Preface xiii
INTRODUCTION 1
1 Botany: An Introduction 2
Evolution of Plants 3
Evolution of Communities 9
Appearance of Human Beings 10
BIOLOGY OF THE PLANT CELL 17
2 The Molecular Composition of Plant Cells 18
Organic Molecules 19
Carbohydrates 19
Lipids 22
Proteins 25
ESSAY: Vegetarians, Amino Acids, and Nitrogen 25
Nucleic Acids 29
Secondary Metabolites 30
3 The Plant Cell and the Cell Cycle 38
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes 39
ESSAY: Cell Theory versus Organismal
Theory 40
The Plant Cell: An Overview 42
Nucleus 42
Chloroplasts and Other Plastids 45
Mitochondria 48
Peroxisomes 49
Vacuoles 50
Endoplasmic Reticulum 51
Golgi Apparatus 52
Cytoskeleton 54
ESSAY: Cytoplasmic Streaming in
Giant Algal Cells 56
Flagella and Cilia 56
Cell Wall 56
The Cell Cycle 62
Interphase 64
Mitosis and Cytokinesis 65
4 The Movement of Substances into and out of Cells 75
Principles of Water Movement 76
Cells and Diffusion 78
Osmosis and Living Organisms 79
ESSAY: Imbibition 80
Structure of Cellular Membranes 82
Transport of Solutes across Membranes 83
ESSAY: Patch-Clamp Recording in
the Study of Ion Channels 84
Vesicle-Mediated Transport 86
Cell-to-Cell Communication 87 ENERGETICS 93
5 The Flow of Energy 94
The Laws of Thermodynamics 95
Oxidation–Reduction 98
Enzymes 99
Cofactors in Enzyme Action 101
Metabolic Pathways 102
Regulation of Enzyme Activity 103
The Energy Factor: ATP 104
6 Respiration 107
An Overview of Glucose Oxidation 107
Glycolysis 108
The Aerobic Pathway 110
ESSAY: Bioluminescence 117
Other Substrates for Respiration 117
Anaerobic Pathways 118
ESSAY: The Botany of Beer 119
The Strategy of Energy Metabolism 119
7 Photosynthesis, Light, and Life 122
Photosynthesis: A Historical Perspective 122
The Nature of Light 125
ESSAY: The Fitness of Light 126
The Role of Pigments 126
The Reactions of Photosynthesis 129
The Carbon-Fixation Reactions 135
ESSAY: Global Warming: The Future
Is Now 140
GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 151
8 Sexual Reproduction and Heredity 152
Sexual Reproduction 153
The Eukaryotic Chromosome 154
The Process of Meiosis 155
How Characteristics Are Inherited 159
Mendel’s Two Principles 162
Linkage 163
Mutations 164
Broadening the Concept of the Gene 166
Asexual Reproduction: An Alternative
Strategy 169
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Asexual and Sexual Reprodution 170
ESSAY: Vegetative Reproduction: Some Ways and Means 171
9 The Chemistry of Heredity and Gene Expression 174
The Structure of DNA 174
DNA Replication 176
From DNA to Protein: The Role of RNA 179
The Genetic Code 180
Protein Synthesis 181
Regulation of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes 186
The DNA of the Eukaryotic
Chromosome 187
Transcription and Processing of mRNA in Eukaryotes 188
Noncoding RNAs and Gene Regulation 190
10 Recombinant DNA Technology, Plant Biotechnology, and Genomics 192
Recombinant DNA Technology 192
Plant Biotechnology 198
ESSAY: Model Plants: Arabidopsis
ESSAY: Totipotency 202
Genomics 205
11 The Process of Evolution 209
Darwin’s Theory 209
The Concept of the Gene Pool 211
The Behavior of Genes in Populations:
The Hardy-Weinberg Law 212
The Agents of Change 212
Responses to Selection 214
ESSAY: Invasive Plants 217
SECTION 3
viii Contents
CONTEN TS ix
The Result of Natural Selection: Adaptation 217
The Origin of Species 220
How Does Speciation Occur? 221
ESSAY: Adaptive Radiation in Hawaiian
Lobeliads 224
The Origin of Major Groups of Organisms 229
DIVERSITY 233
12 Systematics: The Science of Biological Diversity 234
Taxonomy: Nomenclature and Classification 234
ESSAY: Convergent Evolution 239
Cladistics 239
Molecular Systematics 240
ESSAY: Google Earth: A Tool for Discovering and Protecting Biodiversity 241
The Major Groups of Organisms: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya 243
Origin of the Eukaryotes 247
The Protists and Eukaryotic Kingdoms 248
Life Cycles and Diploidy 250
13 Prokaryotes and Viruses 256
Characteristics of the Prokaryotic Cell 257
Diversity of Form 259
Reproduction and Gene Exchange 259
Endospores 261
Metabolic Diversity 261
Bacteria 263
Archaea 269
Viruses 270
Viroids: Other Infectious Particles 275
14 Fungi 278
The Importance of Fungi 279
Characteristics of Fungi 281
ESSAY: Phototroprism in a Fungus 285
Microsporidians: Phylum Microsporidia 286
Chytrids: A Polyphyletic Group of Fungi with Flagellated Cells 287
Zygomycetes: A Polyphyletic Group of Filamentous Fungi 288
Glomeromycetes: Phylum
Glomeromycota 290
Ascomycetes: Phylum Ascomycota 291
Basidiomycetes: Phylum Basidiomycota 295
ESSAY: Predaceous Fungi 303
Symbiotic Relationships of Fungi 306
ESSAY: From Pathogen to Symbiont: Fungal Endophytes 307
15 Protists: Algae and Heterotrophic
Protists 317
Ecology of the Algae 320
ESSAY: Algae and Human Affairs 321
ESSAY: Red Tides/Toxic Blooms 323
Euglenoids 324
Cryptomonads: Phylum Cryptophyta 324
Haptophytes: Phylum Haptophyta 326
Dinoflagellates 327
ESSAY: Coral Reefs and Global Warming 329
Photosynthetic Stramenopiles 330
Red Algae: Phylum Rhodophyta 340
Green Algae 345
Heterotrophic Protists 358
16 Bryophytes 366
The Relationships of Bryophytes to Other Groups 367
SECTION 4
x Contents Comparative Structure and Reproduction of Bryophytes 368
Liverworts: Phylum Marchantiophyta 373
Mosses: Phylum Bryophyta 378
Hornworts: Phylum Anthocerotophyta 388
17 Seedless Vascular Plants 391
Evolution of Vascular Plants 391
Organization of the Vascular Plant
Body 392
Reproductive Systems 397
The Phyla of Seedless Vascular
Plants 398
ESSAY: Coal Age Plants 400
Phylum Rhyniophyta 402
Phylum Zosterophyllophyta 403
Phylum Trimerophytophyta 403
Phylum Lycopodiophyta 403
Phylum Monilophyta 409
18 Gymnosperms 430
Evolution of the Seed 430
Progymnosperms 432
Extinct Gymnosperms 433
Living Gymnosperms 435
Phylum Coniferophyta 437
Other Living Gymnosperm Phyla: Cycadophyta, Ginkgophyta,
and Gnetophyta 448
19 Introduction to the Angiosperms 457
Diversity in the Phylum Anthophyta 457
The Flower 460
The Angiosperm Life Cycle 465
ESSAY: Hay Fever 475
20 Evolution of the Angiosperms 477
Angiosperm Ancestors 477
Time of Origin and Diversification of the Angiosperms 478
Phylogenetic Relationships of the Angiosperms 478
Evolution of the Flower 482
Evolution of Fruits 492
Biochemical Coevolution 497
21 Plants and People 501
The Rise of Agriculture 502
ESSAY: The Origin of Maize 510
The Growth of Human Populations 514
ESSAY: Biofuels: Part of the Solution, or Another Problem? 515
Agriculture in the Future 515
The Angiosper m Plant Body:
Structure and
De velopment 525
22 Early Development of the Plant Body 526
Formation of the Embryo 526
The Mature Embryo 530
Seed Maturation 532
Requirements for Seed Germination 532
ESSAY: Wheat: Bread and Bran 533
From Embryo to Adult Plant 534
23 Cells and Tissues of the Plant Body 538
Apical Meristems and Their Derivatives 538
Growth, Morphogenesis, and
Differentiation 539
Internal Organization of the Plant
Body 541
Ground Tissues 541
SECTION 5
CONTEN TS xi
Vascular Tissues 544
Dermal Tissues 553
24 The Root: Structure and Development 558
Root Systems 559
Origin and Growth of Primary Tissues 560
Primary Structure 564
Effect of Secondary Growth on the Primary Body of the Root 569
Origin of Lateral Roots 571
Aerial Roots and Air Roots 572
Adaptations for Food Storage:
Fleshy Roots 573
ESSAY: Getting to the Root of Organ Development 574
25 The Shoot: Primary Structure and Development 579
Origin and Growth of the Primary Tissues of the Stem 580
Primary Structure of the Stem 583
Relation between the Vascular Tissues of the Stem and Leaf 588
Morphology and Structure of the Leaf 592
ESSAY: Leaf Dimorphism in Aquatic Plants 596 Grass Leaves 598
Development of the Leaf 599
ESSAY: Strong, Versatile, Sustainable
Bamboo 603
Leaf Abscission 604
Transition between the Vascular Systems of the Root and Shoot 604
Development of the Flower 604
Stem and Leaf Modifications 607
26 Secondary Growth in Stems 614
Annuals, Biennials, and Perennials 614
The Vascular Cambium 615
Effect of Secondary Growth on the Primary Body of the Stem 617
Wood: Secondary Xylem 626
ESSAY: The Truth about Knots 627
PHYSIOLOGY OF SEED PLANTS 637
27 Regulating Growth and Development:
The Plant Hormones 638
Auxins 639
Cytokinins 645
Ethylene 647
Abscisic Acid 649
Gibberellins 650
Brassinosteroids 652
The Molecular Basis of Hormone Action 653
28 External Factors and Plant Growth 660
The Tropisms 660
Circadian Rhythms 665
Photoperiodism 668
The Floral Stimulus 674
Vernalization: Cold and the Flowering
Response 674
Dormancy 674
ESSAY: Doomsday Seed Vault:
Securing Crop Diversity 677
Nastic Movements and Solar Tracking 678
29 Plant Nutrition and Soils 683
Essential Elements 684
Functions of Essential Elements 685
The Soil 686
Nutrient Cycles 691
Nitrogen and the Nitrogen Cycle 692
ESSAY: Carnivorous Plants 694
SECTION 6
xii Contents
Phosphorus and the Phosphorus Cycle 700
Human Impact on Nutrient Cycles and Effects of Pollution 701
Soils and Agriculture 702
ESSAY: Halophytes: A Future Resource? 703
ESSAY: Compost 704
Plant Nutrition Research 704
ESSAY: The Water Cycle 705
30 The Movement of Water and Solutes in Plants 708
Movement of Water and Inorganic
Nutrients through the Plant Body 709
ESSAY: Green Roofs: A Cool Alternative 714
Absorption of Water and Ions by Roots 717
Assimilate Transport: Movement of Substances through the Phloem 722
ECOLOGY On the Web: www.whfreeman.com/raven8e 31 The Dynamics of Communities and Ecosystems
Ecosystem Energetics—Trophic Structure
Nutrient and Material Cycling
Interactions between Organisms— beyond Simple Trophic Relationships
Development and Change of Communities and Ecosystems
