Chapter2 IntroductiontoEthics
1.The“ethicalpointofview”meansrespectingnotonlyyourowngoalsandaspirations, buttakingintoconsiderationthegoalsandaspirationsofotherpeopleaswell.
2.Moralityreferstoguidelinesthatyoucanusetodeterminewhatyououghttodoin aparticularsituation.Moralityalsoallowsyoutofigureoutwhetheraparticular decisionoractionisrightorwrong.Ethicsisthephilosophicalstudyofmorality. Ethicsisbroaderthanmoralityinthatitincludesthehigher-levelactivitiesevaluating moralsystemsandthecreationofnewwaysofevaluatingmoralproblems.
3.Ethicalrelativismistheviewthat“thegood”existsinsidethehumanmind;i.e.,itis ahumaninvention.Since“thegood”isinvented,itsdefinitionismalleable.Ethical objectivismistheviewthat“thegood”existsoutsidethehumanmind.Ourroleas humansistofindordiscover“thegood.”Since“thegood”existsindependentlyofour intellectualactivity,itsdefinitionneverchanges.
4.PersonBhasnotmadeastrongethicalargumentbecauseshehasnotbroughtupany factsorvaluesthatwouldundermineorcontradicttheexplanationofPersonA.
5.Whenwesayanethicaltheoryisrational,wemeanthatitreliesuponlogicalreasoning fromfactsorcommonlyheldvalues.
6.Themany/anyfallacyistoconcludethatanyoptionisacceptableafterobservingthat manyoptionsareacceptable.Forexample,youmayobservemetakeseveraldifferent routesbetweenhomeandwork,andallofthemaregoodinthesensethattheyallow metoreachmydestinationsafelyandinareasonableamountoftime.Thatdoesnot implythatallpossibleroutesbetweenhomeandworkaregoodones.
7.Theequivalencefallacyistoconfusesimilaritywithequality.Itcomesintoplayinthis chapterinthediscussionofthedivinecommandtheory.Whenwesay“Godisgood,” itisfallacioustoarguethatGodandthegoodareidentical.
Anotherexampleoftheequivalencefallacywouldbetoconcludefromthestatement “AdolphHitlerwasevilincarnate”thateverythingHitlersaidordidwasevil.
8.SometimesIleavehomealittlelate,butI’dstillliketogettoworkontime.Iwant tobeabletodrivethroughredlightsonthosedayswhenIamrunninglate.The proposedmoralruleis:ImayignoretrafficlawswhenIampressedfortime.Itisalso mywillthatthetrafficlightskeepeveryoneelsedrivinginanorderlymanner.Ifwe universalizedthisruleandeveryoneelsewhowasrunninglatealsoignoredtrafficlaws, thenthestreetswouldbechaotic,contradictingmydesirethateveryoneelsedrivein anorderlymannersothatIcanaccomplishmyillegalmaneuvers.Hencemyproposed moralruleislogicallyself-defeating.Itiswrongformetodrivethroughredlightson thosedayswhenIamrunninglate.
9.Plagiarismistheuseofsomeoneelse’swordsorideaswithoutgivingthatperson credit.AppendixAactuallygivesfivewaysofcommittingplagiarism:copyinganother’swordswithoutputtingthewordsinquotationmarksandcitingthesource; paraphrasinganother’swordswithoutcitingthesource;incorporatingsomeoneelse’s figuresordrawingswithoutcitingthesource;referencingfactsthatarenotcommon knowledgewithoutcitingthesource;andusinganotherperson’sideaswithoutgiving thatpersoncredit.
10.Plagiarismreferstodeliberatelyconcealingthefactthatyouhaveusedsomeoneelse’s wordsorideas.Iftheactionisnotintentional,itshouldbecalledmisuseofsources.
11.Aconsequentialisttheorydetermineswhetheranactionisrightorwrongbyevaluating itsconsequences.Utilitarianismisaconsequentialisttheory.Anon-consequentialist theorydetermineswhetheranactionisrightorwrongbyconsideringtheunderlying ruleorprinciplemotivatingtheaction.Kantianismandsocialcontracttheoryare non-consequentialisttheories.
12.Threesituationsinwhichmyactionwouldbeprimarilymotivatedbyasenseofduty orobligation:
(a)Ipromisedsomeoneifhecouldgettwoticketstoarockconcert,Iwouldpurchase aticketandgowithhim.Hegottheticketsandexpectsmetopayformine.I keepmypromise,eventhoughIjustlostmyjobandIreallycan’taffordtogo.
(b)Ipaymyincometaxes,eventhoughIthinkthegovernmenthassomewasteful programs.
(c)Everybodyinmyfraternityisgoingtogiveblood.Idonateblood,too,even thoughjustthinkingaboutitmakesmequeasy.
Threesituationsinwhichmyactionisprimarilymotivatedbyitsexpectedconsequences:
(a)Igivemoneytoaparticularcharitybecauseithasthelowestadministrative overheadofanyinternationalrelieforganization.Ifiguremoreofmymoneywill actuallyreachthosewhoneedit.
(b)Iworkextrahardinaparticularclass,eventhoughIamnotinterestedinthe material,becauseIhopetheprofessorwillwritemeagoodletterofrecommendation.
(c)Islightlyexaggeratemyexperienceinordertogetagoodjobasaserverinanice restaurant,figuringthattheprobabilityofsomeonediscoveringmyexaggeration isverylow.
13.Vickiisdrivinghercarthroughthecity.Hercellphonerings,andshelooksdownto seewhoiscalling.Asaresult,shedoesnotseethatsheisapproachingacrosswalk.She drivesthroughthecrosswalkwithoutslowingdown.Hercarstrikesachildandkills him.Twominutesearlier,anotherdriver,Helen,hadbeendistractedbytheringing ofhercellphone,hadlookeddowntoseewhowascalling,andhaddriventhrough thesamecrosswalkwithoutslowingdown.Nobodywasinthecrosswalk,andHelen causednoharm.VickiandHelendidexactlythesamething,butVicki’sactionhad farworseconsequencesthanHelen’saction.
14.Businessesandgovernmentsoftenuseutilitarianthinkingtodeterminetheproper courseofactionbecauseitallowsalloftherelevantconsequencesofeachalternative tobeweighedquantitatively.
15.TheUSfederaltaxcodeallowsindividualswhoownhomestodeducttheamountof mortgageinterestpaidonthehomeloans.TheTaxFoundationandothergroupsargue thatthisdeductionisofthegreatestbenefittothewealthy,whichmeansitviolates thedifferenceprinciple.
16.Socialcontracttheoryasfirstpresentedisanon-consequentialisttheory.SocialcontracttheoryasarticulatedinRawls’stwoprinciplesofjusticeisanon-consequentialist theory.
17.HerearesomemoralvirtuesnotmentionedinSection2.10:altruism,ambition,charity, compassion,conscientiousness,continence,courteousness,courtesy,discretion,empathy,generosity,hospitality,humility,industry,integrity,kindness,patience,perseverance,persistence,prudence,sincerity,temperance,tranquility,andtrustworthiness.
18.Subjectiverelativismandethicalegoismaresimilarinthesensethatboththeories allowanindividualtoputhimselforherselffirstindeterminingtherightactionto takeinaparticularsituation.However,thereisacrucialdifferencebetweenthetwo theories.Subjectiverelativism,likeallrelativistictheories,holdsthateachperson decideswhatisrightforhimselforherself.Twopeopleinthesamecircumstances couldchoosecompletelydifferentactions,andbothcouldberight.Ethicalegoism,on theotherhand,isanobjectivetheory.Itholdsthattherightactionforapersontotake inaparticularsituationistheactionthatwillbetothegreatestlong-termbenefitof thatperson.Arational,objectiveprocessisusedtodeterminethegreatestlong-term benefit,meaninganyoneinthesamesituationshouldreachthesameconclusion.
19.BothdivinecommandtheoryandKantianismareobjective,holdingthatrightand wrongcanbeexpressedinrulesthataretrueforallpeopleatalltimesinhistory. DivinecommandtheoryidentifiesthegoodwiththewillofGod,andholdsthatthe willofGodiscommunicatedthroughholybooks.Kantianism,ontheotherhand, holdsthatwecanuseourreasontodeterminewhatisgood.
20.Bothsubjectiverelativismandactutilitarianismwouldallowanindividualtoevaluate asituationtodeterminewhetheraparticularactionisrightorwrong.However, subjectiverelativismallowsapersontouseanymeanstodecidetherightthingto do.Accordingtoactutilitarianism,theconsequencesofthepossibleactionsmust evaluated.Thecorrectactionistheonethatleadstothegreatestincreaseintotal happinessamongthepartieseffected.
21.BothKantianismandruleutilitarianismareobjective.Accordingtoboththeories, rightactionsarethosethatareinlinewithuniversalmoralrules.However,thetwo theoriesderivetherulesindifferentways.Kantianismdetermineswhetheraproposed moralruleisacceptablebyevaluatingitaccordingtotheCategoricalImperative. Utilitarianismdetermineswhetheraproposedmoralruleisacceptablebyconsidering thelong-term,overalltotalchangeinhappinessthatwouldresultifeveryonealways followedtherule.
22.Bothactutilitarianismandruleutilitarianismareconsequentialisttheories.However, actutilitarianismconsiderstheconsequencesthatwouldresultfromanactiontaken
inoneparticularsituation.Ruleutilitarianismconsiderstheconsequencesthatwould resultifeveryonealwaystookacertaincourseofactioninallsimilarsituations.
23.Boththeoriesfocusonthenotionofsociety,buttheyarequitedifferent.Forone thing,culturalrelativismisanexampleofrelativism,whilesocialcontracttheoryis anexampleofethicalobjectivism.Culturalrelativismsayseachsocietydetermines whatpeopleoughttodoinvarioussituations.Differentsocietiesmaycomeupwith differentmoralcodes.Theserulesmaybebasedheavilyontraditionandnotonreason. Socialcontracttheorysaysmoralityconsistsinthoserulesthatrationalpeopleought torecognizeareineveryone’sbestbenefitiftheyareuniversallyobeyed.
24.BothKantianismandsocialcontracttheoryareobjective,rule-basedtheories.In Kantianism,proposedrulesarederivedbyseeingiftheycanmeettherequirementsof theCategoricalImperative.Insocialcontracttheory,proposedrulesarederivedby seeingiftheiruniversaladoptionwouldbetoeveryone’smutualbenefit.
25.Accordingtovirtueethics,thereisasetofcharactertraitsthathumanbeingsneed topossessinordertobetrulyhappy.Someofthesecharactertraitsmaydependon theculture.Inthisrespectvirtueethicsissimilartoculturalrelativism.However,the differencesbetweenvirtueethicsandculturalrelativismaremoresignificantthanthe similarities.Virtueethicsisanexampleofethicalobjectivism,whileculturalrelativism isananexampleofrelativism.Althoughsomeofthecharactertraitsprizedbyvirtue ethicsmaybeculturedependent,otherwouldseemtobeuniversal:honesty,justice, andloyalty,forexample.
26.Alexisdidwrongwhenshemadeuseofastudent’sloginandpasswordtogainaccess tothelibrary’scomputersandprinters.Alexistreatedthatstudentasameanstoher endofgettingaccesstotheprivatecollege’scomputers.
Theanti-spamorganizationistreatingtheinnocentcomputerusersintheEastAsian countryasmeanstoitsendofreducingspam.Thatiswrong.
Theanalysisdependsupontheexpectationofprivacypeopleshouldhave.Theexistenceofthecamerasispublicknowledge.Ifnobodyisbeing“used,”theactionappears tobemorallyacceptable.
Releasingthesoftwarewithoutinformingthepotentialusersofthepossiblebugswould bewrong.However,ifthehospitalstaffwerefullynotifiedthattheproductwasin betatest,adecisiontoreleasetheproductcouldbejustified.
27.ThebenefitstoAlexiswerelarge.Theharmstoothersweresmall.Heractionwas morallyacceptable.
CHAPTER2.INTRODUCTIONTOETHICS
Millionsofpeoplearegettingmuchlessspam.Thebenefittoeachofthesepersonsis small,butmeaningful.TensofthousandsofcitizensoftheEastAsiancountrycannot sendemailtotheUnitedStates.Theharmtoeachofthesepersonsissignificant. Concludingwhethertheactionisrightorwrongdependsupontheweightyougiveto eachperson’sbenefitorharm.
Inthiscasethebenefitsseemtooutweightheharms.TheactionsoftheEastDakota StatePolicearemorallyacceptable.
Todotheanalysis,wemustexaminethevariouscoursesofactionandweigh,foreach one,thepotentialbenefitsandharmstothepatients,nurses,hospital,andmembers ofthestart-upcompany.
28.Aruleutilitarianislikelytosubscribetotherule“Gainingaccesstoanotherperson’s privateinformationiswrong,”sinceagreatdealofharmcanresultifpeoplewere unabletoprotectconfidentialinformationsuchascreditcardnumbers.Forthisreason,Alexisdidwrongwhensheusedsomeoneelse’sloginandpasswordtoaccessthe library’scomputersandprinters.
Thechallengewiththisscenarioistodeterminewhetheranymoralruleshavebeen broken.Ingeneral,utilitarianismiscomfortablewiththenotionthatmaximizingthe overallgoodmaymeanthatthemajoritygainsabenefitwhiletheminoritysuffersa harm.
TheEastDakotaStatePoliceisusingtechnologytoincreasethesafetyofthecommunity.Itsactionsappeartobemorallyacceptable.
Aslongasthecompanyfullydisclosesthestatusoftheproduct,itappearstobeon safeground.
29.Alexisviolatedthepropertyrightsoftheprivatecollegewhensheuseditscomputers withoutpermission.Heractionwaswrong.
TheresidentsoftheEastAsiancountryhadareasonableexpectationthattheiremail wouldbedelivered.Byblacklistingthecountry’sISPs,theanti-spamorganization encouragedAmericanISPstorefusetoforwardemail.Thisseemswrong.
Howmuchprivacyshouldapersonhavewhileoperatingamotorvehicleonafreeway? Ifapersonhasgivenupallprivacy,thenthereseemstobenothingwrongwiththis action.Ifapersonhasareasonableexpectationofprivacy,thentheEastDakota StatePolicemayhavedonesomethingwrongifitsecretlygavetheFBIaccesstothe information.
Thepurchaserofaproducthasarighttoexpectthemanufacturerstandsbehindthe qualityoftheproduct.Inthiscaseitwouldbewrongforthecompanytosellthe productasifitwerecompletelydebuggedand100percentreliable.Ontheother hand,thehospitalmightbewillingtobetatestthedeviceifitcouldgetadiscounted priceorifthatwouldhelpthecompanycertifyitsreliability.Thecompanycouldbegin shippingthedevicetohospitalsthatunderstoodthecurrentstateofthesoftware.
30.Virtuesassociatedwithstudentsarehonesty,justice,andindustriousness.Alexis demonstratedindustriousnessbyworkingapart-timejob,findingawaytogetaccesstoPCsandprinters,andcompletingtheextraresearchprojects.Alexisdidnot demonstratehonestywhenshesneakilyfoundavalidlogin/passwordcombination,and shedidnotactinajustwaywhensheusedtheresourcesoftheprivatecollegewithout payingforthem.Takenasawhole,Alexis’sactionsdonotappeartobecharacteristic ofavirtuousstudent.
Virtueethicsisnotanappropriatetheorytousewhenevaluatingtheactionofa governmentorbusiness,soweskipScenarios2and3.
Twovirtuesassociatedwithagoodemployeearehonesty,industriousness,andloyalty. Outofloyaltytothecompany,youwanttofindawayforyourcompanytostayin businessintheshortrunandprosperinthelongrun.However,honestycompelsyou toinformthecustomerregardingthetruestateofthesoftware.Ratherthancoverup theproblem,youshouldfindawaytoworkwiththecustomertoensurethecustomer stickswithyourcompany’sproduct.Asanindustriousemployee,youshouldvolunteer toputinsomeextratimeifthatwillhelpreducethedelayingettingtheproductto market.