PRELUDE And Just What Is Geology? • 2
P.1 In Search of Ideas • 3
P.2 Why Study Geology? • 4
P.3 Themes of This Book • 5
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: The Earth System • 8 BOX P.1 CONSIDER THIS: The Scientific Method • 10
PRELUDE PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW • 13 CHAPTER 1
The Earth in Context • 14
1.1 Introduction • 15
1.2 An Image of Our Universe • 15
BOX 1.1 CONSIDER THIS: The Basics of Matter, Force, and Energy • 16
BOX 1.2 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE: Exploring the Universe • 18
1.3 Forming the Universe • 20
BOX 1.3 SCIENCE TOOLBOX: Heat, Temperature, and Heat Transfer • 22
1.4 Forming the Solar System • 24
1.5 The Earth’s Moon and Magnetic Field • 27
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Forming the Planets and the Earth-Moon System • 28
1.6 The Earth System • 31
1.7 Looking Inward: Discovering the Earth’s
and Seafloor Spreading • 54
2.5 What Do We Mean by Plate Tectonics? • 60
BOX 2.1 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE:
Continental Shelves and Exclusive Economic Zones • 62
2.6 Divergent Boundaries and Seafloor Spreading • 64
2.7 Convergent Boundaries and Subduction • 67
2.8 Transform Boundaries • 70
2.9 Special Locations in the Plate Mosaic • 72
2.10 How Do Plate Boundaries Form, and How Do They Die? • 74
2.11 Moving Plates • 75
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: The Theory of
Plate Tectonics • 78
CHAPTER 2 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW • 82
CHAPTER 3
Patterns in Nature: Minerals • 84
3.1 Introduction • 85
BOX 3.1 SCIENCE TOOLBOX: Some Basic
Concepts from Chemistry • 86
3.2 What Is a Mineral? • 86
3.3 Beauty in Patterns: Crystals and Their
Structures • 88
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Mineral
Formation • 92
3.4 How Can You Tell One Mineral from
Another? • 94
BOX 3.2 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE:
Hazardous Minerals • 97
3.5 Organizing Your Knowledge: Mineral Classification • 98
3.6 Something Precious: Gems! • 101
BOX 3.3 CONSIDER THIS: Where Do Diamonds Come From? • 102
CHAPTER 3 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW • 104
INTERLUDE A
Introducing Rocks • 106
A.1 Introduction • 107
A.2 What Is Rock? • 107
A.3 The Basis of Rock Classification • 108
A.4 Studying Rock • 110
INTERLUDE A PRACTICE WHAT YOU
KNOW • 113
CHAPTER 4
Up from the Inferno: Magma and Igneous Rocks • 114
4.1 Introduction • 115
4.2 Why Does Magma Form, and What Is It Made of? • 115
4.3 Movement and Solidification of Molten Rock • 120
BOX 4.1 CONSIDER THIS: Bowen’s Reaction Series • 124
4.4 How Do You Describe an Igneous Rock? • 126
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Formation of Igneous Rocks • 130
4.5 Plate-Tectonic Context of Igneous Activity • 132
CHAPTER 4 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW • 136 CHAPTER 5
The Wrath of Vulcan: Volcanic
Eruptions • 138
5.1 Introduction • 139
5.2 The Products of Volcanic Eruptions • 139
5.3 Structure and Eruptive Style • 146
BOX 5.1 CONSIDER THIS: Explosive
Eruptions to Remember • 152
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Volcanoes • 154
5.4 Geologic Settings of Volcanism • 156
5.5 Beware: Volcanoes Are Hazards! • 160
5.6 Protection from Vulcan’s Wrath • 164
BOX 5.2 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE: Reading a Volcanic Hazard Map • 166
5.7 Effect of Volcanoes on Climate and Civilization • 167
5.8 Volcanoes on Other Planets • 169
CHAPTER 5 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW
• 170
INTERLUDE B
A Surface Veneer: Sediments and Soils • 172
B.1 Introduction • 173
B.2 Weathering: Forming Sediment • 173
B.3 Soil • 179
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Weathering, Sediment, and Soil Production • 180
BOX B.1 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE: Soil Conservation • 186
INTERLUDE B PRACTICE WHAT YOU
KNOW • 187
CHAPTER 6
Pages of the Earth’s Past: Sedimentary Rocks • 188
6.1 Introduction • 189
6.2 Classes of Sedimentary Rocks • 190
6.3 Sedimentary Structures • 198
6.4 Recognizing Depositional Environments • 204
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: The Formation of Sedimentary Rocks • 206
6.5 Sedimentary Basins • 210
CHAPTER 6 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW
• 214 CHAPTER 7
Metamorphism: A Process of Change • 216
7.1 Introduction • 217
7.2 Consequences and Causes of Metamorphism • 217
7.3 Types of Metamorphic Rocks • 221
BOX 7.1 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE: The Sculptures of Michelangelo • 226
BOX 7.2 CONSIDER THIS: Metamorphic Facies • 229
7.4 Where Does Metamorphism Occur? • 230
BOX 7.3 CONSIDER THIS: Pottery Making:
An Analog for Thermal Metamorphism • 232
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Environments of Metamorphism • 234
CHAPTER 7 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW • 238
INTERLUDE C
The Rock Cycle • 240
C.1 Introduction • 241
C.2 Rock Cycle Paths • 241
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Rock-Forming Environments and the Rock Cycle • 242
C.3 A Case Study of the Rock Cycle • 244
C.4 Cycles of the Earth System • 246
INTERLUDE C PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW • 247
CHAPTER 8
A Violent Pulse: Earthquakes • 248
8.1
8.2
BOX 8.2 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE:
Staying Safe in Earthquake Country • 286
CHAPTER 8 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW
• 288
INTERLUDE D
The Earth’s Interior Revisited: Insights from Geophysics • 290
D.1 Introduction • 291
D.2 The Basis for Seismic Study of the Interior •
291
D.3 Seismic Study of the Earth’s Interior • 293
D.4 The Earth’s Gravity • 297
D.5 The Earth’s Magnetic Field, Revisited • 301
INTERLUDE D PRACTICE WHAT YOU
KNOW • 303
CHAPTER 9
Crags, Cracks, and Crumples:
Geologic Structures and Mountain
Building • 304
9.1 Introduction • 305
9.2 Rock Deformation in the Earth’s Crust • 305
9.3 Brittle Structures • 311
BOX 9.1 CONSIDER THIS: Describing the Orientation of Geologic Structures • 312
9.4 Folds and Foliation • 316
9.5 Causes of Mountain Building • 321
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: The Collision of India with Asia • 324
BOX 9.2 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE: Seeing the Mountain Belts of North America • 326
9.6 Other Consequences of Mountain Building •
327
9.7 Basins and Domes in Cratons • 332
CHAPTER 9 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW • 334
INTERLUDE E
Memories of Past Life: Fossils and Evolution • 336
E.1 The Discovery of Fossils • 337
E.2 Fossilization • 338
E.3 Taxonomy and Identification • 342
E.4 The Fossil Record • 344
E.5 Evolution and Extinction • 345
INTERLUDE E PRACTICE WHAT YOU
KNOW • 347
CHAPTER 10
Deep Time: How Old Is Old? • 348
10.1 Introduction • 349
10.2 The Concept of Geologic Time • 349
10.3 Relative Age • 350
10.4 Unconformities: Gaps in the Record • 353
10.5 Stratigraphic Formations and Their Correlation • 355
10.7 How Do We Determine Numerical Ages? •
10.8 Numerical Age and Geologic Time • 368 CHAPTER 10 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW • 372
11 A Biography of the Earth • 374
11.1 Introduction • 375
11.2 Hadean and Archean Time: The Earth’s Early Days • 375 11.3 The Proterozoic: The Earth in Transition • 379 11.4 The Paleozoic Era: Continents Reassemble, and Life Gets Complex • 383
11.5 The Mesozoic Era: When Dinosaurs Ruled •
386
11.6 The Cenozoic Era: The Modern World Comes to Be • 392
BOX 11.1 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE: Adding Context to a View • 394
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: The Earth Has a History • 396
CHAPTER 11 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW • 398 CHAPTER 12
Riches in Rock: Energy and Mineral Resources • 400
12.1 Introduction • 401
12.2 Sources of Energy in the Earth System •
12.3 Introducing Hydrocarbon Resources • 402 12.4 Conventional Hydrocarbon Systems • 404 BOX 12.1 CONSIDER THIS: Types of Oil and Gas Traps • 406 12.5 Unconventional Hydrocarbon Reserves • 411
12.2 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE: Hydrofracturing and the Concerns Surrounding It • 412
Drilling and the Deepwater Horizon Disaster
• 425
12.10 Mineral Resources • 427
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Power from the Earth • 432
12.11 Nonmetallic Mineral Resources • 434
12.12 Global Mineral Needs • 436
CHAPTER 12 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW • 438
INTERLUDE F
An Introduction to Landscapes and the Hydrologic Cycle • 440
F.1 Introduction • 441
F.2 Shaping the Earth’s Surface • 441
BOX F.1 CONSIDER THIS: Topographic
Maps and Profiles • 443
F.3 Factors Controlling Landscape Development
• 444
F.4 The Hydrologic Cycle • 444
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: The Hydrologic
Cycle • 446
F.5 Landscapes of Other Planets • 448
BOX F.2 CONSIDER THIS: Water on Mars?
• 450
INTERLUDE F PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW • 451
CHAPTER 13
Unsafe Ground: Landslides and Other
Mass Wasting • 452
13.1 Introduction • 453
13.2 Types of Mass Wasting • 454
BOX 13.1 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE:
Thinking about Slope Stability at La Conchita, California • 458
13.3 Why Does Mass Wasting Occur? • 462
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Mass Wasting • 464
13.4 How Can We Protect against Mass-Wasting
Disasters? • 468
CHAPTER 13 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW • 472
CHAPTER 14
Streams and Floods: The Geology of Running Water • 474
14.1 Introduction • 475
14.2 Draining the Land • 476
14.3 The Work of Running Water • 479
14.4 Streams in the Landscape • 482
14.5 The Evolution of Drainage • 490
14.6 Raging Waters • 491
BOX 14.1 CONSIDER THIS: The Johnstown Flood of 1889 • 495
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: The Changing Landscape along a Stream • 496
BOX 14.2 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE:
How Do We Calculate the Threat Posed by Flooding? • 500
14.7 Human Impact on Rivers • 501
CHAPTER 14 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW • 502
CHAPTER 15
Restless Realm: Oceans and Coasts •
504
15.1 Introduction • 505
15.2 Landscapes beneath the Sea • 505
15.3 Ocean-Water Characteristics • 508
15.4 Tides and Wave Action • 509
15.5 Currents: Rivers in the Sea • 511
BOX 15.1 CONSIDER THIS: The Coriolis Effect and the Generation of Gyres • 512
15.6 Where Land Meets Sea: Coastal Landforms • 515
BOX 15.2 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE: Planning for Clamming: Reading Tidal
Charts • 518
15.7 Causes of Coastal Variation • 523
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Oceans and
Coasts • 524
15.8
15.3
and
16.7 Caves and Karst • 553
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Karst
Landscapes • 556
CHAPTER 16 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW • 560
CHAPTER 17
Dry Regions: The Geology of Deserts • 562
17.1 Introduction • 563
17.2 The Nature and Locations of Deserts • 563
17.3 Producing Desert Landscapes • 565
BOX 17.1 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE: Recognizing Young Landslides in Desert Regions • 567
17.4 Deposition in Deserts • 569
17.5 Desert Landscapes • 571
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: The Desert
Realm • 574
17.6 Desert Problems • 578
CHAPTER 17 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW • 580 CHAPTER 18
Amazing Ice: Glaciers and Ice Ages • 582
18.1 Introduction • 583
18.2 Ice and the Nature of Glaciers • 583
BOX 18.1 CONSIDER THIS: Polar Ice Caps on Mars • 587
18.3 Carving and Carrying by Ice • 591
18.4 Deposition Associated with Glaciation • 595
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Glaciers and
BOX 19.1 CONSIDER THIS: The Role of Greenhouse Gases and Feedback Mechanisms • 627
19.6 Contemporary Global Warming • 631
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Consequences of Sea-Level Change • 638
BOX 19.2 PUTTING GEOLOGY TO USE: Reducing Your Personal Carbon Footprint •
640 19.7 The Future of the Earth • 640 CHAPTER 19 PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW • 642
Metric Conversion Chart • A-1
The Periodic Table of Elements • A-2
Glossary • G-1
