artistry. From the first. a narrow viewpoint. you must study the artistic propensities of potter Kim and her development. From the second. a broad viewpoint. you sense the rhyth~ of life that she seeks to convey.

Because art must fundamentally mean the process and result of creation. a good artist can and must transcend the boundary of yesterday's foundation. If this yesterday must be called tradition. then tomorrow will have to be the nomenclature of creation. Kim's development as an artist of late seems to bring into focus the eternal question in art about the relationship between yesterday and tomorrow.

In her pottery. yesterday's functionalism has led to tomorrow's creativity. In the fascinating process. some patterns of development have been made plainly visible.

Her series in ritual pottery, for instance. reflects her endeavor towards attaining the level of perfect molding. Then her series of bowls amounts to an exercise for taking off from traditional forms and functions for a totally new style.

Similarly, her series of pots has col lectively assumed such a towering silhouette that it has turned into a study in abstract structure. And finally there is her Wan series to support her sense of geometry.

Kim refuses to be tied down to any set ideas and ideals about pottery. Instead. from the foundation of such ideas and ideals she generates power for soaring into a domain of creativity and altogether unexpected functionalism.

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That is why much of her artistic output is altogether compatible with the modern mode and sense of living. That too is why her works sit marvelously well in contemporary living space. just as celadons of the Koryo period and porcelains of the Choson period did centuries ago.

She is indeed like a sociologist with a pouncing eye for perceiving precisely what's needed or not needed in today's space for human existence.

And yet Kim's primary interest as an artist lies in finding the finest tool for ushering in a creative tomorrow; in this sense she has an entirely different existence from many of yesterday's artists to whom beauty was everything.

Kim truly is doing something creative and seems to know precisely how to do it.

Roe Kyung-joe This artist seems to have been dedicated to living literally the history of Korean ceram ic development - all the way from the Choson period to today.

The first problem he encountered after becoming a potter concerned the paekja porcelain of the Choson period. He solved it by systematically studying the paekja porcelain and by recreating it himself.

Such is the character of this artist. Though Roe prefers straight lines and corners to paekja's curves and circles. he simply had to know everything about paekja because it was his first introduction to the world of Korean pottery.

The next point of takeoff concerned the skill of glaze coloring. Not surprisingly, he thoroughly studied the tradition in it before developing a modern style of his own.

It is the same story all over again with the punchong ware of the Choson period. Roe was mesmerized by its simple and very Korean characteristics. Only after having exhaustively studied it could he put it behind him and move on to a new stage of his artistic development.

He has long been obsessed with the possibility of achieving what he calls "pure colors."

He seems to have come to know how to do it with a particular white surface treatment. Some experts would say that colors are secondary in importance in pottery. where the shape is of ultimate importance. Still. Roe's colors solidify the characteristics of his shapes.

Even here. Roe has gone through his own routines for creativity. First. he explored the depths of the Yolimun world. a world that all but disappeared in the wake of the rise in popularity of paekja and chongja celadon. Involved in it was a peculiar methodology in which the pattern was predetermined as the materials were in the process of being shaped for porcelain . That of course is an irrational way to go. But the outcome is telling. Every piece produced through this method retains a shape and character of its own.

And the sandy surface colors induce the finished ware to produce an effect that is at once earthy and singularly appealing to our senses. The surface is not brilliant. But it has a luster of its own. Coupled with its unique shape and color. Roe's Yolimun pottery marks a new chapter of creativity in the annals of Korea's ceramic art and therefore opens up a new vista in modern pottery.

Shin Sang-ho As a potter. Shin belongs to a category or world all by himself. a world sandwiched by the weight of tradition and the urge for creativity.

For him. tradition is not something that must only be respected but a basis for constantly

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fresh developments. Small wonder. In his artistry there is always a balance between the two basic elements of pottery.

In particular. notable are his white ceramics. There are three fundamental requirements in pottery - shape. color and design. He meets all the requirements with his attractive white ceramics that always generate fresh feelings.

If static beauty marks the finest of white porcelains of the Choson period. Shin's white ceramics must be noted for the shape of their mobility. In other words. his ceramics pack dynamic beauty and awesome strength.

There is a unique diversity with the mouth portion of his wh ite ceramics. Here too a sense of strength makes itself felt. Then there is an infinitely endearing play about white figures painted against white backgrounds. This achieves a free movement of lines and an abstract effect that is singularly appealing.

I must say that his works achieve a certain catharsis. They purify the eyes and minds of those who study his works.

His blue ceram ics were inspired by the bewitching colors that distinguish blue celadons of the Koryo period. But Shin also has managed to produce a new sheen of his own.

The elegance of his blue ceramics¡ noble colors makes them look almost like works of artificial jade. With his blue ceramics. you find little of the freedom and naturalness of his white ceramics. Instead. they are downright traditional. formal and static.

With a remarkable degree of aesthetic impact and sophisticated skill. Shin's works register class. His blue ceramics are artistic. delicate and lovely to look at.

His artistry certainly provides ceramic arts with a new dimension. This is particularly evident with his puncfwng-sagi works. Punchong-sagi are far more down-to-earth and commonplace than the aristocratic wh ite and blue ceram ics. The surfaces of his works carry either a painting or print to make them even more appealing to common folks' aesthetic feelings .

They also convey friendly feelings whi le displaying a lasting beauty. They are affectionate and innocent. And this aspect of his works makes them belong to the "eternal" art of Korea.

He makes no bones about using modern technology. That too amounts to someth ing new.

The liberal designs along with the sturdiness of his brushwork turn his works into highly elegant modern plastic art. Often the designs depict natural subjects carved with bamboo knives.

But then the features are so altered that the effect is abstract.

Shin's artistry imparts an impression that he is a modern painter who perfectly harmonizes Korea's tradition with modern creativity.

Won Kyung-hwan The vibrant development of modern pottery sheds new light on the old art with a fresh set of new norms and values. The ceramic art has long gone beyond the age-old realm of pragmatism and beauty. It has turned into a new artistic genre with its own language.

Won has worked hard to develop his brand of modern pottery at Hong lk University and its graduate school. He set the direction of his artistry before he went to Japan in 1983. His entries in the 1982 Korean Pottery Exhibition were a forerunner to his first show in Kyoto. Japan.

His exacting hexahedrons with solid slip casting were disassembled into sections for display in the limited space of the exhibition hall. The su rprise and strict order of his works became wider in scope at the Kyoto show.

His scu lptures on the other hand generate a dynamic and free atmosphere in lieu of the

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formality and solidity of his hexahedrons. The metal accent of the surfaces alleviates the monotony of his style. By hanging part of his works on the waiL he shows a structural sensitivity.

His works are like a long stream of silent history Viewed from one angle to another. his works constantly offer different pleasures to viewers.

His works would tolerate no idle viewing but demand searching attention on the part of viewers. His works involve the use of no glaze. And his presentation of designs with a high degree of density without the use of glaze opens up a new horizon for Korea's modern pottery.

It is hard to forecast which way Korea's modern pottery wi ll go in the future. But the element of time deserves keen attention. Consider the fact that the history of Korea as a modern state is only I 00 years . In the span of 5.000 years that is the length of Korea's entire history, the 500-odd years spent developing Korean pottery must be regarded as short indeed. What I want to say is that Korea's ceramic art is still very youthful.

Won Tae-jong As a fellow professor. I have followed the development of Won as a potter. My first impression was that he was a humble man with a ceaseless interest in folk arts.

Originally he was a painter. I know that his transition to pottery by no means was easy.

The old instinct of a painter still remains strong in him. Before he begins shaping a ceram ic work. he would be already obsessed with the question of what kind of patterns he would have to paint on it.

As I have sa id time and again. in pottery the shape comes first and the color as well as the pattern next. Won has overcome his limitations by incorporating into his pottery the simple and carefree beauty of Korea's folk arts. It worked beautifully.

He worked at it for quite a while until he entered a very special work in the National Art Exhibition. This was a porcelain with a large body and small opening. with a white glaze and irregular spots painted all over it. This won the Presidential Prize.

Now the imbalance in pottery silhouette was everything with him. And the countless number of red and blue dots on wh ite celadon were a perfect outlet for Wan's aesthetic energy.

But an artist has to seek a higher and newer plane constantly. Now he would carve patterns instead of painting dots. The surface of his recent pottery is clearly defined by various dots. lines and streaks. The irregular shapes and sizes of his patterns give his pottery some organic sensibilities.

The question with him is not what position he holds in contemporary Korean pottery. With continued efforts. he will just naturally find a niche for himself in the world of creative pottery.

Cho Chung-hyun She attended the Ewha Womans University graduate school and studied ceramics at Illinois State University. Her works reflect the marks of traditional Korean pottery, especially of the paekja porcelain and cfwnqja celadon variety, and incorporate at the same time a foreign shape. pattern and color scheme.

Cho returned home in late 1970 and showed her works that made one thing plain enough.

Her shapes. colors and patterns were nowhere to be found in the history of Korean pottery.

Indeed she had thrown an aggressive and magic stone into a quiet pond. that then was the world of her country's traditional pottery. Her aim was obvious: hit tradition in an effort to

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touch off a new wave of creativity. In fact she was in the first group of potters in Korea to come out with ceramic works with international appeal. She was a pioneer. As a matter of fact her pioneering work is being emulated by a growing roster of potters in Korea.

Han Kil-hong This potter is known for his preservation of the natural characteristics of his materials in his work and for his surrea listic pottery shapes. Han develops the character of clay by doing away with the use of glaze The texture of his pottery is a natural departure from the traditional form of pottery and allows his work to jump into the realm of surrealism.

At that level. his works comb ine pottery and sculpture. and show another path to be followed by Korea's creative potters. Through his works. we can reconfirm our sense of beauty and realize the true meaning of happiness in life.

Han Bong-rim Contemporary pottery follows two paths. One is to preserve the value of traditional art and craftsmanship. The other is to do away with such values in the interest of producing something tota lly new and artistic.

But a type of visual pottery that does away with the value of craftsmanship is more akin to sculpture than anything else. Just as some modern painters have left the one-dimensional canvas for a succession of experiments. his works are a complete departure from the traditional domains of functionalism. He offers ceramic works with textile-like expressions and textures. He places emphasis on substance and places importance on the momentum of action.

By restructuring his objects. he expands the boundaries of surrealism. Such bold experiments. though. invite more criticism than approval. let alone admiration.

Today¡s avant-garde art is moving into a terra incognita. It seeks an altogether unknown expression of aesthetics. It is a gamble. Thus a true appraisal of Han's works. which have much potentia l. can on ly be made tomorrow.

Hwang Chong-nye She studied Western painting at the Arts College of Ewha Womans University and took up pottery on ly in her graduate years. Korea has many potters who started out as painters.

This is because before the new generation of potters emerged. many painters decided to explore the depths of pottery Kwon Soon-hyung. Chung Kyu and Won Tae-jong are just a few of the pioneers in this category. Not surprisingly. they all place greater importance on the colors and designs than on shapes.

Hwang is no exception. The smooth design and the variety of colors of her works underline her artistic talent and testify to the devotion and efforts she puts into her pottery.

ÂŽ

(This article was originally written in Korean and contributed for exclusive use by KOREANA This is a translation.)

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KOREANA Interview

CREPUSCLE ON CULTURAL PAST CHUNG YANG-MO, Chief Curator, National Museum of Korea ew scholars in Seoul today would know Korean pottery more deeply than Chung Yang-mo. After graduating from Seoul National University. he joined the National Museum of Korea. That was almost 30 years ago.

Chung then took up for Korean ceramics. a subject that back those days was all but bypassed by his contemporaries. He has since been specializing in the subject and nothing else. In the process. he has done a long succession of special research projects both in the museum itself and out afield. like excavating some of Korea's oldest kilns.

For much of the time he worked with Choi Sun-u. former director of the museum and in his day perhaps the finest authority on Korea's ceramic tradition . Currently, Chung is in Seoul. serving as the chief curator of his country's greatest museum. KOREAN A interviewed him one recent morning at his office deep inside the museum in Seoul.

F

Question: What's wrong with contemporary Korean pottery?

Chung: In reply, I think I would have to dwell briefly on history.

Experts around the world know one thing for sure. The glories of pottery in Korea during the Choson period (I 392- 191 0) exceed all imagination.

It's not only the quality that was unparalleled but also the variety of pieces turned out by the best kilns back then. They ranged all the way from ritual paraphernalia to kitchenware and those incomparable items for the desk of the literati. like water droppers and paper holders.

These artisans in yesterday's Korea could do anything and did it with the kind of artistry and skill never since equaled in this country.

And yes. they established a great tradition. Unfortunately that tradition prove.d somewhat fragi le and began to crumble once the Japanese started pouring into Korea around the turn of the century.

Why? The reasons are many, and among them is one that concerns technology. By then. you see. the Japanese had already mechanized. among other things. the potter's wheel.

Here the wheel was still a manual affair; the potters kicked it to operate it. The outcome was inevitable.

Ceramic wares produced in Japan all but outdistanced their Korean counterparts in price.

Sometimes the price level of manually produced domestic wares was ten times as high as that of mechanically produced imports.

In no time. Japanese imports nearly completely wiped out their Korean cou nterparts. Of course. the Japanese after "annexing" our country never tried to discourage this trend but did everything instead to hasten the demise of our great tradition.

And so began a period of corpuscle forced upon our great heritage in pottery. It lasted

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nearly half a century until Korea was liberated from Japanese rule at the close of World War II in 1945.

0 : What ensued?

C: An ironic case of ignorance. Few in Korea. outside the exceedingly limited circle of collectors and antique dealers. were aware of the magnificence of our ceramic past. As a matter of fact some university professors who had studied in Japan ended up sharing the Japanese sense of admiration for old Korean pottery. Trouble is. they also shared the altogetber unfounded Japanese idee fixe that Korea's ceramic excellence was an accident that happened in the process of carrying out an unsuccessful attempt at copying Chinese masterpieces.

When I joined the staff of this museum almost 30 years ago. Korean ceramic artists were still going all out imitating established contemporary American and European masters.

The prevailing state of affairs was astonishing. While there were many scholars and artists abroad who deeply admired our tradition. it was the other way around back in Korea; our own artists and scholars shunned it.

Even so. there existed a handful of Korean artists who seriously studied our tradition in pottery in the interest of solidifying the base of their own creativity. like Professor Kim Yikyung (see this issue's color section-Ed.). The ridiculous fact is. such artists were frowned upon as mere copycats by many of their fellow artists and critics in Korea.

Mind you. I'm not against abstractionism in art. I must also say that some avant-garde ceramic sculptures deserve deep respect. But their styles by no means are everYthing in

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modern ceramic art.

Instead. there is much in the past of our ceramic art that's serene. magnanimous and endlessly modern. Sad to say. th is aspect of our tradition is admired far more deeply overseas than at home.

0: And what do you have to say about the works of today's traditionalist potters?

A : In Korea after liberation. potters in this category really suffered a great deal from their at-

tempt at emulating the styles and skills of their ancestors . These craftsmen used precisely the same kinds of kilns and materials as did potters in Korea centuries ago. They did everything to restore the old glories of pottery in Korea. And they suffered for the simple reason that few Koreans would buy their stuff.

It all changed after the normalization of diplomatic relations with Japan (in 1965). Now tourists from Japan began skyrocketing in number. And they began snapping up copies of Choson-period porcelains and earthenwares.

Not surprisingly. some of these potters have become fabulously wealthy. I have no objection to good copies. But a number of them have now taken a faux pas. They have been asked time and again by Japanese dealers to come out with what particularly satisfies Japanese taste. They have often obliged.

The resulting wares are a curiosity. something that is not at all Korean in characteristics.

Neither are they japanese nor Chinese. You could all them only ")apanized" or even "stateless." And you see now a flood of this kind of pottery waiting for Japanese customers in Seoul and elsewhere around Korea. This stuff has no soul or heart in it.

0 : What do you think should be done?

A: I don't blame these Korean artists and potters for failing to know the splendors of our past. Their ignorance is but one result of the thorough Japanese colonial effort to eradicate Korea's cultural heritage. Consider: the Japanese even punished us for speaking our mother tongue at grade school.

But their rule over our country ended 46 long years ago. That is to say, it's time for us to do away, once and for all. with this cultural twilight.

You ask me what to do? We should begin by asking those able officials at our Ministry of Education to do some feasibility studies on how to expose our youths more ex'tensively to the significance of what our ancestors achieved so magnificently in ceramics. Their accomplishments amount. after all. to the most dazzling of apexes in our cultural heritage.

My hope is that a greater sense of pride will be taken by Korean youths in our cultural history.

By the same token. my fondest hope is for some of our universities to create a chair in our ceramic past. And why not? It would be nice too to have a full-scale ceramic museum dedicated to showing. among other things. that what our nameless potters did centuries ago is. in some respects. far more event-grade than the most dedicated of today's avant-garde artists.

ÂŽ

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Review/Dance

NEW APPROACH TO THEATRICAL DANCE Kim Chae-hyun estern theatrical dance is the envy of many in Korea. Western civilization. including theatrical dance. was indiscriminately envied due to an almost traditional trend in Korea to unconditional ly respect and admire foreign culture. This situation has prevailed for more than half a century from the early part of the 20th century However. since the late 1980s. Western theatrical dance has been admired in a different way from that of the past In the late 1980s. a variety of Korean-style theatrical dances for once were actively performed at large. medium. and small-sized theaters. Th is increase. however. was on ly quantitative. At that time. there arose a need to reassess Western theatrical dance from an analytical approach because the aesthetic method used to control various factors of Korean-style theatrical dance came to be insufficient During the past two to three years. performances of ballet modern dance. and folk dance by foreign troupes in Korea have been on the increase. During the summer of this year. Korean audiences gave a big hand to Kirov Ballet and Leningrad State Ballet Theater of the USSR. the Black Ballet Jazz. Sa ll y Silvers and Dancers. and Pilobolus Dance Theater companies of the the US. Nucleodanza of Argentina. the National Opera House of Bulgaria. Shin Mun-yong a Korean dancer living in Ch ina. and Lee Hae-kyong. a Korean dancer residing in the U.S. Korean audiences and dancers acquired rich experience in dance through the various genres of ballet modern dance. and jazz ballet presented by troupes from abroad more frequently than they had ever been at any time in the past What was perhaps more evident than anything else was that these troupes presented dance creations that were characteristically devoid of unnecessary slickness in their method. a point that was looked upon quite fav<;:>rably.

The attitude of Korean audiences in accepting foreign dances is now undergoing a change as dance circles in Korea are seeking a new direction in dance itself.

The Korean public came into contact with Russian ballet on ly through mass media before the relatively recent beginnings of detente between the East and the West and the advent of perestroika in the USSR. But circumstances in Korea have greatly changed so that now performances of Russian classical ballet can be seen every year. The kickoff was the performance

W

Born in 1954. Kim Chae-hyun graduated from the Department of Philosophy. Seoul National University. and obtained his master's degree in aesthetics from his alma mater. Since 1986. Kim has been teaching aesthetics of dance at Seo Won University. while being active as a dance critic. The author of Dance and Our Life. published in 1989. Kim has also produced several discourses including "Research into the Nature of Aesthetic Experience".

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Day Two by Pilobolus Dance Theater. U.S. A

of a Russian ballet troupe that visited Korea during the 1988 Olympics in Seoul.

In the past. when the Cold War was serious. those dancers who praised or expressed any curiosity concerning Russian ballet were looked upon in Korea as dangerous left-leaning individuals. Now that the situation has changed. however. this is no longer true.

The thirst of the Korean public for classical Russian ballet was first slaked with the 1988 performance of the Kirov Ballet Theater. which recently made a return visit. This performance. dispelled the mystery that tended to surround the image that Koreans formerly had of Russian ballet. The same situation prevailed when Russian ballet was re-introduced to Western stages an ballet. The same situation prevailed when Russian ballet was re-introduced to Western stages in 1956 after a long absence.

The level of the cast of the Russian ballet troupes that visited Korea recently was higher than in 1988. and particularly the leading dancers. notably Yuri Grigorovich. who first visited Korea in 1988. and Oleg Vinogradov. who made his Korean debut just recently, proyided a source of great delight to Korean audiences. However. it is certain that Russian classical ballet will not appeal to Korean audiences any more unless the level of the principal dancers is higher than those who have already performed in Korea. and unless the selected dance repertoires become more modern.

But the performance in Korea of the Leningrad State Ballet Theater headed by Boris Eifman. the leading dancer. showed a new radical direction in Russian ballet that was easily understood by Korean audiences. The method of the troupe's mixing classical ballet with its modern version was sufficient to change the common notion of Korean audiences that Russian ballet is wholeheartedly devoted only to the classics. In particular. dance creations such as The Idiot. adapted from the original work of Dostoyevsky, and the Marriage of Figaro and Barber of Seville. adapted from the original work of Beaumarchais. captivated audiences at recent performances in Korea. and The Passion of Man and Adazinonin Adaz/o won applause from viewers as well.

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By observing the beauty of condensation produced by dancers with taiL slender. welldeveloped physiques. along with a psychological portrayal that penetrated the innermost depths of the world. Korean audiences surely must have ruminated a lot not only about Russian ballet but about modern ballet as well.

Expectations readily indicate that the performance of foreign dance troupes in Korea wi ll expand the present horizon of Korean theatrical dance. This indication can be applied not only to Korean ballet and modern dance. but based on traditional dance techniques. Korean native dance that has been adapted to performances on a modern stage as well.

Since the onset of the 20th century, the concept of art by Korean artists as a whole is one that has been excessively highbrow in nature. Korean dancers being no exception. This misleading concept developed into a trend whereby dance became separated from the daily life of the people so that dancing for amusement and folk dances came to be looked down on as a low level of entertainment. In this regard. the presentation in Korea of the Black Ballet Jazz. in which dynamic American Negro dance was performed. awoke both Korean dancers and audiences alike to the phenomenon of dance as amusement and the need for such .

Also this year. dance troupes from China. Bulgaria. the U.S., and japan participated in the annual International Modern Dance Festival and Korea Dance Festival. Their performances. in generaL were characterized by utilization of an intensive three-dimensional stage and a focus on perpetual body motion. elements which should be called to the attention of Korean theatrical stage composition and dance movement which tend to be diffuse and fragmentary in nature.

This' situation can easily be understood when one takes into consideration the fact that theatrical dance was started in Korea only I 0 years ago by Korean dancers who had studied the principles of its performance. But Korean theatrical dance. nevertheless. has a bright future because the number of performances has been increasing remarkably every year. the number of dancers and size of audiences are increasing gradually, and dance theater facilities are now also expanding.

If one supposes that the three main requisites for theatrical dance are dance theater facilities. dancers and choreographers. and an audience, the most important of the three is the ability of the dancers and choreographers. The reason why Korean theatrical dance has failed to reach a satisfactory level is due partly to poor dance theater facilities and small audiences. but mostly to the chaos. disorder. and confusion that exists in the theatrical dance methodology of both dancers and choreographers alike. ¡ In Korea, there are 30 colleges that have dance departments. so it would appear that dance education has attained a very high level: but in actuality, the foundation of dance education at the university level is weak because dance courses are normally not offered at junior and senior high schools. Furthermore. as the dance education curriculum of colleges still appears to be rather poor, cultivation of professional theatrical dancers at the university level is limited.

The ADF (American Dance Festival) held in Korea last year and again this summer served as a great stimulus to dance education. Most of the students and teachers who participated in the festival expressed an affirmative opinion about it and many of them said that they would like to continue participating in the festival in the future. Regretfully, however. it proves indirectly that dance education at colleges in Korea has not as yet reached a very high level.

Although the festival served to transmit Western-style dance to Korea, it nevertheless result-

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Tilt by Nucleodanza Dance Troupe. Argent ina

ed in an overall improvement of dance and dance education in Korea.

The Pilobolus Dance Theater and the Nucleodanza Dance Troupe. who made their debut in Korea as part of the festival. presented a striking contrast: one with a modernist viewpoint and the other with a real istic one. thereby providing an opportunity for Korean dancers to reflect on the dull situation that pervades the world of dance in present-day Korea.

In addition to the '9 I Seoul ADF. other dance courses recently opened in Korea. exceeding those of the past in number. The Pusan Summer Dance Festival. sponsored by the Dance Department of Kyungsung University in Pusan. has. for the past five years. been offering .courses on Korean dance. modern dance, ballet. and special lectures on dance theory, along with developing theatrical dance and outdoor dances held on Pusan's famed resort beaches.

Although Pusan is an international city, its cultural level is subordinate to that of Seoul. as Korean culture in general is centralized in the capital city Though Pusan also lacks its own cultural identity, this festival is expected to play a leading role in accelerating future dance activities throughout the Pusan area. where dance has fallen behind other places in Korea during the past 50 years.

Especially when the festival is combined with the advantage of being held in a famous resort city, it is possible that it will be elevated to the level of an international dance festival. something which may be looked forward to in the near future.

ÂŽ

(Tiiis article was originally written in Korean and contributed for exclusive use by KOREANA. Tliis is a translation.)

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Review!rheater

BUSINESS COMMUNITY BEGINS TO HELP OUT Han Sang-chul

his year having been designated as "The Year of Theater and Cinema" by the Ministry of Culture. Seoul saw a banquet of plays performed in May and June. This festival. specifically known as "The Theater Festival of Love." enjoyed the participation of 32 theatrical troupes performing a total of 41 plays. The performances drew large audiences at 28 halls. auditoriums and theaters scattered all over Seoul. The many performances provided an opportunity for the mobilization of actors. producers and stage artists and display of their theatrical talents.

This event was a hot topic of discussion not only in the drama community but also in other cultural circles . Many of those citizens who are normally less than enthusiastic about going to see plays attended in large numbers.

This festival also can be said to have had a significant effect on the development and future of drama in Korea by drawing attention to this particular art form. Hopefully then. drama will hold an important place culturally in Korea and bring about the gathering of great talent as well as arousing the interest of businessmen and industrialists.

The success of the festival can be attributed to several factors. First the festival was open to all. with few if any stipulations. In contrast the "Seoul Theater Festival." that selected eight groups. required auditions or screening by means of scripts before any group was allowed to perform.

The "Theater Festival of Love" granted permission to participate to anyone who submitted a formal application. With as many as 32 different theatrical troupes performing. the theatergoers were treated to a repertory wide. varied and unparalleled by any festival that had taken place before. Included were tragedies. comedies. melodramas. farces and musicals.

Unfortunately, along with first-rate performances there were an overwhelming number of poor attempts to revive successful works of the past. Revival of past works in itself does not pose a problem. We know too that there was not enough time to introduce creative and original works. Still. the majority of revivals were essentially poor imitations. a rehash of the old. completely devoid of a new and original approach. Translated foreign works seemed to be in abundance along with commercial plays.

On a different note. the Shakespearean plays Romeo and Juliet and A Midsummer Night's Dream

T

Han Sang-chul. a well-known drama critic. was born in 1936 and graduated from the English Department of Yonsei University Graduate School. He presently is a professor of English at Hallim University. He has coauthored such works as Understanding Modern Drama and A Collection of Works by Korean Dramatists of Today.

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were very well done. catering to the young people in the audience by presenting a young, animated style. The stage setting was kept to a bare minimum and costumes were simple and informal. The lines were not altered in any way. However. many sections were omitted. What was offered was not an attempt to convey the poesy of Shakespeare. but a modification and adaptation to modern-day thinking. The young actors were perhaps a little inexperienced. but this was more than compensated for by their enthusiasm and fresh approach.

The second special feature of the festival was that tickets were sold on a discount basis for the first time. encouraging people to attend. Tickets worth 5.000 won ($7US) were sold for 3.000 won ($4US) with the government making up the difference to assist the drama community.

All in all. both the spectator and drama community benefited deeply from the 50.000 tickets sold in two weeks . Owing to the success of this festival. the same approach will be used not only for the "Seoul Theater Festival" to be held this fall. but for subsequent occasions. hopefully with the continued assistance of the government.

"The Theater Festival of Love" was organized so hastily that it gave little time for drama troupes to prepare their material as thoroughly as they would have liked. As a result one could see familiar works of the past dominating the earlier part of the festival. with new Korean plays emerging only towards the end.

Tlie Lost Soul. written by Lee Sang-hyun at the request of the National Theater. premiered . at this festival and was considered a hit. It is based on the life of a mysterious painter known as Chang Sung-op. one of many painters seen at the end of the Choson Dynasty. This work deals with his art. his feelings and his mind.

With very little formal education and barely able to write his own name. he was nevertheless considered a genius and admired by the public. His paintings, however. lacked creativity, and in many cases failed to capture the noble spirit of traditional. Oriental paintings. The director.

Kim Ara. presented a work true to life. incorporating large-screen images and creating a changing tempo accentuated by the use of percussion instruments.

The Lost Soul

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Th e Lost Soul

The play Are You Still Dreaming? performed at the Sanwoolim Theater, is an adaptation of a novel written by Korea's foremost female author Park Wan-sue. It received cheers from the female audience as it condemns the flaws and inconsistencies found with in the patriarchal social system .

This play does an excellent job of portraying a woman who experiences agony and despair when her former husband tries to take away her son. )ayu Theater presented Eudora Scarpetta's The Miseries and the Nobles, a modern comedy, as well as a remake of Macbeth, with both receiving good reviews . The Dong-rang repertory performed The Lonely Stars. which is a semi-musical. Produced by a Korean student studying in America. it effectively depicts the hardships of a student studying abroad.

Some of the plays were essentially in an experimental stage and lacked organization and cohesiveness. More successful were Arthur Miller's Death of a Salesman, Peter Shaffer's Equus, the musical West Side Story, Nunsense and Willy Russell's Educating Rita. .

The festival and its success this year can be partially attributed to the patronage of the business community who up until now had little interest in theater. Though belated, the help was altogether welcome. The theatrical community could use such support. As always, it is in dire need of financial help. That is one reason why the government made th is "The Year of Theater and Cinema." The direct government participation and the assistance from the business community are an encouraging sign .

Hopefully, their support will grow in the latter part of this year, facilitating the production of plays of higher quality A big upswing in drama will certainly be seen again in the fall with the open ing of the Asian Pacific Theater Festival in Seoul. ~

(The original text of this article was written in Korean and contributed for exclusive use by KOREANA. This is a translation.)

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Vol. 5 No. 3 KOREANA 1991

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Review/Music

FINE CONCERTS MARK KICKOFF OF SUMMER Han Sang-woo

usic lovers were treated to several tirst-class concerts in July ot th is year.

First on July 15. baritone Choi Hyon-su performed at the Seoul Arts Center. Choi. a graduate of Yonsei University, lived in Italy before going to the United States where he now studies and is at the same time professionally active as a vocalist. He stunned the world last year by taking first place in the voice section of the prestigious Tschaikovsky International Competition. Korea has made great strides in music on the international scene. but this was the first award of its kind to be won by a Korean in a vocal competition.

One can imagine what a thrill it was for fans in Choi' s homeland to be able to watch such a performance. His repertoire consisted of works by Schubert. Tschaikovsky. and Tosti. in addition to pieces by a Korean and a French composer. His refined manner. wide octave range and deep. rich sound reconfirmed his caliber as an international vocalist.

Performing such a diverse repertoire in a single night was a feat in itself. However. more astonishing than this was Choi's ability to produce the nuances and phraseology unique to each piece and country of origin.

Next in line to perform at the Seoul Arts Center was the NHK Symphony Orchestra from Japan from july 2 5 to 27. It gave a powerful performance under the baton of resident conductor Toyama Yuzo.

Three visiting Korean performers were featured in concert with the orchestra. pianist Kim Yu-in on the first day, flutist Yun Hye-ri on the second and finally violinist Kim Chi-yon on the third day. Violinist Kim Chi-yon performed a violin concerto by Mendelssohn and is presently attending the Julliard School of Music. Her fluent and elegant style and clear and vibrant sound reveal a musician who has matured with time and attained the level of a true profes?ional Her fans were wildly enthusiastic about her performance.

Years ago when Kim was at primary school. she swept top awards in the Yewon Competition. Later on she was to win first place at the Ewha Concours. as well as Kyunghyang Concours and has performed with the KBS Symphony Orchestra and Seoul Philharmonic Orchestra.

Under the attentive eye of her professor. Kim Nam-yun. who understood her potential. she applied and was accepted by Julliard.

The audience was treated to an unforgettable performance. It was also perhaps an emotion-

M

Born in 1938. Han Sang-woo graduated from tfle College of Music. Seoul National University. From 1969 to 1984. fie taugflt at Kyonggi Middle Scflool and served as a member of tfle Broadcasting Commission at Munflwa Broadcasting Co. He is currently director of music at Seoul Higfl Scflool of Arts and Music. and director of tfle Korean Music Association. He is a member of tfle Korea Public Performance Etflics Committee.

Vol. 5 No. 3 KOREANA 199 1

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a! moment for those who remember Kim as a child prodigy and saw the transformation into a mature artist that has taken place while she was abroad. Her confidence as a true artist could be . heard in her unobstructed playing and perfected technique. Kim is an exception to the ever fam iliar story of a prodigy unable to make the transition to maturity To add to her string of accomplishments. she was also the recipient of the Avery Fisher Award. the second Asian to win the coveted award 12 years after first being won by cellist Yoyo Ma. The third group to grace the stage at the Seoul Arts Center was the well known "Chung Trio" who performed on July 29. Pianist-conductor Chung Myung-hun. violinist Chung Kyunghwa and cellist Chung Myung-hwa performed brilliantly Finding time to play as a trio despite their busy schedu les was prompted by their desire to help fund the Sewha Music Foundation wh ich was founded by their mother. Lee Won-suk. Their program began with Beethoven's Piano Trio in C minor. followed by Kodaly's Duet for Violin and Cello. performed of course

by Chung Kyung-hwa and Chung Myung-hwa. The brilliant sound quality and achievement of notes harmoniously brought together as one was a treat to the ears. Finally, the virtuosic playing of each member was exemplified by their performance of Shostakovich's Piano Trio #2.

Despite Ch ung Myung-hun's hectic schedule as conductor of the 'Bastille Opera Orchestra in France. he made time for fans in his homeland and we are forever grateful. not only to him but also his siblings for devoting their time to the Sehwa Music Foundation to help young Korean musicians who are following in their footsteps

ÂŽ

(Tfie original text of tfiis article was written in Korean and contributed for exclusive use by KOREANA. Tfiis is a translation .)

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Vol. 5 No. 3 KOREANA 1991

Review/Book KOREAN FOLK & FAIRY TALES Retold by Suzanne Crowder Han. Elizabeth.

New Jersey: Hollym International Corporation.

1991. 256 pages. US$19.95.

KOREA'S OLD TALES LOVINGLY RETOLD Daniel D. Holt

\\0

nee upon a time" is a phrase that immediately stirs our imagination and excitement as we anticipate a story that will take us on an entertaining and informative journey into the lives and times of others. For those of us who are fascinated with the people and culture of Korea. Korean stories are a vibrant resource for learning about the beliefs and customs of the Korean people. Because the stories have survived generations of social change. they reveal some of the deepest roots of Korean culture.

By retelling traditional Korean tales in natural. colorful English. Suzanne Crowder Han has given us access to some of Korea's most fascinating and popular literature. Her crisp and clear writing al lows us to immediately and vividly share the experiences of the animals. demons. and people in the stories.

The author has selected 64 of Korea's best known fables. anecdotes. and fairy tales and retold them in a simple. elegant style of her own. The collection is distinctive in its variety.

Some stories are charming and humorous. while others are gruesome and tragic. Each tale provides insights into how Koreans deal with each other; how they separate male and female roles; how they attach importance to education; and how they draw on Shamanism. Buddhism.

Confucianism. and Christianity to respond to the mysteries of life.

The author's extensive experience with Koreans is evident in the care she has taken to retell the stories with accuracy and sensitivity. She first traveled to Korea in 1977 to work in. a rural health center as a U.S. Peace Corps volunteer. Since completing her three-year volunteer assignment. she has remained in Korea to assume the multiple roles of wife. mother. translator. freelance writer. and photographer.

The close relationships she has formed with Koreans have enabled her to elucidate clearly the cultural values that permeate the stories of this collection.

For example. by Romanizing unique Korean words in many of the stories. the author adds a special Korean flavor to the English version. Definitions of the terms are provided in foot-

Daniel D. Holt has been a consultant for the California Department of Education for 14 years. From 1990 to 1976 he worked in Korea as a Peace Corps volunteer and staff member. He obtained his master's degree from Stanford University in 1977.

Vol 5 No. 3 KOREANA 1991

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n~l<i~&o1vt him r~nu!r.

lhf w<'IOdcuu~r quickly .ldjust~ ! ~nd ru~ f~au!y 1\~ll' very h.lppy . They t' dothe:o lu wr~r ~nd de!iciou~ 1..00 toea! tvny d.l y Thrwuodcu!!~t h.ld nu '""riH. But hr oft~n thu"l:h! Jbout h15 tnoth~r wOO w,\.i , ,.,.,. n!ri .>nd '"'tn& ~II .].],,.,,, on ~.mh 0:1C'<llyhr toldhiswil.- thJI hrmtr.s<'l!h ,s mNhrr'""'Y tn,.ch ~nd "·~nlrd to go .,.... htr. Thr hu,·cnly tnd·..kn

notes in the stories. One of the ways that she tested the effectiveness of her writing was by reading drafts of the English stories to her daughter. This tactic not only entertained her daughter during the many hours that the author devoted to the collection; the daughter's reactions also helped her mother to refine and sharpen her writing.

The folk tales in this collection are some of the most popular in Korea. They depict concepts that are central to the Korean beliefs about human relationships. family ethics. and the world of work . The stories are powerful examples of the way that Koreans think about wealth. power. justice. and love.

The author has taken great pains to write the stories in simple language so that they could be read by people of different ages and English abilities. Illustrations provide attractive examples of traditional Korean dress. architecture. and home furnishings.

Folk tales and other forms of literature are valuable resources for enriching the experiences of children. parents. educators. and adults in generaL Parents could use the collection for.reading stories to their children. Children could retell the stories to their parents and siblings.

Educators could use the stories for language. arts or social studies lessons for their students.

Students from countries outside Korea could compare the Korean tales with similar stories taken from their native cultures. Adults in general could use the folk tales for developing deeper insights into Korean culture. The stories would be especially useful for English-speaking Koreans who would like to share the roots of their culture with their children or each other.

The collection of stories is an important contribution to the small body of well-written English versions of Korean literature that exists today. Suzanne Crowder Han has reminded us that we have much to gain by crossing cultural boundaries to read the stories that are close to the hearts of a nation's people. ~ (This article was originally written in English and contributed for exclusive use by KOREANA)

I 00

Vo l. 5 No. 3 KORE A N A 1991

It's More Than a Pretty lobby

Think of Hotel Lotte's lobby as the dynamic hub of downtown Seoul.

In a simply unbeatable location that businessmen best appreciate.

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To save more of your precious time, we offer unbounded shopping opportunities next door, including the 10-floor Lotte Department Store and the Lobby Duty Free Shop Asia's largest.

Lotte: We put enjoyment into business travel

~

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K REA Here's aVacation You Don't Want to Miss. land of the Morning Calm

Once you re?lize what a wealth of vacation fun and fascinating e~periences await you in Korea, you'll want to make it the focal point of your next vacation to Asia.

Here's aland where the cultural heritage of millennia is to be found, not only in museums and royal palaces, but also as alive and thriving today as ever in the colorful traditional dances, in the Buddhist hennitages tucked away in the mountain forests, in the skilled handiwork of the master craftsmen, in the pleasant rural villages among thevalleys and streams.

You'll find wonderful shopping opportunities in It' aewon and the huge market complexes of Seouleverything from clothing, leather,

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You'll taste the rich array of flavors in one of the healthiest cuisines in the world- natural herbs gathered from the hills~ seafood delicacies, hearty barbecues, and spicy vegetable dishes. And there's no lack of leisure and sporting activities- golf, swimming, fishing, hiking and rock climbing, skiing, and even casinos.

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