Detailed Contents
Acknowledgments About the Author
Introduction
PART I: CHARACTERISTICS OF TEAMS
Chapter 1. Understanding Teams
Learning Objectives
1.1 Defining Groups and Teams
1.2 Purposes and Types of Teams
How Teams Are Used by Organizations
Classifying Teams
1.3 Why Organizations Use Teams
Job Characteristics
Organizational Characteristics
1.4 History of Teams and Group Dynamics
Foundations of Teamwork
Foundations of Group Dynamics
Leading Virtual Teams: Virtual Meetings and Virtual Collaboration—Selecting
Technologies to Use for Your Team
Summary
Team Leader’s Challenge 1
Survey: Attitudes Toward Teamwork
Activity: Working in Teams
Chapter 2. Defining Team Success
Learning Objectives
2.1 Nature of Team Success
Completing the Task
Developing Social Relations
Benefiting the Individual
2.2 Conditions for Team Success
Team Composition
Characteristics of the Task
Group Process
Organizational Context
2.3 Characteristics of Successful Teams
2.4 Positive Psychology View of Team Success
2.5 Using Teams in the Workplace
Benefits of Teamwork
Problems of Teamwork
When the Use of Teams Becomes a Fad
Summary
Team Leader’s Challenge 2
Activity: Understanding Team Success
PART II: PROCESSES OF TEAMWORK
Chapter 3. Team Beginnings
Learning Objectives
3.1 Stages of Teamwork
Group Development Perspective
Project Development Perspective
Cyclical Perspective
Implications of Team Development Stages
3.2 Group Socialization
3.3 Team Goals
Value and Characteristics of Goals
Hidden Agendas
3.4 Team Norms
How Norms Are Formed
Impact of Team Norms
3.5 Application: Jump-Starting Project Teams
Team Warm-Ups
Project Definitions and Planning
Team Contract
Leading Virtual Teams: Starting a Virtual Team
Summary
Team Leader’s Challenge 3
Activity: Observing Team Norms
Activity: Developing a Team Contract
Chapter 4. Understanding the Basic Team Processes
Learning Objectives
4.1 Motivation
Social Loafing
Increasing Team Motivation
4.2 Group Cohesion
How Cohesion Af ects the Team’s Performance
Building Group Cohesion
4.3 Team Roles
Role Problems
Types of Team Meeting Roles
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4.4 Task and Social Behaviors
Value of Social Behaviors
4.5 Team Adaptation and Learning
Reflexivity
Using Feedback
Group Process Observations
Leading Virtual Teams: Motivating Participation in Virtual Meetings
Summary
Team Leader’s Challenge 4
Activity: Observing Task and Social Behaviors
Chapter 5. Cooperation and Competition
Learning Objectives
5.1 Teamwork as a Mixed-Motive Situation
5.2 Why Are People in Teams Competitive?
Culture Personality
Organizational Rewards
5.3 Problems With Competition
Communication and Goal Confusion
Intergroup Competition
When Is Competition Appropriate?
5.4 Benefits of and Problems With Cooperation
Benefits of Cooperation
Problems With Cooperation
Competitive Versus Cooperative Rewards
5.5 Application: Encouraging Cooperation
Common Goals
Rebuilding Trust and Communication
Encouraging Altruistic Norms
Negotiating Cooperation
Leading Virtual Teams: Building Trust and Social
Relationships
Summary
Team Leader’s Challenge 5
Survey: Cooperative, Competitive, or Individualistic
Orientation
Activity: Understanding Competitive Versus
Cooperative Goals
Chapter 6. Communication
Learning Objectives
6.1 Communication Process
Verbal Communication
Nonverbal Communication
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Communication Within Teams
6.2 Flow of a Team’s Communications
Dysfunctional Information Processing Within the Team
Gender and Communication
Building Trust
Psychological Safety
Communication Climates
6.3 Emotional Intelligence
6.4 Facilitating Team Meetings
6.5 Communication Skills for Team Meetings
Leading Virtual Teams: Running Virtual Meetings to Ensure Everyone Is Following the Agenda and People
Arrive at the Same Understanding
Summary
Team Leader’s Challenge 6
Survey: Team Emotional Intelligence
Activity: Observing Communication Patterns in a Team
PART III: ISSUES TEAMS FACE
Chapter 7. Managing Conflict
Learning Objectives
7.1 Conflict Is Normal
7.2 Sources of Conflict
7.3 Impact of Conflict
Benefits of and Problems With Conflict
Conflict in Work Teams
Conflict Management
7.4 Conflict Resolution Approaches
Two Dimensions of Conflict
Comparing Dif erent Approaches to Conflict
Resolution
7.5 Managing Team Conflicts
Preparing for Conflicts
Facilitating Conflicts
Virtual Team Conflicts
Negotiating Conflicts
Leading Virtual Teams: Reducing Conflict and
Developing Collaboration
Summary
Team Leader’s Challenge 7
Survey: Conflict Resolution Styles
Activity: Observing Conflict Resolution Styles
Chapter 8. Power and Social Influence
Learning Objectives
8.1 Definitions of Power and Social Influence
Conformity
Obedience
8.2 Types of Power
Bases of Power
Influence Tactics
8.3 Power Dynamics
Status and the Corrupting Ef ect of Power
Unequal Power in a Team
Minority Influence
Impact of Interdependence
8.4 Empowerment
Degrees of Empowerment Programs
Successful Empowerment Programs
8.5 Application: Acting Assertively
Power Styles
Use of Power Styles
Encouraging Assertiveness
Leading Virtual Teams: Ensuring Dissenting Voices Are
Heard and Empowering the Team
Summary
Team Leader’s Challenge 8
Activity: Using Power Styles—Passive, Aggressive, and Assertive
Chapter 9. Decision Making
Learning Objectives
9.1 Value of Group Decision Making
Advantages and Disadvantages of Group Decision Making
When Are Group Decisions Superior to Individual Decisions?
9.2 Approaches to Group Decision Making
Evaluating Group Decision-Making Approaches
Normative Decision-Making Theory
9.3 Decision-Making Problems
Causes of Group Decision-Making Problems
Group Polarization
Groupthink
9.4 Decision-Making Techniques
Nominal Group Technique
Delphi Technique
Ringi Technique
Evaluation of Decision-Making Techniques
9.5 Application: Consensus Decision Making
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Leading Virtual Teams: Encouraging Agreement on a Decision
Summary
Team Leader’s Challenge 9
Activity: Making Consensus Decisions
Activity: Group Versus Individual Decision Making
Chapter 10. Leadership
Learning Objectives
10.1 Alternative Designs of Leadership for Teams
Characteristics of Team Leadership
Shared Leadership
Leader Emergence
10.2 Approaches to Leadership
Trait or Personality Approach
Behavioral Approach
Situational Approach
Contingency Approach
10.3 Situational Leadership Theory
10.4 Self-Managing Teams
Leading Self-Managing Teams
Motivating Self-Managing Teams
Success of Self-Managing Teams
10.5 Application: The Functional Approach to Leading Teams
Providing a Context for Teams
Facilitating Internal Operations
Team Coaching
Leading Virtual Teams: New Approaches to Leadership in Virtual Teams
Summary
Team Leader’s Challenge 10
Survey: Leadership Styles
Activity: Observing the Leader’s Behavior
Chapter 11. Problem Solving
Learning Objectives
11.1 Approaches to Problem Solving
11.2 Descriptive Approach: How Teams Solve Problems
11.3 Functional Approach: Advice on Improving Team
Problem Solving
Factors That Improve Team Problem Solving
Factors That Hurt Team Problem Solving
11.4 Prescriptive Approach: Rational Problem-Solving Model
Problem Recognition, Definition, and Analysis
Generating Alternatives and Selecting a Solution
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Implementation and Evaluation
11.5 Problem-Solving Teams
11.6 Application: Problem-Solving Techniques for Teams
Problem Analysis
Criteria Matrix
Action Plans
Force Field Analysis
Summary
Team Leader’s Challenge 11
Activity: Using Problem-Solving Techniques
Chapter 12. Creativity
Learning Objectives
12.1 Creativity and Its Characteristics
12.2 Individual Creativity
12.3 Group Creativity
Problems With Group Creativity
Brainstorming
Strengths of Team Creativity
Creativity as an Ongoing Team Process
12.4 Organizational Environment and Creativity
12.5 Application: Team Creativity Techniques
Brainstorming
Nominal Group Technique and Brainwriting
Selecting a Solution
Multiple-Stage Creativity Approaches
Leading Virtual Teams: Virtual Creativity
Summary
Team Leader’s Challenge 12
Activity: Comparing Different Creativity Techniques
Chapter 13. Diversity
Learning Objectives
13.1 The Nature of Diversity
Why Diversity Is Important Now
Types of Diversity
How Diversity Af ects a Team
13.2 Problems of Diversity
Misperception
Emotional Distrust
Failure to Use Team Resources
13.3 Causes of Diversity Problems
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Diversity as a Cognitive Process
Team Leader
Diversity as a Social Process
13.4 Effects of Diversity
Research on the Ef ects of Diversity on Teams
Cross-Functional Teams
13.5 Application: Creating a Context to Support
Diversity
Increasing Awareness
Improving Group Process Skills
Creating a Safe Environment
Improving Organizational Issues
Summary Team Leader’s Challenge 13
Survey: Attitudes Toward Diversity
Activity: Understanding Gender and Status
Differences in a Team
PART
IV: ORGANIZATIONAL CONTEXT OF TEAMS
Chapter 14. Team, Organizational, and International Culture
Learning Objectives
14.1 Team Culture
14.2 Defining Organizational Culture
14.3 Organizational Culture and Teamwork
14.4 Dimensions of International Culture
Individualism Versus Collectivism
Power and Status
Uncertainty and Risk Avoidance
Comparing the United States and Japan
14.5 International Differences in Teamwork
14.6 Transnational Teams
Characteristics of Transnational Teams
Creating Ef ective Transnational Teams
Leading Virtual Teams: Dealing With Cultural Issues
Summary
Team Leader’s Challenge 14
Survey: Individualism–Collectivism
Activity: Evaluating a Team’s Culture and Cultural
Context
Activity: Comparing United States and Japanese Teams
Chapter 15. Virtual Teamwork
Learning Objectives
15.1 Use of Communication Technologies
Communication Technologies and Teams
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Characteristics of Communication Technologies
15.2 Communication Impacts
Status Dif erences
Anonymity
Miscommunication
Communication Norms
15.3 Team Impacts
Task Performance in Virtual Teams
Decision Making
Social Relations
15.4 Selecting the Right Technology
Factors to Consider When Selecting Technology
Matching Technology to the Team and Task
15.5 Challenge of Virtual Teams
Team Building in Virtual Teams
Future of Virtual Teams
Summary
Team Leader’s Challenge 15
Activity: Developing Netiquette for Virtual Teams
Activity: Experiencing Teamwork in a Simulated Virtual Team
Chapter 16. Evaluating and Rewarding Teams
Learning Objectives
16.1 Team Performance Evaluations
Types of Evaluations
Types of Measures
Participation in the Evaluation Process
Problems and Biases With Team Evaluations
16.2 Reward Systems
Types of Approach
Hybrid Approaches
16.3 Rewarding Individual Team Members
Changing Base Pay
Skill-Based Pay
16.4 Team and Organizational Reward Programs
Team Recognition Programs
Organizational Rewards
16.5 Relationship of Rewards to Types of Teams
Types of Teams
Linking Rewards to Types of Team
Survey: Individual Versus Team Rewards
Activity: Evaluating and Rewarding a Project Team
Activity: Team Halo Effect
Chapter 17. Team Building and Team Training
Learning Objectives
17.1 What Is Team Building?
Organizational Context of Team Building
Evaluating Team-Building Programs
17.2 Does Your Team Need Team Building?
17.3 Types of Team-Building Programs
Goal Setting
Role Clarification
Interpersonal Process Skills
Cohesion Building
Problem Solving
17.4 Team Training
Training the Team Together
Planning for the Transfer of Training
17.5 Types of Training
Team Resource Management Training
Cross-Training and Interpositional Training
Action Learning
Summary
Team Leader’s Challenge 17
Activity: Team Building
Activity: Appreciative Inquiry of Teamwork
Appendix: Guide to Student Team Projects
A.1 Starting the Team
Team Warm-Ups
Development of a Team Contract
Leadership and Meeting Roles
Managing Team Technology
A.2 Planning and Developing the Project
Challenge the Assignment
Generation of Project Ideas
Brainwriting Method
Project Planning
Roles and Assignments
Reevaluation of the Project and Approach
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A.3 Monitoring the Project and Maintaining Teamwork
Team Meetings: Sharing Information, Making
Decisions, and Tracking Assignments
Group Process Evaluations
Managing Problem Behaviors
Milestone: Midpoint Evaluation
A.4 Performing Team Writing
Overall Strategy
Division of Work
A.5 Wrapping Up and Completing the Project
Milestone: Precompletion Planning
Team Evaluations
Celebrating Success and Learning From the Experience
References
Index
Introduction
There are two sources of information about teamwork. First, there is a large body of research in psychology and the social sciences called group dynamics that examines how people work in small groups. This research was collected over the past century and has developed into a broad base of knowledge about the operation of groups. Second, the use of teams in the workplace has expanded rapidly during the past three decades. Management researchers and applied social scientists have studied this development to provide advice to organizations about how to make teams operate more effectively. However, these two areas of research and knowledge often operate along separate paths. The purpose of this book is to unite these two important perspectives on how people work together. It organizes research and theories of group dynamics in order to apply this information to the ways in which teams operate in organizations. The concepts of group dynamics are presented so they are useful for people who work in teams and also to enlarge their understandings of how teams operate. It is hoped that this
integration helps readers better understand the internal dynamics of teams so they can become more effective team leaders and members. The larger goal of this book is to make teams more successful. Teams are important in our society, and learning teamwork skills is important for individual career success. This book presents many concepts related to how teams operate. In addition, the chapters contain application sections with techniques, advice for leading virtual teams, case studies (called Team Leader’s Challenge), surveys, and activities designed to develop teamwork skills. The appendix contains tools and advice to help students in project teams. Teamwork is not just something one reads about and then understands; teamwork develops through guided experience and feedback. This book provides a framework for teaching about teams and improving how teams function.
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Overview
The seventeen chapters in this book cover a wide range of topics related to group dynamics and teamwork. These chapters are organized into four parts: characteristics of teams, processes of teamwork, issues teams face, and organizational context of teams. An appendix provides advice and tools to support student project teams.
Part I: Characteristics of Teams
Chapters 1 and 2 provide an introduction to group dynamics and teamwork. Chapter 1 explains the differences between groups and teams. This chapter also examines the purpose of teams in organizations and why they are increasing in use. It concludes with a brief history of both the use of teams and the study of group dynamics.
Chapter 2 explores the characteristics of successful teams. It explains the basic components necessary to create effective teams and examines the conditions and characteristics of successful work teams. It presents both
traditional perspectives toward team success and a positive psychology perspective. In many ways, this chapter establishes a goal for team members, whereas the rest of the book explains how to reach that goal.
Part II: Processes of Teamwork
Chapters 3 through 6 present the underlying processes of teamwork. Chapter 3 examines the processes and stages that relate to forming teams. Team members must be socialized or incorporated into teams. Teams must establish goals and norms (operating rules) to begin work. These are the first steps in team development.
Chapter 4 presents some of the main processes and concepts from group dynamics that explain how teams operate. Working together as a team affects the motivation of participants both positively and negatively.
Team members form social relationships with one another that help define their identities as teams. Teams divide tasks into different roles to coordinate the work. The behaviors and actions of team members can be
viewed as either task oriented or social, both of which are necessary for teams to function smoothly. Teams are dynamic entities that adapt to changes and learn how to work together more effectively.
One of the underlying concepts that define teamwork is cooperation. Teams are a collection of people who work cooperatively together to accomplish goals. However, teams often are disrupted by competition.
Chapter 5 explains how cooperation and competition affect the dynamics of teams.
Team members interact by communicating with one another. Chapter 6 examines the communication that occurs within teams. It describes the communication process, how teams develop supportive communication climates, and the effects of emotional intelligence on communication. The chapter also presents practical advice on how to facilitate team meetings and develop skills that help improve team communication.
Part III: Issues Teams Face 22
The third part of the book contains seven chapters that focus on a variety of issues that teams face in learning to operate effectively. Chapter 7 examines conflict and conflict resolution in teams. Although conflict often is viewed as a negative event, certain types of conflict are both healthy and necessary for teams to succeed. The chapter explains the dynamics of conflict within teams and discusses various approaches to managing conflict in teams.
Chapter 8 describes how power and social influence operate in teams. Different types of power and influence tactics are available to teams and their members; the use of power has wide-ranging applications and effects on teams. In one important sense, the essence of teams at work is a shift in power. Teams exist because their organizations are willing to shift power and control to teams.
The central purpose of many types of teams is to make decisions. Chapter 9 examines group decision-making
processes. It illustrates operative conditions when teams are better than individuals at making decisions and the problems that groups encounter in trying to make effective decisions. The chapter ends with a presentation of decision-making techniques that are useful for teams.
Chapter 10 presents leadership options for teams from authoritarian control to self-management. The various approaches to understanding leadership are reviewed, with an emphasis on leadership models that are useful for understanding team leadership. The chapter examines self-managing teams in detail to illustrate this important alternative to traditional leadership approaches.
The different methods that teams use to solve problems are examined in Chapter 11. The chapter compares how teams solve problems with how teams should solve problems. The chapter presents a variety of problem-
solving techniques to help improve how teams analyze and solve problems.
Creativity, which is one aspect of teams that often is criticized, is discussed in Chapter 12. Teams can inhibit individual creativity, but some problems require teams to develop creative solutions. The chapter examines the factors that discourage creativity in teams and presents some techniques that foster team creativity. Chapter 13 examines how diversity affects teams: the problems, causes, and effects. In one sense, if everyone were alike then there would be no need for teamwork. Teams benefit from the multiple perspectives inherent in diversity; however, group processes need to be managed effectively in order to realize these benefits.