MAJOR TASK FORCES
20
MODES OF INVESTIGATION 20
THE ROLE OF THE CRIMINAL
INVESTIGATOR 21
Characteristics of the Investigator 21
Preserving Digital Images 46
What to Photograph 47
Other Hints 48
ADMISSIBILITY OF PHOTOGRAPHIC
EVIDENCE 49
IDENTIFICATION OF PHOTOGRAPHS 51
SURVEILLANCE PHOTOGRAPHS 52
CAPTURING THE CRIME SCENE ON DIGITAL VIDEO 52
THE CRIME SCENE SKETCH 52
Putting It Together 53
Measurement 53
Rough and Finished Sketches 54
Choosing the Best Method 55
Summary Checklist 60
Key Terms 62
Discussion Questions 62
MyCrimeKit 62 chapter 3
Processing the Crime Scene 63
INTRODUCTION 64
THE PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION 64
CRIME SCENE EVIDENCE 65
Types of Evidence 67
Legal Considerations 67 THE FIRST OFFICER S RESPONSIBILITIES 70
Broadcasting a Flash Description 73
Managing Emergency Situations 73
SECURING THE SCENE 74
AT THE SCENE 76
Dead Body 76
Hanging Victim 76
Firearms 76
Collecting Electronic Evidence 77
Biohazardous Materials 78
Chemical and Other Hazardous Wastes 79
ASSESSING THE CRIME SCENE 80
BEGINNING THE SEARCH 81
Search Patterns 81
Strip Searches 82
Body Cavity Searches 82
The Crime Scene Search 83
Collecting Evidence 84
SPECIAL CASES IN EVIDENCE HANDLING 88
Infected Evidence 88
Firearms 88
Bullets, Cartridges, and Empty Cases 89
Stains 89
Glass 89
Impressions 89
Drugs 90
COLLECTING EVIDENCE 90
INTERVIEWING WITNESSES 91
CONTACTING THE MEDICAL EXAMINER 92
CONDUCTING A NEIGHBORHOOD
CANVASS 92
PREPARING CRIME SCENE REPORTS 92
PERFORMING THE FOLLOW-UP
INVESTIGATION 94
Summary Checklist 95
Key Terms 96
Discussion Questions 97
MyCrimeKit 97
PART II
Follow-Up Investigative Processes 99
chapter 4
Identification of Criminal Suspects: Field and Laboratory Processes 100
INTRODUCTION 101
THE ROLE OF THE CRIME LABORATORY 101
Trace Evidence 102
Questioned Documents 102
Forensic Chemistry 102
DNA Analysis 103
Ballistics 104
Latent Prints 106
Forensic Photography 106
Specialized Laboratory Equipment 107
FINGERPRINTING 108
The History of Fingerprinting 108
Types of Prints 110
Types of Patterns 111
Searching for Prints 112
Developing Latent Fingerprints 113
Preservation of Fingerprints 118
Prints from Gloves 119
The Integrated Automated Fingerprint
Identification System 119
THE GENETIC FINGERPRINT: DNA 121
What Is DNA? 121
The History of DNA 121
Analyzing DNA 123
Transportation and Storage 124
Elimination Samples 124
Admissibility of DNA as Evidence 125
The Daubert Standard 126
Other Uses of DNA 127
HANDWRITING ANALYSIS 127
Collection of Exemplars 128
The Writing Medium 128
The Writing Area 129
FACIAL COMPOSITES 129
Criminal Investigative Analysis 130
Investigative Psychology 131
Geographical Profiling 132
SAFEGUARDING AGAINST
MISIDENTIFICATIONS 132
Identification Procedures 134
The Right to Counsel at Eyewitness
Identifications 140
Summary Checklist 145
Key Terms 147
Discussion Questions 147
MyCrimeKit 148 chapter 5
Legal Issues in Criminal Investigation 150
INTRODUCTION 151
DUE PROCESS AND THE CONSTITUTION 151
LEGAL GUIDELINES FOR SEARCHES 152
The Probable Cause Requirement 152
The Exclusionary Rule 152
Search Incident to Lawful Arrest 154
EXCEPTIONS TO THE EXCLUSIONARY
RULE 155
The Good Faith Exception 155
The Inevitable Discovery Doctrine 156
The Computer Errors Exception 156
SEARCHES WITH A WARRANT 157
When Are Search Warrants Necessary? 157
When Search Warrants Aren t Required 157
Advantages of Searching with a Search
Warrant 158
Structuring the Warrant 158
Execution of the Warrant 160
Anticipatory Search Warrants 162
The Triggering Condition 164
WARRANTLESS SEARCHES 164
Search by Consent 165
Emergency Searches 167
Searches Incident to Arrest 168
Stop-and-Frisk Searches 168
Plain-View Searches 171
Automobile Searches 173
Open-Field Searches 175
MAKING AN ARREST 175
Defining Arrest 175
What Is an Arrest? 176
The Legal Arrest 176
Detention versus Arrest 177
Investigatory Stops 178
WHEN IS A PERSON UNDER ARREST? 179
USE OF FORCE 181
Understanding Reasonableness 183
Levels of Force 184
Deadly Force 184
The Fleeing-Felon Rule 186
Summary Checklist 187
Key Terms 189
Discussion Questions 189
MyCrimeKit 190
PART III
Obtaining Information 191
chapter 6
Interviews and Interrogations 192
INTRODUCTION 193
INTERVIEW VERSUS INTERROGATION 193
THE INTERVIEW PROCESS 194
Interviewing Witnesses, Citizens, and Victims 194
THE SUSPECT INTERROGATION
PROCESS 196
Goals of the Interrogation 196
Legal Requirements of the Interrogation 196
Safeguarding Against Police Misconduct 196
METHODS OF COERCIVE
INTERROGATIONS 197
Unreasonable Delay in Arraignments 198
The Suspect s Right to Legal Counsel 198
Preparation for the Interrogation 201
The Interrogation Setting 202
THE INTERROGATION PROCEDURE 203
Interrogation Styles 203
Verbal Symptoms of Deception 204
WHY SUSPECTS COOPERATE
AND CONFESS 206
Searching for Information 207
Closing the Communication Gap 207
Admission versus Confession 207
False Confessions 208
THE COGNITIVE INTERVIEW
TECHNIQUE 208
Think-Aloud Interviewing 209
Verbal Probing Techniques 209
WRITTEN STATEMENTS 209
Structuring the Written Statement 210
RECORDED STATEMENTS 211
The Recording Procedure 211
Videotaped Confessions 211
Recap Bias 212
Framing the Tapes 212
USE OF THE POLYGRAPH 212
Accuracy of the Polygraph 213
Administration of the Polygraph Exam 213
Admissibility of Polygraph Results 213
THE VOICE STRESS ANALYZER 215
Summary Checklist 217
Key Terms 219
Discussion Questions 219
MyCrimeKit 219
chapter 7
Criminal Intelligence and Surveillance Operations 221
INTRODUCTION 222
The History of Intelligence Collection 222
Pitfalls of Intelligence Gathering 223
The Usefulness of Intelligence 223
OVERT AND COVERT INTELLIGENCE
COLLECTION 224
CRIMINAL INTELLIGENCE AND CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION 225
Defining Criminal Intelligence 225
Types of Intelligence 226
PROCEDURES FOR INTELLIGENCE
GATHERING 227
Phase 1: Target Selection 227
Phase 2: Data Collection 229
Phase 3: Data Collation and Analysis 230
Phase 4: Dissemination 230
ANALYZING THE INFORMATION 230
Link Analysis 230
Flowcharting 233
THE RISS PROJECTS 235
AUDITING AND PURGING FILES 236
SURVEILLANCE OPERATIONS 237
Preparing for the Surveillance 237
Foot Surveillance 238
Difficulties in Surveillance Operations 240
Vehicle Surveillance 241
Stakeouts, or Stationary Surveillance 242
Briefings 242
Investigative Procedures 243
Post-Stakeout Procedures 245
ELECTRONIC SURVEILLANCE AND WIRETAPS 246
Minimization Requirements for Electronic
Surveillance 247
Electronic Communications Privacy Act of 1986 247
The Telecommunications Act of 1996 248
THERMAL IMAGING 248
Satellite-Assisted Surveillance 248
Summary Checklist 252
Key Terms 253
Discussion Questions 254
MyCrimeKit 254 chapter 8
Management of Informants and Undercover Operations 255
Protecting the Informant s Identify 263
LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS 264
Federal Protection of the Informant 265
Other Problems with Informants 265
UNDERCOVER OPERATIONS 266
Overview 267
Understanding Undercover Work 268
Preparing for Undercover Assignments 269
The Undercover Working Environment 271
The Cover Story 271
Protecting the Undercover Officer s
Cover 272
Infiltration 273
Risks in Undercover Assignments 276
Summary Checklist 280
Key Terms 280
Discussion Questions 281
MyCrimeKit 281
PART IV
Crimes Against Persons 283
chapter 9
Death Investigations 284
INTRODUCTION 285
TYPES OF WRONGFUL DEATH 286
MODES OF DEATH 288
LEGAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HOMICIDE 289
Elements of Homicide 290
THE PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION 290
Protecting the Crime Scene 291
Taking Notes at the Scene 291
Identifying the Victim 292
The Deceased Victim 292
The Victim Who Is Still Alive 292
Dying Declaration 292
ESTIMATING THE TIME OF DEATH 293
Changes in the Body: Decomposition 293
The Forensics of Decomposition 295
Factors Affecting Decomposition 296
Other Visual Evidence of Decomposition 297
GUNSHOT WOUNDS AS EVIDENCE 298
Assessing the Severity of Gunshot
Wounds 300
Entrance Wounds 301
Exit Wounds 301
Smudging 301
Tattooing 301
Understanding Gunshot Residue 302
Defense Wounds 303
Shotgun Wounds 303
PITFALLS IN HOMICIDE
INVESTIGATIONS 305
System Errors 305
Body Mistakes 305
Personal Pitfalls 306
SERIAL, MASS, SENSATIONAL,
AND SPREE MURDERS 306
NATIONAL CENTER FOR THE ANALYSIS
OF VIOLENT CRIME 308
Homicide Information Sharing System 308
AUTOEROTIC DEATH 310
SUICIDE 311
Evidence of Suicide 312
The Suicide Note 312
Reconstructing the Death 312
Materials Used 312
Motives for Suicide 313
Summary Checklist 321
Key Terms 323
Discussion Questions 323
MyCrimeKit 323
chapter 10
Robbery 325
INTRODUCTION 326
ROBBERY OFFENSES 326
Understanding Robbery 326
Defining Robbery 326
Trends 327
Consequences of Robbery 327
Elements of Robbery 327
TYPES OF ROBBERY 328
Commercial Robberies: Stores and Banks 329
Street Robberies 331
Residential Robberies 331
School Robberies 331
Vehicle Robberies 332
Types of Robbers 333
THE FIRST OFFICER ON THE SCENE 333
THE PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION 334
THE NEIGHBORHOOD CANVASS 325
PHYSICAL
METHOD
Summary
Key
Initial Questioning 347
Searching the Crime Scene 347
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE 347
The Investigative Response to Domestic Violence 348
Legal Approaches to Domestic Violence 350
ELDER ABUSE 350
STALKING 352
Who Stalks Whom? 353
Forms of Stalking 354
Occurrence of Stalking 356
The Investigative Response to Stalking 356
SEXUAL ASSAULT 357
The Role of the Sex Crime Investigator 357
Forcible Rape 358
Trends 359
Legal Aspects of Rape 359
Corroboration 361
Date Rape 361
Evidence in Rape Cases 363
Actual versus False Complaints 371
Profiling the Rapist 372
The Rapist s Approach 376
Methods of Control 376
Summary Checklist 376
Key Terms 378
Discussion Questions 379
MyCrimeKit 379
chapter 12
Missing and Abducted Persons 381
INTRODUCTION 382
A LOOK AT THE BIG PICTURE 383
Profiling the Abductor 384
Types of Missing Children Cases 385
Abductions via the Internet 386
Legislative History of Child Abduction 386
Amber Alerts 390
Code Adam 391
The Investigative Response 392
The Initial Call for Assistance 393
RESPONDING OFFICER RESPONSIBILITIES 394
The Sixteen Steps of Investigation 395
THE INVESTIGATOR S ROLE 401
THE 2003 CHILD PROTECTION ACT
(AMBER ALERTS) 404
INTERVIEWING SUSPECTS
IN ABDUCTIONS 405
Summary Checklist 409
Key Terms 412
Discussion Questions 412
MyCrimeKit 412
chapter 13
Crimes Against Children: Child Abuse and Child Fatalities 414
INTRODUCTION 415
THE ABUSE OF CHILDREN 415
The Scope of the Problem 415
CHILD FATALITIES: THE NATURE
OF THE PROBLEM 417
How Child Fatalities Differ from
Other Types of Homicide 418
The Role of Child Protective Services
and the Police 419
Responsibilities of the First Responder 420
Collecting Evidence 421
Interviewing Witnesses 421
Evidence from the Autopsy 422
Documentation of the Case 423
Interrogating Suspects 423
CHILD PHYSICAL ABUSE 424
Investigative Resources 425
Emergency Room Personnel and Medical
Examiners 425
BATTERED CHILD SYNDROME 426
Recognizing Abuse 428
Taking the Initial Report 428
The Initial Police Response to Child Abuse 429
Steps in Investigating Battered Child Syndrome 429
Interviews with Medical Personnel 429
Other Important Sources of Information 430
Consultation with Experts 430
Interviews with Caretakers 430
The Crime Scene Investigation 431
SHAKEN BABY SYNDROME 432
MUNCHAUSEN SYNDROME BY PROXY 433
Indications of Munchausen Syndrome 433
SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME 435
SEXUAL ABUSE OF CHILDREN 436
The Preliminary Investigation 438
THE FORENSIC INTERVIEW 438
Why Are Forensic Interviews
Needed? 439
The Initial Interview 439
The Secondary Forensic Interview 440
Multidisciplinary Investigations 440
Techniques of Forensic Interviewing 441
The Step-Wise Interview 441
CHILDREN AS WITNESSES 443
THE CHILD MOLESTER 444
Investigating the Molester 445
Premeditation and Intent 445
Summary Checklist 447
Key Terms 449
Discussion Questions 450
MyCrimeKit 450
PART V
Crimes Against Property 453
chapter 14
Theft-Related Offenses 454
INTRODUCTION 455
BURGLARY 455
Trends 455
Burglary versus Robbery 456
Why Criminals Burglarize 456
Elements of Burglary 456
How a Thief Works 457
TYPES OF BURGLARIES 458
ATM Burglaries 458
Types of Burglars 458
THE PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION 460
Indications of Burglary 461
Approach with Caution! 461
Physical Evidence 462
Possession of Burglary Tools 463
TRACING STOLEN PROPERTY 463
The Fence 463
Proving the Receipt of Stolen Property 464
Circumstantial Evidence 464
LARCENY-THEFT 465
Larceny-Theft Offenses 465
Trends 466
Forgery and Fraud 466
Check Fraud 466
Investigating Check Forgery 469
Embezzlement 470
Investigating Embezzlement 470
Categories of Embezzlement 471
CREDIT CARD FRAUD 472
SHOPLIFTING 474
Investigating Shoplifting 475
IDENTITY THEFT 477
Financial Losses 478
Personal Costs
479
Identity Theft Legislation 480
The Role of the Federal Trade
Commission 480
Types of Identity Theft and Identity
Theft Operations 481
How Stolen Information Is Used 482
The Investigative Response 483
Reports of Identity Theft 484
MOTOR VEHICLE THEFT 486
Trends 487
Motivations for Motor
Vehicle Theft 489
The Preliminary Investigation 491
The Investigative Traffic Stop 492
The Vehicle Identification Number 493
Disguising the Stolen Vehicle 494
The Rip-Off 495
Tools of the Trade 497
CARJACKING 498
MOTOR VEHICLE FRAUD 498
Methods of Fraud 499
THE NATIONAL INSURANCE CRIME
BUREAU (NICB) 499
Summary Checklist 500
Key Terms 502
Discussion Questions 503
MyCrimeKit 503
chapter 15
Arson, Bombings, and Terrorism 505
INTRODUCTION 506
ARSON OFFENSES 506
Trends 506
Elements of Arson 507
The Police and Fire Alliance 508
Arson Investigative Techniques 509
The
Preliminary
of Arson 509
Investigation
Motivations of the Arsonist 512
Serial Fire Setters 514
Profiling the Fire Starter 515
The Role of the Insurance Industry 515
Prosecution of Arson Cases 517
BOMBING INCIDENTS 517
What Is a Bomb? 519
Bombings by Teens 519
INVESTIGATING THE BOMB THREAT 520
Bomb Search Techniques 523
When a Bomb Is Found 525
Handling the Media 525
TERRORISM 526
Criteria Describing Terrorists 527
International Terrorism 528
Domestic Terrorism 530
Tactics to Destabilize Terrorist
Organizations 532
U.S. Efforts in Combating Terrorism 534
Summary Checklist 535
Key Terms 537
Discussion Questions 538
MyCrimeKit 538
PART VI
Vice and Profit-Related Crime 541
chapter 16
Gangs, Organized Crime, and Drugs 542
GANGS 543
Gang Members 543
Gang Identifiers 543
Rising Numbers of Gangs in the United States 544
ORGANIZED CRIME 545
Dynamics of Organized Crime 546
Well-known Organized Crime
Organizations 547
Businesses of Organized Crime 548
DRUG-RELATED OFFENSES 548
PRINCIPAL DRUGS OF ABUSE 549
Characteristics of Drugs 550
Cannabis 550
Narcotics 552
Stimulants 553
Hallucinogens 556
Depressants 557
Designer Drugs 559
THE GENERAL STRUCTURE OF DRUG LAWS 560
The 1970 Controlled Substances Act 560
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES IN DRUG
INVESTIGATIONS 562
Confidential Informants 563
Case Planning 563
The Investigation of Illicit Drug
Laboratories 565
Reverse Drug Sting Operations 567
PHARMACEUTICAL DIVERSION 570
Diversion by Legal Registrants 570
Diversion Tactics 571
Physician Investigations 573
Doctors Who Divert Drugs 573
Nurses Who Divert Drugs 575
Drug Theft 575
Substituting Drugs 575
Diversion by Street Criminals 576
EXTRAORDINARY DRUG ENFORCEMENT
TECHNIQUES 576
Drug Courier Profiling 577
Asset Forfeiture 580
Summary Checklist 582
Key Terms 585
Discussion Questions 585
MyCrimeKit 585
chapter 17
White-Collar and Computer Crime 587
INTRODUCTION 588
DEFINING WHITE-COLLAR CRIME 589
CORPORATE CRIME 589
MONEY LAUNDERING 592
The History of Money Laundering 592
Combating the Money Laundering Problem 592
Techniques of Money Laundering 593
Money Laundering Using Money Orders 598
CONFIDENCE GAMES 598
The Pigeon Drop 598
The Bank Examiner Scheme 599
The Pyramid Get Rich Quick Scheme 599
Travel Scams 600
Home Repair Scams 600
Contest Cons 600
The Magazine Subscription Scam 601
COMPUTER CRIME 601
Defining Computer Crime 603
The Nature of the Crime 603
Computer Crime Investigations 604
Classification of Computer Crimes 605
Typical Forms of Computer Crimes 605
Automatic Teller Machine Frauds 608
The Preliminary Investigation of Computer Crimes 608
Evidence Considerations 609
Profile of the Computer Criminal 611
Interviewing the Computer Crime
Suspect 611
Summary Checklist 613
Key Terms 615
Discussion Questions 615
MyCrimeKit 615
PART VII
Prosecution 617
chapter 18
Preparation for Court 618
INTRODUCTION 619
PREPARING FOR TRIAL 619
Going to Court 623
THE INVESTIGATOR AS A PROFESSIONAL
WITNESS 624
Preparing for Court 624
Reviewing Evidence and Reports 624
Credibility as a Witness 626
Appearance in Court 626
Courtroom Demeanor 627
TESTIFYING IN COURT 627
THE ROLE OF THE EXPERT WITNESS 629
Summary Checklist 630
Key Terms 631
Discussion Questions 631
MyCrimeKit 632
appendix A
Collection and Preservation of Physical Evidence 633
appendix B
Cases 647
glossary 649
index 658
Fundamentals of Criminal Investigation
chapter 1 Foundations of Criminal Investigation
chapter 2 The Crime Scene: Field Notes, Documenting, and Reporting
chapter 3 Processing the Crime Scene
