Application 18 allied health by Dan Kesterson

APPLICATION LEARNING IN ALLIED HEALTH

Developing Competence in Allied Health

DAN KESTERSON

C HAPTER 1

Developing Competence in Allied Health Developing a deep foundation of factual knowledge in nursing is essential for later application; however, how that deep foundation of factual knowledge is learned dramatically affects the usefulness of the information, that is, application in new situations. There is no more essential goal in learning in allied health than transfer learning. In fact, that is the goal of education and the foundation of allied health learning.

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Developing the Brain’s Executive Functions for Application Learning Where Are We Heading? Contents Developing Competence in Allied Health - 1 Developing the Brain’s Executive Functions for Application Learning Where Are We Heading? -2 Developing the Brain’s Executive Functions for Application Learning - 3 Developing the Brain’s Executive Functions for Application Learning - 4

How to Make the Change to Application Learning for First-Time Freshmen - 32 Additional Notes - 35 Rules of Consolidation - 36 Reading and Writing to Learn - 38 Using Imagery in Learning - 40 Multitasking - 44 John Bransford and his colleagues noted in How People Learn that learners need to develop mental processes if they want to make what they are learning useful, which they referred to as developing competence in an area of inquiry. Developing competence refers to

Working Memory: The Stage Metaphor - 17

Competence in an Area of Inquiry The research is clear; in order to develop competence in an area of inquiry, the learner needs to:

Reflection is the Key - 21

• Develop a deep foundation of factual knowledge

Myelination - 11

Reflection - 22 Reflection: Stepping Back Mentally - 23

• Understand facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework

When Should Learners Begin Developing Executive Functions - 31 2

â&#x20AC;˘ Organize knowledge in ways that facilitate retrieval and application (Bransford) Deep learning refers to adaptive/conceptual learning in which what is learned transfers to new situations and in which related learning is easier. The result of deep learning when learning is developing competence in an area of inquiry, for example, sociology or biology. Rather than memorizing lots of facts or practicing discrete skills in isolation that are ends in themselves, Deep learning results in the student being able to transfer the information being studied to new situation or being able to think with, reason with, solve problems or make decisions using what they are learning.

"There is one factor that trumps all others in determining what is remembered: what the learner thinks about when they encounter the material. The fact that the

Learning new terminology, facts and iedeas, or procedures is not about memorizing. That violates everything we know about how the brain learns and especially how the brain learns if the reader (you) want to use the information later in new situations. Here is where John Bransfordâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s research on developing competence in the subject matter you are learning in allied health becomes invaluable. The goal is not about learning new terminology, facts and idea, or procedures alone; it is about learning in which that which is learned transfers to new situations (problem-solving, decision-making, etc.) If we as learners or we as instructors want the outcome of our efforts to result in the application of that being learned transferring to new situation, we have to build our thinking around what we know about how the brain learns within the context of what is needed if we want learning to to transfer to new situations and we want to be able to learn related information easier.

material the learner is dealing with has meaning or that the learner constructs that meaning does not guarantee that the meaning will be remembered." (Willingham).

C HAPTER 2

Developing the Brain’s Executive Functions for Application Learning

Without cognitive flexibility we cannot: • change our minds, shift attention or perspective, • flexibly adapt to changes, • see another point of view, • solve problems • or be creative.

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Developing Executive Functions:

• The new information must be understood in the context of the conceptual framework. • The learner must organize the information if it is to be easily retrieved and applied.

Core Mental Processes for Reading to Develop Competence in an Area of Inquiry

• Unorganized information overloads working memory.

• New information must to get into working memory (attention).

• The learner must repeatedly re-expose themselves with elaboration (internal dialogue, communication, writing to learn, or self-testing over time) to the information or the information is easily forgotten. Practice retrieving the information is essential.

• New information must connect to prior knowledge to construct meaning. • The learner must step back in their mind and reflect on the new information to route the information through the prefrontal cortex. • Examples of reflection are internal dialogue, conversations, writing to learn. • The prefrontal cortex is the seat of executive function such as critical thinking. • Reflection is the common denominator of critical thinking. • The learner must acquire a conceptual framework for the new information.

• The learner must repeatedly expose themselves with elaboration to the information for myelin (layers of fat) to accumulate on the axon of brain cells, which is necessary for dramatically increased speed of transmission and processing. • Increased speed of processing and transmission is necessary for maximum retrieval of information to maximize the processes of manipulation of new information, such as problem solving. All the above is necessary for overriding the limitations of working memory and for developing competence in an area of inquiry. 5

The Goal: What are Executive Functions? Key executive functions are: • cognitive flexibility, • inhibitory control (self-control), • working memory, • planning, • and self-awareness (Zelazo, 2010). Without cognitive flexibility we cannot: • change our minds, shift attention or perspective, • flexibly adapt to changes, • see another point of view, • solve problems • or be creative. http://www.icn.ucl.ac.uk/sblakemore/SJ_papers/ BlaCho_jcpp_06.pdf We need these executive function in order to have the ability to apply what we are learning in new situations.

It all starts with developing the prefrontal cortex, the seat of executive functioning. Self-awareness involves the ability to observe and monitor our performance so that we can make appropriate adjustments - reflection

A common denominator and basis of all executive functioning is the ability to hold things in mind, step back and reflect. Without this capacity, it is difficult to have perspective, judgment, or control. http://www.icn.ucl.ac.uk/sblakemore/SJ_papers/BlaC ho_jcpp_06.pdf The Challenge Most first-time freshmen between the ages of 18 and 35 are still developing their prefrontal cortex and reading to learn instruction must go beyond learning content to learning how to activate the seat of executive control when learning through the mental processes of reflection. (Instructors and learners take a lot for 6

granted which doesn’t reflect the reality of learners when reading to learn.) Quick Story Often Overlooked in Learning Between the ages of 10 and 17, the brain begins pruning all the connections in the brain that are not being used from the back of the brain to the front of the brain where the prefrontal cortex (seat of executive function is located). The pruning of unused connections makes the brain much more efficient enabling the developmental of prefrontal cortex functioning (executive functioning).

The Power of Reflection MRIs show that asking people to observe their own thinking process as they ruminate can cause activity to move to more deliberate, conscious brain regions such as the prefrontal cortex. Research at the University of Toronto shows that moment-by-moment self-observation activates executive planning areas in the prefrontal cortex and deactivates areas involved in attention-distracting rumination.

It is between the ages of 18 and 35 that the prefrontal cortex functions begin to develop and the key and foundation of that development is learning how to reflect while learning. (Has to be taught.) Reflection Part of the whole process of thinking is the ability to reflect—to be in the present moment and aware of one’s place in time, to make the effort to understand more holistically (to see how ideas fit together), to take the time to revisit ideas and develop relevant questions and connections that will enhance one’s perspective and cognitive abilities. 7

Re-exposure with Elaboration: Re-exposure: Every time the learner reexposes themselves to the information being learned, it strengthens the dendrites in the brain, which is where new learning is stored.

Re-exposure with Elaboration: Elaboration is about having a mental conversation, discussing with friends, writing 9

to learn, clarifying, or organizing the information.

• What do I already know about the concepts I am reading about now? • Is there a repeating pattern of organization? • How do the illustration relate to the text?

Internal dialogue and Inquiry questions: Internal dialogue and Inquiry questions: When the learner adds inquiry questions to the learning process, they activate (prime) all the neural networks of related information and the brain starts looking for answers; this improves focus, concentration, interest, curiosity, retention and retrieval, and just makes learning easier. Example of Internal Dialogue Questions 10

be that the organization is small and simple to complex and large. It’s and organizational pattern you need to learn to recognize in biology. Mind Mapping Think of mind mapping backwards; where in normal mind maps, you put the concept on the map first, then use pictures to transform the information (elaboration). With biology draw the picture, then label the parts and functions. Organize Knowledge in Ways that Facilitate Retrieval and Application

Understand Facts and Ideas in the Context of a Conceptual Framework Take a good look at figure 1.1 above. The picture for each level of organizational structure is key to storing the new information in memory. It literally is the conceptual framework within which all the biology concepts fit. First Things First Always ask yourself, “What is the big picture that everything I am learning will fit?” The big picture here can

“Perhaps the most pervasive strategy used to improve memory performance is clustering: organizing disparate pieces of information into meaningful units. Clustering depends on organizing knowledge. Working memory has limits of four unrelated items. People have developed ways around this memory constraint by organizing information, such as grouping together or “chunking” disparate elements into sets of letters, numbers, or pictures that make sense to them.” (Bransford, How People Learn) The more the new information is organized systematically (related concepts) the easier it is to recall and use. 12

C HAPTER 3

Myelination Once meaning is constructed by interconnecting new knowledge with prior knowledge (understanding), it is essential that the new dendrites of learning are strengthened and even more important that the neural networks for that knowledge is myelinated to increase the speed of transmission and processing, which is necessary for overcoming the limitations of working memory when application is needed. How to increase myelination is the focus of this next section.

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Building Layers of Insulation on the Axon of a Brain Cell

A Quick Look at Myelination New learning about the role of myelination in the learning process is giving us a new window into the brain’s functioning and how to design mental processes or strategies for learning. The following will give a quick overview of what myelination is and why building it in neural pathways is important. Research has shown that, “Practice builds neurological connections and thickens the insulating myelin sheath necessary for fluency, chunking of information, brain efficiency, and deep learning,” (Hill)

ence a new subject, our brains must build a dendrite on a cell body for that topic or must connect to an existing idea. Only after that dendrite is in place or the related idea identified can we begin to know, remember, and understand a topic. 2. Dendrites, synapses, and neural networks grow for what is actively, personally, and specifically experienced and practiced. Nothing will happen in the brain for someone passively sitting in a class. We MUST make lessons and lectures engaging. (and the student must also learn how to take control of their own learning) First, let’s walk through Rule #1 how the brain grows new dendrites (learning) before we start to look at how practice and the thickening of the myelin sheath enhances learning.

Two of the Five Brain Rules for How the Brain Learns Naturally Rita Smilkstein has filtered the following two brain rules from the literature and research: 1. Dendrites, synapses, and neural networks grow only from what is already there. The first time we experi14

Now, let’s look at the role of building myelin on brain cells throughout a neural network through the learner’s use of reflective mental processes such as: • Reflection • Re-exposure with elaboration • Writing - summarizing • Internal dialogue and Inquiry questions • Organizing - ex. mind mapping • Retrieval Practice • Teach to Learn • Collaborative activities that foster stepping back and reflecting When the learner uses the above reflective mental processes above to learn new facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework, myelin is building in the axon of all the interconnected brain cells in the neural pathway within the neural network of the conceptual framework.

C HAPTER 4

Working Memory: The Stage Metaphor

We have referred to overcoming the limitations of working memory. David Rock thought up the Stage Metaphor for explaining working memory; in this next chapter, I have created illustrations to help lthe reader get a deeper sense of working memory using that metaphor.

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Working Memory: The Stage Metaphor

C HAPTER 5

Reflection is the Key It is about Reflection “Reflection is a meaning-making process that moves a learner from one experience (in this case reading) into the next with deeper understanding of its relationships with and connections to other experiences and ideas. It is the thread that makes continuity of learning possible” (Carol on Dewey, 2012). The first thing you should know is that stopping and reflecting as you read is essential for the information you are learning while reading to move to that part of your brain which enables you to meet the overarching goal of transfer learning. That part of the brain is called the prefrontal cortex and it is where you make decisions. The prefrontal cortex, the part of the frontal lobes lying just behind the forehead, is often referred to as the “CEO of the brain.”

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Reflection Other Information You Need to Know About This Reading Course The Goals The goal of the course is about more than understanding what you read. The overarching goals are to be able to (1) use mental processes that enable you to use what you read in later reasoning in new situations and to (2) make later related learning easier. Mental Processes The primary mental processes used in this course will be reflection - slowing down while reading, thinking about what you are reading, and applying mental processes in those moments of reflection that enable you to reach the goal stated above. The course is about those moments of reflection while reading in which you will be asked inquire (ask questions) about your understanding of what you have just read and apply mental processes that enable you to reach the goal above. The goal of “being able (1) to use mental processes that enable you to use what you read

in later reasoning in new situations and (2) to make later related learning easier” will call upon you to learn mental processes (thinking about your thinking) that fall under three categories. - Developing a deep foundation of factual knowledge. - Understanding facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework. - Organize knowledge in ways that facilitate retrieval and application. A Few Notes About Reflection “Reflection is a meaning-making process that moves a learner from one experience (in this case reading) into the next with deeper understanding of its relationships with and connections to other experiences and ideas. It is the thread that makes continuity of learning possible” (Carol on Dewey, 2012). Reflecting on what you are reading is the core mental process of this reading course. The first thing you should know is that stopping and reflecting as you read is essential for the information you 23

are learning while reading to move to that part of your brain which enables you to meet the overarching goals of this course, that is the goals of “being able (1) to use what you read in later reasoning in new situations and (2) to make later related learning easier.” That part of the brain is called the prefrontal cortex and it is where you make decisions. The prefrontal cortex, the part of the frontal lobes lying just behind the forehead, is often referred to as the “CEO of the brain.” • Focusing attention

• Inhibiting inappropriate behavior and initiating appropriate behavior • Simultaneously considering multiple streams of information when faced with complex and challenging information (Wikipedia) You can see why this is so important. Memorizing definitions, for instance, does not move that being memorized to the prefrontal cortex unless the learner understands the meaning of the definition; that is where reflection or reflecting on that being learned comes in.

• Organizing thoughts and problem solving • Foreseeing and weighing possible consequences of behavior • Considering the future and making predictions • Forming strategies and planning • Ability to balance short-term rewards with long term goals • Shifting/adjusting behavior when situations change • Impulse control and delaying gratification • Modulation of intense emotions

S ECTION 2

Reflection: Stepping Back Mentally

This chapter is about what learners can do during those moments of reflection when the brain is focused on reading to consolidate newly learned information into long-term memory - reflection. John Medina has pulled the findings on the most important mental processes that a learner should engage in during moments of reflection. Daniel Coyle has illustrated how the brain increases mental processing and transmission, as well as recall when core mental processes are applied during those moments of reflection. David Rock has created a metaphor that illustrates mindfulness (metacognition or thinking about thinking) in working memory. This chapter will offer practical strategies and habits of mind that learners need to learn deeply. Ken Bain has discovered what successful college students do in those moments of reflection while learning. All of these contributions help us move closer to understanding the strategies (decision-making processes) that are essential to deep learning in those temporal spaces between understanding and making new learning useful. It is the stepping back and observing one thinking (reflection) that is the foundation upon which deep learning builds. Stepping back and reflecting is about taking control of learning while reading. Reflection gives us the space of 25

mind in which we can consider various options for learning and then choose the most appropriate ones. This process of awareness is referred to by many names - metacognition, reflection, mindfulness; however, they all refer to actively taking control of ones thinking while learning. The rest of this paper focuses on why students need to reflect and what they need to do mentally while reflecting. Dendrites are Learning The neuron (brain cell) is the first of two illustrations you will learn that will help you understand how learning occurs in the brain. In later chapters when you see the illustration that is on the following page; it will remind you about how the brain learns and that you have control over what is happening when you read to learn.

(learning) on the dendrite of related information (prior knowledge). See second drawing at the bottom of the opposite page. No learning occurs unless new information being learned interconnects with the learnerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s prior knowledge. This fact will be the foundation for understanding how learning occurs when one uses learning strategies to learn when reading. Billions of cells are making these connections and creating dendrites of learning with every thought and experience;however, and just like soap bubbles they begin being reabsorbed by the brain within seconds if the learner has not developed the mental processes built upon the common denominator of critical thinking - reflection.

The first drawing on the opposite page is of a neuron (brain cell). Looking from left to right at the first drawing, the filament-like structures are dendrites. New information enter the brain cell through these dendrites and travel through the cell body and down the axon to the end buds. If the signal finds information in other brain cells (their dendrites are prior learning) that is related to the new information, then a dendrite grows 26

If the end buds find other dendrites of related knowledge, a new dendrite grows. That new dendrite is learning. Dendrites Axon

Neuron Ends Cell Body

Rule 1: New dendrites, synapse, and neural networks grow only from what is already there.

memory and become automatic. When this happens, the strategies are referred to as metacognitive strategies. The ultimate goal is learn how to use cognitive strategies during reflection (those moments of reflection during reading when the reader momentarily observes their own thinking) often enough for these strategies to become automatic. If reflection does not become automatic, working memory does not have enough capacity to store and manipulate what the reader is learning and it is forgotten or not stored deeply enough to be recalled easily. Reflection Letâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s take a look at an example of using a cognitive strategy

During the reading process, the reader has to be able to step back and think about what they are learning as they are learning. This is called reflection, mindfulness, or metacognition. It is an internal dialogue (mental conversation) about the meaning being constructed as the brain looks for prior knowledge (previously constructed dendrites). There are a number of cognitive strategies that the reader can employ during reflection to move newly learned information to long-term memory. If the learner deliberately practices these cognitive strategies, the strategies themselves move to long-term

As the mature reader continues to read, they will step back and reflect on what they are learning - what they already know about what they are reading and/or how they might be able to use this information. Reflection is an ongoing process while reading; it is not just reflecting after reading; that is key to metacognition - thinking about ones own thinking as one are learning.

What is the Key Cognitive Strategy? The key cognitive strategy around which all other cognitive strategies are built is re-exposure to the new information with elaboration. This is what the reader above was doing in a moment of reflection about sole proprietorships. The learner must re-expose themselves to the new information frequently and with internal dialogue on what they are learning. (Medina) Six internal dialogue questions that readers need to learn to use as part of their internal dialogue for establishing a metacognitive approach to learning while reading are: 1. What do I already know about what I am reading? (learning – constructing meaning) 2. How is what I am reading reinforce or contradict what I already know (compare and contrast)? 3. What do concepts (terminology) introduced in textbooks have in common? (analyzing) 4. How are concepts (terminology) introduced in the text different? (analyzing)

5. Are the new concepts (terminology) part of a larger concept (ex. folkways and mores are types of norms)? (classifying – inductive reasoning) 6. How are all the concepts in a reading related? (mind mapping – systematically organizing – deductive reasoning - synthesizing)

What Has Happened in the Brain? Before we continue lets’ take a look at what is happening in the brain in order to have a deeper understanding about why the reader needs to be reflecting and applying cognitive strategies when reading. The reader must be paying attention to what is being read as paying attention to what is being read is what is in the reader’s working memory. Working memory is those areas of the brain that stores and manipulates new information that the reader is holding in awareness at any moment. It is where cognitive strategies are applied to move new information to long-term memory where it can be later retrieved to be used in new situations. David Rock uses the Stage Metaphor to help one visually grasp what is happening. 28

Letâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s look at what the Stage Metaphor represents (see picture on opposite page). First the Stage Metaphor has a stage and the stage represents working memory. Working memory is where information you are reading is stored temporarily (20 to 30 seconds) before it is forgotten. Even more limiting, working memory can only hold about 4 unrelated items of information before new information starts to replace those items. In the stage metaphor there are actors, who represent new information the reader is encountering. Also in the Stage Metaphor is the audience, which represents prior knowledge. The Stage Metaphor also has stage hands, who represent learning strategies that the reader will need to manipulate the actors and audience once they are on the stage.

The$Stage:$metaphor$for$prefrontal$cortex$ Actor:$New$ informa,on$ Stage:$ Prefrontal$ Cortex$â&#x20AC;&#x201C;$ where$ decisions$ are$made$

Prior$ Knowledge$

ReCexpose$ 20<30$ seconds$to$do$ something:$ think$about$ thinking$

THE$STAGE$ Working$Memory$

QuesJon$

Learning$ StrategiesThe$ Stage$Metaphor$

Elaborate$

Internal$ Dialogue$

Time$ Interval$ Recite$

Audience:$Prior$Knowledge$C$ dendrites$

We$learned$in$SecJon$1$is$that$no$learning$occurs$unless$new$ informaJon$is$Jed$to$what$the$reader$already$knows.$What$ the$reader$already$knows$is$referred$to$as$prior%knowledge.$

The Point The point of the Stage Metaphor is to remind the reader when they are reading to learn that they have very little time to store and manipulate new information they are reading before it disappears. It reminds them that reading in which the learner just hoping to remember what they are reading just because it was read just doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t work. It reminds them that they must try and connect new information to prior knowledge before learning occurs. It reminds them that they must do something mentally if they want learn in a way that 29

makes the information useful to them later. For example, asking oneself what you already know about what you are learning. The Observer in Metacognition “In the stage metaphor, the actors represent conscious information. The audience members represent information in your brain just below conscious awareness, such as memories and habits (prior knowledge). Then there is the director. The director is a metaphor for the part of your awareness that stands outside of experience. This director can watch the show that is your life, make decisions about how your brain will respond, and even sometimes alter the script. This self-awareness is our ability to pause before we react, Seigel explains. “It gives us the space of mind in which we can consider various options and then choose the most appropriate ones.” Knowledge of your brain is one thing, but you also need to be aware of what your brain is doing at any moment for any knowledge to be useful. People who score high on a mindfulness scale are more aware of their unconscious processes. Additionally these people have more cognitive control, and a greater ability to shape

what they do and what they say than do people lower on the mindfulness scale. Activating your director (the part of ones mind that observes what ones brain is doing) is hard to do when there is a lot going on or when you feel under pressure. Teasdale explains, “Mindfulness is a habit, it’s something the more one does the more likely one is to be in that mode with less and less effort…. It’s a skill that can be learned. It’s assessing something we already have. Mindfulness isn’t difficult. What’s difficult is to remember to be mindful” How do you remember to be mindful easily? It should be primed in your brain, something that’s at the top of your mind because it was a recent experience. One of the best ways of having your director handy is practicing using your director regularly. A number of studies now show that people who practice activating their director do change the structure of their brains. They thicken specific regions of the cortex involved in cognitive control and switching attention.” (Rock) “You need to keep the director right on the front of the audience, so he can jump right on stage fast when needed. Having a director close to the stage helps keep your actors in line. A your director notices your brain’s quirks in real time, you get better at putting words to 30

experiences, which makes you faster at identifying subtle patterns as they occur. This skill increases your ability to make subtle changes. Ax your mind makes changes in brain functioning in real time, you become more adaptive, responding in the most helpful way to every challenge that comes along” (Rock).

ten. If the learner is successful in holding new information in conscious awareness and at the same time bringing to that awareness relevant prior knowledge, and deploys cognitive strategies to manipulate what is being learned, then new learning will move to long-term memory.

“About the Director – we’ve learned that being able to step outside your experience and observe your mental function, which comes from an ability to focus attention in the moment, openly. It is clear that the ability to notice your own mental process in this way has a dramatic impact on your capacity to stop and separate yourself from an automatic train of thought. In other words, you discovered that being able to notice your own thinking process itself was central to knowing and changing your brain” (Rock).

Note, that to succeed the learner has to be able to mentally step back and observe the learning process as it is occurring in the brain. This is metacognition and it has to be taught.

Awareness and control occur in working memory where new information being learned is temporarily stored and manipulated. The learner must bring to their conscious awareness (focus on) the new information being learned and at the same time the learner must bring into conscious awareness relevant background information and then deploy cognitive strategies to manipulate what is being learned. Until that happens, new information being learned is quickly forgot-

The mature reader seeking sole proprietorships in bold print would mentally step back and reflect on what t know about sole proprietorships immediately; as they continued reading, they would step back and reflect on what they now about people who own their own businesses or business that have own owner; as they continued reading they would mentally step back and reflect on what main types of businesses are in other countries. Learning how to do this takes deliberate practice before it becomes automatic and there are a number of mental activities that the readier can use during reflection, which we will look at later. Let’s look at why in any reading course most of the time should be spent learning how to reflect and delib31

erately practice reflecting to become efficient at reflecting and applying cognitive strategies when learning.

Dendrites Myelin Sheath

The Myelin Sheath Recall that the key cognitive strategy around which all other cognitive strategies are built is re-exposure to the new information with elaboration. This is what the reader above was doing in a moment of reflection about sole proprietorships. The learner must re-expose themselves to the new information frequently and with internal dialogue on what they are learning. (Medina) Here is what happens in the brain when the learner reexposes themselves to the new information, especially with elaboration (ex. internal dialogue). See drawing below to follow the explanation to follow:

Axon

Neuron Ends Cell Body “Myelin’s vital role is to wrap those nerve fibers the same way that rubber insulation wraps a copper wire, making the signal stronger and faster by preventing the electrical impulses from leaking out. When we fire our circuits in the right way – when we practice cognitive strategies when reading– our myelin responds by wrapping layers around the that neural circuit, each new layer adding a bit more skill and speed. The thicker the myelin gets, the better it insulates, and the faster and more accurate our movements and thoughts become.” (Coyle, 2010)

The Myelin Sheath The Myelin Sheath of a neuron consists of fatcontaining cells that insulate the axon from electrical activity. This insulation acts to increase the rate of transmission of signals. Think of the myelin sheath as an insulator, which promotes electrical transmission and as a result strengthens neural pathway. The more myelin the circuit attracts, the stronger and faster its signal strength becomes. It turns out that mye32

lin, not the nerves, is what builds the speed, precision and timing that creates great learners. The Point 1. All strong learning strategies help the learner interconnect new information to the learner’s prior knowledge, which results in growing new dendrites (learning). 2. New dendrites formed by new learning start to be reabsorbed by the brain (forgetting) if they are not strengthened. The most powerful learning strategies increase the size of the myelin sheath (by reexposure with elaboration) around the axons in the neural pathways leading to the new learning (dendrites). These strategies always involve re-exposing the learner to the newly learned information with elaboration. Elaboration means that the learner attempts with every re-exposure to the new learning to in some way have an dialogue about what they are learning that ties what they are learning to what they already know. For example, saying what is being learned in the learner’s own words.

The Reflection Strategies The following is going to rely heavily on the strategies that Ken Bain found when researching what the best college students do. In order to set the stage for what these students do and how reading instruction must step away from teaching isolated skill units, let’s look at how learning works in the real world. Ken observed that “Our best students engage in all the cognitive strategies at the same time, They remember, understand, apply, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate as they read. many college professors; however, organize their courses as if that list of mental activities has to be conquered in order rather than in an integrated fashion. They insist that students memorize large bodies of information before thinking about the data. But the human brain doesn’t work that way” (Bain, 2012). Reading instruction is often taught as if these mental activities are isolated separate; they are not and readers need to learn to engage in all the cognitive strategies at the same time as they are needed. Bain’s research support john Medina, Daniel Coyle, David Rocks finding about learning that we have just explored. and he put it in a nutshell as follows: “What 33

does the research tell us about how best to review material? Elaborate, elaborate, elaborate, Associate, associate, associate. Make connections, Ask questions, Evaluate. Play with words (new concepts) in your own mind. Have fun.

plain the information in your own words. Self-testing understanding while reading and immediately following the introduction of a new concept is very powerful and necessary. This needs to be practiced until it is automatic.

Develop an understanding before trying to remember.

Guessing and Predicting

Understanding requires a deep network of associations, and it is those intricate strands of connection that make recall even possible” (Bain, 2012).

Guessing and predicting before and as one is reading during moments of reflection is a powerful strategy. It is counter-intuitive, but effective. Let’s look at some research Ken Bain reported, “Suppose you begin by just guessing and getting something wrong. Will that help as much as trying to recall the correct answers? Shouldn’t you at least study first before attempting to remember something? If you just guess wildly before someone tells you the right answer (or read the right answer), you will undoubtedly get it wring, and wouldn’t that practice of incorrect information diminish your learning? Quite the contrary, argues some recent research. IN experiments at the University of California at LosAngeles. Students were asked guess at a response first before seeing the correct one. The others studies first. THose who had generated possible answers, even though they were all wrong, scored significantly higher than those who had spent their time reviewing the material first.

While reading, “Repeat, repeat, repeat” (Bain, 2012). “Consider how the brain works. When you encounter something new - let’s say a new work - you will begin to forget it immediately, and a day later you might not recall it at all. but a second exposure will extend the time you can remember” (Bain, 2012). Think of reflection while reading as enhancing the chances of recalling what is being learned as you are reading by reflecting and applying cognitive strategies. “Repetition will pay the greatest rewards if done in the midst of meaningful and elaborated work” (Bain, 2012). “Testing is better than rehearsing.” (Bain, 2012). A cognitive strategy during reflection is asking yourself if you really understood the information and can say ex-

Other studies got the same results, even when those who read first had “copies of the article that highlighted and italicized all the material that would be on the exam.. Those who speculated first didn’t get the paper and they did significantly better on the final exam” (Bain, 2012). Guessing and predicting before reading and while reading prime those neural pathways of related information makes the construction of meaning more likely. Being wrong and making mistakes alerts the brain to pay attention and that attention is shifted to the correct answer. Bain recommends, “Speculate, sometimes wildly, about possible solutions and connections Related to this ideas is contrast. Contrasts: Comparing and Contrasting During Reflection Contrast - the brain sends signals down well worn pathways when learning; however, the brain learns by contrast Brain, Comparing/Contrasting, and Learning

The Brain is a Natural Pattern Recognizer When one looks at what the brain does with new information and prior knowledge, it becomes apparent that the brain is always comparing new and prior knowledge. A metacognitive approach to reading to learn would take advantage of that fact. “When students encounter something new, they try to match it or compare it with something that is already in their memory. Schank puts it this way: "When you learn new things, as you are all the time, the new knowledge must perturb the system in order to find its place in memory in relation to what is already there. Does it amplify old knowledge, or contradict it? The mind needs to resolve these questions as new knowledge appears, getting reminded of what it already knows or believes each time some new experience occurs. This process of reminding and comparison is a critical part of learning.” (Bain, How We Learn). In the 1990s a committee of the National Research Council, led by John Bransford, Ann Brown, and Rodney Cocking concluded that metacognition is a key factor in learning that should be deliberately cultivated. They emphasized the particularly important role that metacognition plays in promoting transfer learning. 35

That is, students can more readily apply knowledge acquired in one context to another context if they have more awareness of themselves as learners, if they monitor their strategies and resources, and if they assess their readiness for tests and other performances” (Linda Baker). Think about what the following processes have in common: Consider the following processes that are often taught in isolation; however, following the pattern seeking nature of the brain, understanding and then using the the power of seeking contrasts as a cognitive strategy during reflection while reading can amp up learning. Categorizing – commonality under a category title

Figurative Language - comparison between two different things in order to highlight some point of similarity. Analogy - comparison of two or more objects Metaphor – implied comparison between two unlike things Simile - comparison of two unlike things that are alike in one way They all compare and contrast. Then think about what elaborative strategies have in common when reflecting; here are a few:

Classifying – defining boundaries – comparison/ contrast

Reciting – comparing and contrasting new information with prior knowledge expressing new learning in the language of new and prior knowledge.

Analyzing – separating wholes into parts by distinguishing boundaries

Writing to Learn -(clarifying and organizing) by comparison

Synthesizing – combining new ideas into a complex whole

Questioning (Inquiry) - triggers prior knowledge in preparation for comparing new and prior knowledge

Prediction – matches between sensory input and prior knowledge 36

Metacognition and Developing Internal Dialogue& Compare and Contrast Handelsman etal (2006) refers to metacognition as "the internal dialogue about what is being learned", and state that it includes "the process of setting challenging goals, identifying strategies to meet them, and monitoring progress toward them". (Lovett, 2008). (Appalachia Educational Laboratory, 2005) Donovan, Bransford, and Pellegrino (1999) describe metacognition as an internal dialogue that individuals develop in order to build skills for predicting learning outcomes and monitoring comprehension. (Gorsky, 2004) Internal Dialogue (Comparing and Contrasting) Below are six internal compare and contrast dialogue questions that readers need to learn to use as part of their internal dialogue for establishing a metacognitive approach to learning while reading. 1. What do I already know about what I am reading? (learning – constructing meaning)

2. How is what I am reading reinforce or contradict what I already know (compare and contrast)? 3. What do concepts (terminology) introduced in textbooks have in common? (analyzing) 4. How are concepts (terminology) introduced in the text different? (analyzing) 5. Are the new concepts (terminology) part of a larger concept (ex. folkways and mores are types of norms)? (classifying – inductive reasoning) 6. How are all the concepts in a reading related? (mentally mind mapping – systematically organizing – deductive reasoning - synthesizing) 7. Helping Novice learners to Take Actively Control of Their Thinking - Reciprocal Teaching Reciprocal teaching can take many forms but at its essence it refers to an instructional activity that takes place in the form of a dialogue between teachers and students regarding segments of text. In its initial form the purpose of reciprocal teaching is to facilitate a group effort between teacher and students as well as among students in the task of bringing meaning to the 37

text. Within the context of developing in an area of inquiry, the purpose goes beyond constructing meaning to also to including incorporating mental processes within those moments of reflection that foster developing a deep foundation of factual knowledge, understanding facts and ideas i the context of a conceptual framework, while organizing knowledge in ways that facilitate retrieval and application. Effective reciprocal teaching lessons include scaffolding, in which the instructor models reflection while reading aloud (explaining the thinking about thinking that is going on as the instructor reads and then gradually increasing having the student model reflective thinking aloud until the instructor is out of the process. Many students are unaware or are only vaguely aware that they can observe their own thinking and that old habits of reading through sentence after sentence through a reading selection are very inefficient. Reflection has to be taught and deliberately practiced until the neural networks are fully developed and the myelin sheath on neuron axons make the process automatic at which time the cognitive strategies become metacognitive strategies.

Scaffolding Process In the scaffolding process, the instructor points out aloud all the reflective thinking going on while reading; however, the instructor can focus specifically on (draw attention to) any one of the cognitive strategies he or she is employing in the reading process to emphasize and have the student model. For example, if the focus is on inquiry such as how is what I am reading like or different than what I already know the instructor will pay particular attention to passages that compare and contrast. For example if the reading passages are comparing normal and abnormal behavior in a psychology text, the instructor will model the active reflection of noting the comparison. The instructor will note any of the following comparison pattern of organization as he or she model reflecting. Categorizing – commonality under a category title Classifying – defining boundaries – comparison/ contrast Analyzing – separating wholes into parts by distinguishing boundaries

Synthesizing – combining new ideas into a complex whole Prediction – matches between sensory input and prior knowledge Figurative Language - comparison between two different things in order to highlight some point of similarity. Analogy - comparison of two or more objects Metaphor – implied comparison between two unlike things Simile - comparison of two unlike things that are alike in one way

C HAPTER 6

When Should Allied Health Learners Begin Developing These Application Underlying Mental Processes ? Every first-semester freshmen who has chosen an allied health major should be placed into co-requisite reading to learn/ gateway content area, credit-bearing courses in which the reading to learn underlying mental process for application learning are taught and practice in the context of the reading assignments of the content area, credit-bearing course. The assumption is that these mental processes are only needed by developmental learners; however, the evidence is that almost all levels of learners can benefit from such instruction. These mental processes have to be learned; they are not innate. The brain of the 18-35 year old is prime timing for developing the prefrontal cortex. It is not what one learns; it is how one learns that makes the difference in application.

S ECTION 1

How to Make the Change to Application Learning for First-time New Freshmen?

Every first-semester freshmen who has chosen an allied health major should be placed into co-requisite reading to learn/ gateway content area, credit-bearing courses in which the reading to learn underlying mental process for application learning are taught and practice in the context of the reading assignments of the content area, credit-bearing course. The assumption is that these mental processes are only needed by developmental learners; however, the evidence is that almost all levels of learners can benefit from such instruction. These mental processes have to be learned; they are not innate. The brain of the 18-35 year old is prime timing for developing the prefrontal cortex. It is not what

one learns; it is how one learns that makes the difference in application. Gateway Course Instructor in Programs of Study There is no reason to assume that gateway content instructors know how learning takes place or especially what is required in learning and teaching to develop the foundation of critical thinking and application (transfer) learning. Much of what we now know is very recent. The technology for studying what is happening in the brain when learning (Sophisticated MRIs and microscopes) in the past ten years has exploded our understanding of how the brain works and especially what it takes to develop executive functioning necessary for retrieval and application. Professional Development for Gateway and Allied Health Instructors The deal is allied health learners do not develop the mental processes underlying application thinking by knowing about the processes and how they work in the brain (it helps). Developing the prefrontal cortex, increasing transmission and processing speeds, learning 41

in the context of a conceptual framework, organizing knowledge in ways that facilitate retrieval and application, developing the mental processes for not just understanding, but developing a deep foundation of factual knowledge all require a tremendous amount of deliberate practice in the context of timely and relevant reading assignments within the gateway content courses that is required to build and strengthen the neural networks for these mental processes. With what we now know, it is absurd to still believe that teaching archaic isolated learning skills outside the relevant content of content courses will produce meaningful change in learning for allied health learner. There is not question that instruction activities around these mental processes is helpful; however, the allied health learner needs to be building the neural network structures for engaging in transfer learning processes the day they walk into a allied health course in which they need to be developing a deep foundation of factual knowledge that contributes to future application, which means every course. Suggestion: Default placement for all allied heath majors, starting with reading students with COMPASS reading score above 70 and below 85 in content area, credit bearing course(s) in which remediation that has

rigor and relevance for reading to learn in that content area, credit-bearing course is embedded in the first semester of enrollment. First Steps to be Taken Default Placement â&#x20AC;˘ The college agrees to default placement for all allied heath majors, starting with reading students with COMPASS reading score above 70 and below 85 in content area, credit bearing course(s) in which remediation that has rigor and relevance for reading to learn in that content area, credit-bearing course is embedded in the first semester of enrollment. Identifying Meta-majors and Their Gateway Courses Gateway Course Instructors 1. Credential and degree students should enter a metamajor when they enroll in college and start a program of study in their first year, in order to maximize their prospects of earning a college degree. â&#x20AC;˘ Identify the content area, credit-bearing gateway courses in credential and degree courses. 2. Exploratory students should be guided to a default general education program of study pathway. 42

• Identify the most taken content area, credit bearing courses in general education programs of study pathways that overlap with content area, creditbearing gateway courses in credential and degree courses. Identify Gateway Course Instructors Identify the content area, credit-bearing course instructors in the identified courses above who would be willing to have first semester students with COMPASS reading scores that are above 70 and below 85 and are being provided reading to learn support for the creditbearing course ‘s content reading embedded in their courses. Form a coalition of the willing, and just begin to implement. Identify the Forms of Remediation to be Embedded in the Content Area, Credit-Bearing courses • Co-requisite reading/content area, credit-bearing courses • Combined reading/writing/content area, creditbearing courses • Supplemental Instruction (SI); all students will not be able to be placed in a co-requisite reading/content

area, credit-bearing course; therefore, there must be a plan for embedding remediation in the content area, credit-bearing courses. Credit Hours for Courses • Co-requisite course model: the co-requisite linked course should not be more than one credit hour (i.e. a 3 credit-bearing content course + a one hour linked course or lab). • Credit-bearing course generating not more than four credit-hours, whether and embedded or linked model is used to support reading and writing remediation needs. Advising Advising for accelerated co-requisite reading models/ content area, credit-bearing courses has to implement: “Advising really needs to understand the new courses, the purpose and pedagogy behind them, and rationale behind accelerating/mainstreaming.” (Van, 2014, Frontier Range Community College, Colorado) • Placement for all students not meeting benchmarks is placement in content area, credit bearing course in the first semester of enrollment in co-requisite 43

reading models/content area, credit-bearing courses where they are available. • All students not meeting benchmarks are placed in their reading courses first before being placed in any other course when registering. • All students not meeting benchmarks are advised about the availability of co-requisite reading models/ content area, credit-bearing courses as the first option for placement in reading. No exceptions. Rigor, Relevance and Content of Embedded Remediation Content What Needs to be Remediated? Going for Rigor and Relevancy Rather than Deficiency A Shift in Mindset: What Actually Needs to Be Remediated? This means a complete reworking of the content of skill support for co-requisite reading models embedded in content area, credit-bearing courses. “In the past, colleges and universities have looked at students entering with a deficiency and have focused on identifying what the student did not learn or perhaps forgot. Then they look backward and remediate

that. What if we instead looked forward, and asked instead, "What does this student need in order to be successful?” Martin Golson, Austin Peay State University • Identify reading to learn mental processes for embedded remediation that aligns with the content of the content area, credit-bearing course reading assignments. • Clarify rigor and relevance of embedded remediation in content area, credit bearing courses. A Quick Brief History of Reading to Learn Instruction That Just is Not Getting the Job Done and Why a Transfer Learning is Needed A Quick History of Reading Instruction Many reading instruction programs, among them computer-based reading programs emphasize learning isolated reading skills and then testing for those isolated reading skills and declaring success if the student can successfully use those isolated reading skills. For example, MyReadingLab, emphasizes learning isolated skills such as main idea, supporting detail, patterns of organization, inference, and purpose and tone. Many studies have found that the teaching of these isolated skills did little to foster transfer of 44

learning. For examples, Complex processes appear to be more than the sum of heir parts, and skills do not seem to transfer automatically from one domain to another. Learning seems to take place best in the context of complex experiences and problem solving” (Starko. 2001); “Many critics have observed that instructional approaches to finding the main idea often involved sophisticated conventions that became ends in themselves and were too time consuming” (Carnegie, 2010).; and “For many years, reading comprehension instruction was based on a concept of reading as the application of a set of isolated skills such as finding main ideas, identifying cause and effect relationships, comparing and contrasting, and sequencing.” Durkin found that this type of instruction did little to help students learn how or when to use the skills, and these skills were not shown to enable comprehension” (Keys to Literacy). Why the Need to Develop Competence? As you just read, teaching isolated skills did little to foster transfer learning. The key is transfer learning. Transfer learning means that what you learn in allied health must be learned in a way that it can be easily retrieved from memory and can be used in new contexts to make decisions or solve problems. 45

C HAPTER 7

Additional Notes

Understanding is not enough; within developing a deep foundation of factual knowledge, there are mental processes that help consolidate that knowledge as one is building neural networks laying the foundation for application learning.

S ECTION 1

Rules of Consolidation The Rules of Consolidation Rule One: Re-expose yourself to the information. Rule Two: Re-expose yourself to the information with elaboration. You are elaborating when you redraw the pictures by using one of the most powerful elaboration strategies for storing information in long-term memory – Saying what you have just learned in your own words. (Anything you do to interconnect what you are learning to what you already know is an elaboration.) Writing to learn (see below) is very powerful for helping clarify, organize and construct meaning as one surveys. Rule Three: Re-expose oneself to the information within the conceptual framework using fixed timed intervals.

The First Rule: Deliberately re-expose yourself to the information if you want to retrieve it later. It is a simple fact, the more exposure a learner has to new information they want to learn the greater the likelihood that the new information will move from short term memory (working memory) to long-term memory. From the Research “The typical human brain can hold about 4 pieces of information for less than 30 seconds. If something does not happen in that short stretch of time, the information becomes lost. If you want to extend the 30 seconds to, say, a few minutes, or even an hour or two, you will need to consistently re-expose yourself to the information. This type of repetition is sometimes called maintenance rehearsal. We know that “maintenance rehearsal” is mostly good for keeping things in working memory – that is for short periods of time” (Medina, 2008). If the reader wants to hold on to the new information long enough for the brain to store and manipulate that information the reader needs to do something to give the working memory time to do its job. Deliberately 47

re-expose yourself to the information if you want to retrieve it later is the first “rule of consolidation.” Highlighting the information in the textbook in order to come back to learn it later is just simply a mistaken strategy for learning. It is an example of trying to hold the information outside the brain – the trick is to re-expose yourself to the information, even if one highlights, in order for your own brain to store and manipulate the information if you want to learn most effectively. The Second Rule: Deliberately re-expose yourself to the information more elaborately if you want the retrieval to be of higher quality. “More elaborately” means thinking, talking or writing about what was just read. Any mental activity in which the reader slows down and mentally tries to connect what they are reading to what they already know is elaboration. This means for the reader that he or she must slow down and have a conversation (reading, writing or talking) about what they are reading and wanting to learn in order for that information to be of a high quality. “High quality” means the information will be useable in the future for thinking reasoning or apply to new situations

From the Research “We know that there is a better way to push information into long-term memory. That way is called “elaborative rehearsal” and it’s the type of repetition shown to be most effective for the most robust retrieval. A great deal of research shows that “thinking or talking” about an event immediately after it has occurred enhances memory for the event.” (Medina, 2008). The same is true for the information you are reading in a textbook. The Third Rule: Deliberately re-expose yourself to the information more elaborately, and in fixed intervals, if you want the retrieval to be the most vivid it can be. Forgetting occurs very rapidly if something is not done to strengthen new dendrites (learning). Research show us that a learner (reader) must not only re-expose themselves to new information they want to learn, but hat they also must think or talk about that information if they want to remember the information. Research further shows that there are specific times for re-exposing ourselves to the information and elaborating on the information. We will go over the most important ones now: 48

Fixed Time Intervals for Re-exposing and Elaborating As the reader identifies what is important while reading, stop re-expose yourself to the information and elaborate on the it (have an internal dialogue, what do you already know about what you are reading, write about it (take notes in your own words), explain it to yourself out loud. Note: This time interval is specifically for holding and expanding the time new information has in working memory, which gives you and your brain more time to manipulate the information before it can be forgotten. When you have read a new topic or paragraph, explain to yourself what you have just read; this is re-exposure to the information. Note: This time interval and the remaining time intervals take advantage of the opportunity to strengthen newly grown dendrites.

When you finish studying, take a few minutes to re-expose yourself to the information and elaborate. Within 90 minutes to 2 hours, re-expose yourself to the information and elaborate. Review again the next day as soon as you can. From the Research â&#x20AC;&#x153;When a reader reads nonstop, new information is subject to being confused with other information. â&#x20AC;&#x153;The probability of confusion is increased when content is delivered in unstoppable, unrepeated waves. This causes newly encoded information to reshape (interference) and wear away previously existing traces. Such interference does not occur if the information is delivered in deliberately spaced repetition cycles. (This is where the reader can take control of learning.) Repeated exposure to information in specifically timed intervals provides the most powerful way to fix memory into the brain. When the electrical representations of information to be learned are built up slowly over many repetitions, the neural networks recruited for storage gradually remodel the overall representation and do not interfere with neural networks previously recruited to store similarly learned information. This 49

idea suggests that continuous repetition cycles create experiences capable of adding to the knowledge base, rather then interfering with existing knowledge baseâ&#x20AC;? (Medina, 2008).Rules of Consolidation

S ECTION 2

Reading and Writing to Learn Reading and writing instruction wear many hats - literacy and learning among them. College graduates need to have developed both literacy and learning mental processes. Both are highly dependent on building a base of factual knowledge. Writing to learn is among the more powerful elaboration mental activities for learning and writing to communicate deepens that learning. Ultimately learners must succeed in programs of study. It has never been more important than now for graduates in programs of study to be able to build an ever expanding interrelated foundation of factual knowledge. It is no longer acceptable to have just succeeded in programs of study. A strong foundation of factual knowledge organized within a conceptual framework(s) is being recognized as the key to critical thinking and problem solving and this kind of literacy and learning needs to be included in developmental writing courses as these mental processes have the most literacy and learning relevancy to the goals of the student. Literacy

skills can be taught in writing to communicate activities that focus on developing a deep foundation of factual knowledge, understanding in the context of a conceptual framework, organizing facts and ideas in ways that facilitate retrieval and application. What an evaluation of college completion data is telling us is that students need to get into programs of study earlier and they need to be learning literacy and learning mental processes that are most relevant to their goals. The gaps between writing instruction, writing across the curriculum, and writing in the disciplines needs to shrink and inclusion needs to expand. Again, learning transfer learning mental processes is developmental and there is no reason to wait for some capstone course for students to start learning them Writing to Learn Don’t miss this point: Writing to learn activities are among the most powerful elaboration strategies. First a note on some boundaries for writing to learn: “Writing to learn emphasizes what is said (new ideas and concepts) rather than how it is said (correct spelling, grammar, and usage). Often, less structured and more informal writing to learn can take forms such as journals, summaries, responses to oral or written questions, free writing, and notes.” (Literacy 51

Matters). Focus on meaning, not correct spelling, grammar, and usage in writing to learn strategies. “All too often in education, instructors and students are focused only on final products: the final exam, the grade, the perfect research paper, mastery of a subject.

raise questions and discover solutions. In this way, writing to learn helps to not only acquire content information but also to transform knowledge and to generate new knowledge. Writing to learn is a powerful tool for clarifying thinking in preparation for organizing knowledge in ways that facilitate application (inquiry-based inquiry and problem solving). Writing to Learn

But how do we as learners get from here to there? What are the intermediate stages that help us develop the skills and habits of master learners in our disciplines? What kinds of scaffolding enable us to move forward, stepby-step? How do we, as educators and students, recognize and support the slow process of progressively deepening our abilities to think like historians and scholars? (Bass and Eynon, Capturing the Visible Evidence of Invisible Learning, 2009). Use writing as a tool for organizing information as a way of helping discover connections, discern processes,

Writing to learn should take advantage of what is known about learning, especially re-exposure to ideas to build a deep foundation of factual knowledge, the use of elaboration to make interconnections with prior knowledge, clarification of ideas, and organization of facts and ideas in a conceptual framework. Writing to Learn and Internal Dialogue Questions Learners can always use “writing to learn” activities to mentally respond to internal dialogue questions. “Reflecting on what was just read helps clarify thinking and focus understanding. Full understanding cannot be achieved until students reflect in a meaningful way about their reading. Reflecting has a couple of very important by-products. First, it helps students think criti52

cally about what they have learned and have yet to learn about what they have read. A second by-product of reflective thinking is that it helps students retain material they have read” (Richardson, 2009). Writing to learn is a very useful reflecting activity and help us clarify and reorganize what we are reading. Writing to Learn as Elaboration Elaboration refers to any method of "thinking about new ideas and prior knowledge together" so the two become more deeply interconnected.

Some of these points may seem obvious, but studies strongly suggest that this kind of mental housekeeping makes the difference between good and poor readers. Writing to learn in learning situations should take advantage of what is known about learning, especially reexposure to ideas to build a deep foundation of factual knowledge, the use of elaboration to make interconnections with prior knowledge, clarification of ideas, and organization of facts and ideas in a conceptual framework.

Learning takes place when the new information becomes a part of the existing knowledge network. When elaborated and richly integrated, the new knowledge becomes meaningful and useful. Knowledge can be called "meaningful" only after it is richly interconnected with related knowledge. Knowledge can be called "useful" only if you can access it under appropriate circumstances. Meaningful knowledge is filed and cross referenced with other knowledge to which it is connected. Useful knowledge is filed and cross-referenced so that you can find it when you need it.     53

S ECTION 3

Using Mental Imagery in the Learning of Allied Health Content: It is key to courses like A&P In the sciences, it is important to be able to visualize the concepts being learned. For some concepts in the sciences to be deeply understood, the learner must create a mental image that stands for the concept. A major part of being a allied health learner is being able to take evidence, that requires making mental imagery comparisons and contractions among the evidence. Just learning allied health requires the learner to construct and retain mental images of the information being learned. Why use visual imagery? Creating an image while reading requires the reader to continually be stepping bak mentally and reflecting on what they are reading. Creating mental images while reading can improve comprehension. It is one thing to see a picture cell while reading and quite another to reconstruct and build that image into your neural net-

work in the brain in ways that facilitate retrieval so that you can most effectively use the information later. It is in those moments of reflection (stepping back mentally and thinking about your thinking) while reading that the deepest learning occurs. Visualizing or Mentally Imaging What You are Learning Like all reading in the sciences, understanding, deep learning and developing competence in the subject being studies, learning the concepts in allied health require developing the ability to reflect (step back in your mind and think about what you are learning) as as you reflect while reading create mental images of the concepts you are learning. The ability to visualize (taking advantages of pictures in the textbook is critical for deep learning. How to use visual imagery Follow these few simple steps to provide practice developing mental images: Begin reading. As you encounter pictures or descriptive passages, pause and mentally reconstruct the picture or the image being described (a form of reflection). This practice also helps build myelin in the brain of the neural networks being fired and speeds up the retrieval of the information and image later. 54

Visualization (Imaging Concepts) One of the ways that is most effective for incorporating images into the conceptual framework of related information being learned is to use elaboration. Have an internal dialogue with yourself in which you describe the imagery and/or discuss with yourself or others how the images contribute to what is being learned. This helps ensure deep learning.

What is Visualization or imagery?

Other Visualization to Learn Techniques

Visualization Definition • To form a mental visual image of • A mental image that is similar to a visual picture • Visualization is converting a thought in to a visual image.

Mental Action Imagery – mentally creating an image which has three components (1) the new information, (2) something you associate with the new information, (3) yourself, and (4) you doing something with the new information.

Imagery Definition • A set of mental pictures or images. • The formation of mental images, figures, or likenesses of things, or of such images collectively.

Drawing and Labeling – some information (ex. in the sciences) need an image in order to be understood. Organizing information in a mind map – mind maps can show the relationship between new concepts, and new concepts and prior knowledge. Drawing pictures, especially on a mind map – images free working memory to hold additional items. SOME NOTES ON VISUALIZATION AND IMAGERY

In this course, we are going to look at how imagery can impact reading to learn. Around four processes: 1. Imaging concepts and examples while reading (new terminology paired with visual examples) 2. Creating images to represent a concept (pulling from prior knowledge and creating mental images using prior knowledge) 3. Using imagery to organize information (Mind mapping) 4. Using imagery to create metaphors for learning concept (she is a rose) Images are internal sensory representations that are also used in the creation of memory. They can bring 55

words to mind, which can arouse other images or pictures. The formation of images helps in learning and remembering what has been learned or experienced in the past. More than you want to know, but I will tell you anyway: “For meaningful learning to occur in a multimedia environment (when we use words and images to learn, we are creating a multimedia environment), the learner must engage in five cognitive processes: (1) selecting relevant words for processing in verbal working memory, (2) selecting relevant images for processing in visual working memory, (3) organizing selected words into a verbal model (mind map – conceptual framework), (4) organizing selected images into a pictorial model, (5) integrating the verbal and pictorial representations with each other and with prior knowledge. Although these cognitive processes in list a list, they do not necessarily occur in a linear order.” (Mayer) Using Mental Imagery – Moving Past Memorizing Strong concept imagery improves the ability to process, organize, verbalize, and write information, independent of rote learning. Imagery is also very important for higher order thinking, which includes the ability to critically analyze, infer, predict and evaluate. (Langsford Learning Center)

The mind map that the introductory paragraph provides lacks details; however, as we can see from the mind map of the paragraph, it is providing us a great conceptual framework for adding details later. As we continue to read the chapter, we will be analyzing to see what commonalities in the details are shared with the mind map we have created above. We should expect to find examples an explanations that we can use to create images or mental pictures. Adding Pictures to Mind Maps: Show and explain how an image (picture) with a mind map can be an information-efficient construct holding a lot of conceptual information. And through mental action imagery can be a powerful vocabulary and terminology learning strategy interconnecting complex relationships. Mental practice or rehearsal. Mental practice or mental rehearsal is complementary to real practice. Visualization is converting a thought in to a visual image. Imagery Definition A set of mental pictures or images. The formation of mental images, figures, or likenesses of things, or of such images collectively Visuword Online Graphic Dictionary http://www.visuwords.com/ 56

VIVID ASSOCIATIONS. We have already discussed the idea of associations: aiding storage and retrieval of new information by intentionally pairing it with something familiar. When learning something new and unfamiliar, try pairing it with something you know very well, such as images, puns, music, whatever. The association does not have to make logical sense. Often times it is associations that are particularly vivid humorous, or silly that stay in your mind. (Intelegen) Visualization and Imagination Images are internal sensory representations that are also used in the creation of memory. They can bring words to mind, which can arouse other images or pictures. The formation of images appears to help in learning and remembering what has been learned or experienced in the past. Images and words can help you in remembering things by bringing pictures in your head instead of just words or figures. Letâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s say, in learning the process of cell mitosis or cell division, most of the books that contain concepts or scientific ideas have pictures to describe scenarios that are sometimes difficult to be seen by the human eye. Another example would be the structure of a bacteria or a virus. Graphic elements and visual tools, therefore, may become guiding principles in learning conceptual or precisely scientific ideas. Another example would be in memorizing the lyrics of

the songs or in remembering stories that you might have read before. In these two examples, the memorization process becomes easier if you imagine the images conjured by the lyrics of the song or if you create vivid images in your mind as you read or recall a narrative or tale. Picture the actual scenario described by the sentences or paragraphs. To further intensify your imagination, you have to actually feel what the character is feeling. If youâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;re reading a story about a knight in shining armor fighting a dragon, then feel your strength, the power of your sword, the heat of the fire from the dragonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mouth, and even the kiss of the princess after saving her from the monster. Images and the formation of which, in the process of learning or remembering, can therefore help you in improving your memory. Here are some of the valuable methods which you can use in achieving an imaginative memory: 1.Learn to think with both words and figures. For example, in reading a book, it would be helpful to stop for a while and reconstruct the suggested scenario inside your head. This way, you are also increasing the chances of not only recording linguistic data but also some of the essential cognitive aspect of remembering, like the reconstruction of perceived or imagined senses in your brain. The smell and taste of ice cream, the redness of a straw57

berry, or the thickness or thinness of blood described in a crime novel that not only gives chill or excitement in reading but also makes your reading experience more memorable. b. In learning new ideas, associate these concepts with a very particular image or picture that is very personal or relevant to you. Put some premium on what you already know or on what is easily conjured by your brain in experiencing these words (like in learning a new language or subject). Put some personal relationship with these words like knowing the origin of their meanings (etymology) or by giving them a concrete symbol in your head. c. 3. If youâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;re reading a very technical manual or theory pamphlet, what you can do is imagine yourself doing the scenario suggested by the book. This is also what we call as vivid reading. Words and sentences become alive not with their meaningful connections but with their correlative value with reality. In fact, writing prose or poetry involves a highly developed skill in imagery and mental mapping. Poets and creative writers are said to be good not only in remembering details or facts, but also in the creation of worlds or situations found within the mind. (PSI TEK)

Five Processes in the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia "In One Ear and Out the Other" The Langsford Learning Center, Louisville, Kentucky: Why do good readers, ones who have learned to read words with ease and fluency, sometimes have difficulty understanding what they read? People often wonder if this difficulty is due to not trying hard enough or a lack of attentiveness. While attention can sometimes be involved, often the difficulty is due to an under-developed learning process important to understanding what we read: concept imagery. The ability to develop concept imagery from words is an important underlying process that all readers need in order to develop into life-long independent learners. Research conducted by cognitive psychologist Allan Paivio has shown that children and adults with good comprehension have the ability to "dual code." This is the process of turning words read or heard into images, pictures and/or movies in the mind and then turning those images back into words. This interplay between verbal and visual information within the brain is important for true understanding and learning to happen. As the thinker Thomas Aquinas said, "Man's mind cannot understand thoughts without images of them." 58

Falling Through the Cracks In the early grades most schools have a "learn-to-read" focus and teachers are primarily concerned that the actual mechanics of reading and spelling are in place. Then a gradual shift occurs and schools move toward "reading-to-learn." We can see this shift by simply looking at books. Books for young children have lots of pictures and images, but as the reading level increases, the words on the page increase and pictures gradually decrease. The basic idea is that with continual practice and increased fluency, imaging and understanding will progress naturally. However, this is not always the case. Some students have to work much harder than their peers to get good grades, or can't progress at the same rate as their peers. They seem to read the text just fine, yet can't understand it, or they only understand parts rather than the whole. This can happen despite good vocabulary and good fluency. Readers who do not process the information through dual coding often find other ways to compensate, such as relying on memorization. Memorization may help these readers do well on tests, but eventually they hit a wall where this just doesn't seem to work anymore, usually because the content required is simply too much in-

formation to memorize. This might happen in 5th grade, high school, college, or maybe not until doing graduate work. It all depends upon the individual's ability to compensate. Memorization can be very helpful if the underlying ability to generate concept imagery is in place, but when that foundational piece is missing, other strategies are not nearly as effective. Relying on memory to study and learn puts the focus on the facts. In addition, good memorizers often don't do well on tests that require them to think about the material in a different manner from how they memorized it. Strong concept imagery improves the ability to process, organize, verbalize, and write information, independent of rote learning. Imagery is also very important for higher order thinking, which includes the ability to critically analyze, infer, predict and evaluate. They're Just Words The reason to read is to get meaning from the printed word. Learners who are not efficient at generating concept imagery and also struggle with memorization are just reading the words. These words seem to go in one ear and out the other if there is no picture or image created to anchor the meaning in the brain. Such readers often find themselves reading and re-reading informa59

tion in order to recall even basic facts. Until an image is created, critical and analytical thinking cannot even begin to happen. A person can't read between the lines when they are only focused on the lines.

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Multitasking Learners and Instructors are always asking if multitasking affects learning in class or especially when learning. (Think iPhone vibrates in pocket while in class or studying.) Understanding what happens in the brain while multitasking, especially when trying to learn in ways that facilitates retrieval and application helps shed light on how learning should be occurring.