The Overarching Learning Goal of Co-requisite Reading/Content Courses’ Core Mental Processes:
Developing the Brain’s Executive Functions
Core Mental Processes for Reading to Develop Competence in an Area of Inquiry
• New information must to get into working memory (attention). • New information must connect to prior knowledge to construct meaning. • The learner must step back in their mind and reflect on the new information to route the information through the prefrontal cortex. • Examples of reflection are internal dialogue, conversations, writing to learn. • The prefrontal cortex is the seat of executive function such as critical thinking. • Reflection is the common denominator of critical thinking. • The learner must acquire a conceptual framework for the new information. • The new information must be understood in the context of the conceptual framework. • The learner must organize the information if it is to be easily retrieved and applied. • Unorganized information overloads working memory. • The learner must repeatedly re-expose themselves with elaboration (internal dialogue, communication, writing to learn, or self-testing over time) to the information or the information is easily forgotten. Practice retrieving the information is essential. • The learner must repeatedly expose themselves with elaboration to the information for myelin (layers of fat) to accumulate on the axon of brain cells, which is necessary for dramatically increased speed of transmission and processing. • Increased speed of processing and transmission is necessary for maximum retrieval of information to maximize the processes of manipulation of new information, such as problem solving. All the above is necessary for overriding the limitations of working memory and for developing competence in an area of inquiry. 2
The Goal: What are Executive Functions? Key executive functions are: •
cognitive flexibility,
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inhibitory control (self-control),
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working memory,
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planning,
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and self-awareness (Zelazo, 2010).
Without cognitive flexibility we cannot: •
change our minds, shift attention or perspective,
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flexibly adapt to changes,
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see another point of view,
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solve problems
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or be creative.
http://www.icn.ucl.ac.uk/sblakemore/SJ_papers/BlaCho_jcpp_06.pdf
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Self-awareness involves the ability to observe and monitor our performance so that we can make appropriate adjustments - reflection
•
A common denominator and basis of all executive functioning is the ability to hold things in mind, step back and reflect. Without this capacity, it is difficult to have perspective, judgment, or control.
http://www.icn.ucl.ac.uk/sblakemore/SJ_papers/BlaCho_jcpp_06.pdf
The Challenge Most first-time freshmen between the ages of 18 and 35 are still developing their prefrontal cortex and reading to learn instruction must go beyond learning content to learning how to activate the seat of executive control when learning through the mental processes of reflection. (Instructors and learners take a lot for granted which doesn’t reflect the reality of learners when reading to learn.)
Reflection Part of the whole process of thinking is the ability to reflect—to be in the present moment and aware of one’s place in time, to make the effort to understand more holistically (to see how ideas fit together), to take the time to revisit ideas and develop relevant questions and connections that will enhance one’s perspective and cognitive abilities. Quick Story Often Overlooked in Learning Between the ages of 10 and 17, the brain begins pruning all the connections in the brain that are not being used from the back of the brain to the front of the brain where the prefrontal cortex (seat of executive function is located). The pruning of unused connections makes the brain much more efficient enabling the developmental of prefrontal cortex functioning (executive functioning). It is between the ages of 18 and 35 that the prefrontal cortex functions begin to develop and the key and foundation of that development is learning how to reflect while learning. (Has to be taught.)
The Power of Reflection
MRIs show that asking people to observe their own thinking process as they ruminate can cause activity to move to more deliberate, conscious brain regions such as the prefrontal cortex. Research at the University of Toronto shows that moment-by-moment selfobservation activates executive planning areas in the prefrontal cortex and deactivates areas involved in attention-distracting rumination
Think of reflection as providing the “essential pauses in our mental space. We need this time to develop our inner resources and grow neural connections�, says Daniel Siegel, associate clinical professor of psychiatry at UCLA Medical School in America.
Learning is Physiological
The black dendrites represent prior knowledge
Rule 1: Dendrites, synapse, and neural networks grow only from what is already there. (Smilkstein) This is why activating prior knowledge in the construction of meaning is so important. The newly grown dendrite represents learning.
Let’s Take a Learning Journey in the Brain Let’s start with working memory: Working memory is not a place, but a system of areas in the brain working together. Working memory is whatever is in the learner’s conscious awareness at a given moment - that is, where ones attention or focus is at any given moment. The drawing below will represent working memory in this journey. It is the mental processes of reflection that will route new information being learned to the prefrontal cortex (seat of executive control). Information can be stored all over the brain depending on what the learner is doing mentally in this moment when learning, which can bypass the hypo campus and prefrontal cortex. Reflection is the Key.
Working Memory
Working Memory is limited: 4 unrelated items for 10-15 seconds unless the learner engages in the mental processes of reflection.
Information can be stored all over the brain depending on what the learner is doing mentally when learning and bypass routing to the prefrontal cortex. For example: Here is what we want to have happen in the brain when learning: Information comes into the hippocampus where it connects to prior knowledge in other regions of the brain, then this new interconnected knowledge goes to the prefrontal cortex - the thinking part of the brain.
Here is what happens in the brain when multitasking while learning: Information bypasses the hippocampus and goes to the striatum where it is difficult to retrieve facts and ideas.
The smartphone vibrates or rings - an incoming call, a text message, an email, etc. If we stop and check, we begin to build myelin around the brain cells of that neural pathway and this increases the speed and processing of that neural pathway (hundreds of time faster if done often). While this is usually very positive in learning and the signal going down that neural pathway of responding to interruptions begins to become automatic, without even thinking. Doesn’t sound harmful, but one is developing a habit that becomes hardwired (a habit). A hardwired habit means the brain has been changed and like any other addictions hard to break. Many hardwired processes are not harmful; they are even helpful for the brain and give us more room for furthest processing. However, checking habitually to every interruption actually reduces brain functioning and processing. Once interrupted, it takes on average twenty minutes to return to the original task.
It is reflection that allows the learner to hold onto information long enough o interconnect with prior knowledge.
Prefrontal Cortex
v v v
Incoming information
Information comes into the hippocampus where it connects to prior knowledge in other regions of the brain creating new interconnected knowledge.
Hippocampus Working Memory
It is reflection that routes this new construction of meaning to to the prefrontal cortex.
Prefrontal Cortex
v v v
Reflection:
Incoming information
Reflection: Reflection is stopping and stepping back and having an internal conversation or dialogue as the learner is encountering new rules, procedures, or formulas.
Hippocampus Then this new interconnected knowledge goes to the prefrontal cortex - the thinking part of the brain.
Working Memory
Learning to Reflect Sounds Simple, But Isn’t •
If the learner does’t learn to reflect, the new information does not route to the prefrontal cortex.
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If the learner does not learn to reflect, then the “essential pauses in our mental space. We need this time to develop our inner resources and grow neural connections”
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If the learner does not learn to reflect then the executive functions (higher thinking functions) are not activated and the learner will have difficulty with the following: •
changing their minds, shifting attention or perspective,
•
flexibly adapting to changes,
•
seeing another point of view,
•
solving problems
•
or being creative.
Reflection is key to the goal of education transfer learning.
Core Reflection Mental Strategies for Learning Deeply ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
Reflection Re-exposure with elaboration Writing - summarizing Internal dialogue and Inquiry questions Organizing - ex. mind mapping Retrieval Practice Teach to Learn Collaborative activities that foster stepping back and reflecting
Working Memory
Working Memory is limited: 4 unrelated items for 10-15 seconds unless the learner engages in the mental processes above:
Reflection: Reflection: Reflection is stopping and stepping back and having an internal conversation or dialogue as the learner is encountering new facts, ideas or concepts.
Prefrontal Cortex
v v v
Reflection Path
Hippocampus Reflection: routes through prefrontal cortex
Working Memory
Re-exposure with Elaboration: Re-exposure: Every time the learner re-exposes themselves to the information being learned, it strengthens the dendrites in the brain, which is where new learning is stored. Re-exposure with Elaboration: Elaboration is about having a mental conversation, discussing with friends, writing to learn, clarifying, or organizing the information.
Prefrontal Cortex
v v v
Reflective processing when re-exposing to the information with elaboration
Reflection Path
Hippocampus Reflection: routes through prefrontal cortex
Working Memory
Writing - Summarizing: Writing to Learn and Summarizing: Writing to learn is a very powerful process for clarifying and organizing new rules, procedures, or formulas in the context of a conceptual framework.
It is reflection that allows the ongoing interaction to clarify and organize information.
Prefrontal Cortex
v v v
Writing: constant reflection, clarifying and organizing Reflection Path
Hippocampus Reflection: routes through prefrontal cortex
Working Memory
Internal dialogue and Inquiry questions: Internal dialogue and Inquiry questions: When the learner adds inquiry questions to the learning process, they activate (prime) all the neural networks of related information and the brain starts looking for answers; this improves focus, concentration, interest, curiosity, retention and retrieval, and just makes learning easier. Example of Internal Dialogue Questions • • •
What do I already know about the concepts I am reading about now? Is there a repeating pattern of organization? How do the illustration relate to the text?
Prefrontal Cortex
Retrieval Path
Reflection Path
v v v
Asking questions improves focus, concentration, interest, curiosity, retention and retrieval, and just makes learning easier.
Hippocampus Working Memory
Organizing - ex. mind mapping: Organizing - ex. mind mapping: We know that there are mental processes for making organizing new information easier and richer. Key Finding: In order for the learner to develop competence in an area of inquiry (learn in ways that fosters transfer learning), the learner needs to: •
Develop a deep foundation of factual knowledge
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Understand facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework
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Organize knowledge in ways that facilitate retrieval and application John Bransford
The following core reflective learning mental processes need to be within the context of the learner’s needs for developing competence - transfer learning.
Organize knowledge in ways that facilitate retrieval and application New information needs to be organized by the learner. Why Organize Information When Learning? “A key finding in the learning and transfer literature is that organizing information into a conceptual framework allows for greater “transfer”; that is, it allows the student to apply what was learned in new situations and to learn related information more quickly” (John Bransford). A conceptual framework is a group of concepts that are broadly defined and systematically organized to provide a focus, a rationale, and a tool for integrating and interpretation of information. This provides the big picture for learning, making associations, and making interconnections between new information and prior knowledge, which is the foundation of constructing meaning. “Within the brain, knowledge is organized and structured in networks of related concepts. Accordingly, new knowledge must connect to, or build upon a framework of existing knowledge. Put simply, learning involves building mental models (schema) consisting of new and existing information. The richer the links between new and existing information, the deeper the knowledge and the more readily it can be retrieved and applied in new situations. Building rich links involves an interactive process of building, testing, and refining schema that organizes knowledge into conceptual frameworks. (Zull, 2001)
Develop a deep foundation of factual knowledge First, the more prior knowledge new information is interconnected with the more neural pathways to that new information.
New Facts and Ideas
In order for learning to occur, new information must interconnect with the learner’s prior knowledge.
Dendrites of Prior Knowledge
New Learning
Contrary to popular belief, learning basic facts is not a prerequisite for creative thinking and problem solving -- - it’s the other way around. Once you grasp the big concepts around a subject, good thinking will lead you to the important facts. (John Bransford)
A key finding in the learning and transfer literature is that organizing information into a conceptual framework allows for greater “transfer”; that is, it allows the student to apply what was learned in new situations and to learn related information more quickly”(Bransford).
•
Understand facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework
New information needs to be understood in the context of a conceptual framework and new information needs to be organized by the learner. This enhances application such as relating the concepts around twodimensional art to future exposure to a piece of art.
PART ONE: Chapter 1 Introduction to Humanities Expanding the Conceptual Framework
Conceptual Framework
Two-Dimensional Art Media drawing painting printmaking
New Information
Formal & Technical Qualities
Composition
Other Factors
elements principles
perspective chiaroscuro contrasts focus
dynamics Sense Stimuli
juxtaposition
trompe l’oeil
add white
PART ONE: Chapter 1 Introduction to Humanities Expanding the Conceptual Framework
add black tint
shade relationship: blacks to whites to grays
value physical volume and density
The Media of the Arts
shape of object
form mass hue
elements roughness or smoothness
Two-Dimensional Art
color
texture
value
intensity purity go hue linear form
Media drawing painting printmaking
line
color edge
implication for continued direction
Composition
Formal & Technical Qualities
rhythm greatest visual appeal
Other Factors perspective chiaroscuro
focal areas
repetition variation
principles
contrasts
equilibrium
closed composition dynamics
focus Sense Stimuli
juxtaposition
unity open composition
trompe l’oeil
harmony
balance symmetry
asymetrical
Prefrontal Cortex Organizing ideas builds neural networks
Dance
Two-Dimensional Art
v
v
Cinema
Theatre Literature
v
Sculpture
The Media of the Arts
Architecture Music
Retrieval Path
Hippocampus Reflection: routes through prefrontal cortex Retrieval: retrieves through prefrontal cortex Often unrecognized is that retrieval needs as much deliberate practice and inputting information.
Working Memory
Origins of Modern Humanity
Prefrontal Cortex
v v v
African Origins of Humanity (Prehistory - 10, 000 BCE)
The Ice Age Crisis and Migration to the Americas
Organizing ideas builds neural networks
Human Adaptations: from Africa to Eurasia and Australia
Retrieval Path
Hippocampus Reflection: routes through prefrontal cortex
Retrieval: retrieves through prefrontal cortex
Working Memory
Retrieval Practice Retrieval Practice: When learners practice retrieving what they have learned a number of things happen in the brain that makes future retrieval easier and faster with less forgetting. Why does retrieval practice work? Think of learning as involving two parts, first, as students encounter new information they try to use what they already know to make sense of it and retain it—this is called encoding. Second, learning also involves being able to recall what was previously encoded—this is recall or retrieval.
Prefrontal Cortex
v v v
Retrieval Practice strengthens retrieval neural pathway http%3a%2f%2fabcnews.go.com%2fHealth%2fwireStory%2fpeek-brain-shows-kids-learn-math-skills-25013952
Retrieval Path
Hippocampus Reflection: routes through prefrontal cortex
Retrieval: retrieves through prefrontal cortex
Working Memory
Teach to Learn: When one focuses the mind on explaining newly learned information, the learner becomes aware of the gaps and strengthens in their understanding of the new ideas. At the same time new learning is strengthened, as well as the speed of transmission and processing dramatically increases. Many collaborative learning activities can easily incorporate teaching to learn as a powerful reflection strategy.
A Quick Look at Myelination
New learning about the role of myelination in the learning process is giving us a new window into the brain’s functioning and how to design mental process or strategies for learning. The following will give a quick overview of what myelination is and why building it in neural pathways is important.
Research has shown that, “Practice builds neurological connections and thickens the insulating myelin sheath necessary for fluency, chunking of information, brain efficiency, and deep learning,” (Hill)
Two of the Five Brain Rules for How the Brain Learns Naturally Rita Smilkstein has filtered the following two brain rules from the literature and research: 1. Dendrites, synapses, and neural networks grow only from what is already there. The first time we experience a new subject, our brains must build a dendrite on a cell body for that topic or must connect to an existing idea. Only after that dendrite is in place or the related idea identified can we begin to know, remember, and understand a topic. 2. Dendrites, synapses, and neural networks grow for what is actively, personally, and specifically experienced and practiced. Nothing will happen in the brain for someone passively sitting in a class. We MUST make lessons and lectures engaging. (and the student must also learn how to take control of their own learning)
First, let’s walk through Rule #1 how the brain grows new dendrites (learning) before we start to look at how practice and the thickening of the myelin sheath enhances learning.
How the Brain Learns The brain has one hundred billion brain cells (neurons), which are all trying to communicate with one another and make connections. Neurons carry electrical charges and make chemical connections to other neurons. A neuron has a cell body and attached to the cell body are dendrites (short fibers) that receive messages. When you, see, hear, feel external information, that information is received by the dendrites.
Dendrites -short fibers (surrounding the cell body) that receive messages Axon
Neuron Ends
Cell Body
The message goes to the cell body and on down the axon (long fibers) that transmit messages to the neuron ends (end buds),
Dendrites -short fibers (surrounding the cell body) that receive messages Axon -- long fibers (extending from the cell body) that transmit messages through the ends of neurons to other neuron dendrites. Neuron Ends Cell Body
When the message (new information the reader is reading) reaches the neuron ends (end buds), the end buds look for other dendrites on other neurons that have related information (prior knowledge). Remember, learning only occurs when the reader interconnects new information with what they already knows (prior knowledge).
Cell Body axon synapse neurotransmitters dendrite
receptors
End Buds – dendritelike fibers that connect to other neuron dendrites (looking for related information)
If the end buds find other dendrites of related knowledge, a new dendrite grows. That new dendrite is learning.
Dendrites Axon
Neuron Ends Cell Body
Rule 1: New dendrites, synapse, and neural networks grow only from what is already there.
Now, let’s look at the role of building myelin on brain cells throughout a neural network through the learner’s use of reflective mental processes such as: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
Reflection Re-exposure with elaboration Writing - summarizing Internal dialogue and Inquiry questions Organizing - ex. mind mapping Retrieval Practice Teach to Learn Collaborative activities that foster stepping back and reflecting
When the learner uses the above reflective mental processes above to learn new facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework, myelin is building in the axon of all the interconnected brain cells in the neural pathway within the neural network of the conceptual framework.
Dendrites Myelin Sheath
Axon
Neuron Ends Cell Body
Expanding Rule #2 with New Research on the Myelin Sheath
Rule 2: Myelin sheaths, dendrites, synapses, and neural networks grow for what is actively, personally, and specifically experienced and practiced.
Dendrites Myelin Sheath
Axon
Neuron Ends Cell Body
The Myelin Sheath of a neuron consists of fat-containing cells that insulate the axon from electrical activity. This insulation acts to increase the rate of transmission of signals. Think of the myelin sheath as an insulator, which promotes electrical transmission and as a result strengthens neural pathway.
Dendrites Myelin Sheath
Axon
Neuron Ends Cell Body
Myelin increases electrical resistance across the cell membrane by a factor of 5,000 and decreases capacitance by a factor of 50. Thus, myelination helps prevent the electrical current from leaving the axon. Myelin builds through active and repetitious use of your brain.
Dendrites Myelin Sheath
Axon
Neuron Ends Cell Body
The more myelin the circuit attracts, the stronger and faster its signal strength becomes. It turns out that myelin, not the nerves, is what builds the speed, precision and timing that creates great learners.
Dendrites Myelin Sheath
Axon
Neuron Ends Cell Body
“What about myelin? According to Dr. George Bartzokis, professor of neurology at U.C.L.A., it is “the key to talking, reading, learning skills, being human.” It is a neural insulator that, Coyle claims, some neurologists now consider to be “the holy grail” of skill acquisition because every human skill “is created by chains of nerve fibers carrying a tiny electrical impulse – basically a signal traveling through a circuit.” (Coyle, 2010)
Dendrites Myelin Sheath
Axon
Neuron Ends Cell Body
“Myelin’s vital role is to wrap those nerve fibers the same way that rubber insulation wraps a copper wire, making the signal stronger and faster by preventing the electrical impulses from leaking out. When we fire our circuits in the right way – when we practice cognitive strategies when reading– our myelin responds by wrapping layers around the that neural circuit, each new layer adding a bit more skill and speed. The thicker the myelin gets, the better it insulates, and the faster and more accurate our movements and thoughts become.” (Coyle, 2010)