Basics of Biopsychology with MyPsychKit John PJ Pinel Solution Manual

Type:

Solution Manual

Resource:

Basics of Biopsychology with MyPsychKit

Edition:

1st Edition

Author(s):

John P.J. Pinel

Instructor’s Manual for

Pinel

Basics of Biopsychology

prepared by

Nancy J. Woolf University of California, Los Angeles

Table of Contents PREFACE SAMPLE SYLLABUS TABLE OF CONTENTS FOR TRANSPARENCIES TABLE OF CONTENTS FOR DIGITAL MEDIA ARCHIVE Chapter 1 Introduction to Biopsychology How Biopsychologists Think About Behavior…………………………………………….1 Chapter 2 The Anatomy of the Brain The Systems, Structures, and Cells That Make Up Your Nervous System…………….…14 Chapter 3 Neural Activity and How to Study It How Neurons Work………………………………………………………………………27 Chapter 4 The Visual System How We See……………………………………………………….……………………...42 Chapter 5 Mechanisms of Perception Hearing, Touch, Taste, Smell, and Attention…………………………………………….56 Chapter 6 The Sensorimotor System How You Do What You Do……………………………….……………………………...71 Chapter 7 Development of the Nervous System From Fertilized Egg to You……………………………………………………………....86 Chapter 8 Brain Damage and Neuroplasticity Can the Brain Recover from Damage?…………………………………………………..98 Chapter 9 Learning, Memory, and Amnesia How Your Brain Stores Information……………………………………………………110

Chapter 10 Hunger, Eating, and Health Why Do Many People Eat Too Much?…………………………………………………123 Chapter 11 Hormones and Sex What’s Wrong with the Mamawawa?…………………………………………………..135 Chapter 12 Sleep, Dreaming, and Circadian Rhythms How Much Do You Need to Sleep?……………………………………………………..149 Chapter13 Health Psychology: Addiction, Emotion, and Stress Impact of Psychological Factors on Health……………………………………………163 Chapter 14 Lateralization, Language, and the Split Brain The Left Brain and the Right Brain of Language………………………………………183 Chapter 15 Behavioral Neuroscience of Psychiatric Disorders The Brain Unhinged…………………………………………………………………….198 A PPENDIX………………………………………………………………………….....214 Exercise worksheets

PREFACE WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN THIS INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL This Instructor’s Manual contains lecture outlines, activities, lists of ancillary materials for John Pinel’s Basics of Biopsychology, as well as lists for outside media resources (books, movies, and websites). There is an outline for each chapter of the book, which I recommend splitting into two or three lectures depending on your time allotment.

Lecture notes (in Word format) will be made available at the Basics of Biopsychology’s website (http://www.ablongman.com/pinelbasics1e/), so that you may download and edit them according to your personal needs. I recommend adding your personal experiences and tailoring the lectures to emphasize what you feel is most important. Elaborating on your research interests also makes your lectures more interesting to your students.

There are two to three Lecture Launchers for each chapter, designed to help stimulate class discussion or to open a lecture in an interactive manner. In most cases, a link or reference to supporting material has been provided. These Lecture Launchers are located near related material, but they are intended to be used anywhere in your lectures, depending upon how you organize them. There are also three Exercises in each chapter. Two Exercises in each chapter are accompanied by a handout, which usually appears with instructions at the appropriate place in the lecture outline. Additionally, there is an entire set of handouts (without page numbers or headers) in the Appendix of the manual. I recommend photocopying the handouts from the Appendix. The third Exercise of every chapter is to “Evaluate Goals.” This exercise gives ideas for wrapping up each lecture week or chapter. A recurring theme is: “How does the material relate to the students in their everyday lives?”

THE MATERIAL IN THIS MANUAL COMPLEMENTS ANCILLARIES FOR BASICS OF BIOPSYCHOLOGY At the beginning of each chapter, a Chapter-At-A-Glance grid outlines the main sections of the chapter and the titles of the Lecture Launchers and Exercises. The grid also directs you to four other valuable resources that accompany Basics of Biopsychology: 1) BIOPSYCHOLOGY: BEYOND BRAIN & BEHAVIOR CD-ROM. This CD-ROM is included with each copy of Basics of Biopsychology. It contains a collection of teaching/learning aids to assist you and your students, including QuickTime modules that illustrate key points in the text, a Practice Test for your students, a Hard Copy section that will help your students learn more about topics covered in that chapter, and Electronic Flashcards to help your students learn the material more efficiently.

2) DIGITAL IMAGE ARCHIVE AND POWERPOINT PRESENTATIONS CD-ROM for Basics of Biopsychology. This manual contains a table of contents listing all the digital images available. You may wish to obtain and familiarize yourself with this valuable resource well before your course starts. This resource is available from Allyn and Bacon. You can register online and download it or request it from your sales representative. This instructors-only CD includes PowerPoint lectures for each chapter. If you have a multi-media classroom, you can display the

figures or PowerPoint presentations directly from the CD-ROM. If not, you can print them on transparencies and show them with an overhead projector.

3) VIDEO. Allyn and Bacon’s Video for Biological Psychology contains video segments garnered from Films for the Humanities and Sciences. Each video covers topics such as: anatomy of the brain, DNA, genetics, neurotransmitters, how drugs influence electric impulses in the brain, methods of studying the brain, brain damage, the senses, eating, hormones, sleep, drug addiction, memory, and neuroplasticity. The videos will help students better understand the workings of the brain and foster classroom discussion.

4) TRANSPARENCIES for Physiological Psychology. This manual contains a table of contents listing all the transparencies available. These transparencies include artwork that will complement your lectures and help you to illustrate key concepts from the text. They are available upon request from your Allyn and Bacon representative.

In addition to the materials offered by Allyn and Bacon, each chapter of this manual ends with a list of ADDITIONAL READING AND MEDIA RESOUCES. The books listed can be checked out of the library, or they can be purchased from local bookstores or online. Most of the films can be located at the Films Media Group at: http://www.films.com/. If you plan far enough ahead, you can look into teaching grants to purchase the films or check with your department for other sources of funding. A number of websites are also listed. Governmental agencies, universities, research institutes, foundations, and news agencies maintain most of the websites listed, so I anticipate that these websites should remain online for a long while. Unfortunately, websites are sometimes taken off the web, so please accept my apologies for any web addresses that no longer work by the time you use this manual.

I hope that you find the materials in this Instructor’s Manual useful, and good luck with your teaching!

Nancy J. Woolf March 2006

Sample Syllabus Course Number and Name (e.g., Psychology 15: Biopsychology) Semester (or Quarter) and Year Time Location Instructor Office Location Office Hours Telephone E-mail

Teaching Assistant Office Location Office Hours Telephone E-mail

Required Texts Pinel, John (2006) Basics of Biopsychology. Allyn & Bacon.

Grade Aid to accompany Pinel’s Basics of Biopsychology Instructor’s Biography Educational Background Research Interests Personal Material Course Objectives During the course, I expect you to: 1) gain a basic working knowledge of biopsychology, covering: • brain structure and nerve cells.

• sensation and sensorimotor functions.

• neural development and neuroplasticity.

• cognition and motivation.

• neuropsychological and psychiatric disorders.

2) improve your higher-order thinking skills, including: • analyzing and synthesizing information.

• interpreting results in biopsychology.

3) develop skills for acquiring information from the Internet by: • searching for websites related to biopsychology.

• searching for research articles in biopsychology.

4) develop an appreciation for how biopsychology impacts upon your daily life.

Office Hours One-on-one assistance is available during office hours, including: • help with lecture material.

• advice on how to study better.

• getting to know the Professor; asking for letters of recommendation.

Assessment of Student Learning Your grade in this class will be based on the following: 3 midterm exams 150 points each Final exam 250 points 15 Grade Aid assignments 20 points each

450 points 250 points 300 points

The total possible points is 1000. Final course grades will be assigned as follows: 920 - 1000 = A 720 - 779 = C 900 - 919 = A700 - 719 = C880 - 899 = B+ 680 - 699 = D+ 820 - 879 = B 620 - 679 = D 800 - 819 = B600 - 619 = D780 - 799 = C+ 580 and below = F Assessment Midterm Exam # 1 Midterm Exam # 2 Midterm Exam # 3 Final Exam Grade Aid assignments Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15

Date

Point Value 150 points 150 points 150 points 250 points

20 points each

Your Score

__________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________

Examinations (including the Final Exam) All exams are cumulative. Three-quarters of the exam points will come from multiplechoice questions and one-quarter of the points will derive from short-answer questions.

Test question will cover material from the assigned readings, lectures, films, and other class activities.

Important notes: • There are no make-up exams, except in rare cases. See the Professor immediately if you have any scheduling conflicts.

• Please be on time for exams. Anyone arriving later than the first person to turn in an exam will not be allowed to take the exam.

•

Please notify the Professor immediately if you have an emergency absence on the day of the exam. We will address these matters on an individual basis.

Class Attendance and Participation Attendance is mandatory, except for emergencies and school-sponsored activities, such as athletic competitions. You are responsible for all material covered in class.

Make-up or Extra Credit Paper You may write a paper to fill in for an excused absence from or to replace a poor grade on a Midterm Exam. This option is not available for the Final Exam. The Professor must approve the topic in advance. Only one make-up paper is allowed per term. Additionally, extra credit may be awarded for participation in pre-approved departmental research.

Honor Code The honor code, found in the student handbook, is strictly enforced in this class. Anyone caught cheating on exams will be turned into the Dean of Students. This includes copying answers from your neighbor’s exam, looking at your neighbor’s exam, talking during the exam, or being in possession of “cheat notes.” Plagiarism (i.e., the use of exact language without use of quotation marks and proper credit or the use of ideas without proper citation) is forbidden. Extra credit papers must be turned in with the major source articles attached. Write in a style that you find comfortable and use your own words.

Miscellaneous Points • Please inform me as soon as possible if you have any disabilities or circumstances that may require special considerations.

• Pay attention to announcements made in class.

Class Schedule This is a tentative schedule. We may run ahead or fall behind on lectures during the term.

Week Dates Topic Readings/ Assignments Movies Due/Tests 1 Introduction to Biopsychology Chapter 1 Grade Aid #1 • discuss syllabus The Final • roots of biopsychology Mystery 2 The Anatomy of the Brain Chapter 2 Grade Aid #2 • nervous system overview • detail brain regions The Brain 3 Neural Activity and How to Study It Chapter 3 Grade Aid #3 • neurophysiology basics Animated • chemical neurotransmission Neuroscience 4 The Visual System Chapter 4 Grade Aid #4 • retina and lateral geniculate • visual cortex Vision Midterm 1 5 Mechanisms of Perception Chapter 5 Grade Aid #5 • principles of perception • hearing, touch, smell, and Human taste Senses

6

7 8 9

10 11 12

13

14

15

Final Exam Week

The Sensorimotor System • the spinal cord • motor cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum Development of the Nervous System • fertilization to birth • neurogenesis Brain Damage and Neuroplasticity • brain injury and tumors • neurodegenerative diseases Learning, Memory, and Amnesia • synaptic plasticity and longterm potentiation (LTP) • amnesia disorders Hunger, Eating, and Health • physiology of hunger • eating disorders Hormones and Sex • neuroendocrinology • genotype versus phenotype Sleep, Dreaming, and Circadian Rhythms • EEG waves and sleep • suprachiasmatic nucleus Health Psychology, Addiction, Emotion, and Stress • addictive drugs • theories of emotion Lateralization, Language, and the Split Brain • hemispheric differences • split-brain subjects Behavioral Neuroscience of Psychiatric Disorders • schizophrenia and affective disorders • anxiety and psychiatric drugs A review session will be scheduled for the final exam.

Chapter 6 Moving Parts Chapter 7 Growing the Mind Chapter 8 The Forgetting Chapter 9 Memory: Fabric of the Mind Chapter 10 Eating Disorders Chapter 11 Understanding Sex Chapter 12 Understanding Sleep Chapter 13 Dopamine Seduction Chapter 14 Dyslexia: An Unwrapped Gift Chapter 15 Troubled Minds: The Lithium Revolution

Grade Aid #6

Grade Aid #7 Grade Aid #8 Midterm 2 Grade Aid #9

Grade Aid #10 Grade Aid #11 Grade Aid #12 Midterm 3 Grade Aid #13 Grade Aid #15 Grade Aid #15

Final Exam

Transparencies for Physiological Psychology (Available from your Allyn & Bacon Representative) Table of Contents Chapter 1. An Introduction to the Study of Brain and Behavior TSP01 Descartes’ Reflex Arc TSP02 How Modern Biopsychologists Think about the Biology of Behavior TSP03 Comparison of Brains from Animals of Different Evolutionary Ages TSP04 Similarities in DNA for Four Major Species of Hominids TSP05 Neoteny in Evolution of the Human Skull Chapter 2. The Anatomy of the Nervous System TPS06 The Major External Features of a Neuron TSP07 The Major Internal Features of a Neuron TSP08 Types of Neurons TSP09 The Types of Myelin TSP10 Neuroanatomical Planes of Section TSP11 Central and Peripheral Nervous System in situ, Including the Meninges and Cauda Equina TSP12 Divisions of the Nervous System TSP13 Ventricles of the Human Brain TSP14 Development of the Nervous System, Including the Neural Plate and Neural Tube TSP15 The Development of the Human Brain TSP16 The Lobes of the Cerebral Hemisphere TSP17 The Limbic System TSP18 The Cerebellum and Brain Stem TSP19 A Cross Section of the Spinal Cord TSP20 The Autonomic Nervous System Chapter 3. Electrical and Chemical Signals in the Nervous System TSP21 Measuring Electrical Charge TSP22 The Passive and Active Forces that Influence the Distribution of Na+, K+, and Cl- Ions across the Neural Membrane TSP23 A Sodium-Potassium Transporter TSP24 Postsynaptic Potentials and Action Potentials TSP25 Postsynaptic and Presynaptic Inhibition TSP26 Seven Steps in Neurotransmitter Action TSP27 Details of a Synapse TSP28 Release of Neurotransmitter TSP29 Reuptake TSP30 Some Mechanisms of Agonistic and Antagonistic Drug Effects TSP31 The GABAA-Benzodiazepine Receptor

Chapter 4. Methods for Studying Brain and Behavior TSP32 Color-Enhanced Magnetic Resonance Imaging TSP33 Some Typical Electroencephalograms TSP34 Stereotaxic Surgery TSP35 Intracranial Cannula Chapter 5. Sensation and Perception The Visual System TSP36 The Electromagnetic Spectrum TSP37 The Human Eye TSP38 Details of Retinal Circuitry TSP39 Transduction by Rods and Cones TSP40 Convergence of Rods and Cones TSP41 The Inhibitory Response of Rods to Light TSP42 The Visual Pathway from Retina to Cortex TSP43 Visual Object Agnosia Without Prosopagnosia The Auditory and Vestibular Systems TSP44 Anatomy of the Ear TSP45 Responses to Sound Waves TSP46 The Auditory Pathway TSP47 Location of the Primary and Secondary Auditory Cortex in the Temporal Cortex TSP48 The Semicircular Canals of the Vestibular System The Somatosensory System TSP49 Somatosensory Receptors TSP50 Dermatomal Map of a Human TSP51 The Dorsal-Column Medial-Lemniscus System TSP52 The Anterolateral System TSP53 The Somatosensory Homunculus and Somatosensory Cortex The Chemical Senses TSP54 The Gustatory System TSP55 Transduction of Taste Information TSP56 The Olfactory System Chapter 6. The Sensorimotor System TSP57 A General Model of the Sensorimotor System TSP58 Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle TSP59 Effects of Arm Movements on Sensory and Motor Neuron Activity TSP60 Elicitation of a Stretch Reflex TSP61 Lateral Motor Pathways TSP62 Ventromedial Motor Pathways TSP63 Primary Motor Cortex and Motor Homunculus TSP64 The Cerebellar Pathways TSP65 Positron Emission Topography and Novel v. Practiced Movement

Chapter 7. Ingestive Behaviors TSP66 Neural Pathways that Control Drinking TSP67 The Three Phases of Energy Metabolism TSP68 Metabolic Pathways and Phases of Feeding TSP69 The Leaky-Barrel Model of Feeding TSP70 The Five Stages of a Typical Weight-Loss Program Chapter 8. Reproductive Behavior TSP71 Control of the Anterior and Posterior Pituitary by the Hypothalamus TSP72 Development of the Internal Sex Organs TSP73 Development of the External Genitalia TSP74 Changes in Males and Females During Puberty TSP75 Neuroendocrine Control of the Menstrual Cycle TSP76 Neural Control of Male Sexual Behavior Chapter 9. Sleep and Biological Rhythms TSP77 Electroencephalogram Recording of the Stages of Sleep TSP78 Course of EEG Stages During Sleep TSP79 Hypothetical Roles of Chemicals in Sleep TSP80 Neural Circuitry Responsible for the Components of REM Sleep TSP81 Two Effects of REM-sleep deprivation TSP82 Molecular Control of the “Ticking” of Neurons of the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus Chapter 10. Emotion TSP83 CNS Targets of the Amygdala and Their Behavioral Correlates TSP84 Four Theories of Relations Among the Perception, Response, and Experience of Emotional Stimuli TSP85 Primary Facial Expressions TSP86 Emotional and Volitional Paresis TSP87 The Two-System View of the Stress Response Chapter 11. Learning and Memory TSP88 Neural Model of Classical Conditioning TSP89 The Hippocampal Formation TSP90 Associative Long-Term Potentiation TSP91 The Incomplete-Pictures Test TSP92 The Mumby Box and the Delayed Nonmatching-to-Sample Test

Chapter 12. Language and Localization of Function TSP93 Meyers and Sperry’s Split-Brain Experiments TSP94 Abilities that Display Lateralization of Function TSP95 Primary Speech Areas of the Brain TSP96 Hypothetical Explanation of Conduction Aphasia TSP97 Relative Effects on Language-Related Abilities to Damage to One of Five Areas of the Left Hemisphere Cortex Chapter 13. Neural Bases of Reward and Drug Abuse TSP98 Relation of Drug Tolerance to Withdrawal Symptoms TSP99 Mesotelencephalic Dopamine System TSP100 Positron Emission Tomography, Dopamine Receptors and Methamphetamine Abuse TSP101 A Child with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Chapter 14. Mental Illness and Anxiety Disorders TSP102 Chlorpromazine TSP103 Blocking of Serotonin Reuptake by Fluoxetine TSP104 Phases of Drug Development TSP105 Control of Adrenal Gland Secretion of Glucocorticoids and Catecholamines TSP106 Photomicrographs Showing Brain Damage Caused by Stress

Digital Media Archive (DMA) Adapted from John Pinel’s Biopsychology 6th Edition

Table of Contents Chapter 1. Biopsychology as a Neuroscience 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5

Visual Tracking of a Pendulum by a Normal Control Subject (top) and 3 Schizophrenics The Perception of Motion Under 4 Different Conditions Prefrontal Lobes Prefrontal Lobotomy Procedure of Moniz and Lima Transorbital Procedure for Prefrontal Lobotomy

Chapter 2. Evolution, Genetics, and Experience

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13

Asomatognosia The Biology of Behavior Four Kinds of Evidence Supporting the Theory that Species Evolve Comparison of the Feet and Hands of a Human and a Chimpanzee Vertebrate Evolution The Brains of Animals of Different Evolutionary Age Mendel’s Theory Meiotic Cell Division, Fertilization, and Mitotic Cell Division Crossing Over DNA Molecule DNA Replication Gene Expression Neural Pathway Responsible for the Production and Learning of Song in the Male Canary

Chapter 3. The Anatomy of the Nervous System 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13

Human Central and Peripheral Nervous System Major divisions of the Nervous System Cerebral Ventricles Absorption of Cerebrospinal Fluid The Major External Features of a Typical Neuron The Major Internal Features of a Typical Neuron The Cell Membrane Types of Neurons Myelination of CNS and PNS axons Anatomical Directions in Vertebrates Anatomical Directions in a Human Planes of the Human Brain Dorsal and Ventral Root s of the Spinal Cord

3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.22 3.23 3.24 3.25 3.26

Cross Section of the Spinal Cord Early Development of the Mammalian Brain Divisions of the Adult Human Brain Human Myelencephalon and Metencephalon Human Mesencephalon Human Diencephalon Human Hypothalamus in Relation to the Optic Chiasm and the Pituitary Gland Major Fissures of the Human Cerebral Hemispheres The Lobes of the Cerebral Hemispheres The Six Layers of Neocortex The Major Structures of the Limbic System The Basal Ganglia Summary of Major Brain Structures

Chapter 4. Neural Conduction and Synaptic Transmission

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17

Ion Concentration in the Resting Neuron Ion Distribution Across the Neural Membrane An EPSP, an IPSP, and an EPSP followed by an AP Possible Combinations of Spatial Summation Possible Combinations of Temporal Summation Opening and Closing of Voltage-Activated Sodium and Potassium Channels Anatomy of a Typical Synapse Postsynaptic and Presynaptic Inhibition Nondirected Neurotransmitter Release Schematic illustration of exocytosis (remove photo) Ionotropic and Metabotropic Receptors Reuptake and Enzymatic Degradation Steps in the Synthesis of Catecholamines from Tyrosine Classes of Neurotransmitters Seven Steps in Neurotransmitter Action Some Mechanisms of Agonistic and Antagonistic Drug Effects GABAA-benzodiazepine receptor complex

Chapter 5. The Research Methods of Biopsychology 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12

Computed Tomography (CT) Scan The Averaging on an Auditory Evoked Potential An Average Auditory Evoked Potential Typical EEGs Relation Between a Raw EMG signal and its Integrated Version Typical Placement of Electrodes for Electrooculography Stereotaxic Surgery Subcortical Knife Cuts A Cryoprobe Four Methods of Recording Electrical Activity of the Nervous System Wisconsin Card Sorting Test A Radial Arm Maze

Chapter 6. The Visual System 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17 6.18 6.19 6.20 6.21

The Electromagnetic Spectrum A Diagram of the Human Eye Cellular Structure of the Mammalian Retina A Section of the Retina Convergence of Cones and Rods Distribution of Cones and Rods Over the Human Eye Human Photopic and Scotopic Spectral Sensitivity Curves Absorption Spectrum of Rhodopsin Response of Rods to Light Retina-Geniculate-Striate System Mach Bands Lateral Inhibition Produces Contrast Enhancement Receptive Fields of On-Center and Off-Center Cells Responses of an On-Center Cell to Contrast Visual Fields of Simple Cortical Cells Organization of the Primary Visual Cortex Hubel and Wiesel’s Model of the Organization of Functional Columns in the Primary Visual Cortex Example of Fourier Analysis The Absorption Spectra of the Three Classes of Cones Land’s Color-Vision Experiments Hubel and Livingstone’s Model of Primary Visual Cortex Organization

Chapter 7. Mechanisms of Perception, Conscious Awareness, and Attention 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15 7.16 7.17 7.18 7.19 7.20 7.21

Two Models of Sensory System Organization Visual Areas of the Human Cerebral Cortex Perimetric Maps of a Subject with a Bullet Wound in his Left Primary Visual Cortex Subjective Contours Neurons of the Monkey Prestriate Cortex and Primary Visual Cortex Areas of Visual Cortex in Humans Visual Information Pathways Relation Between the Physical and Perceptual Dimensions of Sound Anatomy of the Ear Pathways of the Auditory System Primary and Secondary Auditory Cortex Four Cutaneous Receptors Dermatomes of the Human Body The Dorsal-Column Medial-Lemniscus System The Anterolateral System The Somatosensory Cortex and the Primary Somatosensory Homunculus Receptive Field of a Primary Somatosensory Cortex Neuron Location of Anterior Cingulate Cortex Basbaum and Field’s Model of the Descending Analgesia Circuit Olfactory System Gustatory System

Chapter 8. The Sensorimotor System 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 8.14 8.15 8.16

General Model of the Sensory System Cortical Input and Output Pathways Pathways of the Dorsolateral Prefrontal Association Cortex Four Areas of the Secondary Motor Cortex The Motor Homunculus The Two Divisions of the Dorsolateral Motor Pathway The Two Divisions of the Ventromedial Motor Pathway The Biceps and Triceps The Muscle-Spindle Feedback Circuit Intrafusal Motor Neurons The Elicitation of a Stretch Reflex Automatic Maintenance of Limb Position (pt 1 and 2) Reciprocal Innervation of Antagonistic Muscles Excitatory and Inhibitory Signals The Egginghaus Illusion Sequences of Finger Movements Recorded by a PET

Chapter 9. Development of the Nervous System 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9

How the Neural Plate Develops into the Neural Tube Two Types of Neural Migration Two Methods by which Cells Migrate in the Developing Neural Tube Sperry’s Classic Study of Eye Rotation and Regeneration Regeneration of the Optic Nerve of the Frog The Topographic Gradient Hypothesis The Effect of Neuron Death and Synapse Rearrangement on the Selectivity of Synaptic Transmission The Effect of Early Monocular Deprivation on Axons Brain Stem of Person with Autism

Chapter 10. Brain Damage and Neuroplasticity 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8

Stroke-Induced Release of Glutamate Bursting of an Epileptic Neuron Bilaterally Symmetrical 3-per-second spike-and-wave EEG discharge of petit mal seizure.

Neurofibrially Tangles and Amyloid Plaques in Alzheimer’s Patients Neuronal and Transneuronal Degeneration following Axotomy Three Patterns of Axonal Regeneration Collateral Sprouting after Neural Degeneration Reorganization of Rat Motor Cortex after Transection of Motor Neurons Two-Stage Model of Neural Reorganization

Chapter 11. Learning, Memory, and Amnesia 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 11.9 11.10 11.11 11.12 11.13

Medial Temporal Lobectomy Mirror-Drawing Task Rotary-Pursuit Task Incomplete-Pictures Test Major Components of the Hippocampus Correct Delayed Nonmatching-to-Sample Trial Three Major Structures of the Medial Temporal Lobe Aspiration Lesions of the Hippocampus in Monkeys and Rats The Mumby Box Structures of the Brain that Play a Role in Memory Three Synapses at which LTP is Most Commonly Studied Long-Term Potentiation in the Granule Cell Layer of the Rate Hippocampal Dentate Gyrus Induction of NMDA-receptor-mediated LTP

Chapter 12. Hunger, Eating, and Health 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 12.10 12.11

Gastrointestinal Tract Three Phases of Energy Metabolism Energy Set-Point View Sham-Eating Preparation Meal-Related Changes in Blood Glucose Levels Location of the Ventromedial and Lateral Hypothalamus in the Rat Postoperative Hyperphagia and Obesity in a Rat Paraventricular Nucleus in Rat Hypothalamus Transplantation of Extra Stomach and Length of Intestine in a Rat Leaky-Barrel Model Five Stages of a Typical Weight-Loss Program

Chapter 13. Hormones and Sex 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 13.9 13.10 13.11 13.12

Endocrine Glands Posterior and Anterior Pituitary Neural Connections between the Hypothalamus and the Pituitary Control of the Anterior and Posterior Pituitary by the Hypothalamus Regulation of Gonadal Hormones Development of an Ovary and a Testis Development of the Internal Ducts of the Male and Female Reproductive Systems Development of Male and Female External Reproductive Organs Changes in Males and Females During Puberty Nissl-Stained Coronal Sections through Preoptic Area of Rats Hypothalamus-Tegmentum Circuits Effects of Neonatal Testosterone Exposure on Size of Sexually Dimorphic Nuclei in Rats

Chapter 14. Sleep, Dreaming, and Circadian Rhythms 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 14.8 14.9 14.10 14.11

EEG of Alert Wakefulness EEG Stages during a Typical Night’s Sleep Free-Running Circadian Sleep-Wake Cycle Forced Exercise Adaptation to 8-hour Phase Advance in Circadian Cycle Two Effects of REM-sleep deprivation Two Regions of the Brain Involved in Sleep Four Pieces of Evidence that Reticular Activating System is Involved in Sleep Sagittal Section of the Brain Stem of a Cat Discovery of the Retinohypothalamic Tracts Location of the Pineal Gland Mortality Rates Associated with Sleep Amounts

Chapter 15. Drug Addiction and the Brain’s Reward Circuits 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8 15.9

Drug Tolerance Relation Between Drug Tolerance and Withdrawal Effects Contingent Tolerance Situational Specificity of Tolerance Conditioned Morphine Withdrawal Effects Prevalence of Drug Use in the U.S. Increase in Dopamine Release Mesotelencephalic Dopamine System Two Behavioral Paradigms

Chapter 16. Lateralization, Language, and the Split Brain 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 16.8 16.9 16.10 16.11 16.12 16.13 16.14 16.15

Cerebral Hemispheres and Cerebral Commissures Location of Broca’s Area Restricting Visual Information to One Hemisphere in Cats Schematic Illustration of Myers and Sperry’s Split-Brain Experiment Test to Evaluate Split-Brain Patients The Z Lens Two Language Areas of Cerebral Cortex with Neuroanatomical Asymmetry Anatomical Asymmetry in the Planum Temporale Seven Components of the Wernicke-Geschwind Model How the Wernicke-Geschwind Model Works Brain Damage in one of Broca’s Original Patients Surgical Excision of the Classic Wernicke-Geschwind Language Areas Effects of Damage to Left-Hemisphere Cortex to Language Abilities Responses of Epileptic to Electrical Stimulation Reading-Associated Increases in Activity in fMRI Study

Chapter 17. Biopsychology of Emotion, Stress, and Health 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 17.7

Four Ways of Thinking About Emotion-Inducing Stimuli Location of Major Limbic System Structures Effects of Facial Expression on Experience of Emotion Two-System View of Stress Response Specific Barriers to Infection Structures that Mediate Responses to Auditory Conditional Stimulus Fear Grimace in a Rhesus Monkey

Chapter 18. Biopsychology of Psychiatric Disorders 18.1 18.2 18.3

How Chlorpromazine Works Positive Correlation Between Neuroleptics Ability to Bind to D2 and Clinical Potency Blocking of Serotonin Reuptake by Fluoxetine

Appendix Appendix 1 Appendix III Appendix V Appendix VI

The Autonomic Nervous System The Cranial Nerves Nuclei of the Thalamus Nuclei of the Hypothalamus

CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Biopsychology How Biopsychologists Think About Behavior Detailed Outline Introduction

Chapter At-A-Glance Instructor’s Print Resources Supplements Lecture Instructor’s Launcher 1 Manual for Origins of Basics of BiopsychBiopsychology ology Chapter 1

Media Supplements Beyond the Brain and Behavior CD for Basics of Biopsychology

1.1 What is Biopsychology?

1.2 Human Evolution

1.3 Fundamental Genetics

Exercise 1.1 Overview of Biopsychology

Test Bank for Basics of Biopsychology Chapter 1

Lecture Launcher 2 Human Evolution and Biopsychology

Transparencies for Physiological Psychology, Chapter 1, TSP01-TSP05, see Table of Contents, p. xiii

1.4 Thinking about the Biology of Behavior: Mind-Brain and Exercise 1.2 Nature-Nurture Issues The Human Genome Project Lecture Launcher 3 The Debates Exercise 1.3 Evaluate Goals Key Terms

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Grade Aid for Basics of Biopsychology Chapter 1

Practice Tests for Chapter 1 Hard Copy for Chapter 1 Electronic Flashcards for Chapter 1 Digital Media Archive Log (DMA), 2.12.12, see Table of Contents, p. xvii PowerPoint Presentation Instructor’s Manual Additional Readings and Media Resources

Professor Notes

Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel CHAPTER 1 OVERVIEW Pinel begins Chapter 1 by describing the field of biopsychology and its relationships with current fields in neuroscience. “The case of Jimmie G., the man frozen in time” illustrates how memory deficits can figuratively make time stand still. Pinel outlines four major themes: thinking clearly about biopsychology, clinical implications, evolutionary perspective, and cognitive neuroscience—that are threaded throughout the chapters to come.

The section “What is Biopsychology?” discusses the origins of biopsychology and its relationships to current fields in neuroscience. More emphasis is placed upon behavior and cognition in biopsychology than in neuroscience; however, there is extensive overlap among these fields.

The next section, “Human Evolution” covers the relationship between evolution and behavior, illustrating how behavior will change in order to increase survival. Human evolution is discussed in detail, as is the way in which we tend to think about human evolution, including some basic misconceptions. There is a focus on the evolution of the human brain, with an attempt to identify those characteristics that make the human brain special. Pinel discusses how biopsychology includes both human and animal subjects.

“Fundamental Genetics” covers Mendelian genetics and the nature of chromosomes (including chromosome reproduction, sex chromosomes, sex-linked traits, chromosome structure and replication). The nature of the genetic code and the way that genes are expressed are both explained. The Human Genome Project is detailed.

The last section, “Thinking about the Biology of Behavior: Mind–Brain and NatureNurture Issues,” gives three lively illustrations of biopsychology. The mind–brain issue originates with Descartes or earlier, and is still not fully resolved. Most biopsychologists believe neural activity is the basis of mind. The nature versus nurture (genetics versus learning) debate has resolved itself and most scientists now accept that the interaction between genetics and experience is the key problem. Nonetheless, genetic variation can account for many individual differences.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES OF CHAPTER 1 • • • • • • • •

To give students an overview of the field of biopsychology.

To teach about evolution and genetics.

To teach students how biopsychologists study evolution and genetics.

To teach students about the Human Genome Project.

To teach students about the mind–brain issue.

To teach students about the nature–nurture debate.

To teach students about heritability of individual differences.

To assess how the major issues of biopsychology are relevant to their lives.

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Biopsychology CHAPTER 1 LECTURE OUTLINE (key terms in boldface) LECTURE LAUNCHER 1: Origins of Biopsychology Biopsychology and neuroscience co-evolved and bear significant relationships to one another. The emphasis in biopsychology is upon the nervous system and behavior or cognition, whereas neuroscience emphasizes the nervous system in some specialized way. Background on the origins of neuroscience can be found at the following website for The International Society for the History of Neurosciences: http://www.bri.ucla.edu/nha/ishn/ Introduction Basic terminology • neurons—nervous system cells involved in communication (100 billion neurons and 100 trillion connections in the human brain) • neuroscience—the study of the nervous system The case of Jimmie G., the man frozen in time—anecdote of man suffering from memory loss Four major themes of the Pinel textbook: • thinking clearly about biopsychology—be a critical evaluator • clinical implications—understand disease • evolutionary perspective—comparative psychology approach • cognitive neuroscience—field pertaining to thinking and brain 1.1 What is Biopsychology?

• behavioral neuroscience • behavioral biology • psychobiology Donald Hebb played a role in starting biopsychology • wrote The Organization of Behavior in 1949 • concluded psychological phenomena not beyond scientific explanation • biopsychologists draw from: o neuroanatomy—structure of the nervous system o neurochemistry—chemistry of the nervous system o neuroendocrinology—hormones and nervous system o neuropathology—diseases of the nervous system o neuropharmacology—drugs and the nervous system o neurophysiology—electrical activity of the nervous system Exercise 1.1 Instructions This exercise requires students to think about the relationships between biopsychology and different neuroscience disciplines. Biopsychology has an emphasis on behavior or cognition.

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel Name: ___________________________________ Exercise 1.1 Overview of Biopsychology The field of biopsychology is relatively new; however, it is flourishing. This is partly because biopsychology relates to a number current neuroscience disciplines, such as neuroanatomy, neurochemistry, neuroendocrinology, neuropathology, neuropharmacology, and neurophysiology.

The emphasis in biopsychology is upon the relationship between the nervous system and behavior or cognition.

Take this opportunity to look through the entire textbook. Pay particular attention to the Table of Contents to get an overview of the field of biopsychology.

Based on material in Chapter 1, as well as on any other part of the book or any prior knowledge you have concerning the brain and behavior, fill out the right-hand column, stating the relationship each neuroscience field has with biopsychology. The first answer is given.

Neuroscience Field Neuroanatomy

Relationship to Biopsychology The structure of the brain is related to behavior. Examples include brain size and cognition (although not always proportional), cerebral convolutions and cognition, and areas of brain and cognition.

Neurochemistry

Neuroendocrinology

Neuropathology

Neuropharmacology

Neurophysiology

Neural cell biology

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Biopsychology LECTURE LAUNCHER 2: Human Evolution and Biopsychology The human brain is perhaps one of the most exciting exhibits of evolution. Emphasize how evolution may explain many features of our brains. The following website is useful: Clues to the evolution of humans’ large brain by the Wellcome Trust: http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/en/genome/genesandbody/hg07f008.html 1.2 Human Evolution (Use transparencies TSP03-TSP05 or digital images 2.3-2.6; see Tables of Contents for complete media listings.)

Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of the Species • theory of evolution—single most influential theory in biology • Darwin based his theory on: o fossil records o structural similarities in living species o selective breeding in domestic plants o on-going evolution of the finches of the Galápagos islands • natural selection—structural, physiological, and behavioral traits associated with high rates of survival are passed on • fitness—ability of an organism to survive Evolution and behavior • social dominance—hierarchy determined by combative encounters between males • dominant males copulate more and pass their genes on more frequently Courtship display • signals between males and females • barriers to breeding—geographical or behavioral Course of human evolution • chordates—animals with dorsal nerve cords (evolved 450 million years ago) • vertebrates—animals with vertebrae (spinal bones) o 3 kinds of bony fishes o amphibians—animals that can survive on land o reptiles o birds o mammals—animals defined by mammary glands to nurse young • evolution of amphibians—410 million years ago: fins and gills transformed to legs and lungs • evolution of reptiles—300 million years ago: shell covered eggs and dry scale body coverings • evolution of mammals—180 million years ago: 14 orders of mammals, including primates (meaning first or foremost) • types of primates o prosimians o New-World monkeys

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel

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o Old-World monkeys o apes o hominids—includes humans chimpanzees—closest relatives to humans: 99% of genetic material identical

Emergence of Humankind • Australopithecus—evolved 6 million years ago, walked upright; small brain (500 cubic centimeters) • early Homo species—evolved 2 million years ago; large brain (850 cubic centimeters); moved out of Africa into Europe and Asia 1.7 million years ago • Homo sapiens—replaced earlier homo species about 200,000 years ago • artistic products—40,000 years ago • ranching and farming—10,000 years ago • writing—3,500 years ago Thinking about human evolution • evolution not a single line • humans have not been here long on an evolutionary scale • evolution can occur rapidly • fewer than 1% of all species still in existence • improvements not perfect • not all structures adaptive—spandrels: nonadaptive evolutionary by-products • exaptations—structures that serve other than primary function; e.g., bird wings were originally limbs for walking • homologous versus analogous—functionally similar structures with different versus same evolutionary origins, respectively; analogous structures result from convergent evolution Evolution of the human brain • human brain—weighs 1,350 grams: less than whale or elephant brains at 5,000– 8,000 grams • no relationship between brain size and intelligence • larger animals have larger brains—more tissue to control (e.g., male brains larger on average than female brains) • brain size as a percentage of body weight NOT adequate (e.g., shrew has highest brain/body ratio, but NOT most intelligence) • focus on cerebral hemispheres • number of convolutions—folds in the cerebral surface—relate to greater surface area of cerebral cortex Biopsychological research involves both human and nonhuman subjects • different issues addressed with human subjects versus animal subjects • human advantage—complex psychological phenomena • laboratory animal advantage—controlled experiments; comparative approach (studies that relate different species)

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Biopsychology 1.3 Fundamental genetics (Use digital images 2.7-2.12.)

Mendelian genetics (principles based on experiments of the Augustinian monk Gregor Mendel, 1822–1884) • dichotomous traits—traits occurring as one or the other, not mixed (e.g., blue or brown eyes) • true-breeding lines—breeding lines that always produce the same trait • dominant trait—appeared in all first-generation offspring • recessive trait—trait that appears in ¼ of second-generation offspring • phenotype—observable traits • genotype—genetic material • gene—inherited factor • alleles—two genes that control the same trait • homozygous—organisms with identical genes for a trait • heterozygous—organisms with different genes for a trait Chromosomes and reproduction • chromosome—threadlike structure in cell nucleus • gametes—eggs and sperm cells • meiosis—cell division that produces gametes • zygote—fertilized egg • mitosis—ordinary cell division Sex chromosomes and sex-linked traits • sex chromosomes—a pair of chromosomes that determines sex (X and Y) • sex-linked traits—traits determined by X and Y chromosomes; result in certain traits being inherited by either sex at a different rate (e.g., color blindness most often in males) Chromosome structure and replication • deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)—sequence of nucleotide bases • nucleotide bases—adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine • replication—DNA unwinds and attracts complementary nucleotide bases • errors in replication cause problems (e.g., Down’s syndrome) The genetic code and gene expression • structural genes—genes that lead to the production of proteins • proteins—long chains of amino acids • amino acids—small organic compounds that contain amino groups • operator genes—genes that control structural genes • gene expression—the process of switching genes on and off • DNA-binding proteins—proteins that regulate operator genes • ribonucleic acid (RNA)—short strands of nucleotides that are transcribed from DNA (RNA has uracil instead of thymine and a different backbone) • messenger RNA—RNA that carries the genetic code out of the nucleus • ribosomes—intracellular organelles that attach messenger RNA

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel • •

codon—three consecutive nucleotide bases along a messenger RNA transfer RNA—RNA that carries an amino acid to the ribosome o transcription—transfer of DNA base sequence to an RNA-base sequence o translation—transfer of an RNA-base sequence into sequence of amino acids

Human Genome Project: What’s next?

• human genome project—mapped 3 billion bases that compose human chromosomes • completed in 2001 • small number of structural genes—around 34,000 • mouse has half that number, and fruit fly one third • evolution involves gene refinements, not an increase in gene number • need to know how genes interact with other genes and experience Exercise 1.2 Instructions The purpose of this exercise is twofold. The first pedagogical purpose is for students to learn more about the Human Genome Project using the Internet. A more general purpose is to teach students how to find reliable information on the Internet. This is an important skill that can be taught in the context of biopsychology.

In this exercise, students are asked to give the website address, the host of the site, and a brief description of the information on that site as it pertains to three topics listed in the first column. Specific instructions are given on the exercise sheet, however, it may be useful to spend some time further instructing students how to find reliable information on the Internet. An important first step is to find the source host. Governmental agencies, universities, research institutes, public broadcasting stations, and other educational organizations are usually good sources of reliable information. Threaded discussion pages, question and answer sessions, and other unofficial-looking postings are less likely to be reliable. A good example of a reliable website for the Human Genome Project is found at: http://www.genome.gov/. Since this website is maintained by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), it is likely that the information is verifiable and up-to-date. Explain to students the importance of obtaining information from websites that are regularly maintained. In fast-changing fields, such as genetics and biopsychology, what was thought to be true one year ago may have been revised by more recent data.

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Biopsychology Name: ________________________ Exercise 1.2 The Human Genome Project How to get started: There are a few guidelines to follow. Look for Websites that end in .org or .gov. These sites are monitored and kept up-to-date by health organizations or governmental agencies, for example, by the National Institutes of Health (NIH). PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ links you to the National Library of Medicine.

You can type key words into any search engine, but there are also search engines that specialize in scientific information, including Scirus at: http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/. Remember that the Internet is always changing, so be creative. You can find sites in any number of different ways.

Check the last date the Website was updated to be sure the information offered is current.

Directions: Find websites giving information about the Human Genome Project related to topics listed in the first column. Fill in the website address, the name of the host institute or organization, and a brief description of the information on the site.

Address of a website Name of the institute or Brief description of concerning each topic organization host information History of the Human Genome Project

Structural proteins found in the human genome

Brain proteins found in the human genome

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel LECTURE LAUNCHER 3: The Debates This final section in the chapter provides the opportunity to engage students in lively discussions. The Mind–Brain debate is currently very alive as mathematicians, philosophers and neuroscientists debate the basis of consciousness and freewill. If our behaviors were deterministic products of our genes and experiences, this would arguably absolve us from responsibility for any transgressions on our parts. Ask students their opinions on freewill. Does it exist, in their estimations? Ask them about the impact of throwing out the notion of freewill on legal issues. Can they envision something else to take the place of freewill and keep legal responsibility intact? For more ideas, see additional readings on consciousness and freewill (Penrose, 1994; Searle, 2005; Schwartz and Begley, 2002).

The nature versus nurture issue is also a great discussion topic for the classroom. Ask students how much they think their behavior is attributable to genetics, and how much is attributable to experience. Then point out how assigning a percentage to genetics and the remainder to the environment is a flawed concept. For more ideas see: Nature versus Nurture Revisited on Cracking the Code of Life from Public Broadcasting Station NOVA Online: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/genome/debate.html. Videos are available at this site.

1.4 Thinking about the Biology of Behavior: Mind–Brain and Nature–Nurture Issues (Use transparencies TSP01-TSP02 or digital images 2.1-2.2.)

The mind-brain issue • Church degreed what was true until the 1400’s • then famines, plagues, and war changed people • Renaissance, or “rebirth,” (1400–1700) increased scholarship and independent thought • direct observation—led to modern science • 17th century conflict between science and the Roman Church • René Descartes divided realms: physical matter to science and the human mind (soul, spirit) to the Church—Cartesian dualism (dichotomy of mind and brain) • dualism sanctioned by the Roman Church • most people accept most of human behavior results from brain activity, but believe some part of human activity may transcend human brain activity • asomatognosia—deficiency in the awareness of one’s body parts o the case of the man who fell out of bed o patient could not be convinced body parts his own o problem in conscious awareness • most biopsychologists see mind as a product of neural activity The nature-nurture issue (genetics versus learning) • John Watson—father of behaviorism; believed any baby could be raised to become anything • ethology—study of animal behavior • instinctive behaviors—behaviors that occur in all members of a species without learning • nature–nurture issue cannot be resolved; it is flawed • concept of nurture broadened to include fetal environment, nutrition, stress, and sensory stimulation—sum total of experience

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Biopsychology • • •

genetics and experience interact The case of the thinking student: cannot answer how much of the music depends on the musician and how much on the instrument—analogous to the nature-nurture debate interactions between genetics and environment are key

The heritability of individual differences • people have different characteristics • can ask what proportion of the individual variance is due to genetic differences • identical twins (monozygotic twins)—are genetically identical • fraternal twins (dizygotic twins) are as genetically similar as any siblings; however, they share the same prenatal environment • The Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart—59 pairs of identical twins and 47 pairs of fraternal twins • identical twins more similar than fraternal twins whether reared together or apart • heritability estimate—numerical estimate of the proportion of variability resulting from genetic variation (not a determination of what is genetic) • individual traits are 100% nature and 100% nurture; cannot separate components Exercise 1.3 Evaluate Goals Revisit the initial goals set for this Chapter’s material. Ask students if they learned anything that changed their views on evolution, the nature of mind, or genetics.

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel KEY TERMS (page numbers in Pinel text) alleles (p. 21) amino acids (p. 24) amphibians (p. 12) analogous (p. 15) asomatognosia (p. 28) biopsychology (p. 7) brain stem (p. 17) Cartesian dualism (p. 27) cerebrum (p. 17) chordates (p. 12) chromosomes (p. 21) clinical (p. 6) codon (p. 24) comparative approach (p. 18) conspecifics (p. 12) convergent evolution (p. 15) convolutions (p. 17) deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (p. 23) dichotomous traits (p. 20) DNA-binding proteins (p. 24) dominant trait (p. 20) ethology (p. 29) evolutionary perspective (p. 7) evolve (p. 9) fitness (p. 10) fraternal twins (p. 31) gametes (p. 21) gene (p. 21) gene expression (p. 24) genotype (p. 21) heritability estimate (p. 33) heterozygous (p. 21) hominids (p. 14) homologous (p. 15) homozygous (p. 21) human genome project (p. 26)

identical twins (p. 31) instinctive behaviors (p. 29) mammals (p. 12) meiosis (p. 21) messenger RNA (p. 24) mitosis (p. 21) mutations (p. 23) natural selection (p. 10) nature–nurture issue (p. 29) neurons (p. 5) neuroscience (p. 5) neuroanatomy (p. 8) neurochemistry (p. 8) neuroendocrinology (p. 8) neuropathology (p. 8) neurophysiology (p. 8) nucleotide bases (p. 23) operator genes (p. 24) phenotype (p. 21) primates (p. 13) proteins (p. 24) recessive trait (p. 20) replication (p. 23) ribonucleic acid (RNA) (p. 24) ribosomes (p. 24) sex chromosomes (p. 22) sex-linked traits (p. 22) species (p. 11) structural genes (p. 24) transcription (p. 24) transfer RNA (p. 25) translation (p. 24) true-breeding lines (p. 20) vertebrates (p. 12) zygote (p. 21)

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Biopsychology ADDITIONAL READING AND MEDIA RESOURCES BOOKS Shadows of the Mind: A Search for the Missing Science of Consciousness (1994) by Roger Penrose, Oxford University Press.

Mind: A Brief Introduction (Fundamentals of Philosophy) (2005) by John Searle, Oxford University Press.

The Mind and the Brain: Neuroplasticity and the Power of Mental Force (2002) Jeffrey M. Schwartz and Sharon Begley, Regan Books.

MOVIES Consciousness (2005) (DVD) Alsbury Films. (Covers recent theories on consciousness based on in-depth discussions with the twenty scientists.)

The Final Mystery: What is Consciousness? (2000) (DVD, VHS; 50 minutes) A BBC Production.

WEBSITES The National Library of Medicine (PubMed): http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ Scirus: http://www.scirus.com/ Wikipedia on Biological Psychology: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopsychology The Society for Neuroscience: http://www.sfn.org The American Psychological Association: http://www.apa.org The American Psychological Society: http://www.psychologicalscience.org Genetic Science Learning Center at the University of Utah: http://gslc.genetics.utah.edu/units/basics/ Cartesian Dualism from the Serendip web resource at Bryn Mawr College and Serendip: http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/Mind/Descartes.html Evolution and the Brain from the University of Wisconsin, a site on the evolution of the brain, complete with downloadable images of brains across the phylogenetic tree: http://brainmuseum.org/ Is Science Killing the Soul? A discussion between Dr. Richard Dawkins and Dr. Steve Pinker on the relationship between science and the human soul from The Edge website: http://www.edge.org/documents/archive/edge53.html Twin Studies, a look at ongoing twins studies at the University of Minnesota: http://www.psych.umn.edu/psylabs/mtfs/ Nature vs. Nurture: the Pendulum Still Swings With Plenty of Momentum by Dr. Joseph E. LeDoux from the Chronicle of Higher Education: http://home.att.net/~xchar/tna/ledoux.htm Nature versus Nurture Revisited on Cracking the Code of Life from Public Broadcasting Station NOVA Online: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/genome/debate.html; selected videos at: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/genome/program.html

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CHAPTER 2

The Anatomy of the Brain The Systems, Structures, and Cells That Make Up Your Nervous System Detailed Outline Introduction

2.1 General Layout of the Nervous System

2.2 Cells of the Nervous System

2.3 Neuroanatomical Techniques and Directions

2.4 The Spinal Cord

2.5 The Five Divisions of the Brain

2.6 Major Structures of the Brain

Chapter At-A-Glance Instructor’s Print Resources Supplements Lecture Instructor’s Launcher 1 Manual for The Nervous Basics of System Biopsychology Chapter 2 Lecture Launcher 2 NeuroanaTest Bank for tomical Basics of Techniques Biopsychology Chapter 2 Exercise 2.1 Neurons, Neurons, Transparencies Neurons for Physiological Exercise 2.2 Psychology, Neural Chapter 2, Structure TSP06-TSP20, Quiz see Table of Contents, p. xiii Exercise 2.3 Having Fun with Grade Aid for NeuroanaBasics of tomy Biopsychology Chapter 2 Exercise 2.4 Evaluate Goals

Media Supplements Beyond the Brain and Behavior CD for Basics of Biopsychology Practice Tests for Chapter 2 Hard Copy for Chapter 2 Electronic Flashcards for Chapter 2 Digital Media Archive Log (DMA), 3.13.26 and Appendix, see Table of Contents, pp. xvii-xviii and xxiii PowerPoint Presentation

Key Terms Instructor’s Manual Additional Readings and Media Resources

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Professor Notes

Chapter 2 The Anatomy of the Brain CHAPTER 2 OVERVIEW In Chapter 2, Pinel provides an overview of the structure of the nervous system. He starts by pointing out how some of the terms sound quite foreign—mostly because they are.

Neuroanatomists mostly used Latin or Greek words.

In the section titled “General Layout of the Nervous System,” Pinel delineates the basic ways to divide the nervous system: central nervous system (CNS) versus peripheral nervous system (PNS), and somatic nervous system (SNS) versus autonomic nervous system (ANS). It is further explained that the ANS has two parts: consisting of sympathetic nerves and parasympathetic nerves. The outer coverings of the brain, or meninges, are discussed, as is the blood–brain barrier.

Next, “Cells of the Nervous System” covers the basic features of neurons, including the different classification schemes. Unipolar, bipolar, and multipolar neurons are defined and described. Finally, glial cells, or the “glue” of the brain, are discussed, and some recent results indicating a role for glial cells in transmission are elaborated upon.

In “Neuroanatomical Techniques and Directions,” Pinel details three major methods used to demonstrate neurons and synapses. The Golgi stain, a silver impregnation technique, enables the visualization of all parts of individual neurons—the cell body, dendrites, and the axon.

Nissl staining enables one to visualize all the neurons present, and thus to make accurate neuronal counts. Electron microscopy was the first method to allow visualization of very fine details, such as the structure of the synapse. Today, scanning electron microscopy provides three-dimensional images of fine structural detail.

The next section, “The Spinal Cord,” provides an overview of the basic structure of a segment of the spinal cord. The dorsal horn and ventral horn are detailed, and differences in sensory versus motor functions described.

“The Five Divisions of the Brain” outlines the boundaries of the telencephalon, diencephalon, mesencephalon, metencephalon and myelencephalon. And finally, “Major Structures of the Brain” details the prominent structures found in each division. The reticular formation is found in the myelencephalon and metencephalon. The metencephalon also contains the pons and cerebellum. The mesencephalon houses the inferior and superior colliculi (the tectum), and the substantia nigra and red nucleus (the tegmentum). The diencephalon consists of the thalamus, a large collection of sensory relay nuclei, and the hypothalamus, a limbic structure that controls the pituitary gland. The telencephalon is the most expansive, containing the cerebral cortex, most of the limbic system, and basal ganglia. Approximately 90% of the cerebral cortex is neocortex in the human brain. The neocortex can be divided into frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. The limbic system is comprised of the hippocampus, cingulate cortex, amygdala, septum, and mammillary bodies. The basal ganglia are comprised of the caudate, putamen, and globus pallidus.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES OF CHAPTER 2 • • • • •

To give students a working knowledge of the nervous system.

To teach about neuroanatomical techniques.

To teach students some history surrounding neuroanatomical discoveries.

To teach students how to assess neuroanatomical data.

To assess how neuroanatomy is relevant to their lives.

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel CHAPTER 2 LECTURE OUTLINE (key terms in boldface) LECTURE LAUNCHER 1: The Nervous System If you have such a model available, bring a rack-mounted skeleton to class and ask your students what such a bony artifact might tell them about neuroanatomy. If no such model is available, transparencies, slides, or digitized images of a full-body skeleton are fine substitutes.

During this discussion, note that the skeleton can be used to define the difference between the CNS and the PNS; between the brain and spinal cord; and between the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. Depending on the level of detail you would like to go into, you can have your students palpate landmarks on their own skulls and necks to help them get oriented (e.g., external occipital protuberance, temporal bones of skull, and the spinous process of C-7 vertebrae).

Introduction Neuroanatomical terms • can be complex • often derived from Latin or Greek words 2.1 General Layout of the Nervous System (Use transparencies TSP11-TSP13, and TPS20 or digital images 3.1-3.4, and Appendix I and III; see Tables of Contents for complete media listings.)

Definition of terms • central nervous system (CNS)—brain and spinal cord (inside skull and spine) • peripheral nervous system (PNS)—nervous system outside skull and spine • somatic nervous system (SNS)—PNS that interacts with the environment • afferent nerves—carry sensory signals to CNS • efferent nerves—carry motor signals to skeletal muscles • autonomic nervous system (ANS)—part of the PNS that regulates the internal state o sympathetic nerves—autonomic nerves from the lumbar and thoracic regions of the spinal cord o parasympathetic nerves—autonomic nerves from the brain and sacral region of the spinal cord • first sympathetic neuron synapses near the spinal cord and the second projects to the target tissue; the first parasympathetic neuron synapses close to the target and the second parasympathetic neuron has short axon o O========< O=============================< sympathetic o O==============================< O=======< parasympathetic •

12 pairs of cranial nerves—olfactory (I), optic (II), vagus (X); both afferent and efferent (sensory and motor)

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Chapter 2 The Anatomy of the Brain Meninges. ventricles, and cerebrospinal fluid • meninges—three protective membranes • cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)—fills the subarachnoid space (below meninges), central canal of the spinal cord, and lateral ventricles; supports and cushions the brain • central canal—runs the length of the spinal cord • cerebral ventricles—four large internal chambers in the brain; two lateral Blood–brain barrier • blood–brain barrier—mechanism that impedes the passage of toxic substances into the brain • glucose actively transported, not affected by blood-brain barrier • blood–brain barrier selective (e.g., sex hormones pass into sexual areas of the brain) 2.2 Cells of the Nervous System (Use transparencies TSP06-TSP09 or digital images 3.5-3.9.)

Anatomy of neurons • neurons specialized for reception, conduction, and transmission of electrochemical signals • variety of shapes and sizes o external anatomy of neurons—cell body, cell membrane, dendrites, axon, axon hillock. myelin, nodes of Ranvier, buttons, and synapses o internal anatomy of neurons—nucleus, microtubules, synaptic vesicles, neurotransmitters, endoplasmic reticulum, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and Golgi complex • neuronal cell membrane—lipid bilayer (two layers of fat molecules) • channel proteins—embedded in the membrane • signal proteins—transfer signal inside the neuron Classes of neurons • number of processes—multipolar neuron (having many processes), unipolar neuron (having one process), and bipolar neuron (two processes) • interneurons—neurons with short axons; integrate information • aggregates of neurons—nuclei (singular nucleus) in the CNS; ganglia (singular ganglion) in the PNS • bundles of axons—tracts in the CNS; nerves in the PNS Glial cells: the forgotten majority • glia—means glue • oligodendrocytes—form myelin, an axon coating in the CNS • Schwann cells—form myelin, an axon coating in the PNS; contribute to axonal regeneration in the PNS • astrocytes—star-shaped glial cells; function in the blood–brain barrier • microglia—respond to injury or disease, clear waste • glia may participate in transmission of signals

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel LECTURE LAUNCHER 2: Neuroanatomical Techniques This is an opportunity to wow students with fantastic pictures of neurons. If you have any of you own material, that makes it all the more personal. If not, the Internet is full of beautiful photomicrographs of neurons. You may want to show some of the latest techniques or neurons that have made the covers of Nature or Science magazines. Remember to give proper credits when showing other people’s work in class and teach students how and why to do the same.

2.3 Neuroanatomical Techniques and Directions (Use transparency TSP10 or digital images 3.10-3.12.)

Some neuroanatomical techniques • Golgi stain—Camillo Golgi, an Italian physician, in the 1870’s discovered silver stain that selectively permeates neurons completely; good for showing dendrite trees • Nissl stain—developed by Franz Nissl, a German psychiatrist, in the 1880’s, shows all the neuronal cell bodies; enables cell counting • electron microscopy—uses an electron absorbing material and then passes a beam of electrons through the material; enables resolution of fine detail, such as synapses • scanning electron microscopy—three-dimensional image Direction in the vertebrate nervous system—enables one to orient; some anatomical names include these terms • anterior (rostral)—towards the nose • posterior (caudal)—towards the tail • dorsal—back-side or the top of the head (bends at brainstem for bipedals) • ventral—belly-side or the bottom of the head • medial—towards the midline of the body • lateral—away from the midline of the body • superior—top of the brain • inferior—bottom of the brain • proximal—closer to the CNS (used comparatively) • distal—farther from the CNS (used comparatively • horizontal sections—slices of brain cut in parallel with the floor • frontal sections—slices of brain cut as viewed from the front of an individual • sagittal sections—slices of brain cut along the midline or a plane parallel to it • cross sections—slices of spinal cord cut at a right angle to its major axis

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Chapter 2 The Anatomy of the Brain Name: ________________________ Exercise 2.1 Neurons, Neurons, Neurons There are many techniques that beautifully illustrate neurons. In this exercise you will either copy photomicrographs (photos of microscopic images) from academic journals in the library or print examples from journal articles or other websites on the Internet, then paste these examples on this page or attach on separate pages.

You can access journals articles using PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/, which links you to the National Library of Medicine. Any search engine, but particularly a science-specialized search engine such as Scirus at: http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/, will locate scientific articles, as well as websites maintained by governmental agencies, universities, and research institutes.

Find photomicrographs of neurons. List journal reference (authors, year, journal, volume, and pages) or Internet webpage address and give credit to scientist, then paste photomicrograph.

Journal reference or website Paste photomicrograph here or attach on separate sheet address and credits Golgi technique

Nissl stain

Other methods (e.g., fluorescent dyes)

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel Exercise 2.1 Follow up After students have completed this assignment, have an in-class contest for the best picture of a neuron. Let the students vote among entries made by students who believe they found an excellent example and are willing to copy it onto a transparency that can be shown in class. (This activity can work even in a large classroom.)

2.4 The Spinal Cord (Use transparency TSP19 or digital images 3.13-3.14.)

A cross section of spinal cord—horn-shaped gray matter embedded in white matter • gray matter—cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers of interneurons • white matter—myelinated axons (gives white matter its color) • dorsal root axons—afferent unipolar neurons in dorsal root ganglia • ventral roots—motor efferents to skeletal muscle (SNS) or ganglia (ANS) • dorsal horns—receive sensory inputs • ventral horns—contain motor neurons 2.5 The Five Divisions of the Brain • •

Three swellings in development—forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain Before birth, divisions expand to five o telencephalon—forebrain o diencephalon—forebrain o mesencephalon—midbrain o metencephalon—hindbrain o myelencephalon—hindbrain

Exercise 2.2 Neural Structure Quiz Using the Neural Structure Quiz available from Dr. John Krantz at the University of Hanover (http://psych.hanover.edu/Krantz/neural/struct3.html), have students identify the 8 different parts of the neuron shown in the quiz. After each part is named, ask your students to assign a function to the named part. Using the neuron, you can also illustrate the general flow of neural information (somatodendritic to terminal button) in the cell, preparing students for material in the next chapter.

2.6 Major Structures of the Brain (Use transparencies TSP16-TSP18 or digital images 3.16-3.26, and Appendix V-VI.) Myelencephalon (medulla) • reticular formation—100 tiny nuclei forming central core of brain stem; also called reticular activating system because of role in arousal, sleep, and attention • damage to medulla is life threatening—loss of cardiac and respiratory reflexes

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Chapter 2 The Anatomy of the Brain Metencephalon • reticular formation • pons—connects with cerebellum • cerebellum—little cerebrum; controls movement Mesencephalon • tectum—roof of mesencephalon o inferior colliculi o superior colliculi • tegmentum—floor of the mesencephalon o periaqueductal gray—gray matter around the cerebral aqueduct; involved in pain reduction (analgesia) o substantia nigra (black substance)—sensorimotor function o red nucleus—sensorimotor function Diencephalon • thalamus—sensory relay nuclei project to cortex (e.g., lateral geniculate nucleus; visual relay) o large, two lobed structure o massa intermedia connect two sides in some brains • hypothalamus—located below the thalamus o regulates motivated behaviors o regulates the secretions of the pituitary glands o mammillary bodies—part of the hypothalamus • optic chiasm—where optic nerves decussate (cross the midline) • contralateral—projecting from one side of the body to the other side • ipsilateral—staying on the same side of the body Telencephalon—largest division of human brain • cerebral cortex (cerebral bark)—outer bark of the cerebral hemispheres o mammals with smooth cortex—lissencephalic o convoluted for humans o fissures—large furrows (e.g., longitudinal fissure separates the left and right hemispheres) o sulci (singular sulcus)—small furrows o gyri (singular gyrus)—ridges between furrows o cerebral commissures—connect the two hemispheres (e.g., corpus callosum) o central fissure—separates frontal lobe from parietal lobe o lateral fissure—separates temporal lobe from parietal and occipital lobe o 90% of human cortex is neocortex o neocortex has six layers (I–VI) o neocortex has stellate cells (star-shaped) and pyramidal cells (pyramid-shaped) o pyramidal cells have an apical dendrite and long axons

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel o

•

•

10% of cortex that is not neocortex is more primitive, and has less than six layers (e.g., hippocampus, a sea horse-shaped structure buried in the temporal lobe, and cingulate cortex— both parts of the limbic system) o hippocampus plays key role in memory limbic system—circuit of midline structures that circle the thalamus (limbic means “ring”) o regulates motivated behaviors—fleeing, feeding, fighting, and sexual behavior o includes hippocampus, cingulate cortex, mammillary bodies, amygdala, fornix, and the septum o amygdala—almond-shaped structure in the anterior temporal lobe o cingulate cortex—located above the corpus callosum o fornix—fiber tract leaving the hippocampus to connect with the septum and mammillary bodies o septum—midline structure at the anterior tip of the cingulate cortex basal ganglia—a group of subcortical structures involved with voluntary movement o amygdala—may also be part of the basal ganglia o caudate (tail-like) and putamen—form the striatum o globus pallidus—located medial to the caudate and putamen o pathway from substantia nigra to striatum—degenerated in Parkinson’s disease

Exercise 2.3 Instructions In this exercise, students have to identify the correct anatomical name based on the description of its chief characteristics, location, and function. Next, students invent their own names for these very same neuroanatomical areas. You can refer students to Word Roots from Washington University at: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/neuroroot.html. This website lists many neuroanatomical names with Latin or Greek roots and the meanings of those words.

You might give students some examples where neuroanatomical terms have been shortened, for example, the medulla oblongata shortened to medulla, and the nucleus tractus solitarius shortened to solitary nucleus.

You should require students to put in effort when renaming the structure. They should try to think of names that would genuinely be suitable and recognizable by those who use the regular terminology. One goal of this exercise is to show students how difficult it is to come up with new names for brain regions that have established names, which are a bit obscure. You can explain how present researchers in biopsychology face this dilemma, insofar as they must deal with ancientsounding names. Although researchers can modify these terms slightly in their own writings, the changes must be minor so that the meaning is preserved and others know what they are talking about. You can also tell students how there are often multiple terms for the same brain region (e.g., striate cortex is the same as primary visual cortex, etc.).

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Chapter 2 The Anatomy of the Brain Name: ________________________ Exercise 2.3 Having Fun with Neuroanatomy Neuroanatomical structures have seemingly ancient names, which in many cases are Latin or Greek in derivation. Often these names are suggestive of the structure’s pigmentation or shape (e.g., the hippocampus is named for its sea-horse shape, and the amygdala is named for its almond shape).

Students often complain that neuroanatomical names are difficult to learn because the language is awkward and out-of date. Here is your chance to do a better job at naming neuroanatomical structures. Be sincere and try to think of names that relate to the shape, pigmentation, or function of the structure, yet are simple and modern.

Description of the neuroanatomical structure This structure is found in the midbrain and has a dark, blackish pigment. It participates in voluntary motor functions.

This is a small version of the cerebrum found in the hindbrain. It is involved with fast, repetitive movements.

This collection of nuclei forms a large, two-lobed structure responsible for relaying different kinds of sensory information.

These matched protruding structures are found in the midbrain and are involved with vision.

Given Name

This structure has a tail-like shape and its function is related to voluntary movement.

This structure is composed of fibers circling around the thalamus connecting the hippocampus with the septum.

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You intent a new, more contemporary name

Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel Exercise 2.4 Evaluate Goals Refer back to initial goals at the outset of the chapter. Ask students if they are now much more comfortable with neuroanatomical terms. If not, reassure them that repeated exposure to these terms throughout the course will help these terms become more familiar.

KEY TERMS (page numbers in Pinel text) afferent nerves (p. 37) amygdala (p. 56) anterior (p. 48) astrocytes (p. 45) autonomic nervous system (ANS) (p. 37) basal ganglia (p. 56) bipolar neuron (p. 43) blood–brain barrier (p. 40) caudate (p. 56) cingulate cortex (p. 56) cingulate gyrus (p. 56) central canal (p. 39) central fissure (p. 55) central nervous system (CNS) (p. 37) cerebellum (p. 52) cerebral aqueduct (p. 53) cerebral commissures (p. 55) cerebral cortex (p. 54) cerebral ventricles (p. 39) cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) (p. 39) contralateral (p. 54) corpus callosum (p. 55) cranial nerves (p. 38) cross section (p. 48) decussate (p. 54) diencephalon (p. 53) dorsal (p. 48) dorsal horns (p. 49) efferent nerves (p. 37) electron microscopy (p. 47) fissures (p. 54) fornix (p. 56) frontal lobe (p. 55) frontal sections (p. 48) ganglia (p. 44) glial cells (p. 44) globus pallidus (p. 57) Golgi stain (p. 46) gyri (p. 54) hippocampus (p. 56) horizontal sections (p. 48)

hypothalamus (p. 53) inferior (p. 48) inferior colliculi (p. 53) interneurons (p. 43) ipsilateral (p. 54) lateral (p. 48) lateral geniculate nuclei (p. 53) lateral fissure (p. 55) limbic system (p. 56) longitudinal fissure (p. 55) mammillary bodies (p. 54) massa intermedia (p. 53) medial (p. 48) medulla (p. 51) meninges (p. 39) mesencephalon (p. 53) metencephalon (p. 52) microglia (p. 45) multipolar neuron (p. 43) myelencephalon (p. 51) neocortex (p. 55) nerves (p. 44) Nissl stain (p. 47) nuclei (p. 44) occipital lobe (p. 55) oligodendrocytes (p. 44) optic chiasm (p. 54) parasympathetic nerves (p. 38) parietal lobe (p. 55) periaqueductal gray (p. 53) peripheral nervous system (PNS) (p. 37) pituitary gland (p. 54) peripheral nervous system (PNS) (p. 37) pons (p. 52) postcentral gyrus (p. 55) posterior (p. 48) precentral gyrus (p. 55) putamen (p. 57) pyramidal cells (p. ) red nucleus (p. 53) reticular formation (p. 51)

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Chapter 2 The Anatomy of the Brain sagittal sections (p. 48) Schwann cells (p. 44) septum (p. 56) somatic nervous system (SNS) (p. 37) striatum (p. 57) substantia nigra (p. 53) superior (p. 48) superior colliculi (p. 53) superior temporal gyrus (p. 55) sympathetic nerves (p. 38)

tectum (p. 53) tegmentum (p. 53) telencephalon (p. 54) temporal lobe (p. 55) thalamus (p. 53) tracts (p.44 ) unipolar neurons (p. 43) ventral (p. 48) ventral horns (p. 49)

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel ADDITIONAL READINGS AND MEDIA RESOURCES BOOKS A Colorful Introduction to the Anatomy of the Human Brain: A Brain and Psychology Coloring Book (1998) by John Pinel and Maggie E. Edwards, Allyn & Bacon The Human Brain Coloring Book (1986) by M.C. Diamond, A.B. Scheibel, & L.M. Elson, Harper Collins Publishers.

MOVIES Anatomy of the Human Brain (1997) (DVD, VHS; 35 minutes) Films for the Humanities and Sciences. (Dissection of the human brain.)

The Brain (1995) (DVD, VHS; 20 minutes) Films for the Humanities and Sciences. (Brain structure and function.)

WEBSITES The National Library of Medicine (PubMed): http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ Scirus (a science-based search engine): http://www.scirus.com/ Wikipedia on Brain: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/brain Autonomic Nervous System: from The National Dysautonomia Research Foundation site: http://www.ndrf.org/ans.htm Neurons and Glia from Dr. Eric Chudler at the University of Washington. Scroll down to "Neurons" to find information about neurons, glia, and a photo gallery of cells at: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/introb.html Neuroanatomy Quiz: Dr John Krantz's study aids and tutorials for biopsychology at: http://psych.hanover.edu/Krantz/neural/struct3.html Interactive Brain Atlas from the Digital Anatomist project at the University of Washington. Select the “BRAIN” icon for a collection of images in many different planes of section, digital recreations of different functional systems in the brain: http://www9.biostr.washington.edu/da.html Brain Anatomy from McGill University. An introduction to neuroanatomy, with different levels of complexity (beginner to advanced) and levels of organization (from social aspects to molecular aspects of neuroanatomy): http://www.thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/d/d_01/d_01_cr/d_01_cr_ana/d_01_cr_ana.html Word Roots: A source for the Greek and Latin roots of many neuroanatomical terms: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/neuroroot.html 3D Brain Atlas from Brain Networks Laboratory at Texas A & M University: http://research.cs.tamu.edu/bnl/gallery3d.html

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CHAPTER 3

Neural Activity and How to Study It How Neurons Work Detailed Outline Introduction

3.1 The Neuron’s Resting Membrane Potential

3.2 Postsynaptic Potentials and Action Potentials

3.3 Conduction of Action Potentials

3.4 Synaptic Transmission: Chemical Transmission of Signals from One Neuron to Another

3.5 The Neurotransmitters

3.6 How Biopsychologists Study the Brain

Chapter At-A-Glance Instructor’s Print Resources Supplements Lecture Instructor’s Launcher 1 Manual for Membrane Basics of Potentials in Biopsychology Neurons Chapter 3 Exercise 3.1 The Resting Potential Lecture Launcher 2 Brain Chemistry Today Lecture Launcher 3 Brain Imaging Exercise 3.2 Knockout Mice and Transgenics Exercise 3.3 Evaluate Goals Key Terms

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Media Supplements Beyond the Brain and Behavior CD for Basics of Biopsychology Practice Tests for Chapter 3

Test Bank for Basics of Biopsychology Chapter 3

Hard Copy for Chapter 3 Electronic Flashcards for Chapter 3

Transparencies for Physiological Psychology, Chapter 3, TSP21-TSP31, see Table of Contents, pp. xiii-xiv

Digital Media Archive Log (DMA), 4.1-4.17 and 5.1-5.12, see Table of Contents, pp. xviii-xix PowerPoint Presentation

Grade Aid for Basics of Biopsychology Chapter 3

Instructor’s Manual Additional Readings and Media Resources

Professor Notes

Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel CHAPTER 3 OVERVIEW Chapter 3 covers a variety of topics beginning with the electrophysiological properties of neurons, to chemical transmission, and finally to the major methods biopsychologists use to study the brain. Pinel starts with an example of L-dopa treatment of Parkinson’s disease in “The lizard, a case of Parkinson’s disease.”

In the section “The Neuron’s Resting Membrane Potential,” Pinel describes how ions distribute themselves unequally across the membrane. Key concepts, such as ion channels and the sodium-potassium pump, are explained.

“Postsynaptic Potentials and Action Potentials” covers depolarizing potentials (i.e., excitatory postsynaptic potentials or EPSPs) and hyperpolarizing potentials (i.e., inhibitory postsynaptic potentials or IPSPs), as well as action potentials. Key differences between graded potentials (i.e., EPSPs and IPSPs) and action potentials are noted. Additional topics discussed include the threshold of excitation, the axon hillock, temporal summation, and spatial summation.

In the next section, “Conduction of Action Potentials,” Pinel describes how action potentials are transmitted down axons. He details special features of axons, such as how increased diameter and myelination increases the rate neural impulses travel down the axon.

Then, “Synaptic Transmission: Chemical Transmission of Signals from One Neuron to Another” covers the basics in chemical neurotransmission. Synapses and synaptic vesicles are described. Metabotropic receptor subtypes are distinguished from ionotropic subtypes. Exocytosis is the mechanism of neurotransmitter release. Enzymatic breakdown is one mechanism for neurotransmitter cessation, and reuptake back into the presynaptic terminal is the other way neurotransmission is halted.

In the section “The Neurotransmitters,” Pinel names and describes the various neurochemicals involved in communication between neurons. Amino acid neurotransmitters, such as glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), play a central role in the mammalian brain as the main excitatory and main inhibitory neurotransmitters. Monoamines include dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, and serotonin. These amino acid derivatives are involved with motor function and mood. Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter at the neuromuscular junction, as well as at multiple CNS sites. Finally, there are soluble gas neurotransmitters, such as nitric oxide, which may participate in retrograde transmission, and the neuropeptides, some 100 short proteins that serve specialized functions, such as the mediation of analgesia.

The last section, “How Biopsychologists Study the Brain,” details methods used on experimental animals, as well as imaging techniques used on human subjects. Genetic knockouts and transgenics are some of the most recent animal methods.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES OF CHAPTER 3 • • • • •

To give students a working knowledge of the electrophysiology of the neuron.

To teach about chemical neurotransmission.

To teach students how biopsychologists study these problems in laboratory animals.

To teach students about imaging techniques used to visualize the human brain.

To teach students how to assess the basic research literature concerning genetic knockout mice and transgenics.

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Chapter 3 Neural Activity and How to Study It CHAPTER 3: LECTURE OUTLINE (key terms in boldface) LECTURE LAUNCHER 1: Membrane Potentials in Neurons Students in introductory biopsychology classes often have problems with the passage of ions across the neuronal membrane and with recognizing the differences between passive and active transport of ions. One way to illustrate the passage of ions across the neuronal membrane is to use animations. Create you own animation illustrating the movement of ions across the membrane when the neuron is at rest within a PowerPoint presentation. Show which ions move and which do not. Alternatively, show or direct students to animations that appear online. An animation that illustrates the differences between passive and active transport is found at: http://programs.northlandcollege.edu/biology/Biology1111/animations/transport1.html Introduction The lizard, a case of Parkinson’s disease • insidious onset • tremor-at-rest—shaking that stops when hand moves • rigid muscles and “reptilian stare” • neurons in substantia nigra degenerate • L-dopa treatment for Parkinson’s disease—crosses the blood-brain barrier 3.1 The Neuron’s Resting Membrane Potential (Use transparencies TSP21-TSP23 or digital images 4.1-4.2; see Tables of Contents for complete media listings.)

What is the resting potential?

• membrane potential—charge difference across the membrane • microelectrodes—very tiny intracellular recording electrodes • resting potential—neuronal membrane polarized at rest • inside –70 mV with respect to space outside of the neuron The ionic basis of the resting potential • ions—charged particles o sodium ion—Na+ o potassium ion—K+ o chloride ion—Cl• differential permeability—different ions exhibit different abilities to pass • ion channels—specialized pores • sodium-potassium pumps—push sodium out and potassium in o more sodium outside neuron o membrane not ordinarily permeable to sodium Exercise 3.1 Instructions Ask students to make a sketch of the ion distribution across the neuronal membrane. Tell students to include the permeability at rest for these channels on their sketches.

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel Name: ________________________ Exercise 3.1 The Resting Potential The neuron has a resting potential, which is essential for the generation of graded potentials and action potentials.

(1) Sketch ions on both sides of the neuronal membrane: Include sodium ions, potassium ions, and chloride ions.

(2) Adjust the concentration of ions across the membrane so that it reflects a typical resting potential of -70 mV. Be sure to show which ions—sodium, potassium, or chloride—are more concentrated outside the neuron than inside, and which ions are more concentrated inside the neuron than outside of the neuron.

(3) Show what keeps ions on one or the other side of the neuronal membrane.

Inside of Neuron

Outside of Neuron

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Chapter 3 Neural Activity and How to Study It 3.2 Postsynaptic Potentials and Action Potentials (Use transparency TSP24 or digital images 4.34.5.)

• • • • • • • • • •

neurotransmitters—chemicals released from terminal buttons diffuse across synaptic cleft and interact with receptors depolarize—to excite or produce an excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs); increases likelihood neuron will fire hyperpolarize—to inhibit or produce an inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs); decreases likelihood neuron will fire graded responses—EPSPs and IPSPs, which can be different sizes axon hillock—thin neck of axon where action potentials are triggered threshold of excitation—level of depolarization necessary to trigger action potential; usually around -65 mV action potential—massive reversal of the membrane potential from -70 mV to +50 mV; not graded—all-or-none responses EPSPs and IPSPs summate over space and time to either trigger an action potential or not spatial summation—summation of inputs to different parts of the neuron temporal summation—action potentials in rapid succession increase likelihood of postsynaptic effect

3.3 Conduction of Action Potentials (Use digital image 4.6.)

Sodium ions and action potentials • voltage-activated ion channels—ions channels that open in response to voltage changes; responsible for action potential • sodium crosses voltage-activated ion channels Refractory periods • absolute refractory period—brief 1–2 millisecond periods during which a neuron cannot fire • relative refractory period—time during which a higher level of activation is needed to make a neuron fire • refractory interval related to maximal firing rate of 1,000 times per second Axonal conduction of action potentials • axonal conduction—non-decremental active conduction (vs. passive conduction of EPSPs and IPSPs) • wave of excitation travels down axon (like dominos or mouse traps) • does not travel back up axon because of refractoriness Conduction in myelinated axons • voltage-activated ion channels absent in myelinated parts of axon • node of Ranvier—bare patches along myelinated axon o action potential passively conducted from node to node o nodes contain voltage-activated ion channels o ion flow across membrane occurs at nodes o saltatory conduction—action potentials jump from node to node

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel

The velocity of axonal conduction • conduction faster in large diameter axons (vs. small diameter) • conduction faster in myelinated axons (vs. unmyelinated) • motor neuron axons o large and myelinated o conducts at 100 meters per second (vs. 1 meter per second for small unmyelinated axons) Conduction in neurons without axons • many neurons have no axons • graded, decremental conduction in these interneurons LECTURE LAUNCHER 2: Brain Chemistry Today A good way to show relevancy of brain chemistry is to point out society’s current problems with drug addiction. The website, “The Brain: Understanding Neurobiology,” is sponsored by the National Institutes of Health and the National Institute on Drug Abuse at: http://science.education.nih.gov/supplements/nih2/addiction/activities/activities_toc.htm. The Teacher’s Guide and Student Activities provide particularly useful exercises related to neurotransmission, pharmacology, and drug addiction.

3.4 Synaptic Transmission: Chemical Transmission of Signals from One Neuron to Another (Use transparencies TSP25-TSP31 or digital images 4.7-4.17.)

Structure of synapses • axodendritic, axosomatic, dendrodendritic, and axoaxonic synapses—connect different parts of two neurons together • dendritic spines—nodules on some dendrites • directed synapses—site of neurotransmitter release close to postsynaptic target; common arrangement in mammals • nondirected synapse—synapses where release of neurotransmitter is some distance from the postsynaptic target; string-of-beads synapses Synthesis and transport of neurotransmitter molecules • small and large neurotransmitters • peptides—10 or fewer amino acids arranged in a chain; short proteins • small-molecule neurotransmitters synthesized and packaged in synaptic vesicles (membrane covered sacs) • peptides assembled on ribosomes • packaged in Golgi complex • transported by microtubules—at a rate of 40 centimeters per day • small neurotransmitters stored closer to release sites • some neurons release a small-molecule neurotransmitter and a peptide— coexistence

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Chapter 3 Neural Activity and How to Study It Release of neurotransmitter molecules • exocytosis—the process of neurotransmitter release • presynaptic membrane rich in voltage-dependent calcium channels • small-molecule neurotransmitters released in pulse; peptides released gradually Activation of receptors by neurotransmitter molecules • neurotransmitter molecules bind to receptors in the postsynaptic membrane • ligand—any molecule that binds a receptor • multiple receptors specific for each neurotransmitter  receptor subtypes • ionotropic receptors—receptor proteins that are also ion channels • metabotropic receptors—have internal G-proteins (guanine-triphosphatesensitive proteins) • activation of an ionotropic receptor opens (or closes) that channel directly • activation of a metabotropic receptor produces slower, longer-lasting effects • once activated, subunits of the G-protein break away—may move along membrane and activate an ion channel or may trigger a second messenger (a chemical that triggers more chemical reactions inside the neuron) • second messengers have multiple effects inside neuron (e.g., may enter nucleus) • autoreceptors bind their own neurotransmitter (often located on the presynaptic membrane)—reduce subsequent neurotransmitter release Termination of neurotransmitter effects • reuptake—drawing back the neurotransmitter into the presynaptic terminal • enzymatic degradation—chemical breakdown of neurotransmitter • enzymes—proteins that stimulate or inhibit biochemical reactions • acetylcholinesterase—enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine • some breakdown products (e.g., choline) are taken back into terminal 3.5 The Neurotransmitters Amino acid neurotransmitters • amino acids—building blocks of proteins • amino acid transmitters o glutamate o aspartate o glycine o gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) • glutamate—most prevalent excitatory neurotransmitter in mammalian brain • GABA—most prevalent inhibitory neurotransmitter in mammalian brain • amino acid neurotransmitters can be fast acting Monoamine neurotransmitters • each contain one amine group • effects more diffuse than those of amino acid neurotransmitters—released from string-of-beads synapses

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel •

• • • • • •

four monoamine neurotransmitters o dopamine o epinephrine o norepinephrine o serotonin dopamine, norepinephrine and epinephrine—catecholamines catecholamines synthesized from amino acid tyrosine by series of enzymes tyrosine is converted to L-dopa first (a Parkinson’s disease treatment) serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT)—indoleamine indolamines synthesized from tryptophan noradrenergic and adrenergic are adjectives used for norepinephrine and epinephrine systems

Soluble gases • nitric oxide • produced in cytoplasm • diffuse through cell membrane and pass from cell to cell • participate in retrograde transmission—from postsynaptic neuron back to presynaptic neuron Acetylcholine • small-molecule neurotransmitter • acetyl group added to choline • neurotransmitter at the neuromuscular junction and throughout the CNS • broken down by acetylcholinesterase • cholinergic—adjective for acetylcholine systems Neuropeptides • approximately 100 neuropeptides identified • endorphins—endogenous opiates (opium-like chemicals made by the body) • opiate drugs (opium, morphine, and heroin)—bind to endorphin receptors • opiate drugs and endorphins—produce analgesia (pain suppression) and a sense of pleasure or euphoria • opiate drugs—highly addictive

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Chapter 3 Neural Activity and How to Study It LECTURE LAUNCHER 3: Brain Imaging In the last decade, advances in functional imaging techniques have permitted brain scientists to observe the function of the living brain in a way never before possible. Before lecturing on some of these techniques, introduce the class to the idea of watching brain activity with some of the movies from this website, sponsored by the Salk Institute for Biological Studies: http://www.snlb.salk.edu/boynton/fMRI-mpegs.html. For example, the video entitled Spatial Attention in V-1 demonstrates changes in brain activity between the two hemispheres as a function of where visual attention is focused. Start by describing the task that these researchers use, and then slow the playback speed so that student can follow the alteration of attention between the two visual fields.

You can use his video to illustrate ideas like laterality of function and localization of function.

Another resource for brain images is The Whole Brain Atlas presented by Keith Johnson and J. Alex Becker from Harvard University, complete with an explanation of CAT and MRI techniques: http://www.med.harvard.edu/AANLIB/home.html 3.6 How Biopsychologists Study the Brain (Use transparencies TSP32-TSP35 or digital images 5.1-5.12.)

Stereotaxic surgery • invasive method • stereotaxic surgery—experimental devices (e.g., electrodes) are positioned in exact brain loci • stereotaxic atlas • reference point (e.g., bregma—the point of the top of the skull where the two major sutures intersect • stereotaxic instrument o head holder o electrode holder o position coordinates for anterior–posterior, dorsal–ventral, and lateral–medial Conventional lesion, stimulation, and recording methods • lesion methods—damage made in brain region • electrolytic lesion—damage made by heat created by passing electrical current • aspiration lesion—damage made by suction removal of brain region • knife cut—precisely cuts nerves or tracts • stimulation methods—passing tiny electrical currents to brain areas; will sometimes activate brain areas • recording methods—measuring electrical activity in brain o unit recording—measuring activity of individual neurons o multiple-unit recording—measuring the overall fire rate of a population of neurons o electroencephalographic recording (EEG recording)—momentto-moment variation in potential between two large scalp (surface) electrodes; noninvasive method

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel Pharmacological methods • agonists—drugs that increase a neurotransmitter’s effects • antagonists—drugs that reduce a neurotransmitter’s effects • pharmacological agents act to enhance or reduce: o synthesis of a neurotransmitter o storage in vesicles o breakdown of neurotransmitter that leaked out of vesicles o exocytosis o inhibitory feedback via autoreceptors o activation of postsynaptic receptors o deactivation Examples of agonists and antagonists • cocaine—a potent catecholamine agonist o euphoria o loss of appetite o insomnia • curare—an extract of certain woody vines o blocks nicotinic cholinergic receptors o acts at neuromuscular junctions (synapses on skeletal muscle) o paralyzes recipient and kills them by blocking respiration • Botox (botulinium toxin)—a neurotoxin released by bacteria found in spoiled food o blocks nicotinic cholinergic receptors o acts at neuromuscular junctions o in minute doses, it reduces tremors and skin wrinkles Selective chemical lesions • neurotoxins—poisons specific for neurons, as opposed to fibers, or for certain types of neurons • kainic acid—kills neurons but not axons • 6-hydroxydopmine (6-OHDA) selectively kills noradrenergic or dopamine neurons Brain imaging • contrast X-ray techniques—injecting one part of the body that absorbs Xrays o heighten contrast o enable visualization of brain • cerebral angiography—inject radio-opaque dye into cerebral artery o visualize cerebral circulatory system o useful for identifying vascular damage and tumors • computed tomography (CT)—3D representation of brain compiled from many X-rays o used to study brain structure o can identify some kinds of pathology

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Chapter 3 Neural Activity and How to Study It •

•

•

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)—measures waves that hydrogen atoms emit when they are activated by radio-frequency waves in a magnetic field o provides clear images of brain areas (better than CT) o high spatial resolution o 3D scan positron emission tomography (PET)—images brain activity rather than structure o radioactive 2-deoxyglucose (2-DG; a glucose analog) is injected into the patient’s carotid artery o 2-DG is rapidly taken up into brain using glucose uptake mechanism, and then accumulates enabling measurement functional MRI (fMRI)—measures increases in oxygen flow to different brain regions o nothing injected into the subject o provides structural and functional information o good spatial resolution o can be used to make 3D images o predominant technique of cognitive neuroscience; potential weaknesses: many images from many subjects are averaged, small brain areas not detected, and neural activity is inferred from changes in blood flow

Genetic engineering • gene knockout techniques—create and breed animals (e.g., mice) lacking a particular gene • potential weaknesses o behavioral traits influenced by multiple interacting genes o elimination of one gene affects the expression of others • gene replacement techniques • transgenic mice—have genes of another species inserted (e.g., human genes inserted into mice) Exercise 3.2 Instructions Direct students to use the Internet to locate articles on genetic knockout mice and transgenics. Explain how to find the conclusion of the report in the abstract.

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel Name: ________________________ Exercise 3.2 Knockout Mice and Transgenics How to get started: PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ links you to the National Library of Medicine and provides a comprehensive listing of journal articles. Scirus at: http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/ is a search engine specializing in scientific articles. You can type key words into these or any search engine. Remember that more key words will bring up fewer articles more closely matched to your search. If you have too few articles retrieved, decrease the number of search terms.

Directions: Find recent articles on knockout mice and transgenics. List the reference (authors, year, journal, volume, and pages) in the first column and the main result in the second column.

(Read the abstract to find the main result.) Locate one article for each topic (knockout mice missing a glutamate receptor, knockout mice missing a nicotinic receptor, and transgenic mice having a human gene added).

One article reference for each topic Knockout mice missing a glutamate receptor

Main result

Knockout mice missing a nicotinic receptor

Transgenic mice having a human gene added

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Chapter 3 Neural Activity and How to Study It

Exercise 3.3 Evaluate Goals You can ask the class if they learned anything new about the way neurons work. Were any of them surprised about how biopsychologists study the brain and behavior? Will what they now know change the way they interpret results appearing in the media?

KEY TERMS (page numbers in Pinel text) 2-deoxyglucose (2-DG) (p. 90) absolute refractory period (p. 72) acetylcholine (p. 81) acetylcholinesterase (p. 79) action potential (AP) (p. 69) agonists (p. 85) all-or-none response (p. 69) amino acids (p. 79) antagonists (p. 85) aspartate (p. 79) aspiration lesion (p. 85) autoreceptors (p. 78) axon hillock (p. 69) Botox (p. 88) bregma (p. 83) catecholamines (p. 80) cerebral angiography (p. 89) cocaine (p. 86) coexistence (p. 75) computed tomography (CT) (p. 89) contrast X-ray techniques (p. 89) curare (p. 87) dendritic spines (p. 74) depolarize (p. 68) directed synapses(p. 74) dopamine (p. 79) EEG recording (p. 85) electrolytic lesion (p. 85) endorphins (p. 81) enzymatic degradation (p. 78) enzymes (p. 79) epinephrine (p. 79) excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) (p. 68) exocytosis (p. 75) functional MRI (fMRI) (p. 91) gamma-butyric acid (GABA) (p. 79) gene knockout techniques (p. 92) gene replacement techniques (p. 92) glutamate (p. 79)

glycine (p. 79) Golgi complex (p. 75) graded responses (p. 68) hyperpolarize (p. 68) indolamines (p. 80) inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) (p. 68) ion channels (p. 66) ionotropic receptors (p. 77) ions (p. 66) lesion methods (p. 84) ligand (p. 76) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (p. 90) membrane potential (p. 66) metabotropic receptors (p. 77) microelectrodes (p. 66) neuromuscular junctions (p. 88) neuropeptides (p. 79) neurotoxins (p. 89) nitric oxide (p. 80) nodes of Ranvier (p. 73) nondirected synapses (p. 74) norepinephrine (p. 79) peptides (p. 75) pharmacological (p. 85) positron emission tomography (PET) (p. 90) receptor subtypes (p. 77) receptors (p. 76) relative refractory period (p. 72) resting potential (p. 66) reuptake (p. 78) saltatory conduction (p. 73) second messenger (p. 77) serotonin (p. 80) sodium-potassium pumps (p. 66) soluble gases (p. 80) spatial summation (p. 69) stereotaxic instrument (p. 83)

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel stereotaxic surgery (p. 82) stimulation methods (p. 85) synaptic vesicles (p. 75) temporal summation (p. 69)

threshold of excitation (p. 69) transgenic mice (p. 93) unit recording (p. 85) voltage-activated ion channels (p. 71)

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Chapter 3 Neural Activity and How to Study It ADDITIONAL READING AND MEDIA RESOURCES BOOKS Brain Imaging Handbook by Douglas Bremmer (2005) Norton (Written at college level.)

From Neuron to Brain 4th Ed. by Robert Martin, Bruce Wallace, Paul Fuchs, and John Nicholls (2001) Sinauer Associates.

MOVIES Brain and Nervous System: Your Information Superhighway (1998) (DVD, VHS; 31 minutes) Films for the Humanities and Sciences (Covers how impulses are conducted in the brain, drugs, and more.)

Animated Neuroscience and the Action of Nicotine, Cocaine, and Marijuana in the Brain (1997) (DVD, VHS; 25 minutes) Films for the Humanities and Sciences. (Realistic animations of electrical and chemical activities of neurons and how drugs alter neuronal activities.)

WEBSITES The National Library of Medicine (PubMed): http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ Scirus: http://www.scirus.com/ Wikipedia on Brain Imaging: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_imaging Spatial Attention in V-1 and other movies, sponsored by the Salk Institute for Biological Studies: http://www.snl-b.salk.edu/boynton/fMRI-mpegs.html.

The Whole Brain Atlas presented by Keith Johnson and J. Alex Becker from Harvard University, complete with an explanation of CAT and MRI techniques. http://www.med.harvard.edu/AANLIB/home.html The Brain: Understanding Neurobiology from the National Institutes of Health and the National Institute on Drug Abuse at: http://science.education.nih.gov/supplements/nih2/addiction/activities/activities_toc.htm.

Action Potential from Britannica: Guide to the Nobel Prizes at: http://www.britannica.com/nobel/micro/4_24.html Animations that illustrate the differences between passive and active transport across the neural membrane from the Biology Department at Northland College: http://programs.northlandcollege.edu/biology/Biology1111/animations/transport1.html From Dr. Chudler's site at the University of Washington, a description of the action potential complete with an animation, the "sounds" of an action potential, and an overview of these neurotransmitter subtypes: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/ap.html; http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/chnt1.html

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CHAPTER 4

The Visual System How We See Detailed Outline Introduction

4.1 Light Enters the Eye and Reaches the Retina

4.2 The Retina and Translation of Light into Neural Signals

4.3 From Retina to Primary Visual Cortex

4.4 Seeing Edges

Chapter At-A-Glance Instructor’s Print Resources Supplements Lecture Instructor’s Launcher 1 Manual for How Good Basics of is Your Biopsychology Vision?

Chapter 4 Exercise 4.1 Sketch the Eye and the Retina Lecture Launcher 2 Transduction at Rods and Cones

Practice Tests for Chapter 4 Test Bank for Basics of Biopsychology Chapter 4

Lecture Launcher 3 Blindsight and Prosopagnosia

Transparencies for Physiological Psychology, Chapter 5, TSP36-TSP43, see Table of Contents, p. xiv

Exercise 4.2 Research into Blindsight and Agnosias

Grade Aid for Basics of Biopsychology Chapter 4

4.5 Seeing Color

4.6 Cortical Mechanisms of Vision: Beyond Primary Visual Cortex

Exercise 4.3 Evaluate Goals Key Terms

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Media Supplements Beyond the Brain and Behavior CD for Basics of Biopsychology

Hard Copy for Chapter 4 Electronic Flashcards for Chapter 4 Digital Media Archive Log (DMA), 6.1-6.21 and 7.1-7.7, see Table of Contents, p. xix PowerPoint Presentation Instructor’s Manual Additional Readings and Media Resources

Professor Notes

Chapter 4 The Visual System CHAPTER 4 OVERVIEW Chapter 4 begins by explaining that visual representation is much more than a faithful recreation of external visual stimuli. On one hand, the visual system does not pay attention to all stimuli; on the other, it is creative and possesses the ability to fill in missing stimuli. “The case of Mrs. Richards: fortification illusions and the astronomer” illustrates how anomalies can teach us about the visual system.

The section “Light Enters the Eye and Reaches the Retina” details the nature of light, the basic layout of the visual system, and some fundamental facts. The section covers the way in which the lens changes shape to focus light on the retina.

Next, “The Retina and Translation of Light into Neural Signals” covers all the cell types in the retina and their functions. The duplexity theory explains how rods and cones carry out different visual processes (scotopic and photopic). Eye movements called saccades are responsible for keeping our retinal image from fading and enable us to see a wider range of objects. Visual transduction begins with a photon of light bleaching a pigment called rhodopsin (found in rods), which inhibits the G-protein cGMP, resulting in the flow of fewer sodium ions into the receptor cell. The receptor cell then becomes hyperpolarized and decreases its release of glutamate. Thus, the first step in visual facilitation is inhibition.

The section “From Retina to Primary Visual Cortex” traces the retina-geniculate-striate pathway, which accounts for 90% of axons arising from ganglion cells in the retina. There is a retinotopic map at each level of the visual system, indicating this system is highly organized. At early levels (retina, geniculate, and layer IV of primary visual cortex), cells are responsive to spots of light or dark, surrounded by an annulus of the opposite (dark or light, respectively). Diffuse light has little effect. There are parvocellular versus magnocellular components, having roles in either fine detail and color or movement, respectively.

As described in “Seeing Edges,” a key function of our visual cortex is to detect edges or contrast. The cells that enable us to see edges are simple and complex cells, which respond best to straight lines of a particular orientation. Simple cell responses are limited to certain places in the visual field, whereas complex cells have extended receptive fields.

In the “Seeing Color” component, opponent-process and Retinex theories are outlined, and support for each is presented. Color constancy illustrates that background illumination is computed into our assessment of color.

Lastly, “Cortical Mechanisms of Vision: Beyond Primary Visual Cortex” covers perceptual abnormalities, such as blindsight and prosopagnosia, following scotomas or specific damage to the dorsal and ventral visual streams. These results have implication for unconscious versus conscious vision.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES OF CHAPTER 4 • • • • •

To give students a working knowledge of light and basic visual mechanisms.

To teach about visual pathways in the brain.

To teach students how biopsychologists study these problems.

To teach students how to assess the basic research literature concerning blindsight and prosopagnosia.

To learn about careers related to vision.

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel CHAPTER 4: LECTURE OUTLINE (key terms in boldface) LECTURE LAUNCHER 1: How Good is Your Vision?

All of your students will probably have had an eye exam. That means they will be familiar with the Snellen eye chart (a version is available at http://www.i-see.org/snellen.pdf). Nonetheless, many of them may not know what “20/20 vision” means. This provides an opening to your discussion of the visual system. If you have 20/20 vision, you are able to read the line labeled “20” from a distance of 20 feet, and thus your vision is normal. If you can read lines with a lower number, you have better-than-normal vision. Alternatively, if you can only clearly see the top line (labeled “200”) from 20 feet away, you have 20/200 vision (you have to be 20 feet from the chart to see what most people see from 200 feet away), and you are legally blind.

Introduction The case of Mrs. Richards: fortification illusions and the astronomer • fortification illusions—visual displays that sometimes occur before a migraine attacks • these displays expand towards the periphery • these illusions have other interesting features 4.1 Light Enters the Eye and Reaches the Retina (Use transparencies TSP36-TSP37 or digital images 6.1-6.2; see Tables of Contents for complete media listings.)

Definition of terms • light—waves of electromagnetic energy between 380 and 760 nanometers (nanometer = 1 billionth of a meter) or discrete photons (light is a wave/particle) • wavelength—color • intensity—brightness • perception of color and brightness—psychological phenomena • sensitivity—the ability of the eye to detect stimuli of low intensity • acuity—the ability to detect details • high levels of illumination—constricted pupils; greater depth of focus and acuity • low levels of illumination—poor focus and acuity • lens—focuses light • accommodation—process in which shape of lens is adjusted by ciliary muscles • humans—two eyes facing forward; eyes converge to focus near or far • binocular disparity—a depth cue caused by differing degrees of convergence (binocular—involving both eyes) Exercise 4.1 Instructions Have your students make sketches of the eye and retina. They should include structures covered in lecture and those listed on the sheet. Ask them to relate functions to structures.

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Chapter 4 The Visual System Name: ________________________ Exercise 4.1 Sketch the Eye and the Retina (1) Make a sketch of the eyeball. Include the cornea, lens, ciliary muscles, retina, fovea, optic nerve, and blind spot.

(2) Make a sketch of the retina. Include the photoreceptor cells (rods and cones), bipolar cells, horizontal cells, amacrine cells, and ganglion cells The Eye

The Retina

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel LECTURE LAUNCHER 2: Transduction at Rods and Cones Students often have a hard time understanding the concept of transduction and how a photon can be transduced into a hyperpolarization of the rods. The animation at http://www.webvision.med.utah.edu/movies/trasduc.mov will help you walk students through the steps of transduction; it includes changes in cGMP and changes at Na+ channels that are responsible for the hyperpolarization. Try other animations and exercises dealing with negative after images, blind spots, and dark adaptation. These can be found on the website Neuroscience for Kids by Dr. Eric Chudler at: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/afterfish.html and http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/chvision.html. You can use this to introduce the idea of negative after-effects and component versus opponent process theories of color vision (in this textbook, covered in “Section 4.5 Seeing Color”).

4.2 The Retina and Translation of Light into Neural Signals (Use transparencies TSP38-TSP41 or digital images 6.3-6.9.)

Retinal cells (55 different neuronal types) • receptors—light passes through other layers, but first activates these cells • horizontal cells—responsible for lateral processing across main flow of visual information • bipolar cells—part of the main flow of visual information • amacrine cells—another group of lateral processors • retinal ganglion cells—retinal cells that project to the CNS • fovea—small central region of the retina, necessary for high visual acuity • blind spot—place in retina where ganglion cells are absent; due to optic nerve (perceptual processing fills in missing information) Cone and rod vision • two types of receptors—rods and cones • duplexity theory of vision—theory that rods and cones mediate different kinds of vision • cone-mediated vision (photopic vision)—high acuity and color vision; needs good lighting conditions • rod-mediated vision (scotopic vision)—lacks detail and color; prevails in low lighting conditions • many rods converge on individual ganglion cells—accounts for high sensitivity and low acuity • fovea contains only cones • nasal hemiretina (half of the retina next to the nose)—contains more rods • temporal hemiretina (half to the retina next to the temples)—contains fewer rods • spectral sensitivity curve—light of different wavelengths and equal intensities appears different in brightness • photopic spectral sensitivity curve—applies to cones • scotopic spectral sensitivity curve—applies to rods • Purkinge effect—yellow and red turn to darker shades of gray, and blue to bright gray in low levels of illumination

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Chapter 4 The Visual System Eye movement • visual field—the entire area you can see without moving the eyes • eyes constantly move so we can see more • saccades—quick eye movements (about three per second) enabling the visual system to integrate information across “scenes” Visual transduction: the conversion of light into neural signals • transduction—conversion of one form of energy into another (usually external stimulus energy to neural response) • visual receptor cells contain pigments that absorb light • rhodopsin—a pigment found in rods • light bleaches rhodopsin • absorption spectrum of rhodopsin—matches the scotopic spectral sensitivity curve • rhodopsin—is also a G-protein-linked receptor that responds to light instead of neurotransmitters • in the dark sodium channels are open, rods are depolarized, and glutamate is released • in the light sodium channels close, rods are hyperpolarized, and glutamate release is blocked 4.3 From Retina to Primary Visual Cortex (Use transparency TSP42 or digital image 6.10.)

Organization of pathways • retina-geniculate-striate-pathway—main visual pathway; 90% of axons • connects retina to: o lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus o primary visual cortex (striate cortex—striped appearance) • information from right visual field reaches the left primary visual cortex • fibers from the temporal hemiretina of each eye stay ipsilateral • fibers from the nasal hemiretina of each eye cross to the contralateral brain Retinotopic organization • retinotopic—each level of the visual system is arranged like a retinal map • disproportionate representation of the fovea • blind people with arrays of electrodes implanted and stimulated report seeing “glowing images” of the same shape The M and P channels • parvocellular layers—made of small neurons o responsive to color and fine detail o responsive to stationary or slowly moving objects o cells in lower part of layer IV in striate cortex o cones provide main input • magnocellular layers—made of large cells o responsive to movement o rods provide main input

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel 4.4 Seeing Edges (Use digital images 6.11-6.17.)

Lateral inhibition and contrast enhancement • Mach bands—perceived enhancement of brightness and darkness next to edges • contrast enhancement—occurs every time we see an edge • horseshoe crab—have lateral eyes with very large receptors called ommatidia • lateral inhibition—reduces firing in adjacent neighbors; results in enhanced response near edges where lateral inhibition is decreased Receptive fields of visual neurons • receptive field—the part of the visual field driving an individual neuron • David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel—Nobel Prize for vision research • invasive methods used on cats and monkeys • paralyzed eye muscles to fix gaze • presented stimuli on screen • looked for increases (and decreases) in cell firing rates Receptive fields: neurons of the retina-geniculate-striate system • early parts of the visual pathway (the retina, geniculate, and the lower layers of IV in primary visual cortex) • neurons are monocular (a receptive field confined to one eye) • excitatory and inhibitory fields with circular boundaries • on-center cells—cells responding with increased firing to spots of light with dark surrounds or with decreased firing to lights shone in the surround region • off-center cells—cells responding with decreased firing to spots of light with dark surrounds or with increased firing to lights shone in the surround region • both cell types respond to contrast; diffuse light not effect stimulus Receptive fields: simple cortical cells • NOT neurons in the lower layers of IV in striate cortex • simple cells o “on” and “off” regions; unresponsive to diffuse light o sensitive to straight lines, not circles o sensitive to particular orientations o monocular Receptive fields: complex cortical cells • complex cells o more numerous than simple cells o unresponsive to diffuse light o sensitive to straight lines, not circles o sensitive to particular orientations o LESS concerned about placement in the visual field o many are binocular, but display ocular dominance or more robust responses to one eye compared with the other

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Chapter 4 The Visual System Columnar organization of primary visual cortex • primary visual cortical neurons—grouped in vertical columns (i.e., at right angles to the surface of the cortex) • flow of information from “on” center and “off” center cells in lower layer IV to simple cells to complex cells • in a vertical column all cells respond to o stimuli from the same part of the visual field o straight lines having the same orientation o stimuli arriving from the same eye • ocular dominance columns—adjacent columns responding to stimuli of the same orientation, but arising from different eyes; alternating patches of retrograde tracers revealed these columns The case of Mrs. Richards, revisited • damage in primary visual cortex • wave of disturbance expanding from the foveal area to the periphery at a rate of 3 millimeters per minute 4.5 Seeing Color (Use digital images 6.19-6.21.)

Introduction • black—no light • white—a combination of a wide range of wavelengths of light • hues (colors)—particular wavelengths of light Component and opponent processing • component theory (trichromatic theory, proposed by Young and Hemholtz)— three kinds of spectral sensitivities (due to different kinds of cones); other colors derive from mixing these three spectral properties • opponent-process theory (proposed by Hering)—two different classes of cells encoding color and another encoding brightness; each cell encodes two complementary colors using opposite responses (i.e., depolarization and hyperpolarization) • complementary colors—cannot exist simultaneously; produce white or gray when combined in equal amounts • complementary afterimages—reversal of colors in afterimages • both component and opponent-process theories are correct o Wald discovered three types of cones o opponent-process responses in the retina-geniculate-striate system Color constancy and the retinex theory • color constancy—perceived color not a simple product of wavelength • color perception within a context—corrects for low and high intensity lighting • practical value—enables us to see things in a consistent manner

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel •

• • • •

Mondrian displays illustrate that three wavelengths are involved in color perception o objects stay their original colors regardless of the wavelengths they reflect o object is viewed as part of a scene, not in isolation retinex theory—the color of an object is determined by its reflectance; comparisons are made in at least three wavelength bands (short, medium, and long) dual-opponent color cells (e.g., red-center, green-surround cells) visual cortex neurons arranged in peg-like, cytochrome oxidase-rich columns called blobs (dual-opponent color columns) fMRI show dual-opponent color columns in human brain

LECTURE LAUNCHER 3: Blindsight and Prosopagnosia Students will be fascinated by phenomena such as blindsight and prosopagnosia. Recent studies suggest all of us may unconsciously process visual information, giving us all some degree of “blindsight” (see MSNBC News article: Study suggests brain may have “blindsight” at: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/9879390/). You can also launch your lecture with pictures and personal anecdotes on prosopagnosia, accessible through links to individual cases of prosopagnosia posted on the website for Research Centers at Harvard University and University College London: http://www.faceblind.org/research/index.html.

4.6 Cortical Mechanisms of Vision: Beyond Primary Visual Cortex (Use transparency TSP43 or digital images 7.1-7.7.)

Introduction • •

primary visual cortex (striate cortex)—most posterior region of occipital lobe secondary visual cortex (prestriate cortex)—band of tissue in the occipital lobe that surrounds the striate cortex • visual association cortex—higher visual areas • temporal and parietal cortex—visual regions include inferotemporal cortex and posterior parietal cortex • visual hierarchy—higher levels of visual cortex respond to more specific and complex stimuli Scotomas: completion • scotoma—an area of blindness • perimetry test—mapping of each eye’s visual field; demonstrates the extent of damage to eye • people are mostly unaware of scotomas • completion of partial images in patient with scotomas • patients who are hemianopsic (having a scotoma covering half of the visual field) experience completion of complex visual stimulus • migraine attacks—can produce temporary scotomas (e.g., Karl Lashley)

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Chapter 4 The Visual System The case of the physiological psychologist who made faces disappear • patients made to see wallpaper behind faces by shifting their gaze to one side Scotomas: blindsight • blindsight—ability of patients to respond to visual stimuli in their scotomas, even though they have no awareness of those stimuli • motion is the most likely visual stimulus to survive The case of D.B., the man confused by his own blindsight • patient with no awareness in his blind field could reach for the stimulus with accuracy • could differentiate vertical, horizontal, and diagonal lines • could differentiate the letters “X” and “O” • explanations—the primary visual cortex is not completely destroyed, or visual information reaches other cortical areas via thalamic nuclei other than the lateral geniculate nucleus Functional areas of secondary and association visual cortex • 30 different functional visual areas and 300 interconnecting pathways in the macaque • connections are reciprocal, as well as flowing from simple to complex • PET and fMRI demonstrate some of these areas in human brain • one dozen or more functional visual areas found in the human cortex Dorsal and ventral streams • dorsal stream—primary visual cortex projects to dorsal prestriate cortex to posterior parietal cortex; the “where” of objects • ventral stream—primary visual cortex projects to ventral prestriate to inferotemporal cortex; the “what” of objects • “where” versus “what” theory—parallel-processing theory suggesting damage to different cortical areas impairs different visual functions • “control of behavior” versus “conscious perception” theory—dorsal stream directs behavioral interactions with objects, whereas the ventral stream mediates conscious perception of objects The case of D.F., the woman who could grasp objects she did not consciously see • bilateral damage to ventral prestriate cortex • inability to recognize size, shape, and orientation of visual objects • accurate hand movement towards objects and proper grasping The case of A.T., the woman who could not accurately grasp unfamiliar objects that she saw • lesion in occipitoparietal region • able to recognize objects and demonstrate their size with her fingers • not able to grasp objects

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel Prosopagnosia • agnosia—failure of recognition • visual agnosia—agnosia specific to visual perception • prosopagnosia—visual agnosia for faces • visual agnosics can see visual stimuli, but they do not know what they are • specific types of visual agnosia: o movement agnosia o object agnosia o color agnosia • those with prosopagnosia recognize a face as a face, but not familiar faces • see nose, chin, cheeks, but these facial features are not fused • prosopagnosics may also have deficits for particular objects (e.g., certain animals or objects) R.P., a typical case of prosopagnosia • could not recognize faces • also deficient in recognizing objects with a complex curved surface • prosopagnosia usually associated with damage to the fusiform face area (ventral stream) • prosopagnosics unconsciously respond to familiar faces Conclusion • vision is a creative process • information about location, movement, brightness contrast, and color contrast— relayed from retina to visual cortex • perception is more than just that information Exercise 4.2 Instructions Direct students to use the Internet to locate articles on research into blindsight and visual agnosias (prosopagnosia and other kinds of visual agnosias). Explain how to find the main result of the study in the abstract.

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Chapter 4 The Visual System Name: ________________________ Exercise 4.2 Research into Blindsight and Agnosias How to get started: PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ links you to the National Library of Medicine and provides a comprehensive listing of journal articles. Scirus at: http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/ is a search engine specializing in scientific articles. You can type key words into these or any search engine. Remember that more key words will bring up fewer articles, but they will be more closely matched to your search. If you have too few articles retrieved, decrease the number of search terms.

Directions: Find articles on blindsight, face agnosia (prosopagnosia), and visual agnosia (other than prosopagnosia). List the reference (authors, year, journal, volume, and pages) in the first column and the main result in the second column. (Read abstract for main result.) Locate one article for each topic.

One article reference for each topic Blindsight

Main result

Face agnosia (prosopagnosia)

Visual agnosia (other than prosopagnosia)

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel Exercise 4.3 Evaluate Goals Ask students if anything they learned about vision was novel and exciting. Are any of the students interested in careers related to vision? Possible careers include optometry, ophthalmology, vision research, and neuropsychological specialization in visual perceptual deficits.

KEY TERMS (page numbers in Pinel text) absorption spectrum (p. 113) accommodation (p. 104) acuity (p. 103) agnosia (p. 134) amacrine cells (p. 106) binocular (p. 120) binocular disparity (p. 105) bipolar cells (p. 106) blindsight (p. 130) blind spot (p. 107) blobs (p. 127) ciliary muscles (p. 104) color constancy (p. 126) complementary colors (p. 125) completion (p. 107) complex cells (p. 120) component theory (p. 124) cones (p. 108) contrast enhancement (p. 116) “control of behavior” versus “conscious perception” theory (p. 132) cytochrome oxidase (p. 127) dorsal stream (p. 132) dual-opponent color cells (p. 127) duplexity theory (p. 108) fovea (p. 107) hemianopsic (p. 129) horizontal cells (p. 106) inferotemporal cortex (p. 128) lateral geniculate nucleus (p. 114) lateral inhibition (p. 117) magnocellular layers (p. 115) monocular (p. 119) nasal hemiretina (p. 110)

off-center cells (p. 119) ommatidia (p. 116) on-center cells (p. 119) opponent-process theory (p. 124) parvocellular layers (p. 115) perimetry test (p. 128) photopic spectral sensitivity curve (p. 110) photopic vision (p. 108) posterior parietal cortex (p. 128) prestriate cortex (p. 128) primary visual cortex (p. 114) prosopagnosia (p. 134) Purkinge effect (p. 111) receptive field (p. 118) receptors (p. 106) retina-geniculate-striate pathway (p. 114) retinal ganglion cells (p. 106) retinex theory (p. 127) retinotopic (p. 114) rhodopsin (p. 113) rods (p. 108) saccades (p. 112) scotoma (p. 128) scotopic spectral sensitivity curve (p. 110) scotopic vision (p. 108) secondary visual cortex (p. 128) sensitivity (p. 103) simple cells (p. 120) temporal hemiretina (p. 110) transduction (p. 112) ventral stream (p. 132) visual agnosia (p. 134) visual association cortex (p. 128) “where” versus “what” theory (p. 132)

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Chapter 4 The Visual System ADDITIONAL READINGS AND MEDIA RESOURCES BOOKS Blindsight: A Case Study and Its Implications (1986) by Lawrence Weiskrantz. Oxford University Press Face Blind! (2001) by Bill Choisser published on the Internet. Link can be found at: http://www.choisser.com/faceblind/ Vision of the Brain by Semir Zeki (1993) Blackwell Scientific Publication: London.

MOVIES Vision (2003) (DVD, VHS; 30 minutes) Films for the Humanities and Sciences (Describes how the visual system focuses on some information and ignores other information.)

The Mind’s Eye: How the Brain Sees the World (2000) (DVD, VHS; 50 minutes) Films for the Humanities and Sciences (Deals with how the brain puts the visual scene together.)

WEBSITES The National Library of Medicine (PubMed): http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ Scirus: http://www.scirus.com/ Wikipedia on Blindsight: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blindsight The Snellen Eye Chart: http://www.i-see.org/snellen.pdf Transduction at Rods and Cones, an animation from the University of Utah Medical School at: http://www.webvision.med.utah.edu/movies/trasduc.mov Animation of Receptive Fields from Dr. John Krantz at Hanover College, an animation illustrating the receptive fields of the retina: http://psychlab1.hanover.edu/Classes/Neuro/Internet/Receptive Fields First Stages of Vision from Genentech’s Access Excellence site: http://www.accessexcellence.org/AE/AEC/CC/vision_background.html Negative After-Effects: Put the Fish In Its Bowl! and other online visual illusions by Dr. Eric Chudler’s Neuroscience for Kids: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/afterfish.html; http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/chvision.html Color Vision from the Howard Hughes Medical Institute’s Hearing, Seeing and Smelling site: http://www.hhmi.org/senses/b110.html Study Suggests Brain May Have “Blindsight” MSNBC News article at: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/9879390/ Seeing What You Don’t See? An interactive demonstration of blindsight from Serendip: http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/blindsight.html

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CHAPTER 5

Mechanisms of Perception: Hearing, Touch, Taste, Smell, and Attention How You Know the World Detailed Outline Introduction

Chapter At-A-Glance Instructor’s Print Resources Supplements Lecture Instructor’s Launcher 1 Manual for Perception is Basics of More Than Biopsychology Sensation Chapter 5

5.1 Principles of Sensory System Organization

5.2 Auditory System

5.3 Somatosensory System: Touch and Pain

5.4 The Chemical Senses: Smell and Taste

5.5 Selective Attention

Exercise 5.1 Sketch the Ear and the Auditory Pathway Lecture Launcher 2 Where Does That Taste Come From?

Exercise 5.2 Research into Selective Attention Exercise 5.3 Evaluate Goals Key Terms

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Media Supplements Beyond the Brain and Behavior CD for Basics of Biopsychology Practice Tests for Chapter 5

Test Bank for Basics of Biopsychology Chapter 5

Transparencies for Physiological Psychology, Chapter 5, TSP44-TSP56, see Table of Contents, p. xiv

Grade Aid for Basics of Biopsychology Chapter 5

Hard Copy for Chapter 5 Electronic Flashcards for Chapter 5 Digital Media Archive Log (DMA), 7.87.21, see Table of Contents, pp. xixxx PowerPoint Presentation Instructor’s Manual Additional Readings and Media Resources

Professor Notes

Chapter 5 Mechanisms of Perception CHAPTER 5 OVERVIEW Chapter 5 begins with “The case of the man who could see only one thing at a time.” At the end of the chapter, it is revealed that this man has simultanagnosia, the inability to recognize two or more things at once.

The first section, titled: “Principles of Sensory System Organization,” provides an overview of sensory system principles. Primary sensory cortex, secondary sensory cortex, and association cortex are organized hierarchically, meaning the higher-end areas process more complex functions. This partly explains the differences between sensation and perception, with perception relying more on higher-end cortical areas. Pinel also notes that functional segregation occurs, with individual cortical areas being specialized for a certain function. Nonetheless, parallel processing enables multiple features to be processed simultaneously in each of the sensory systems. Even though there is no one center in the brain where all sensory systems converge, sensory information related to a single stimulus or scene is unified. (This is called the “binding problem.”)

Next, “Auditory System” describes the functional anatomy of the ear, the pathways beginning in the ear and ending in the auditory cortex, and some features of audition. Sound localization, the process that enables one to determine where a sound is originating, depends on brain stem circuitry. The cortical representation of pitch (frequency) is tonotopic.

“Somatosensory System: Touch and Pain” details the three touch systems: exteroceptive, proprioceptive, and interoceptive. The two major ascending pathways are further described: the medial-lemniscus dorsal-column pathway and the anterolateral pathway. The somatotopic organization of the primary somatosensory cortex (SI) and the secondary somatosensory cortex (SII) is detailed. Pinel gives several examples of neuropsychological deficits related to touch, such as astereognosia (the inability to recognize objects by touch) and asomatognosia (the failure to recognize body parts as one’s own). This section also covers the paradoxes of pain: how painful stimuli have a strong emotional component that is present to varying degrees, for example.

Next, the section “The Chemical Senses: Smell and Taste” explores these two senses that are often used in combination. In addition to presenting an overview of the gustatory and olfactory systems, anosmia (loss of smell) and ageusia (loss of taste) are reviewed.

Finally, the section “Selective Attention” covers basic principles of focused attention. The section also discusses change blindness (our natural inability to detect changes in complex scenes, when presented with short intervening pauses) and simultanagnosia (the inability to see two or more things at once).

LEARNING OBJECTIVES OF CHAPTER 5 • • • • •

To give students a working knowledge of general principles of sensation and perception.

To teach about the auditory system, somatosensory system, and the chemical senses.

To teach students how biopsychologists study these problems.

To teach students how to assess the basic research literature concerning selective attention.

To assess how sensory systems and attention are relevant to their lives.

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel CHAPTER 5: LECTURE OUTLINE (key terms in boldface) LECTURE LAUNCHER 1: Perception is More Than Sensation You can start out the lecture using illusions to demonstrate that sensation and perception are distinct. Find examples of visual illusions at the website Secret Life of the Brain from PBS: http://www.pbs.org/wnet/brain/illusions/index.html. There are some auditory illusions that work well in a class setting, located on a website maintained by Dr. Diana Deutsch at UCSD: http://philomel.com/musical_illusions/description.html#scale. Try the Tritone Paradox and the Mysterious Melody Illusion.

Introduction The case of the man who could see only one thing at a time • initially thought he had vision problem • could identify complex objects or faces, but only one at a time 5.1 Principles of Sensory System Organization Three types of sensory cortex • primary sensory cortex—receives most of its input from the thalamus • secondary sensory cortex—receives most of its input from primary or secondary cortex • association cortex—an area of cortex that receives input from more than one sensory system Hierarchical organization (ascending levels of organization, varying in complexity) • different levels of cortical processing: thalamus  primary sensory cortex  secondary sensory cortex  association cortex o simple to complex o increasing specificity of stimulus parameters that drive cells • sensation—process of detecting stimuli • perception—higher-order process of integrating, recognizing, and interpreting visual patterns The case of the man who mistook his wife for a hat • was not visually impaired • was not intellectually impaired • could not recognize shoes, gloves, or hats; confused them with body parts • a case of perceptual difficulties Functional segregation (each cortical area having a specialization) Parallel processing • sensory systems not merely serially connected • multiple pathways within a system

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Chapter 5 Mechanisms of Perception • •

parallel processing—the simultaneous analysis of a sensory stimulus in multiple pathways two kinds of streams of analysis o conscious o unconscious

The current model of sensory system organization • multiple specialized areas • multiple levels • multiple parallel pathways • division of labor, yet seamlessly bound—binding problem (not known how this is accomplished) • no one cortical area receiving all sensory modalities exists • top-down signals—inputs from higher to lower cortical areas in the hierarchy 5.2 Auditory Systems (Use transparencies TSP44-TSP48 or digital images 7.8-7.11; see Tables of Contents for complete media listings.)

Introductory terms • sound—vibrations of air molecules between 20 and 20,000 Hz (cycle/second) o amplitude—loudness o frequency—pitch o complexity—timbre • pure tones (sine wave vibration) are artificial • Fourier analysis—mathematical procedure for breaking down sine waves into their fundamental components The ear • • • • • • • • • • • •

tympanic membrane—the eardrum ossicles—the small bones of the middle ear (incus, malleus, and stapes) oval window—membrane transmitting vibrations from the ossicles to the cochlea cochlea—snail-shaped structure in the inner ear responsible for hearing organ of Corti—the internal membranes of the cochlea basilar membrane—the membrane that contains the hair cells tectorial membrane—the membrane that rests on the hair cells hair cells—the auditory receptor cells; shearing force on hair cells produces action potentials in the axons of the auditory nerve auditory nerve—axons of hair cells; branch of cranial nerve VIII tonotopic—organized according to tone frequency semicircular canals—receptive organs of the vestibular system vestibular system—sense of balance mediated by direction and intensity of head movements

From the ear to the primary auditory cortex • auditory nerve  ipsilateral cochlear nuclei • cochlear nuclei  superior olives • lateral lemniscus pathway to the inferior colliculi  medial geniculate nuclei of the thalamus  primary auditory cortex

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel Primary auditory cortex • hidden within the lateral fissure • arranged in functional columns—neurons within a column respond to same frequency • tonotopic organization—posterior regions respond to higher frequencies • secondary auditory cortex responds weakly to pure tones; better response to complex sounds Neural mechanisms of sound localization • mediated by the lateral and medial superior olives • depending on location of sound source arrival of signals to right and left ears show differences in: o arrival times (mediated by the medial superior olive) o loudness or amplitude (mediated by the lateral superior olive) • inferior colliculus and deep layers of the superior colliculus—tonotopic map • superior colliculus—retinotopic map • barn owls able to locate sounds very well—neurons in superior colliculus finely tuned to localize tones Effects of auditory cortex damage • rarely occurs in humans • in nonhuman primates—bilateral primary auditory cortex ablation results in mild deficits (e.g., ability to localize brief sounds and rapid complex sequences of sounds) Causes of deafness • total deafness is rare (less than 1% of all hearing-impaired) • conductive deafness—deafness due to damage to the ossicles • nerve deafness—deafness due to damage to the cochlea or auditory nerve • age-related deafness—partial damage to the cochlea resulting in impaired hearing of some frequencies, usually high frequencies “s,” “f,” and “t” Exercise 5.1 Instructions Have your students make sketches of the ear and the auditory pathways. Indicate that they should include all the structures covered in lecture (refer them also to relevant figures in their textbooks). Explain how this exercise will help them learn the structures and their functions.

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Chapter 5 Mechanisms of Perception Name: ________________________ Exercise 5.1 Sketch the Ear and the Auditory Pathway (1) Make a sketch of the ear. Include the major parts of the outer, middle, and inner ear. Also include fine details of the cochlea cut in cross section (e.g., the organ of Corti, tectorial membrane, basilar membrane, and hair cells).

(2) Make a sketch of the auditory pathway starting with the cochlear nucleus and ending in primary auditory cortex.

The Ear

The Auditory Pathway

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel 5.3 Somatosensory Systems: Touch and Pain (Use transparencies TSP49-TSP53 or digital images 7.12-7.19.)

Three different systems • exteroceptive system—sensitive to external stimuli applied to the skin (e.g., mechanical, thermal, and nociceptive information) • proprioceptive system—processes information about body position from muscles, joints, and organs of balance • interoceptive system—processes information about internal body conditions (e.g., internal temperature and blood pressure) Cutaneous receptors • free nerve endings—nerve ending without specialized structures; sensitive to temperature change and pain • Pacinian corpuscles—deeply situated, onion-like specialized receptors that respond transiently to pressure on the skin (respond by altering resistance to inflow of sodium ion) • Merkels’s disks and Ruffini endings—adapt slowly to skin indentation and stretch • stereognosis—the identification of objects by touch Dermatomes • dorsal roots—receive sensory fibers • dermatome—the area of the body innervated by dorsal root fibers of a given segment of the spinal cord • exhibit a fair amount of overlap The two major somatosensory pathways • dorsal-column medial-lemniscus system—carries information about touch and proprioception o incoming fibers typically ascend in the dorsal columns and then synapse in the dorsal column nuclei o axons of dorsal column nuclei decussate and ascend in the medial lemniscus to the contralateral ventral posterior nucleus of the thalamus o ventral posterior nuclei also receive input via the three branches of the trigeminal nerve (somatosensation from the face) o ventral posterior nuclei project to the primary somatosensory cortex (SI), secondary somatosensory cortex (SII), and posterior parietal cortex • anterolateral system—carries information about pain and temperature o most axons synapse in the dorsal horn as soon as entering o axons of second-order neurons usually decussate and ascend in the anterolateral portion of the spinal cord

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Chapter 5 Mechanisms of Perception o

• •

three components of system—the spinothalamic tract (projects to the ventral poster nuclei), spinoreticular tract (projects to the reticular formation and then to the parafasicular nuclei and intralaminar nuclei of the thalamus), and the spinotectal tract (projects to the tectum) o pain and temperature information reaches SI, SII, and posterior parietal cortex spinal injuries—loss of sensation below damaged segment of spinal cord complete transection—complete loss of sensation below damaged segment

Cortical areas of somatosensation • Penfield mapped primary somatosensory cortex o postcentral gyrus—somatosensation in various parts of the body upon electrical stimulation o discovered SI is somatotopic—organized according to a map of the body surface o somatosensory homunculus—the complete somatosensory map, which looks like a misshaped person (literally “little man”) o distortion of map due to increased innervation of hands, lips, and tongue o SII lies ventral to SI and receives most of its input from SI o SII receives information from both sides of body (SI receives mostly contralateral input) o SI and SII output to posterior parietal lobe o SI and SII somatotopically organized; strips respond to different somatosensory input (e.g., light touch versus temperature) o neurons in SI—antagonistic excitatory and inhibitory areas Effects of damage to the primary somatosensory cortex • damage to SI produces mild effects • deficit in stereognosis found Somatosensory agnosias • astereognosia—the inability to recognize objects by touch • asomatognosia—the failure to recognize parts of one’s own body The case of Aunt Betty, who lost half of her body • stroke in right hemisphere • left hemiplegia (left-side paralysis) • no speech or memory problems; no confusion • could recognize her right hand was hers, but could not recognize that her left hand belonged to her • could not recognize her left-side paralysis • anosognosia—the failure to recognize a neuropsychological disorder • contralateral neglect—the tendency not to respond stimuli that are contralateral The paradoxes of pain • adaptiveness of pain • negative experience, yet necessary for survival (see the case of Miss C.)

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel

The case of Miss C., the woman who felt no pain • congenital insensitivity to pain o suffered many injuries (e.g., bit off part of tongue, burns, etc.) o no autonomic responses to painful stimuli (e.g., no changes in heart rate, blood pressure, or respiration rate) o no sneezing; nearly absent gag reflex; no corneal reflex o suffered inflammation of joints because unable to protect them o died at age 29 due to massive infections Lack of clear cortical representation of pain • pain—no obvious cortical representation • usually elicits responses in SI and SII • removal of SI and SII does not change pain response • even hemispherectomized patients perceive pain • anterior cingulate cortex—respond to painful stimuli (e.g., painfully cold, painfully hot, alternating hot and cold to give the illusion of pain) • anterior cingulate cortex represents the emotional reaction to pain rather than pain itself • prefrontal lobotomy—reduced the emotional response to pain without changing pain threshold Descending pain control • pain—suppressed by cognitive and emotional factors (e.g., soldiers in battle and other life threatening experiences) • gate-control theory (Melzack and Wall)—signals descending from the brain activate gating circuits to block incoming pain signals • periaqueductal gray—brain stem region having analgesic (pain-blocking) effects and containing: o endorphins—endogenous opiates o receptors for endorphins o a descending endorphin-sensitive circuit, part of which excites serotonergic neurons of the raphe nuclei

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Chapter 5 Mechanisms of Perception LECTURE LAUNCHER 2: Where Does That Taste Come From?

To demonstrate to students that smell has an enormous influence on taste, ask students to bring variously flavored jellybeans to the lecture. Then ask student to pick one of their jellybeans with their eyes closed, so they can’t see the color. Once the jellybean is in their hand (and out of sight), ask students to pinch their nostrils with their fingers of their other hand. With the sense of smell blocked, ask students to place the jellybean in their mouths and start to chew. Ask them if they can taste the flavor. Next, ask students to stop pinching their nostrils. Can they taste the jellybean now? What flavor is it?

5.4 The Chemical Senses: Smell and Taste (Use transparencies TSP54-TSP56 or digital images 7.20-7.21.)

Olfaction (smell) and gustation (taste) • referred to as chemical senses because they monitor chemical content of environment o sense of smell responds to airborne molecules inhaled into nasal passages o sense of taste responds to molecules in the oral cavity • olfaction and gustation—combines to form flavor • pheromones—chemicals that influence the behavior of conspecifics (members of the same species) o male hamsters in colonies fight with other males and mount females o both behaviors are abolished if olfactory system destroyed • humans may have sexual pheromones o olfactory sensitivity is highest in ovulating and pregnant females o females living together have synchronized menstrual cycles o females can identify sex by breath or underarm odors o men can judge stage of menstrual cycle by vaginal odor o no direct evidence that any of these odors are attractants • adult male rats are attracted to females that smell like their mother did while their were nursing (e.g., the lemon-scented rat experiment) • chemical gradients implicated The olfactory system • olfactory mucosa—the mucus-covered tissue in the upper part of the nose • olfactory receptors—embedded in the olfactory mucosa; dendrites located in nasal passages; axons pass through the cribiform plate to enter the olfactory bulbs • olfactory bulbs—receive inputs from the olfactory receptors and project, via the olfactory tracts, to the brain • the one-olfactory-receptor-one-neuron-rule—each olfactory neuron has one of the many hundreds or thousands of possible olfactory receptors • receptor protein molecules—embedded in the dendrites of olfactory receptor cells • each receptor type scattered through the olfactory mucosa • receptor cells having the same receptor protein molecule project to the same region of the olfactory bulb • spatial patterns in the olfactory bulb—shown by 2-deoxyglucose

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel • • •

continuous renewal of olfactory receptor cells—each cell lasts a few weeks olfactory tract projects to: o amygdala o piriform cortex (primary olfactory cortex) piriform cortex and amygdala project to: o limbic system—mediates emotional responses to odors o medial dorsal nuclei of the thalamus  orbitofrontal cortex— mediates the conscious perception of odor

The gustatory system • taste receptors found on the tongue • taste buds—clusters of about 50 taste receptors • five distinct tastes o sweet o sour—direct action on ion channels from acidic compounds o bitter o salty—direct action on ion channels by sodium o umami (meaty or savory) • gustatory afferents in facial (VII), glossopharyngeal (IX), and vagus (X) cranial nerves project to the solitary nucleus of the medulla Brain damage and the chemical systems • anosmia—inability to smell; can be caused by: o blow to the head shearing olfactory receptor cells at the cribiform plate o Alzheimer’s disease, Down’s syndrome, epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, Korsakoff’s disease, and Parkinson’s disease • ageusia—inability to taste o rare o partial ageusia—caused by damage to the ear and facial nerve (VII) Exercise 5.2 Instructions Direct students to use the Internet to locate articles on research into selective attention, change blindness, and simultanagnosia. Explain how to find the main result of the report in the abstract.

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Chapter 5 Mechanisms of Perception Name: ________________________ Exercise 5.2 Research into Selective Attention How to get started: PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ links you to the National Library of Medicine and provides a comprehensive listing of journal articles. Scirus at: http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/ is a search engine specializing in scientific articles. You can type key words into these or any search engine. Remember that more key words will bring up fewer articles, but they will be more closely matched to your search. If too few articles are retrieved, decrease the number of search terms.

Directions: Find articles on selective attention, change blindness, and simultanagnosia. List the reference (authors, year, journal, volume, and pages) in the first column and the main result in the second column. (Read abstract for main result.) Locate one article for each topic.

One article reference for each topic Selective attention

Main result

Change blindness

Simultanagnosia

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel 5.5 Selective Attention • • •

•

• • •

•

Selective attention—our ability to perceive a small subset of stimuli at any one time improved ability to attend to certain stimuli two ways attention can be focused: o internal cognitive processes (endogenous attention)—usually a result of top-down neural mechanisms o external events (exogenous attention)—a result of bottom-up neural mechanisms change blindness—two slightly different images flashed at delays of 0.1 second o most subjects cannot find differences without searching for many seconds o once the differences are identified, it is impossible NOT to see them o change blindness occurs because we have to build up a memory of the scene o delay of at least 0.1 second is critical because this makes the task rely on memory experiments on monkey trained to respond selectively to red or green—increased neuronal responses to that color brain-imaging experiments on humans discriminating movement, color, or shape increased dorsal or ventral stream activity selectively theories of selective attention o strengthening of selected representations and weakening others o visual focus—change in eye movements can shift attention o cocktail-party phenomenon—the situation where you do not hear what people are talking about in a crowd, unless your own name is mentioned simultanagnosia—difficulty in attending to more than one object at a time— usually due to bilateral damage in the dorsal visual stream

Exercise 5.3 Evaluate Goals Ask students if they are now more aware of how their senses operate. Do they better appreciate the differences between sensation and perception? How can they use this information in their everyday lives?

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Chapter 5 Mechanisms of Perception KEY TERMS (page numbers in Pinel text) ageusia (p. 162) anosmia (p. 162) anosognosia (p. 156) anterior cingulate cortex (p. 157) anterolateral system (p.151 ) asomatognosia (p. 155) association cortex (p. 141) astereognosia (p. 155) auditory nerve (p. 145) basilar membrane (p. 145) change blindness (p. 164) cochlea (p. 145) cocktail-party phenomenon (p. 166) contralateral neglect (p. 156) dermatome (p. 151) dorsal columns (p. 151) dorsal-column medial-lemniscus system (p. 151) endorphins (p. 158) flavor (p. 159) free nerve endings (p. 150) functional segregation (p. 143) gate-control theory (p. 157) hair cells (p. 145) hierarchical organization (p. 142) inferior colliculi (p. 147) medial dorsal nuclei (p. 161) medial geniculate nuclei (p. 147) medial lemniscus (p. 151) olfactory bulbs (p. 160)

olfactory mucosa (p. 160) orbitofrontal cortex (p. 161) organ of Corti (p. 145) ossicles (p. 145) oval window (p. 145) Pacinian corpuscles (p. 150) parallel processing (p. 143) perception (p. 143) periaqueductal gray (PAG) (p. 157) pheromones (p. 159) piriform cortex (p. 161) primary sensory cortex (p. 141) retinotopic (p. 146) secondary sensory cortex (p. 141) selective attention (p. 163) semicircular canals (p. 147) sensation (p. 143) simultanagnosia (p. 166) solitary nucleus (p. 162) somatosensory homunculus (p. 154) somatotopic (p. 154) stereognosis (p. 150) superior olives (p. 147) taste buds (p. 161) tectorial membrane (p. 145) tonotopic (p. 146) tympanic membrane (p. 145) ventral posterior nucleus (p. 151) vestibular system (p. 147)

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel ADDITIONAL READINGS AND MEDIA RESOURCES BOOKS The Biology of Sensory Systems by C.U.M. Smith (2000) John Wiley and Sons.

Change Blindness and Visual Memory: A Special Edition of the Journal Visual Cognition

by Daniel J. Simons (2000) Taylor and Francis Group.

MOVIES Human Senses (2003) (DVD, VHS; 6-part series, 30 minutes each) Films Media Groups. (Series covers the senses of smell, vision, taste, touch, hearing, and balance.)

WEBSITES The National Library of Medicine (PubMed): http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ Scirus: http://www.scirus.com/ Wikipedia on the Somatosensory System: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatosensory_system on Simultanagnosia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simultanagnosia Secret Life of the Brain from PBS, illustrating several visual illusions: http://www.pbs.org/wnet/brain/illusions/index.html Musical Illusions and Paradoxes by Dr. Diana Deutsch at UCSD: http://philomel.com/musical_illusions/description.html#scale Animations of Processes within the Ear at: http://www.neurophys.wisc.edu/animations/ Localizing Sound from the Howard Hughes Medical Institute’s Our Precious Senses site: http://www.hhmi.org/senses/c210.html The Virtual Ear from Perry Hanavan at Augustana College (check out the McGurk Effect): http://ctl.augie.edu/perry/ear/hearmech.htm The Somatosensory System from the Washington University School of Medicine: http://thalamus.wustl.edu/course/body.html The Organs of Smell from the Howard Hughes Medical Institute: http://www.hhmi.org/senses/d110.html Supertasters and Taste Intensity from the Society for Neuroscience’s Brain Briefings: http://www.sfn.org/content/Publications/BrainBriefings/tastedetectors.html; http://www.sfn.org/content/Publications/BrainBriefings/taste.html

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CHAPTER 6

The Sensorimotor System How You Do What You Do Detailed Outline Introduction 6.1 Three Principles of Sensorimotor Function 6.2 Sensorimotor Association Cortex 6.3 Secondary Motor Cortex 6.4 Primary Motor Cortex 6.5 Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia 6.6 Descending Motor Pathways 6.7 Sensorimotor Spinal Circuits 6.8 Central Sensorimotor Programs

Chapter At-A-Glance Instructor’s Print Resources Supplements Lecture Instructor’s Launcher 1 Manual for Remote Basics of Control of Biopsychology Mind Over Chapter 6 Matter Exercise 6.1 Sketch the Areas of Motor Cortex Lecture Launcher 2 Stimulate the Motor Homunculus Online Exercise 6.2 Research into Sensorimotor Deficits Lecture Launcher 3 Mirror Neurons Exercise 6.3 Evaluate Goals Key Terms

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Media Supplements Beyond the Brain and Behavior CD for Basics of Biopsychology Practice Tests for Chapter 6

Test Bank for Basics of Biopsychology Chapter 6

Transparencies for Physiological Psychology, Chapter 6, TSP57-TSP65, see Table of Contents, p. xiv-xv

Grade Aid for Basics of Biopsychology Chapter 6

Hard Copy for Chapter 6 Electronic Flashcards for Chapter 6 Digital Media Archive Log (DMA), 8.18.16, see Table of Contents, p. xx PowerPoint Presentation Instructor’s Manual Additional Readings and Media Resources

Professor Notes

Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel CHAPTER 6 OVERVIEW Pinel begins Chapter 6 using “The case of Rhonda, the dexterous cashier” to illustrate how sensorimotor programs can be executed automatically. He revisits her example at the end of the chapter to remind us how well this system works.

“Three Principles of Sensorimotor Function” are enumerated as follows: (1) the sensorimotor system is hierarchically organized, (2) motor output is guided by sensory input, and (3) learning changes the nature and locus of sensorimotor control. The case of G.O. illustrates the importance of sensory feedback. A general model of sensorimotor function is presented.

The next section, “Sensorimotor Association Cortex,” describes the anatomy and functions of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the posterior parietal cortex. These cortical areas give top-down instructions to areas of primary and secondary motor cortex.

“Secondary Motor Cortex” covers the anatomy and functions of supplemental motor cortex, premotor cortex, and cingulate motor cortex. The secondary motor cortex receives inputs from association motor cortex and sends output to the primary motor cortex.

“Primary Motor Cortex” reviews this area’s special features. Similar to the somatosensory cortex, the primary motor cortex has a somatotopic organization. It contains the motor homunculus. Pinel uses the example of Belle, a non-human primate research subject.

Researchers hooked up Belle’s motor cortex to electrode arrays, which enabled her to control a robotic arm hundreds of miles away. This technology may hold promise for treating sensorimotor impairment following injury.

The section “Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia” covers the anatomy and functions of these two subcortical motor areas. Both are described as modulating descending motor pathways.

The “Descending Motor Pathways” dissects the many pathways originating in the primary motor cortex and ending in the spinal cord. Some pathways make relays in the brain stem.

All these details are given.

“Sensorimotor Spinal Circuits” covers muscles, receptor organs, and various reflexes.

The stretch reflex is the simplest and operates at the low-end of the sensorimotor hierarchy. It is a part of many movements we make. Walking, on the other hand, is a complex sensorimotor reflex that involves multiple sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons acting in a coordinated manner.

Finally, the section “Central Sensorimotor Programs” explains concepts such as motor equivalence, whereby different muscle groups can perform the same sensorimotor program, and the response-chunking hypothesis, whereby complex behaviors can be reduced to series of chunked sequences.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES OF CHAPTER 6 • • • • •

To give students a working knowledge of how sensorimotor systems operate.

To teach about motor areas of cortex and sensorimotor pathways.

To teach students how biopsychologists study these problems.

To teach students how to assess the basic research literature concerning sensorimotor deficits.

To assess how research into motor control (and robotics) may influence their lives.

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Chapter 6 The Sensorimotor System CHAPTER 6: LECTURE OUTLINE (key terms in boldface) LECTURE LAUNCHER 1: Remote Control of Mind Over Matter At some time in the future, will people be able to move things out of reach with their minds? Researchers Miguel Nicolelis and John Chapin have shown this is theoretically possible in experiments using monkeys. They sampled activity of primary motor cortices in their non-human primates and used that activity to control the movements of a robotic arm located hundreds of miles away. This work holds great promise for the development of prosthetics, remote robotic devices (e.g., on the Space Shuttle), and has captured the imagination of brain researchers everywhere. You can introduce this section of the lecture with a video clip highlighting the work of Nicolelis and Chapin at: http://www.sciencentral.com/articles/view.php3?article_id=218391807&cat=3_4 Introduction The case of Rhonda, the dexterous cashier • automaticity of skilled movements • sensorimotor system: hierarchically organized, guided by sensory input, and sensitive to effects of learning 6.1 Three Principles of Sensorimotor Function (Use transparency TSP57 or digital images 8.18.2; see Tables of Contents for complete media listings.)

The sensorimotor system is hierarchically organized • highest level of the hierarchy—not concerned with details • higher levels control lower levels • parallel processing—multiple tasks at the same time • functional segregation—different units performing different tasks • in the sensorimotor system—information mainly flows down the hierarchy Motor output is guided by sensory input • sensory feedback—sensorimotor systems receive inputs from: o eyes o organs of balance o receptors in skin, muscles, and joints • ballistic movements are an exception; run their course without feedback The case of G.O., the man with too little feedback • could not maintain constant muscle contraction—markedly impaired • shows that our sensorimotor systems operate without continuous feedback Learning changes the nature and locus of sensorimotor control • conscious control during learning motor skills, then performed unconsciously • integrated sequences of action (e.g., typical of typing, swimming, dancing, etc.)

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel A general model of sensorimotor function • control of voluntary behavior • association cortex  secondary motor cortex  primary motor cortex  brain stem motor nuclei  spinal cord circuits  muscle • numerous feedback pathways 6.2 Sensorimotor Association Cortex (Use digital image 8.3.)

Posterior parietal association cortex • maps the original position of the body before movement • receives information from visual, auditory, and somatosensory cortex • projects to the dorsolateral prefrontal association cortex, secondary motor cortex, and primary motor cortex • damage to the posterior parietal cortex—deficits in perception and memory of spatial relationships, accurate reaching and grasping, accurate eye movements, and in attention • apraxia—disorder of voluntary movement other than a simple motor deficit or deficit in motivation • contralateral neglect—deficit in responding to stimuli on the side of the body opposite to the damage The case of Mrs. S., the woman who turned in circles • unable to shift her attention to the left • developed strategy of turning to the right in a circle until the unseen object came into view • neglect is often egocentric; does not solve problem if patient tilts head • object-based contralateral neglect (specific to objects) • neglected objects may be unconsciously perceived Dorsolateral prefrontal association cortex • receives inputs from posterior parietal cortex • projects to secondary motor cortex, primary motor cortex, and frontal eye field • evaluates stimuli and initiates reactions to them • some dorsolateral neurons fire in relation to the response • these neurons fire before the motor response • decision to initiate movement occurs in dorsolateral and posterior parietal cortex Exercise 6.1 Instructions Have your students sketch the outer and midline cortical surfaces and then mark and label areas of motor cortex. Indicate that they should include all the structures listed on the exercise, as well as areas covered in lecture. (Refer them also to relevant figures in their textbooks for additional help.) Explain how this exercise will reinforce their learning of these structures.

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Chapter 6 The Sensorimotor System Name: ________________________ Exercise 6.1 Sketch the Areas of Motor Cortex Make two sketches of the cerebral cortex: one of the outer surface, the other a midline view. Draw and label the following motor areas: primary motor cortex, secondary motor cortex, posterior parietal association cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and cingulate motor areas.

Motor Areas Seen on the Outer Cortical Surface

Motor Areas on Medial Cortical Surface

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel 6.3 Secondary Motor Cortex (Use digital image 8.4.)

• • • • • • • •

receives input from association cortex sends output to primary motor cortex supplemental motor area o two different supplemental areas in monkey o SMA and preSMA premotor cortex o two premotor areas o one dorsal, one ventral cingulate motor areas o three cingulate motor areas o medial surface of cortex electrical stimulation of secondary motor cortex produces complex movements neurons active during planning or imagining movements bimodal neurons—affected by two modalities (e.g., vision and touch)

LECTURE LAUNCHER 2: Stimulate the Motor Homunculus Online In the 1930’s, Wilder Penfield and his colleagues used electrical brain stimulation techniques to map the motor homunculus in the human brain. Open your lecture on the primary motor cortex, using the Virtual Brain Stimulator available from A Science Odyssey’s website to observe the behavioral effects of stimulating different areas of the motor homunculus in a human: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/tryit/brain/# 6.4 Primary Motor Cortex (Use transparency TSP63 or digital image 8.5.)

• • • • • • • •

located in the precentral gyrus Penfield and Boldrey electrically stimulated motor cortex in conscious humans motor cortex is somatotopic (i.e., is organized according to a body map) motor homunculus—map of body parts controlled by primary motor cortex hands and mouth have large representations distributed networks within the primary motor cortex control individual movements neurons in primary motor cortex fire with movements in particular direction multiple hand areas of representation—aid in stereognosia (identifying objects by touch)

Belle: the monkey that controlled a robot with her mind • first Belle learned to move a joystick controlling a computer for a juice reward • 100 microelectrodes recorded activity in Belle’s cortex and this information used to move robotic arm several kilometers away • raises the possibility that someday brain activity may be used to control prosthetic arms, wheelchairs, or paralyzed limbs • astereognosia (deficits in identifying objects by touch)—can be caused by large lesions to the primary motor cortex • lesions to primary motor cortex do not abolish voluntary movements

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Chapter 6 The Sensorimotor System

6.5 Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia (Use transparency TSP64.)

Cerebellum • 10% of the brain by mass, but one half of the brain’s neurons • receives information from primary and secondary motor cortex, brain stem motor nuclei, and somatosensory and vestibular sensory inputs • cerebellum compares these inputs; critical for timing • damage to the cerebellum: o impairs posture o disturbs balance, gait, speech, and control of eye movement o impairs learning of new motor sequences Basal ganglia • heterogeneous collection of interconnected nuclei • basal ganglia serve a modulatory function: o receive widespread cortical input o transmit the results of processing back to motor cortex • newly discovered cognitive functions (consistent with projections to the prefrontal cortex) • basal ganglia important for learned associations in rats Exercise 6.2 Instructions Direct students to use the Internet to locate articles on research on apraxia, contralateral neglect, and astereognosia. Explain how to find the main result of the report in the abstract.

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel Name: ________________________ Exercise 6.2 Research into Sensorimotor Deficits How to get started: PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ links you to the National Library of Medicine and provides a comprehensive listing of journal articles. Scirus at: http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/ is a search engine specializing in scientific articles. You can type key words into these or any search engine. Remember that more key words will bring up fewer articles, but they will more closely match your search. If you have too few articles retrieved, decrease the number of search terms.

Directions: Find articles on apraxia, contralateral neglect, and astereognosia. List the reference (authors, year, journal, volume, and pages) in the first column and the main result in the second column. (Read abstract for main result.) Locate one article for each topic.

One article reference for each topic Apraxia

Main result

Contralateral neglect

Astereognosia

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Chapter 6 The Sensorimotor System 6.6 Descending Motor Pathways (Use transparencies TSP61-TSP62 or digital images 8.6-8.7.)

Dorsolateral corticospinal tract and dorsolateral corticorubrospinal tract • dorsolateral corticospinal tract—direct descending pathway o descends from the primary motor cortex through the medullary pyramids o decussates and then continues in the contralateral dorsolateral spinal white matter o arises from Betz cells—very large neurons in the primary motor cortex with axons that terminate in the lower parts of the spinal cord o most axons in this tract terminate on interneurons • dorsolateral corticorubrospinal tract—indirect descending pathway o neurons in this path synapse in the red nucleus (rubro refers to red) o red nucleus then sends axons that decussate and descend through the medulla o this tract supplies muscles of the face and distal parts of the arms and legs Ventromedial corticospinal tract and ventromedial cortico-brainstem-spinal tract • ventromedial corticospinal tract—direct descending pathway o descends from the primary motor cortex o ipsilateral pathway o descends in the ventromedial portion of the spinal cord o most axons in this tract terminate on interneurons • ventromedial cortico-brainstem-spinal tract—indirect descending pathway o descends from the primary motor cortex o bilateral pathway o relays in the brain stem: tectum, vestibular nucleus, reticular formation, and motor nuclei of the cranial nerves supplying the face Comparison of the two dorsolateral motor pathways and the two ventromedial motor pathways • ventromedial pathways are much more diffuse compared to dorsolateral pathways • ventromedial pathways project to proximal muscles; dorsolateral pathways project to distal muscles • transection of the dorsolateral corticospinal pathway leads to deficits in reaching and picking up food, leaving walking and climbing intact • transection of the dorsolateral corticospinal and the dorsolateral corticorubrospinal results in limp arms, but walking and climbing still normal • transection of the ventromedial tracts leads to sever deficits in walking and sitting • conclusion—ventromedial tracts control posture and dorsolateral tracts control movements of the limbs • only the dorsolateral corticospinal tract independently controls the digits

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel 6.7 Sensorimotor Spinal Circuits (Use transparencies TSP58-TSP60 or digital images 8.8-8.14.)

Muscles • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

motor units—smallest units of motor activity; equivalent to one motor neuron and all the muscle fibers innervated motor units in fingers and face—fewest fibers, greatest control muscle—hundreds of thousands of fibers, bound by tendons, which connect to bone neuromuscular junction—the synapse between the nerve and muscle motor end-plate—receptive area on muscle cell membrane motor pool—all the neurons that innervate one muscle fast muscles—contract and relax quickly; provide strong force (pale color) slow muscles—slower, more sustained contraction (redder color) flexors—act to bend a joint extensors—act to straighten a joint synergistic muscles—act in concert antagonistic muscles—have opposing actions isometric contraction—increases in muscle tension without bending the joint (i.e., pushing against a stationary object) dynamic contraction—pulling two bones together (i.e., bending a joint)

Receptor organs of tendons and muscles • Golgi tendon organs (embedded in tendons)—respond to increases in muscle tension; prevent injury • muscle-spindles (embedded in the muscle)—respond to changes in muscle length; part of muscle-spindle feedback circuit • skeletal muscle (extrafusal muscle)—muscle that causes movement or changes force; innervated by motor neuron • intrafusal muscle—innervated by sensory muscle spindle AND intrafusal motor neuron; necessary to take up slack following skeletal muscle contraction • muscle-feedback circuit enables muscle spindle to detect slight changes in length of intrafusal muscle Stretch reflex • sudden stretching of muscle—leads to stretch reflex • action potentials carried by the spindle afferent neurons via the dorsal root • input triggers action potentials by motor neurons in the ventral horn of the spinal cord back to the muscle • compensatory muscle contraction (e.g., leg extension) • knee jerk reflex—type elected in doctor’s office; readily observable • in real life—stretch reflexes are not noticeable • stretch reflex—lower level of the hierarchy; operates without control over specific details

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Chapter 6 The Sensorimotor System Withdrawal reflex • withdrawal reflex—a sudden pulling away elicited by a painful stimulus (e.g., a hot pot) • painful stimuli to the hand—1.6 milliseconds later the flexor motor neurons are activated, indicating delay across two synapses Reciprocal innervation • antagonistic muscle action is reciprocal (e.g., flexors contract, extensors relax) • permits smooth movement • single input produces coordinated patterns of activity among synergistic and antagonistic muscle groups (based on internal circuitry of the spinal cord) • cocontraction—contraction based on excitation or inhibition integrated with existing level of contraction (enables precision movements) Recurrent collateral inhibition • motor neurons inhibit themselves briefly after firing • recurrent collateral inhibition—caused by motor neuron axonal branch that synapses on spinal cord inhibitory interneurons, which in turn inhibit original motor neuron • Renshaw cells—inhibitory interneurons that inhibit the original motor neurons Walking: a complex sensorimotor reflex • motor programs for walking integrate: o visual information o somatosensory information o information about balance • motor programs produce a complex series of muscle movements that must be flexible • circuits in the spinal cord are sufficient to produce walking patterns in cats LECTURE LAUNCHER 3: Mirror Neurons Some motor neurons act as “mirror neurons”. These neurons are active during activity, as well as when viewing others performing an activity. Mirror neurons enable humans to learn complex sequences of behavior by watching others engage in those actions. See the PBS video at: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sciencenow/3204/01.html

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel 6.8 Central Sensorimotor Programs (Use transparency TSP65 or digital images 8.15-8.16.)

Introduction • central sensorimotor programs—hierarchy of programs responsible for complex movements o high-level cortical program (e.g., look at a magazine) o low-level programs (e.g., walking, bending over, picking up, thumbing through) • similar to the way companies are organized • mechanisms for coordination in cerebellum and basal ganglia Central sensorimotor programs are capable of motor equivalence • motor equivalence—multiple muscle groups can execute the same desired effect (e.g., a personal signature) • hand-written signature circuitry in secondary motor cortex—these hand areas are activated when signing one’s name with another part of the body (e.g., with the toe) Sensory information that controls central sensorimotor programs is not necessarily conscious • different circuitry involved with conscious vision versus unconscious vision • sensory control of behavior may be conscious or unconscious • Ebbinghaus illusion—subjects adjusted finger-thumb distances for actual, not perceived distance Central sensorimotor programs can develop without practice • mice with amputated forelimbs—shoulder movements typical of grooming with the forelimbs • these mice sought other kinds of tongue contact Practice can create central sensorimotor programs • practice modifies sensorimotor skills • two processes of learning o chunking (response-chunking hypothesis)—reducing complex movement into simpler sequences of behavior; chunks can be combined into higher-order chunks o shifting to lower levels of the sensorimotor system—frees up higher level system to deal with more esoteric functions (e.g., skilled pianist focusing on interpretation) Functional brain imaging of sensorimotor learning • posterior parietal cortex—active (on PET scan) during newly learned and wellpracticed sequences (of key presses) • dorsolateral prefrontal cortex—active only during newly-learned sequences (role in conscious movement) • contralateral premotor cortex—more active during performance of the newly learned sequence • supplemental motor cortex—more active bilaterally during well-practiced sequence

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Chapter 6 The Sensorimotor System • • •

contralateral primary motor and somatosensory cortex—equally active during newly learned and well-practiced sequences contralateral basal ganglia—equally active during newly learned and wellpracticed sequences cerebellum—bilaterally active; more during newly learned than during wellpracticed sequences

The case of Rhonda, revisited • Rhonda’s finely tuned sensorimotor system—prepared for unexpected sensory inputs Exercise 6.3 Evaluate Goals You can ask students if anything they learned new about their motor systems. Did they acquire any practical information that they might use in their everyday lives? As a conclusion, try showing a video on robotic walking. See RedBot Demo (bipedal walking) from Computational Sensory-Motor Systems Lab at Johns Hopkins University at: http://etienne.ece.jhu.edu/labweb/videos.html

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel KEY TERMS (page numbers in Pinel text) antagonistic muscles (p. 188) apraxia (p. 175) astereognosia (p. 182) Betz cells (p. 184) central sensorimotor programs (p. 195) cingulate motor areas (p. 178) cocontraction (p. 193) contralateral neglect (p. 175) dorsolateral corticorubrospinal tract (p. 184) dorsolateral corticospinal tract (p. 184) dorsolateral prefrontal association cortex (p. 176) dynamic contraction (p. 189) extensors (p. 188) flexors (p. 188) Golgi tendon organs (p. 189) intrafusal motor neuron (p. 189) intrafusal muscle (p. 189) isometric contraction (p. 189) motor end-plate (p. 188) motor equivalence (p. 195) motor homunculus (p. 180) motor pool (p. 188) motor units (p. 188)

muscle spindles (p. 189) posterior parietal association cortex (p. 174) premotor cortex (p. 178) primary motor cortex (p. 180) reciprocal innervation (p. 193) recurrent collateral inhibition (p. 194) response-chunking hypothesis (p. 197) reticular formation (p. 186) secondary motor cortex (p. 178) sensory feedback (p. 172) skeletal muscle (extrafusal muscle) (p. 189) somatotopic (p. 180) spindle afferent neurons (p. 190) stereognosis (p. 181) stretch reflex (p. 190) supplementary motor area (p. 178) synergistic muscles (p. 188) tectum (p. 185) ventromedial cortico-brainstem-spinal tract (p. 184) ventromedial corticospinal tract (p. 184) vestibular nucleus (p. 186) withdrawal reflex (p. 192

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Chapter 6 The Sensorimotor System ADDITIONAL READINGS AND MEDIA RESOURCES BOOK Motor Cortex in Voluntary Movements: A Distributed System for Distributed Functions by Alexa Riehle and Eilon Vaadia (2005) CRC Press.

Models of Information Processing in the Basal Ganglia (Computational Neuroscience) edited by James C. Houk, Joel L. Davis, and David G. Beiser (1994) MIT Press. (A high-level research-oriented book on the functions of the basal ganglia.)

MOVIE The Spine: The Body’s Central Highway (2002) (DVD, VHS, 13 minutes) Films for the Humanities and Sciences. (Covers the design of the spinal cord and medical advances for treating damage.)

Moving Parts (1984) (DVD, VHS; 26 minutes) Films for the Humanities and Sciences. (Covers the role of the cerebellum in coordinating muscle activity and the interactions of muscles and joints.)

WEBSITES The National Library of Medicine (PubMed): http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ Scirus: http://www.scirus.com/ Wikipedia on Neuromuscular Junction: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuromuscular_junction Virtual Brain Stimulator available from A Science Odyssey’s website to observe the behavioral effects of stimulating different areas of the motor homunculus in a human: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/tryit/brain/# Spinal Mechanisms of Movement from Washington University’s School of Medicine: http://www.neuro.wustl.edu/neuromuscular/index.html; http://www.ptd.neu.edu/neuroanatomy/cyberclass/spinalcontrol/ Myasthenia Gravis and Disorders of the Neuromuscular Junction: http://www.neuro.wustl.edu/neuromuscular/index.html The Basic Motor Pathway: http://thalamus.wustl.edu/course/basmot.html Basal Ganglia and Cerebellum: http://thalamus.wustl.edu/course/cerebell.html The Interactive Brain Atlas from the Digital Anatomist Project at the University of Washington Gross Anatomy of CNS Motor System: http://www9.biostr.washington.edu/da.html RedBot Demo (bipedal walking) from Computational Sensory-Motor Systems Lab at Johns Hopkins University at: http://etienne.ece.jhu.edu/labweb/videos.html Researchers Miguel Nicolelis and John Chapin show activity of primary motor cortex in nonhuman primates can control the movements of a robotics arm located hundreds of miles away. The video clip demonstrating this research can be found on Science Central at: http://www.sciencentral.com/articles/view.php3?article_id=218391807&cat=3_4 Mirror neurons enable humans to learn complex sequences of behavior by watching others engage in those actions. See the PBS video at: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sciencenow/3204/01.html

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CHAPTER 7

Development of the Nervous System From Fertilized Egg to You Detailed Outline Introduction

7.1 Phases of Neurodevelopment

Chapter At-A-Glance Instructor’s Print Resources Supplements Lecture Instructor’s Launcher 1 Manual for Neural Basics of developmentrele Biopsychology vancy to you Chapter 7

Media Supplements Beyond the Brain and Behavior CD for Basics of Biopsychology Practice Tests for Chapter 7

7.2 Postnatal Cerebral Development in Human Infants

Exercise 7.1 Early neural development

Test Bank for Basics of Biopsychology Chapter 7

Lecture 7.3 Effects of Experience on Launcher 2 the Early Development, Implications of Maintenance, and adult Reorganization of Neural neurogenesis Circuits

7.4 Neuroplasticity in Adults

7.5 Disorders of Neurodevelopment: Autism and Williams Syndrome

Electronic Flashcards for Chapter 7

Transparencies for Physiological Exercise 7.2 Psychology, Neuro- genesis Chapter 2, in adult animals TSP14-TSP15, see Table of Contents, p. xiii Exercise 7.3 Evaluate goals

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Digital Media Archive Log (DMA), 9.1-9.9, see Table of Contents, p. xx PowerPoint Presentation Video, Segment 13: Development of the Brain

Grade Aid for Biopsychology Chapter 7

Key Terms

Hard Copy for Chapter 7

Instructor’s Manual Additional Readings and Media Resources

Professor Notes

Chapter 7 Development of the Nervous System CHAPTER 7 OVERVIEW Pinel begins Chapter 7 by explaining how the brain is a plastic living organ demanding interaction with the environment to attain normal mature status. He gives the example of Genie, an unfortunate girl who was neglected by her parents and raised so harshly that she lacked sufficient interaction with the environment to develop normal motor coordination or language.

The section titled “Phases of Neurodevelopment” details the individual steps and processes whereby the brain becomes fully developed. Topics covered include formation of the neural plate, neural groove, and neural tube. Discussion then focuses on cell proliferation, migration and aggregation. How glial cells aid in migration is described. Significant detail is given regarding axon growth and synapse formation including the explanation of the chemoaffinity hypothesis and the behavior of pioneer growth cones. Finally, there is coverage on the role of cell death and pruning in neurodevelopment.

In “Postnatal Cerebral Development in the Human Infants” Pinel discusses how the brain quadruples in size. He points to synaptogenesis and dendrite branching as critical developmental processes. Myelination, the final coating of axons with glial cell membranes, is a signal that basic connections within a particular area of the human brain are more or less complete.

It is further discussed that the prefrontal cortex is the last to develop. These developmental trends agree with the timing of the appearance of higher cognitive functions. Working memory, for example, relies upon the prefrontal cortex, and both appear at adolescence.

The third section, “Effects of Experience on the Early Development, Maintenance, and Reorganization of Neural Circuits,” covers studies of cortical thickness increasing as a result of being exposed to an enriched environment. These studies show how experience is critical to the growth of neurons, and suggest synapses may also be increased by experience. The development of ocular dominance columns in the absence of input is also reviewed. Lastly, there is coverage of topographic maps in the cerebral cortex being altered by sensory inputs.

The section titled “Neuroplasticity in Adults” covers neurogenesis in adult animals.

Enriched environments and exercise in the environment appear to trigger adult neurogenesis. Skills training can lead to a reorganization of the cerebral cortex.

The last section “Disorders of Neurodevelopment: Autism and Williams Syndrome” presents details about two distinct disorders in which proper neurodevelopment fails to occur. In autism there are both impaired and spared abilities. In rare instances, there may be exceptional abilities, in spite of mental retardation. These special autistic savants are illustrated though a specific example: a girl named Nadia. Williams syndrome people are also discussed, noting that they have underdeveloped occipital and parietal cortex, along with spared temporal and prefrontal cortex.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES OF CHAPTER 7 • • • • •

To give students a working knowledge of brain development.

To emphasize the importance of environment in prenatal and postnatal brain development.

To teach students how biopsychologists study these problems.

To teach students how to assess the basic research literature in adult neurogenesis.

To assess how neural development is relevant to their lives.

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel CHAPTER 7 LECTURE OUTLINE (key terms in boldface) LECTURE LAUNCHER 1: Neural development’s relevancy to you You might start out by asking the class: how many students plan to have a family someday.

Neural development is important to everyone who plans to become a parent. Tissue destined to become the nervous system is differentiated even before a woman might know she is pregnant.

Thus, every woman and her male partner need to know health recommendations regarding smoking, alcohol, and caffeine intake, if there is a reasonable chance of pregnancy. Even under ideal conditions, not every baby is born perfect. Biopsychological research promotes greater understanding of disorders causing mental retardation at birth, and paves the way for future treatment possibilities.

Introduction The case of Genie—severe deprivation from 20 months of age • motor coordination impairment • language impairment 7.1 Phases of Neurodevelopment (Use transparency TSP14 or digital images 9.1-9.8; see Tables of Contents for complete media listings.)

Induction of the neural plate • totipotent cells—able to become any cell type; change to multipotent cells, which are able to become any type of neural cell • cells of the neural plate are embryonic stem cells o unlimited capacity for self-renewal o can differentiate into different adult cells o glial stem cells and neural stem cells • indentation of the neural plate produces the neural groove • fusing of the ends of the neural groove produces the neural tube • inside of the neural tube becomes the cerebral ventricles and spinal canal • neural tube develops three swellings—forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain Neural proliferation • begins when the lips of the neural groove fuse • not a simultaneous process • most cell division occurs in the ventricular zone Migration • radial migration—immature cells travel from the ventricular zone outward • tangential migration—some cells travel 90º to the radial lines • somal translocation—an extension grows from the developing cell • glia-mediated migration—a temporary network of glial cells guide migration • radial glial cells—guide radial migration • inside-out pattern of migration—superficial cells migrate last • chemoattractants and chemorepellants guide migration

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Chapter 7 Development of the Nervous System Aggregation • alignment of cells • cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) enable cells to adhere to each other Axonal growth • cytoplasmic extensions search for appropriate targets • growth cones—amoeba-like structures extending finger-like protrusions.

• Roger Sperry’s classic experiments on regeneration o cut optic nerves of frogs and rotated eyeballs 180º o regrowth matched original target in optic tectum o frogs behaved as if visual world was rotated 180º o the chemoaffinity hypothesis—chemicals guide axonal growth o not an individual chemical factor for every target o both chemoattractants and chemorepellents o pioneer growth cones—release signals to other growing axons o fasciculation—tendency of axons to grow along a path o conservation of topographic maps o topographic gradient hypothesis—axons will squeeze in if part of the target has been lesioned o chemical gradients implicated • Quicktime videos of growth cones from Robert Wood Johnson Medical School and UCSF: http://www2.umdnj.edu/%7Egeller/lab/boundmov.htm (Geller); http://www.ucsf.edu/neurosc/faculty/Sretavan/Eph-timelapse.html (Stretevan) Synapse formation • synaptogenesis—the formation of new synapses • glial cells important for synaptogenesis • developing axons not particular about postsynaptic target Neuron death and synapse rearrangement • normal part of neural development; 50% more neurons produced than needed • survival of the fittest • cell death occurs in waves • competition for targets and life-preserving chemicals provided by targets • extra target sites decreases cell death • reducing targets increases cell death • nerve growth factor (NGF)—a prominent neurotrophin o promotes cell survival o guides axonal grow, and stimulates synaptogenesis • apoptosis—an active form of cell death; DNA is cleaved apart o inhibition of apoptosis leads to cancer o inappropriate stimulation of apoptosis leads to neurodegeneration • •

necrosis—a passive form of cell death cell death results in massive rearrangement of synapses

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel Exercise 7.1 Instructions Approximately 40% of pregnancies are unplanned, meaning couples may not have adjusted their behavior to a parenting mode. Neural development affecting the brain at birth commences very early after conception. Thus, it is important to know very early on that pregnancy occurred so that there can be an increase in safe prenatal behaviors (e.g., reduction of or abstention from tobacco, alcohol, and caffeine).

Let students check their own answers. Point out the neural plate (day 18), neural groove (day 21), and neural tube (day 24) form very early after conception. Cell proliferation and migration commence as soon as the neural groove closes.

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Chapter 7 Development of the Nervous System Name: ________________________ Exercise 7.1 Early Neural Development Fill out the blanks on this sheet based on the following information.

(1) Typical Early Pregnancy Tests—tests for human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) show positive results 14 – 19 days after conception; however, retesting may be necessary if results are negative. Some more sensitive tests have recently become available.

(2) First sign of missed period—occurs approximately 14 days after conception (varies with female).

(3) Average time female becomes sure of missed period—approximately 21 days after conception. (This is highly individual.)

Stage

Age of Embryo (in days)

Conception

Neural plate

Neural groove

Neural tube

Cell proliferation (begins)

Cell migration (begins)

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How can the woman tell she is pregnant? (1, 2, or 3)

Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel 7.2 Postnatal Cerebral Development in Human Infants (Use transparency TSP15.)

Postnatal growth of the human brain • brain quadruples in size from birth to adult • mostly due to growth of connections o synaptogenesis o myelination o increased branching of dendrites • cortical areas develop at different times o primary visual and auditory cortex—maximal synaptogenesis 4 to 8 months o myelination of prefrontal cortex—adolescence o layer V cell dendrites develop before those of layer II cells o synaptic loss follows synaptogenesis o synaptic loss in visual cortex at adult levels by age 3 Development of the prefrontal cortex • prefrontal cortex functions o working memory o planning o inhibiting inappropriate responses • Piaget’s perseveration error o occurs between 7 and 12 months o due to immature synaptogenesis o lesions to prefrontal cortex produce this deficit 7.3 Effects of Experience on the Early Development, Maintenance, and Reorganization or Neural Circuits (Use digital image 9.8.)

Competitive nature of experience and neurodevelopment • monocular deprivation during first days of life o alters inputs to layer IV of visual cortex o adversely affects vision o does not occur if both eyes are blindfolded • similar competition in motor neurons and muscle cells Effects of experience on topographic sensory cortex maps • rewired retina to medial geniculate (auditory pathway) in ferrets o ferrets experienced vision o auditory cortex displayed retinotopic map • raised barn owls with prisms over eyes shifting input 23° to the right o localization by other senses affected o auditory localization maps shifted by 23° to the right • spontaneous activity in visual cortex of ferret fetuses key to development • musical training expands auditory cortex; training leads to absolute pitch

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Chapter 7 Development of the Nervous System LECTURE LAUNCHER 2: Implications of adult neurogenesis You might start a class discussion by telling students how we now know that new neurons are born in the adult hippocampus, olfactory bulb, and, possibly, the cerebral cortex. These neurons have exciting implications for learning and even depression. Ask student why they think depression might result from impaired neurogenesis.

7.4 Neuroplasticity in Adults Neurogenesis in adult mammals • prior to 1980s—no neurogenesis believed to occur after birth • early 1980s—growth of new neurons in songbirds discovered o neurons added before each mating season o contribute to mating song • early 1990s—neurogenesis in adult hippocampus and olfactory bulb • new neurons derived from adult stem cells adjacent to lateral ventricles • possible neurogenesis in neocortex • enriched environments and exercise increase neurogenesis in hippocampus Effects of experience on the reorganization of the adult cortex • tinnitus (ringing in the ears) reorganizes primary auditory cortex • musicians playing stringed instruments have enlarged hand representation • 1 hour tactile experience for 20 days—little finger and thumb o passive condition—do nothing o active condition—identify patterns of stimulation o results—EEG for finger and thumb moved closer for passive condition, farther apart for active condition Exercise 7.2 Instructions Neurogenesis is a timely research area, rich with controversy. This is an excellent opportunity for students to learn about how scientists disagree. Often the disagreement is focused on very specific details of a phenomenon. Virtually all researchers agree that neurogenesis occurs in the hippocampus and olfactory bulbs of mammals. Moreover, neurons born in these brain regions survive for extended periods. It has also been shown that that these neurons become physiologically active. Neurogenesis in the adult neocortex is more controversial. Some researchers have repeatedly found evidence for this phenomenon; other researchers have failed to do so.

Factors for differing results include the species of the animal, differentiation into glial versus neuronal types, and cell survival. Despite all these factors, there remains some genuine disagreement. Another issue is that absence of evidence is not evidence of absence.

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel Name: ________________________ Exercise 7.2 Neurogenesis in adult animals How to get started: PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ links you to the National Library of Medicine and provides a comprehensive listing of journal articles. Scirus at: http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/ is a search engine specializing in scientific articles. You can type key words into these or any search engine. Remember that more key words will bring up fewer articles, but they will more closely match your search. If you have too few articles retrieved, decrease the number of search terms.

Directions: Find recent articles on neurogenesis in the different brain regions and different species listed. List the reference (authors, year, journal, volume, and pages) in the first column, the species in the second and the time the neurons survived in the third column. Locate two articles for each brain area.

Two article references for each brain area Hippocampus

Species (rat, monkey)

Olfactory bulb

Neocortex

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Survival period (days, months)

Chapter 7 Development of the Nervous System 7.5 Disorders of Neurodevelopment: Autism and Williams Syndrome (Use digital image 9.9.)

Autism—a complex neurodevelopmental disorder • three primary symptoms o reduced ability to interpret emotions o reduced capacity of social interaction o preoccupation with a single subject • signs or characteristics o 75% male o 75% have mental retardation o 35% have epilepsy • heterogeneity of autism o spotty nature o spared abilities and deficits o suggests no single cause • autistic savants—possess an amazing specific ability in spite of handicaps o ability to identify large prime numbers o name the day of the week for any future date o precision drawing o expert musical skill o Nadia—a savant who, at age 6, could draw gallery-quality portraits o Tom—a blind savant who, at age 13, could play the most difficult piano piece after hearing it once o damage in one brain area leads to overcompensation by another as possible cause of savant abilities • neural basis of autism o autism runs in families o 60% chance if identical twin has autism o 5% chance if sibling has autism o several genes interacting with the environment o thalidomide, a morning sickness pill, contributes to autism o problem likely in first few weeks of neurodevelopment o ear abnormalities—suggesting problem linked to development between 20 and 24 days after conception o abnormalities in the brain stem (missing superior olive) o Hoxa 1 gene—more prevalent in autistics vs. controls (40% vs.

20%) • Websites: http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/autism/autism.htm; http://www.naar.org/; http://www.autism-society.org/ Williams syndrome—a neurodevelopmental disorder associated with mental retardation • occurs 1 in 20,000 births • highly sociable • remarkable language capabilities—good at describing detail; can remember unusual examples • remarkable musical abilities—perfect pitch and good rhythm • superior facial recognition • profound impairment in spatial cognition • health problems, especially heart-related

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel • • • •

mutation on chromosome 7, affecting elastin, underlies heart problem second copy of this gene absent in 95% of Williams syndrome people underdevelopment of occipital and parietal cortex; normal frontal and temporal cortex Websites: http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/williams/williams.htm; http://www.williams-syndrome.org/; http://www.wsf.org/

Exercise 7.3 Evaluate goals At the conclusion of this lecture set, you can probe students about their current understanding of neurodevelopment and possible neurodevelopmental problems. Ask if they now know significantly more than they did before these lectures and reading materials. Will they be better prepared to be parents? Are any inspired to do research in neurodevelopment?

KEY TERMS (page numbers in Pinel text) aggregation (p. 209) apoptosis (p. 212) autism (p. 222) cell-adhesion molecules (CAMs) (p. 209) chemoaffinity hypothesis (p. 210) chemoattractants (p. 209) chemorepellents (p. 209) fasciculation (p. 210) glia-mediated migration (p. 208) growth cone (p. 209) inside-out pattern (p. 209) migration (p. 207) multipotent (p. 206) necrosis (p. 212) nerve growth factor (NGF) (p. 212) neural plate (p. 206) neural proliferation (p. 207) neural tube (p. 207) neurogenesis (p. 219)

neurotrophins (p. 212) optic tectum (p. 209) perseveration (p. 215) pioneer growth cones (p. 210) prefrontal cortex (p. 213) radial glial cells (p. 208) radial migration (p. 207) retinal ganglion cells (p. 209) savants (p. 222) somal translocation (p. 207) stem cells (p. 206) synaptogenesis (p. 212) tangential migration (p. 207) topographic gradient hypothesis (p. 211) totipotent (p. 206) ventricular zone (p. 207) Williams syndrome (p. 225)

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Chapter 7 Development of the Nervous System ADDITIONAL READINGS AND MEDIA RESOURCES BOOKS What’s Going on in There? How the Brain and Mind Develop in the First Five Years of Life, by Lise Eliot (1999) A critically acclaimed book written by a neuroscientist who is also a mother of three.

Adult Neurogenesis: Stem Cells and Neuronal Development in the Adult Brain by Gerd Kempermann (2005) Oxford University Press.

MOVIES Growing the Mind: How the Brain Develops (2000) (DVD, VHS; 50 minutes) Films for the Humanities and Sciences. (Susan Greenfield covers brain development from infancy to adulthood.)

The Seven Ages of the Brain (2000) (DVD, VHS; 58 minutes) Films for the Humanities and Sciences. (Covers brain development from the fertilized egg to birth to adulthood.)

WEBSITES The National Library of Medicine (PubMed): http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ Scirus: http://www.scirus.com/ Wikipedia on Neurogenesis: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adult_Neurogenesis Autism Society of America: http://www.autism-society.org/ National Alliance for Autism Research: http://www.naar.org/ Williams Syndrome Association: http://www.williams-syndrome.org/ Williams Syndrome Foundation: http://www.wsf.org/index.htm The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke: Specific Conditions: Autism: http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/autism/autism.htm Williams Syndrome: http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/williams/williams.htm Brain Development maintained by Dr. Eric Chudler at the University of Washington: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/dev.html Sensory Reorganization from the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, an article describing the reorganization of a person’s somatosensory homunculus after surgery: http://www.hhmi.org/senses/e/e210.htm Experience and Ocular Dominance Column from the Howard Hughes Medical Institute; select the Sidebar Urgent Need to Use Two Eyes: http://www.hhmi.org/senses/b220.html Neurogenesis, site at Wellesley College Biology Department, credits to Carol Ann Paul, Julio Ramirez and Bruce Johnson: http://www.wellesley.edu/Biology/Concepts/Html/neurogenesiswhat.html

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CHAPTER 8

Brain Damage and Neuroplasticity Can the Brain Recover from Brain Damage?

Detailed Outline Introduction

8.1. Causes of Brain Damage

8.2. Neuropsychological Diseases

8.3. Animal Models of Human Neuropsychological Diseases

8.4. Neuroplastic Responses to Nervous System Damage: Degeneration, Regeneration, Reorganization, and Recovery

8.5. Neuroplasticity and the Treatment of Nervous System Damage

Chapter-At-A-Glance Instructor’s Print Manual Supplements Lecture Instructor’s Launcher 1 Manual for Is Someone Basics in You Know Biopsychology Affected by a Chapter 8 Brain Tumor or Neurological Disorder?

Exercise 8.1 Locate Websites for Neurological Disorders Lecture Launcher 2 What are the Major Obstacles?

Exercise 8.2 Locate Potential Treatments for PD or AD Exercise 8.3 Evaluate Goals Key Terms

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Test Bank for Basics in Biopsychology Chapter 8

Media Supplements Beyond the Brain and Behavior CD: Basics of Biopsychology Practice Tests for Chapter 8 Hard Copy for Chapter 8 Electronic Flashcards for Chapter 8

Grade Aid for Basics in Biopsychology Chapter 8

Digital Media Archive Log (DMA), 10.110.8, see Table of Contents, p. xxi PowerPoint Presentation Instructor’s Manual Additional Readings and Media Resources

Professor Notes

Chapter 8 Brain Damage and Neuroplasticity CHAPTER 8 OVERVIEW This chapter begins with “The ironic case of Professor P.,” an intimate account of Pinel’s experience with his brain tumor. His first-hand account will surely interest students. The first three sections of this chapter deal with brain damage due to trauma, disease, or experimental intervention.

The last two sections deal with nervous system responses.

The section titled “Causes of Brain Damage” discusses the major ways in which the brain can be injured. Brain tumors, cerebrovascular accidents (strokes), head injuries, infections, neurotoxins, genetic disorders, and cell death (apoptosis and necrosis) are all types of damage.

Stroke is the nation’s third leading cause of death (see the American Stroke Association Website at: http://www.strokeassociation.org/). Placing emphasis on this problem is timely. There is also more that people can do today to prevent stroke or facilitate recovery. Many neurons die after the stroke, so there is a three-hour window within which patients may rush to the hospital and receive effective treatments to prevent at least some of the permanent damage. Students can use this information in their everyday lives when taking care of their own health and that of their family members, particularly older family members.

The section titled “Neuropsychological Diseases” discusses the major neurological disorders with psychological components. These include epilepsy, Parkinson’s disease (PD), Huntington’s disease, multiple sclerosis and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Students may be interested to know that PD and AD are major health issues among the aged and, combined, affect 5 million Americans. With advancing age, the incidence of PD and AD sharply increases. Since the aged segment of the population will increase dramatically over the next 30–40 years, these diseases are on the rise. A vast amount of research in biopsychology and biomedicine is currently being done on PD and AD. Treatments for these disorders are covered last.

The third section, which is titled “Animal Models of Human Neuropsychological Diseases,” illustrates an important method that biopsychologists use to study human disorders.

Animal models can be used to test hypotheses of disease states (what goes wrong with the brain).

Cleverly designed animal models can also be used to test potential treatments. (Can an animal with an induced disease state be treated or cured?)

The fourth section, “Neuroplastic Responses to Nervous System Damage” covers the basic mechanisms of degeneration and recovery. Finally, the fifth section “Neuroplasticity and the Treatment of Nervous System Damage” covers the limited treatments available today.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES FOR CHAPTER 8 • • • •

To give students a working knowledge of brain injury and neurological diseases.

To teach students how to obtain up-to-date, valid and reliable information on these disorders from the Internet.

To teach students how biopsychologists study these problems.

To teach students how to assess the basic research literature and understand its relationship to clinical treatments.

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel CHAPTER 8: LECTURE OUTLINE (key terms in boldface) LECTURE LAUNCHER 1: Is Someone You Know Affected by a Brain Tumor or Neurological Disorder?

Students relate better to this material if they put it the context of a family member becoming unexpectedly affected by a brain tumor, Parkinson’s disease (PD), or Alzheimer’s disease (AD).

In a large lecture class, you might begin by asking students if they have an older family member with PD or AD. You can then point out that in the next few decades, the number of PD and AD cases are expected to markedly increase. Ask them what they will do to cope.

Introduction The ironic case of Professor P. —a story about Professor Pinel’s brain tumor 8.1. Causes of Brain Damage (Use digital images 10.1-10.3; see Tables of Contents for complete media listings.)

Brain tumors • tumor—a neoplasm or abnormal growth • meningiomas—a type of brain tumor; account for 20% of brain tumors • encapsulated (easy to remove) vs. infiltrating (difficult to remove) tumors • benign (non-threatening) vs. malignant (cancerous, invasive) tumors • metastatic tumor—spreads from one organ to another Cerebrovascular disorders • strokes—sudden onset; cause permanent damage and side-effects such as amnesia, aphasia, paralysis, and coma • cerebral hemorrhage—blood vessel ruptures; caused by aneurysms, some of which are congenital (present at birth) • cerebral ischemia—a blockage due to thrombosis or embolism resulting from a blood clot, fat, oil, air or tumor; can be caused by arteriosclerosis • cell death after ischemia occurs due to glutamate activation of NMDA (Nmethyl D-aspartate) receptors and influx of Na+ and Ca2+ Closed-head injuries • contusion—involves hemorrhaging; can result in a hematoma • contrecoup injury—injury to the opposite side of the head • punch-drunk syndrome—dementia due to repeated concussion Infections of the brain • encephalitis—brain infection and inflammation • bacterial infections—can lead to cerebral abscesses; can also lead to meningitis or syphilis, which if untreated, can lead to general paresis • viral infections—examples include rabies, mumps, and herpes virus

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Chapter 8 Brain Damage and Neuroplasticity Neurotoxins—kill neurons • toxic psychosis—insanity produced by toxins • Korsakoff’s syndrome—toxic damage caused by alcoholism and vitamin deficiency Genetic factors—Down’s syndrome; mental retardation caused by an extra chromosome 21 Programmed cell death—Apoptosis (programmed cell death) vs. necrosis (passive cell death) Exercise 8.1 Instructions The purpose of this exercise is to teach students how to find reliable information on the Internet related to neurological disorders. There are specific instructions on the exercise sheet.

However, you can mention some of the guidelines in class. For one, students should check the agency that maintains the website. Government, university, and research institutes websites will generally be up-to-date. National organizations and foundations will also tend to have reliable information.

When the assignment has been completed, ask students if searching for the material on the Internet helped them absorb more from lecture. What strategies did they use to find current and reliable websites?

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel Name: _________________________ Exercise 8.1 Locate Websites for Neurological Disorders If you or a family member were ever faced with a potentially serious neurological disease or injury, you might want to learn as much as possible about it. The Internet is a valuable aid, but what information can you trust? How do you get valid information from the Internet? We will learn these skills.

There are a few guidelines to follow. Look for Websites that end in .org or .gov. These sites are monitored and kept up-to-date by health organizations and by the US government, often by the National Institutes of Health (NIH). PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ links you to the National Library of Medicine.

You can type key words into any search engine, but there are also search engines that specialize in scientific information such as Scirus at: http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/. Remember that the Internet is always changing, so be creative. You can find sites in any number of different ways. Check the last date the Website was updated to be sure the information offered is current.

Directions: Use the Internet to find Websites that give up-to-date information to patients, family members, clinicians or researchers for the following neurological disorders.

Disorder Internet Address Information available for whom (e.g., patients) Brain tumors

Epilepsy

Parkinson’s disease

Huntington’s disease

Multiple sclerosis

Alzheimer’s disease

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Chapter 8 Brain Damage and Neuroplasticity 8.2 Neuropsychological Diseases (along with NIH and National Organization Websites) (Use digital images 10.4.)

Epilepsy—disorder characterized by seizures • convulsions—motor seizures involving tremors (clonus) and rigidity (tonus) • diagnosis relies on electroencephalogram (EEG) • epileptic aura—bad smell, vague feeling before seizure • partial seizures—affect part of the brain o simple partial seizures (sensory) o complex partial seizures (temporal lobe) • generalized seizures—affect whole brain o grand mal (“big trouble”)—violent tonic-clonic convulsions; can cause hypoxia (shortage of oxygen) o petit mal (“small trouble”)—3-per-second spike-and-wave discharge • Website: http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/epilepsy/epilepsy.htm Parkinson’s disease—motor disorder of middle to old age; affects 0.5% of population • symptoms: tremor, rigidity, dyskinesia (abnormal movements) • PD caused by degeneration of the dopamine cells in the substantia nigra projecting to the striatum (i.e., the nigrostriatal pathway) • treated with L-dopa (common), deprenyl (common), neurotransplantation (less common) • Websites: http://www.parkinson.org/; http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/parkinsonsdisease.html Huntington’s disease—severe motor disorder of middle age and old age • symptoms: fidgetiness, jerky movements, dementia (loss of intellect and memory) • caused by dominant gene encoding for the protein huntingtin • Websites: http://www.hdsa.org/; http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/parkinsonsdisease.html Multiple sclerosis—an autoimmune disease that attacks myelin in the CNS • symptoms—visual disturbances, muscle weakness, numbness, tremor and ataxia (loss of coordination) • Website: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/multiplesclerosis.html Alzheimer’s disease—the most common cause of dementia • marked increase in prevalence with age • symptoms: impaired memory (remote first), confusion, disorientation, irritability, and intellectual decline • neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques—amyloid protein is a component of plaques; abnormal tau is a component of tangles • plaques and tangles are concentrated in hippocampus and association cortex • Websites: https://www.alz.org/; http://www.alzheimers.org/; http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/alzheimersdisease.html

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel 8.3 Animal Models of Human Neuropsychological Diseases • animal model—simulates a disease state • MPTP model of Parkinson’s disease—toxin that kills dopamine neurons; affected drug addicts in the 1980’s—they became instantly frozen • monkeys given MPTP develop Parkinson-like symptoms LECTURE LAUNCHER 2: What are the Major Obstacles?

One thing in common among all the disorders we covered so far is that there is no cure.

Students can be made to feel the same excitement that researchers feel when tackling tough problems. Emphasize the “next to impossible” nature of some of the obstacles. Remark that some of the students may later become involved with finding the solutions, depending on their career choice. Good illustrations of highly infectious enthusiasm are found among famous people who have spinal cord damage or neurological disease. Christopher Reeve (star of the movie Superman) addressed the Society of Neuroscience and started the Christopher and Dana Reeve Paralysis Resource Center (see http://www.paralysis.org/). Michael J.Fox (star of Back to the Future and Spin City) campaigns publicly for Parkinson’s disease and started the Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson’s Research (see http://www.michaeljfox.org/).

8.4 Neuroplastic Reponses to Nervous System Damage: Degeneration, Regeneration, Reorganization, and Recovery (Use digital images10.5-10.8.)

Neural degeneration—deterioration due to injury or axotomy (nerve cut) • anterograde degeneration—damage spreads from cut to distal segment • retrograde degeneration—damage spreads from cut to proximal segment; takes about 2–3 days • early degenerative change (decrease in cell size) precedes cell death • early regenerative change (increase in cell size) precedes massive synthesis and survival • transneuronal degeneration—spread of degeneration to chain of neurons linked by synapses Neural regeneration—regrowth of damaged neurons • occurs in the PNS—much reduced in the CNS of mammals • regrowth begins in 2–3 days • Schwann cells (found in the PNS) provide myelin sheaths that facilitate regrowth of peripheral nerve • neurotrophic factors and cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) facilitate regrowth • oligodendroglia (found in the CNS) do NOT guide regeneration • severe nerve damage impedes neural regeneration • for mammals, match to target not accurate, even in the PNS • lower vertebrates capable of accurate regeneration in both the CNS and PNS • collateral sprouting—axon branches form and grow into vacated sites

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Chapter 8 Brain Damage and Neuroplasticity Neural reorganization—adult mammalian brains retain the ability to reorganize circuitry or alter response as a result of experience or damage • rapid reorganization (alteration of sensory receptive fields) o immediate o cannot be attributed to neural regrowth o limited to less than 2 millimeter across cortical surface o strengthening of existing connections o release from inhibition • new connections (i.e., collateral sprouting) o takes longer o magnitude too great to occur without reorganization of axons Recovery of function—return of lost function after brain injury • young patients—recovery much more extensive than that of old patients • cognitive reserve—ability to accomplish a given task in a number of ways • adult neurogenesis (birth of new neurons)—plays role in recovery of function Exercise 8.2 Instructions Ask students to locate the recent treatments (or potential treatments) for Parkinson’s disease or Alzheimer’s disease using the Internet. Suggestions on how to get started are listed on the handout. This handout can be an effective tool in bringing out lively discussion about potential treatments and cures for nervous system injury and neurological disease. The effectiveness of this handout is tied to its utilitarian quality. It is geared to students learning something that they can use in their everyday lives, even if their ultimate career choice takes them far from biopsychology.

Another pedagogical application of this handout is to tie together the animal model with human clinical trials. It shows how basic research in the laboratory can translate into real benefits to the health community. It also teaches about the limitations of that bridge. Critical evaluation is an important skill for anyone who keeps abreast of the news.

This handout can also be used as a platform to launch sociopolitical discussions. One might ask how large a role should the Federal government play in stem cell research. How much should be left to states or private foundations and industry? If you decide to discuss the pros and cons of topics such as stem cell research, be sure to have on hand a balanced set of facts. MSN’s presentation of NBC News Online at http://www.msnbc.msn.com/ has a health link with a stem cell research links. Excellent articles include: New stem cell techniques avoid ethical concerns, by Clive Cookson 10/17/2005, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/9725839/; Reprogramming complicates stem cell debate, by Alan Boyle 08/10/2005, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/8805408/; Paralyzed mice given stem cells walk again, Associated Press 09/19/2005, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/9401832/. For additional reading, Stem Cells: Scientific Progress and Future Research Directions, by National Institutes of Health (2004) presents an overview of the potential of stem cell research in finding novel treatments.

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel Name: ________________________ Exercise 8.2 Locate Potential Treatments for Parkinson’s Disease or Alzheimer’s Disease If you or a family member were ever faced with a potentially serious neurological disease or ailment, you might want to try the most recent treatments available. How would you find this information?

There are a few guidelines to follow. Use Websites that end in .org or .gov. These sites are monitored and kept up-to-date by health organizations and by the US government. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) has a Website linking to clinical trials: http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/. At this site you can browse by condition or search by location. PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ links you to the National Library of Medicine and provides a comprehensive listing of journal articles. You can limit your search to clinical studies. National associations also post news reports or summaries of up-and-coming treatments. Some potential treatments are at the preclinical stage (i.e., limited to animal models).

You can type key words into any search engine, but there are also search engines that specialize in scientific information such as Scirus http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/. Remember that the Internet is always changing, so be creative. You can find sites in any number of different ways. Check the last date the Website was updated to be sure the information offered is current.

Directions: Use the Internet to find clinical trials, journal articles, news reports, or grant project summaries suggesting new treatments for Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease.

Name of the website for the following disorder Parkinson’s disease

Internet address and last time updated

Alzheimer’s disease

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Potential treatment and current status

Chapter 8 Brain Damage and Neuroplasticity 8.5 Neuroplasticity and the Treatment of Nervous System Damage Reducing brain damage by blocking neurodegeneration • apoptosis protein inhibitor—viruses engineered to release this protein • nerve growth factor—blocks degeneration • estrogens—controversial as protective because risk of Alzheimer’s disease increases slightly Promoting recovery from CNS damage by promoting regeneration • toxins directed against oligodendrocytes (removes growth inhibition) • transplantation of Schwann cell myelinated sheaths • transplantation of olfactory sheathing cells Promoting recovery from CNS damage by neurotransplantation • transplants of fetal substantia nigra cells into MPTP-treated monkeys— replaces dopamine and restores movement • transplants of fetal tissue into Parkinson’s patients—mild improvements, moderate side-effects • adrenal medulla (from the adrenal gland) autotransplantation Transplanting stem cells • review: embryonic stem cells are multipotent (have the potential to develop into many different cell types) • renewable cultures of stem cells—new possibilities • stem cell implants reverse paraplegia caused by spinal cord injury Promoting recovery from CNS damage by rehabilitative training • small strokes—reduce function of individual body parts (e.g., impair hand movements) • rehabilitative training—monkeys show recovery of hand movement • constraint-induced therapy—tie down the functioning limb to force use of injured limb • treadmills—effective for rehabilitating patients with spinal cord injuries Phantom limbs—sensation or pain in amputated limb • phantom limb illusions intensely real • 50% of phantom limbs severely painful • pain caused by the perception of an abnormal position of the limb • pain origin in brain, not in stump • Ramachandran treated phantom limb pain by teaching patients to move their phantom limbs (using a mirror to view the opposite limb and performing synchronous movements)

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel Exercise 8.3 Evaluate Goals You can refer back to the initial goals set for this lecture or set of lectures. Ask students if they have a better understanding of brain diseases. Ask if they feel better prepared to handle a neurological disease or injury, if it happened to someone they knew or were responsible for giving care. Were any students stimulated to pursue a career in a related field such as neurology or gerontology? Point out that besides physicians and researchers, there are numerous positions for nurses, technicians, occupational therapists and social workers in related fields.

KEY TERMS (page numbers in Pinel text) Alzheimer’s disease (p. 245) amyloid (p. 246) aneurysm (p. 233) animal model (p. 247) anterograde degeneration (p. 249) apoptosis (p. 239) arteriosclerosis (p. 234) ataxia (p. 245) benign tumors (p. 232) cerebral hemorrhage (p. 233) cerebral ischemia (p. 234) collateral sprouting (p. 252) complex partial seizures (p. 241) concussion (p. 236) congenital (p. 233) contrecoup injuries (p. 236) contusions (p. 236) convulsions (p. 240) dementia (p. 236) deprenyl (p. 249) distal segment (p. 249) Down syndrome (p. 238) embolism (p. 234) encapsulated tumors (p. 232) encephalitis (p. 237) epidemiology (p. 245) epilepsy (p. 240) epileptic auras (p. 240) estrogens (p. 256) general paresis (p. 237) generalized seizures (p. 241) glutamate (p. 234) grand mal seizure (p. 242)

hematoma (p. 236) Huntington’s disease (p. 243) hypoxia (p. 242) infiltrating tumors (p. 232) Korsakoff’s syndrome (p. 238) MPTP (p. 248) malignant tumors (p. 232) meningiomas (p. 232) meningitis (p. 237) metastatic tumors (p. 232) multiple sclerosis (p. 245) NMDA (N-methyl D-aspartate) receptors (p. 234) neural regeneration (p. 250) nigrostriatal pathway (p. 243) oligodendroglia (p. 251) Parkinson’s disease (p. 242) partial seizures (p. 240) petit mal seizure (p. 242) phantom limb (p. 259) punch-drunk syndrome (p. 236) retrograde degeneration (p. 249) Schwann cells (p. 251) simple partial seizures (p. 241) strokes (p. 233) substantia nigra (p. 243) 3-per-second spike-and-wave discharge (p. 242) thrombosis (p. 234) toxic psychosis (p. 237) transneuronal degeneration (p. 249) tumor (neoplasm) (p. 232)

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Chapter 8 Brain Damage and Neuroplasticity ADDITIONAL READINGS AND MEDIA RESOURCES BOOKS Lucky Man: A Memoir, by Michael J. Fox (2003) In this New York Time Bestseller, Fox recounts his life with special emphasis on the last ten years during which he has battled Parkinson’s disease.

Stem Cells: Scientific Progress and Future Research Directions, by National Institutes of Health (2004). An optimistic overview of the potential of stem cell research in finding treatments for devastating diseases.

MOVIES The Forgetting: A Portrait of Alzheimer’s Disease (2003). (This is a 90-minute documentary based on David Shenk’s critically acclaimed book.)

The Parkinson’s Enigma (2002) (DVD, VHS; 47 minutes) Films for the Humanities and Sciences. (Discusses Michael J. Fox, Oliver Sacks’ anecdotes, MPTP poisoning and other issues related to Parkinson’s disease.)

WEBSITES The National Library of Medicine (PubMed): http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ Scirus: http://www.scirus.com/ American Stroke Association: http://www.strokeassociation.org/ Alzheimer’s Association: https://www.alz.org/ Alzheimer’s Disease Education and Referral (ADEAR): http://www.alzheimers.org/ Huntington’s Disease Society of America: http://www.hdsa.org/ National Parkinson Foundation: http://www.parkinson.org/ Christopher and Dana Reeve Paralysis Resource Center: http://www.paralysis.org/ Michael J.Fox Foundation for Parkinson’s Research: http://www.michaeljfox.org/ The National Institutes of Health (NIH) link to clinical trials: http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke: Specific Conditions: Epilepsy: http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/epilepsy/epilepsy.htm Parkinson’s Disease: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/parkinsonsdisease.html Multiple Sclerosis: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/multiplesclerosis.html Alzheimer’s Disease: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/alzheimersdisease.html New Stem Cell Techniques Avoid Ethical Concerns, by Clive Cookson 10/17/2005, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/9725839/ Reprogramming Complicates Stem Cell Debate, by Alan Boyle 08/10/2005, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/8805408/ Paralyzed Mice Given Stem Cells Walk Again, Associated Press 09/19/2005, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/9401832/

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CHAPTER 9

Learning, Memory, and Amnesia How Your Brain Stores Information Detailed Outline Introduction 9.1 Amnesic Effects of Bilateral Medial Temporal Lobectomy

Chapter At-A-Glance Instructor’s Print Resources Supplements Lecture Instructor’s Launcher 1 Manual for Learning Basics of and Memory Biopsychology in Your Life Chapter 9

Media Supplements Beyond the Brain and Behavior CD for Basics of Biopsychology Practice Tests for Chapter 9

9.2 Amnesia of Korsakoff’s Syndrome

Exercise 9.1 Amnesia as a Subject in Cinema

9.3 Amnesia of Alzheimer’s Disease 9.4 Amnesia after Concussion: Evidence for Consolidation

Lecture Launcher 2 Where are Your Memories?

9.5 Neuroanatomy of ObjectRecognition Memory 9.6 The Hippocampus and Memory for Spatial Location

Exercise 9.2 Synaptic Mechanisms of Learning and Memory

Test Bank for Basics of Biopsychology Chapter 9

Hard Copy for Chapter 9 Electronic Flashcards for Chapter 9

Transparencies for Physiological Psychology, Chapter 11, TSP89-TSP92, see Table of Contents, p. xvxvi

Digital Media Archive Log (DMA), 11.111.13, see Table of Contents, p. xxi PowerPoint Presentation

9.7 Where Are Memories Stored?

9.8 Synaptic Mechanisms of Learning and Memory 9.9 Conclusion: Infantile Amnesia and the Biopsychologist Who Remembered H.M.

Exercise 9.3 Evaluate Goals

Key Terms

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Grade Aid for Basics of Biopsychology Chapter 9

Instructor’s Manual Additional Readings and Media Resources

Professor Notes

Chapter 9 Learning, Memory, and Amnesia CHAPTER 9 OVERVIEW Pinel begins Chapter 9 by explaining how learning and memory are two separate, yet related, things. Learning is a process whereby experience alters future behavior, whereas memory is the substrate for storing information about those experiences.

In “Amnesic Effects of Bilateral Medial Temporal Lobectomy” students learn about the most famous case of amnesia in the biopsychology, H.M. This classic case changed the way that memory storage in brain was viewed. H.M. led the scientific community to see the hippocampus as critical to forming new memories.

Next, in “Amnesia of Korsakoff’s Syndrome,” students learn that parts of the thalamus and possibly the hypothalamus are also critical to memory. Korsakoff’s syndrome is associated with severe alcoholism or, more specifically, vitamin B1 deficiency. Since there is general progressive decline in this disorder, it is difficult to sort out the specific types of amnesia.

In the following section, “Amnesia of Alzheimer’s Disease,” students learn about how Alzheimer’s disease has components of amnesia and dementia. Alzheimer’s disease patients lose recent memories first and retain oldest memories until the final stages of the disorder. The final stages of Alzheimer’s disease are associated with severe memory impairment, intellectual decline and incontinence.

“Amnesia after Concussion: Evidence for Consolidation” covers the types of memory loss associated with different kinds of head trauma.

The section “Neuroanatomy of Object-Recognition Memory” reviews data on the delayed nonmatching-to-sample memory test in humans, monkeys, and rats. The experiments done on rats, in which circumscribed lesions are possible, show that rhinal cortex may be more critical to object recognition than the hippocampus or amygdala; however, different experiments yield different interpretations.

“The Hippocampus and Memory for Spatial Location” outlines the specific types of memory handled by the hippocampus in the context of spatial location, such as working and reference memory. Major theories of hippocampal function are presented, such as providing a cognitive map, handling configural learning, and encoding spatial arrangements of stimuli.

Next, “Where Are Memories Stored?” explores the specific memory roles played by inferotemporal cortex, amygdala, prefrontal cortex, cerebellum, and striatum.

“Synaptic Mechanisms of Learning and Memory” covers recent findings regarding synaptic change with learning. Long-term potentiation (LTP) is detailed, as are changes in dendritic spines with LTP. The last section, “Conclusion: Infantile Amnesia and the Biopsychologist Who Remembered H.M.” discusses the phenomenon that not one of us can remember infancy. The biopsychologist who remembered H.M. ends the chapter with an interesting twist.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES OF CHAPTER 9 • • • • •

To give students a working knowledge of learning and memory.

To teach about amnesia syndromes.

To teach students how biopsychologists study these problems.

To teach students how to assess the basic research literature concerning synaptic mechanisms of learning.

To assess how learning and memory are relevant to their lives.

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel CHAPTER 9: LECTURE OUTLINE (key terms in boldface) LECTURE LAUNCHER 1: Learning and Memory in Your Life Every student’s success in an academic environment depends on learning, so students will automatically perceive learning and memory as highly relevant. Pinel starts this chapter by detailing several causes of amnesia, a reverse kind of strategy, whereby we understand a complex process by seeing how it can go awry. Many students will not have had any exposure to amnesia patients.

(An exception will be students with relatives diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease.) Nonetheless, many films—both recent and old—have been developed using amnesia as a central theme. These films are relevant to college students, especially since young adults constitute a large movie-going population. An important question in relating these film themes to biopsychology is: “How accurately is amnesia portrayed in film?” (Exercise 9.1 will deal with this question. Ideally, the exercise should follow some lecture material presented in class.)

Introduction Differences between learning and memory • learning—the process of the environment shaping our behavior • memory—storage of information 9.1 Amnesic Effects of Bilateral Medial Temporal Lobectomy (Use transparencies TSP89 and TSP91 or digital images 11.1-11.5; see Tables of Contents for complete media listings.)

Definition of terms • lobectomy—surgical excision of a lobe • lobotomy—the operation of cutting into a lobe • medial temporal lobe—the inner part of the temporal lobe consisting of hippocampus (seahorse-shaped), amygdala (almond-shaped), and surrounding limbic regions • medial temporal lobectomy—surgical excision of the medial temporal lobe The case of H.M., the man who changed the study of memory • given a bilateral medial temporal lobectomy (surgical excision of the medial temporal lobes on both sides of the brain) in 1953 o severe epilepsy, not responding to medication o bilateral foci o had most of hippocampus, amygdale, and adjacent cortex removed • surgery succeeded at decreasing seizures • IQ actually increased • problem—medial temporal lobe amnesia (loss of memory after medial temporal lobectomy) o retrograde amnesia—loss of memory for events before the trauma o anterograde amnesia—loss of memory for events following trauma • H.M.—severe anterograde amnesia, relatively spared retrograde memories (i.e., stuck in 1953 forever) • normal digit span—the number of items held in memory • H.M.’s amnesia came on the instant attention shifted

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Chapter 9 Learning, Memory, and Amnesia Discovery of an important feature of H.M.’s amnesia • not all memory tasks impaired • H.M. shows improvement on: o mirror drawing test—drawing from mirror image o rotary pursuit test—keeping on target o incomplete-pictures test—presentation of fragmented pictures, discrimination test without sensorimotor component. o Pavlovian conditioning—eyeblink to tone, pairing with air-puff Scientific contributions of H.M.’s case • H.M. case proof against Lashley’s point of view that memory is not localized • hippocampus—important for memory consolidation (short-term memories being converted into long-term memories) • H.M.—conscious memories disrupted, unconscious memories preserved o explicit memories—conscious o implicit memories—unconscious • For more details about H.M., see The Day His World Stood Still by Joanna Scaffhauser from the Brain Connection website at: http://www.brainconnection.com/topics/?main=fa/hm-memory Medial temporal lobe amnesia • common characteristics of patients with medial temporal lobe amnesia • explicit long-term memory deficit, without impairment to implicit memory • shown with specific tests (e.g., repetition priming tests) • differences among types of explicit long-term memory o semantic memories (facts)—unimpaired o episodic memories (autobiographical events)—impaired • conscious (explicit) memory systems add flexibility Effects of cerebral ischemia on the hippocampus and memory • cerebral ischemia (interruption of blood supply) affecting hippocampus—one cause of medial temporal lobe amnesia • The case of R.B., the product of a bungled operation (accidental brain damage resulting from cardiac bypass surgery)—specific damage to the pyramidal cell layer (the large output cells) of the CA1 subfield (a sector of the hippocampus) Exercise 9.1 Instructions Ask students to view a popular movie of their choice on amnesia. These can be movies the students own or rent; if needed, older movies, for which the copyrights have expired, might be shown in class or placed on library reserve. Check with your department’s copyright policy.

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel Name: ________________________ Exercise 9.1 Amnesia as a Subject in Cinema Movies portraying amnesia are currently popular, and they have been a theme of films for many years. The purpose of this exercise is to show how the portrayal of amnesia is often not realistic, even though the dramatic quality of the film may be excellent.

(1) Watch a movie that deals with amnesia—You can find movies dealing with amnesia online using key search terms such as: “movie” and “amnesia” or “DVD” and “amnesia”. Dr. John Kihlstrom at UC Berkeley has listed a number of films dealing with amnesia at: http://istsocrates.berkeley.edu/~kihlstrm/movies.htm (2) Compare the way amnesia is portrayed in the film to the ways it is discussed in class— Usually, amnesia will not be represented accurately (see Baxendale, S. “Memories aren't made of this: amnesia at the movies”. BMJ. 329:1480–1483, 2004.) Available on PubMed. (3) Fill out the worksheet.

What was the name of the movie?

What caused amnesia in the film’s character?

Was the cause of the amnesia realistic? Why or why not?

How was retrograde memory affected in the film’s character?

How was anterograde memory affected in the film’s character?

Was the affect on retrograde or anterograde memory realistic?

Did you enjoy this movie?

Why or why not?

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Chapter 9 Learning, Memory, and Amnesia 9.2 Amnesia of Korsakoff’s Syndrome Korsakoff’s Syndrome • a memory disorder found in alcoholics and persons with a thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency • medial diencephalic amnesia—amnesia due to lesion of the medial thalamus and hypothalamus • gradual, progressive decline in memory function • difficult to separate anterograde from retrograde components • stroke damage to the mediodorsal nuclei of the thalamus—similar amnesiac profile as Korsakoff’s syndrome The up-your-nose-case of N.A. • stabbed in the right nostril, damaged frontal lobes • retrograde amnesia for the 2-year period before the accident • time span of the retrograde amnesia shrank over time 9.3 Amnesia of Alzheimer’s Disease • disorder of amnesia and dementia • predementia Alzheimer’s disease patients: o general memory deficit, as opposed to specific o acetylcholine reduction o loss of basal forebrain neurons o strokes in the basal forebrain can cause amnesia o hard to distinguish memory loss from attention deficits 9.4 Amnesia after Concussion: Evidence for Consolidation Posttraumatic amnesia (PTA)—amnesia following blow to head • blow to head produces coma and confusion • retrograde amnesia for events immediately before trauma • anterograde amnesia during period of confusion after trauma • more severe blows, longer coma and period of amnesia • islands of memory—surviving memories for isolated events during an amnesiac period • chemical gradients implicated Gradients of retrograde amnesia and memory consolidation • severe amnesia immediately before and after the traumatic event • evidence that memory consolidation is gradual process • activity in reverberating loops gradually consolidated • electroconvulsive shock (ECS)—a seizure inducing current • ECS experiments in rats—memory consolidation occurs between 10 minutes and 1 hour after learning • ECS in humans—memory consolidation takes up to 3 years • long consolidation periods incompatible with Hebb’s theory of reverberating loops

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel The hippocampus and consolidation • memories temporarily stored in the hippocampus and transferred to cortex • conscious memories rapidly distributed • engram—physical storage of memory • the more storage sites, the stronger the engram 9.5 Neuroanatomy of Object-Recognition Memory (Use transparencies TPS89 and TSP92 or digital images 11.5-11.9.)

Experiments stimulated by H.M. results • first experiments failed o researchers tested implicit memory o lesions restricted to hippocampus Monkey model of object-recognition amnesia: the delayed nonmatching-to-sample test • must remember an object, and after a delay, pick the other object • monkeys with bilateral medial temporal lobe lesions (hippocampus, amygdala, and adjacent rhinal cortex) o have normal nonmatching-to-sample memory with few-second delay o have impaired nonmatching-to-sample memory with several-minute delay • humans with bilateral medial temporal lobe lesions—similar deficits as monkeys The delayed nonmatching-to-sample test for rats • rat hippocampus smaller, can be damaged more selectively o electrolytic lesions o neurotoxin injections • Mumby box—apparatus for the rat nonmatching-to-sample memory test • rats—handle delays up to 1 minute • lesions to hippocampus, amygdala, and rhinal cortex impair performance • lesions to the rhinal cortex appear most devastating for nonmatching-to-sample task in rats Neuroanatomical basis of the object-recognition deficits resulting from medial temporal lobectomy • specific lesions and deficits • monkeys with bilateral medial temporal lobe lesions (hippocampus, amygdala, and adjacent rhinal cortex) o have normal nonmatching-to-sample memory with few-second delay o have impaired nonmatching-to-sample memory with several-minute delay • focal lesions within the hippocampus o more disruptive than larger lesions o overactivation and subsequent damage of other brain regions via excitatory amino acid neurotransmitters • focal ischemia produces widespread cerebral dysfunction

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Chapter 9 Learning, Memory, and Amnesia 9.6 The Hippocampus and Memory for Spatial Location Hippocampal lesions disrupt spatial memory • hippocampus—a role in certain kinds of memory • lesions impair performance on: o Morris water maze test—swim to platform hidden in murky water o radial arm maze test—decrease errors of going down a baited arm twice o visiting the baited arms in the radial arm maze—example of reference memory (memory of principles required to perform task) o visiting each arm in the radial arm maze no more than once— example of working memory (temporary memory storage) Hippocampal place cells • respond to familiar places • fire when animal is in that place • influenced by movement through the environment • indicate where the rat thinks it is Comparative studies of hippocampus and spatial memory • raised barn owls with prisms over eyes shifting input 23° to the right o localization by other senses affected o auditory localization maps shifted by 23° to the right • spontaneous activity in visual cortex of ferret fetuses key to development • musical training expands auditory cortex; training leads to absolute pitch • London taxi drivers with more than 20 years experience—larger posterior hippocampus Theories of hippocampal function • cognitive map theory o allocentric maps of the external world o allocentric—representations of space based on relationships among external objects o egocentric—representation of space based on relationships to self • configural association theory—specialized for combinations of stimuli • spatial arrangements of objects

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel LECTURE LAUNCHER 2: Where are Your Memories?

The idea that our memories are stored in precise brain locations or distributed to multiple brain locations never ceases to amaze. You can motivate students to pay keen attention to the following facts if you have their curiosity piqued about the storage of their personal memories. Ask them to remember something special that happened to them and then guess where that information is stored.

9.7 Where Are Memories Stored? (Use digital image 11.10.)

Brain regions involved in memory storage • inferotemporal cortex—base of the temporal lobe • amygdala—structure located anterior to the hippocampus • prefrontal cortex—anterior part of frontal lobe • cerebellum—the small cerebrum in the hindbrain • striatum—part of the basal ganglia Inferotemporal cortex • visual perception • storing memories for visual patterns Amygdala • memory for things with emotional significance • conditioned autonomic startle response Prefrontal cortex • temporal order of events • working memory, attention, and task management The case of the cook who couldn’t—Wilder Penfield’s sister couldn’t remember sequence of steps in recipes Cerebellum and striatum • implicit memory • sensorimotor learning • cerebellum—role in Pavlovian condition of eyeblink • striatum—habit formation • Parkinson’s patients—impaired implicit memory, normal explicit memory 9.8 Synaptic Mechanisms of Learning and Memory (Use transparencies TSP90 or digital images 11.11-11.13.)

Hebb argued that enduring changes in synaptic efficiency—basis for long-term memory Long-term potentiation (LTP) • facilitation of synaptic transmission following high frequency stimulation • occurs in many species and in many brain areas

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Chapter 9 Learning, Memory, and Amnesia •

• • • •

three areas of hippocampus where LTP most commonly studied o dentate gyrus (via pulse delivered to perforant path) o CA1 subfield o CA3 subfield LTP lasts many weeks after multiple stimulations requires co-occurrence of firing in presynaptic and postsynaptic neuron low levels of neural activation can elicit LTP three processes of LTP o induction o maintenance o expression

Induction of LTP: learning • NMDA (n-methyl-D-aspartate) receptors underlie LTP • NMDA is a receptor for glutamate • postsynaptic cell must be depolarized for NMDA receptor to bind glutamate • calcium influx results from NMDA receptor activation • calcium influx activates protein kinases (enzymes that trigger many chemical reactions inside the neuron) Maintenance and expression of LTP: storage and recall • individual inputs segregated onto individual dendritic spines (appendages receiving inputs) • long-term changes in synaptic efficacy (and dendritic spine morphology) depend on new protein synthesis • nitric oxide (a soluble gas)—retrograde signal from postsynaptic to presynaptic cell • structural changes at NMDA synapses following long-lasting LTP • changes in number and size of dendritic spines Variability of LTP • LTP response varies with conditions • long-term depression (LTD) is the flip-side of LTP Exercise 9.2 Instructions Direct students to use the Internet to locate articles on synaptic mechanisms of learning and memory. Explain how to find the conclusion of the report in the abstract.

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel Name: ________________________ Exercise 9.2 Synaptic Mechanisms of Learning and Memory How to get started: PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ links you to the National Library of Medicine and provides a comprehensive listing of journal articles. Scirus at: http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/ is a search engine specializing in scientific articles. You can type key words into these or any search engine. Remember that more key words will bring up fewer articles, but they will more closely match your search. If you have too few articles retrieved, decrease the number of search terms.

Directions: Find recent articles on synaptic mechanisms of learning and memory. List the reference (authors, year, journal, volume, and pages) in the first column, the experimental preparation in the second, and the main result in the third column. (Read abstract for main result.)

Locate one article for each topic (LTP, LTD, and dendritic spine plasticity).

One article reference for each topic LTP

Preparation (intact animal, tissue slice, computer model)

LTD

dendritic spine plasticity

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Main result

Chapter 9 Learning, Memory, and Amnesia 9.9 Conclusion: Infantile Amnesia and the Biopsychologist Who Remembered H.M. We all forget (explicitly) events from our infancy LTP • implicit memory preserved • large skin conductances to photos of former classmates The case of R.M., the Biopsychologist Who Remembered H.M. • amnesia after ski accident • R.M. remembered learning about H.M.’s case Exercise 9.3 Evaluate Goals You can ask students if anything they learned about memory surprised them. Are they better informed about amnesia? Is there any practical information that they might use in their everyday lives?

KEY TERMS (page numbers in Pinel text) amygdala (p. 265) anterograde amnesia (p. 266) basal forebrain (p. 272) bilateral medial temporal lobectomy (p. 265) CA1 subfield (p. 270) cerebellum (p. 287) cerebral ischemia (p. 270) cognitive map theory (p. 285) delayed nonmatching-to-sample test (p. 278) dendritic spines (p. 291) digit span (p. 266) electroconvulsive shock (ECS) (p. 274) engram (p. 276) episodic memories (p. 269) explicit memories (p. 268) glutamate (p. 290) hippocampus (p. 265) implicit memories (p. 268) incomplete-pictures test (p. 267) inferotemporal cortex (p. 286) Korsakoff’s syndrome (p. 270) learning (p. 265) lobectomy (p. 265)

lobotomy (p. 265) long-term memories (p. 266) long-term potentiation (LTP) (p. 288) medial diencephalic amnesia (p. 271) medial temporal lobe amnesia (p. 268) mediodorsal nuclei (p. 271) memory (p. 265) memory consolidation (p. 268) Morris water maze test (p. 283) Mumby box (p. 280) nitric oxide (p. 293) NMDA receptor (p. 290) place cells (p. 284) posttraumatic amnesia (PTA) (p. 273) pyramidal cell layer (p. 270) radial arm maze test (p. 284) reference memory (p. 284) repetition priming tests (p. 269) retrograde amnesia (p. 266) rhinal cortex (p. 279) semantic memories (p. 269) short-term memories (p. 266) striatum (p. 287) working memory (p. 284)

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel ADDITIONAL READINGS AND MEDIA RESOURCES BOOKS Memory: From Mind to Molecules by Larry Squires and Eric Kandel (1999) Scientific American Library. New York: WH Freeman & Co. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory by Joe L. Martinez, Jr. and Raymond P. Kesner (1998) Academic Press.

MOVIES Understanding the Mysteries of Memory (1998) (DVD, VHS; 53 minutes) A Discovery Channel Production. (Discusses memory, savant syndrome, and amnesia.)

Memory: Fabric of the Mind (DVD, VHS; 28 minutes) Films for the Humanities and Sciences.

(An overview of synaptic and structural mechanisms of learning and memory.)

WEBSITES The National Library of Medicine (PubMed): http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ Scirus: http://www.scirus.com/ Wikipedia on Amnesia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amnesia The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke: Specific Conditions: Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome (Korsakoff's Amnesic Syndrome): http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/wernicke_korsakoff/wernicke-korsakoff.htm Dementia: http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/dementias/dementia.htm Dendritic Spines Don’t Go with the Flow, results presented by Brenda Bloodgood and Bernardo Sabatini on Focus Online: News from Harvard Medical, Dental, and Public Health Schools: http://focus.hms.harvard.edu/2005/Dec2_2005/neurobiology.shtml The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information by George A. Miller, The Psychological Review, 1956, 63:81-97: http://www.well.com/user/smalin/miller.html. (Reprint of the original article describing the digit span of seven for short-term memory.)

Visualization of Dendritic Spines from Synapse Web: http://synapses.mcg.edu/learn/visualize/golgi1.stm#GolgiEvol Dr. Andrew Matus at the Friedrich Miescher Institute has posted videos of dendritic spine dynamics: http://www.fmi.ch/members/andrew.matus/video.actin.dynamics.htm Dr. John Kihlstrom at UC Berkeley has listed a number of films dealing with amnesia at: http://istsocrates.berkeley.edu/~kihlstrm/movies.htm

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CHAPTER 10

Hunger, Eating, and Health Why Do Many People Eat Too Much?

Detailed Outline Introduction

10.1 Digestion and Energy Flow

10.2 Theories of Hunger and Eating: Set Points versus Positive Incentives

10.3 Factors That Determine What, When, and How Much We Eat

10.4 Physiological Research on Hunger and Satiety

10.5 Body Weight Regulation: Set Points versus Settling Points

10.6 Human Obesity

10.7 Anorexia Nervosa

Chapter At-A-Glance Instructor’s Print Resources Supplements Lecture Instructor’s Launcher 1 Manual for Eating Basics of Healthy for Biopsychology Life Chapter 10 Exercise 10.1 Are You More Influenced by Set Points or Positive Incentives?

Exercise 10.2 Research on Obesity and Eating Disorders Lecture Launcher 2 What is Your Body Mass?

Exercise 10.3 Evaluate Goals Key Terms

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Media Supplements Beyond the Brain and Behavior CD for Basics of Biopsychology Practice Tests for Chapter 12

Test Bank for Basics of Biopsychology Chapter 10

Hard Copy for Chapter 12 Electronic Flashcards for Chapter 12

Transparencies for Physiological Psychology, Chapter 7, TSP67-TSP70, see Table of Contents, p. xv

Digital Media Archive Log (DMA), 12.112.11, see Table of Contents, p. xxi PowerPoint Presentation

Grade Aid for Basics of Biopsychology Chapter 10

Instructor’s Manual Additional Readings and Media Resources

Professor Notes

Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel CHAPTER 10 OVERVIEW Eating is something that we all do. Pinel begins this chapter with an emphasis on obesity, a condition affecting more than half the adult population in the United States. Major health problems related to obesity include diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and some cancers. On the flip side, eating too little occurs at a low rate in the form of anorexia nervosa. The set point system does not seem to keep all of us in the normal weight range, as exemplified by “The case of the man who forgot not to eat.”

Beginning with “Digestion and Energy Flow,” students learn about the digestive tract and the basic relationships between energy metabolism and caloric intake. The three phases of digestion and pancreatic hormones are discussed.

Then attention turns to “Theories of Hunger and Eating: Set Points versus Positive Incentives.” This section covers the theories of hunger and satiety, teaching that it is not the simple model of an assumed set point is not most consistent with the data gathered by biopsychologists.

Instead, it would appear that animals—in particular humans—are driven by food palatability and social cues.

In “Factors That Determine What, When, and How Much We Eat,” the discussion continues. Food flavor and mineral content determine what we eat. Meal expectations and Pavlovian conditioning determine when we eat. Many factors, including nutritive value and palatability will influence how much we eat. Students have an opportunity to realize how complex the regulation of eating behavior is.

Next, the section “Physiological Research on Hunger and Satiety” provides information on which brain areas are implicated as hunger and satiety centers; however, that conceptualization is also debunked as oversimplified. The way in which the gut and the gut peptides contribute to hunger and satiety is detailed.

In “Body Weight Regulation: Set Points versus Settling Points” Pinel argues cogently that settling points, not set points, are what determine body weight. Using the “leaky barrel” metaphor to illustrate the settling point model, Pinel describes how many factors contribute to weight regulation.

The last two sections, “Human Obesity” and “Anorexia Nervosa,” cover those conditions. Obesity and being overweight are widespread problems in the U.S., contributing to a number of medical conditions. Anorexia nervosa, the condition of being severely underweight, can directly cause death.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES OF CHAPTER 10 • • • • •

To give students a working knowledge of eating behavior and motivational states.

To teach about eating disorders.

To teach students how biopsychologists study these problems.

To teach students how to assess the basic research literature on eating-related behavior.

To assess how eating is relevant to their lives.

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Chapter 10 Hunger, Eating, and Health CHAPTER 10: LECTURE OUTLINE (key terms in boldface) LECTURE LAUNCHER 1: Eating Healthy for Life Many students will have been interested in their weight at some time or another. You can point out that biopsychological research indicates that excessive concern about being overweight can lead to the opposite: being underweight, especially in young females. Nonetheless, obesity in children is on the rise. What seems to be important is establishing lifelong patterns of healthy eating. Suggest that students take a try this animated game called “The Obs: An interactive learning game about nature, nurture, and obesity” from the Wellcome Trust in UK located at: http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/node5953.html. This game shows how patterns of eating and exercise have long-term effects.

Introduction Health problems associated with eating • overeating—diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and some cancers • undereating—starvation • set point (homeostatic mechanism)—not enough to control weight The case of the man who forgot not to eat—amnesic man who ate repeated meals 10.1 Digestion and Energy Flow (Use transparencies TSP67-TSP68 or digital images 12.1-12.2; see Tables of Contents for complete media listings.)

Process of digestion—the breakdown and absorption of nutrients • gastrointestinal tract—one long hollow tube • energy forms or nutrients o lipids—fats o amino acids—breakdown products (and building blocks) of proteins o glucose—a simple sugar that is broken down from complex carbohydrates • energy stored in three forms o fats—main storage form o glycogen o proteins Three phases of energy metabolism • cephalic phase—preparatory phase; response to sight or smell of food • absorptive phase—time during which food is being absorbed • fasting phase—time from when food energy of last meal has been used until next cephalic phase • pancreatic hormones o insulin—released during cephalic and absorptive phases o glucagon—released during fasting phase

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel •

• •

insulin promotes: o use of glucose as primary energy source o conversion of bloodbourne fuels to storage forms (glycogen, fat, and protein) o storage of glycogen (in liver and muscle), fat, and protein high glucagon/low insulin favors gluconeogenesis (conversion of protein to glucose) glucagon promotes release of free fatty acids (stored in adipose tissue) and conversion to ketones (a fuel for muscle, but not brain).

10.2 Theories of Hunger and Eating: Set Points versus Positive Incentives (Digital image 12.3.)

Set-point assumption—hunger results from energy deficit, like a thermostat • hunger—motivational state of wanting to eat • meal—bout of eating • satiety—feeling full, not hungry • set-point systems—negative feedback mechanisms; detector and effector • maintain homeostasis—a constant internal environment Glucostatic and lipostatic theories of hunger and eating • glucostatic theory—blood sugar controls hunger (short-term regulation) • lipostatic theory—set point for body fat (long-term control of body weight) • problems with set-point theories of hunger and eating o cannot account for adaptations to scarcity of food o not consistent with many results in humans (e.g., subjects do not eat less after a premeal drink) Positive-incentive perspective • positive-incentive theory—drive to eat not triggered by energy deficits, but by anticipated pleasure of eating • positive-incentive value—appetitive level of a food, depends upon: o flavor of the food o time since you last ate o who you are with o blood glucose levels • evolutionary pressure and fear of unexpected food shortages produce behavior: o to take advantage of good food when it is present o to ignore our immediate lack of energy deficit • major energy deficit will trigger hunger, despite lack of positive incentives Exercise 10.1 Instructions Pinel suggests that positive incentives dominate because we typically have a surplus of food. Do most students agree? The tally for answers checked in column #1 support energy demands; the tally for answers checked in column #2 support positive incentives.

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Chapter 10 Hunger, Eating, and Health Name: ________________________ Exercise 10.1 Are You More Influenced by Set Points or Positive Incentives?

Mark your answers on the right. Note that the Yes and No order is reversed for the second set of questions. Tally your answers at the bottom of the sheet.

FIRST SET OF QUESTIONS

Yes

No

No

Yes

Do you interpret feeling physically tired as a sign that you need to eat?

Have you ever felt weak and needed to eat something quickly?

Have you ever eaten several small snacks and skipped meals?

Does exercising make you hungry?

Do you get very hungry after having been out in the cold?

When you exercise less, do you feel barely hungry?

Do you eat about the same, regardless of the dish?

Do you eat less after watching TV than after vigorous exercise?

Are you always able to resist tempting foods when you are not hungry?

When out for dinner, do you eat about the same amount as at home?

When eating out, do you order the same type of food as you eat at home?

SECOND SET OF QUESTIONS Do you love the smell of certain foods?

Does the way food looks affect your appetite for it?

Do you love to eat your own cooking?

Do you like to make cookies?

Do you like to go out to eat?

Do you order things on the menu that you ordinarily do not eat at home?

Are these menu items ever rich in calories?

Is one of your favorite foods ice cream?

Do you ever eat candy or ice cream when you have just had a meal?

Do you think that food is more fun with friends?

Do you ever eat fatty fast food?

Totals

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#1 ___ #2 ___

Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel 10.3 Factors That Determine What, When, and How Much We Eat (Use digital image 12.4.)

Factors that determine what we eat • universal preference for sweet, fatty, and salty tastes • sweet and fatty—high energy foods • bitter—signals a possible toxin • learned taste preferences and aversions o prefer tastes followed by infusion of calories o avoid foods that produce illness • learn about food safety from conspecifics (smell of food on other animals of the same species) • strong cultural influences in humans Learning to eat vitamins and minerals • immediate response to sodium deficiency • getting enough of other nutrients must be learned • animals develop aversion to thiamine (vitamin B1)-deficient diets • variety of diets makes it difficult to learn which food contain nutrients Factors that influence when we eat • premeal hunger—due to anticipation • meals are homeostasis-disturbing • meals create expectations of food • Pavlovian conditioning of hunger—rats trained to eat on buzzer cue Factors that influence how much we eat • satiety—motivational state causing us to stop eating • nutritive density—calories per unit volume; a satiety signal • rats do not increase meal size if nutritive density decreases • palatability of food contributes • sham eating—chewed food is prevented from reaching the stomach o meal size stays the same even though calories are removed o meal size based on previous experience with a particular food • appetizer effect o small amounts of food stimulate appetite o cephalic stage is stimulated • social influences (to eat more or to eat less) • sensory-specific satiety—grow tired of particular taste o brief effects—within a meal o enduring effects—from meal to meal o certain foods immune to effect (e.g., potatoes, rice, breads, sweets, and salads • cafeteria diet—a variety of highly palatable foods

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Chapter 10 Hunger, Eating, and Health 10.4 Physiological Research on Hunger and Satiety (Use digital images 12.5-12.9.)

Role of blood glucose levels in hunger and satiety • blood glucose levels—10 min before mean, drop suddenly by 8% • due to increases in insulin • way body prepares for influx of calories in meal Myth of hypothalamic hunger and satiety centers • ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)—satiety center (oversimplified) o bilateral electrolytic lesions to VMH produce hyperphagia (excessive eating) and obesity in rats o VMH syndrome—dynamic phase (period of rapid weight gain) and static phase (sustained level of obesity) • lateral hypothalamus (LH)—hunger center (oversimplified) o bilateral electrolytic lesions to LH produce aphagia (cessation of eating) and adipsia (cessation of drinking) o LH syndrome—overcome by presenting highly palatable foods • VMH and LH models of hunger and satiety misleading (e.g., paraventricular nuclei also damaged in lesion experiments) • true role in energy metabolism • VMH lesions increase insulin levels o increasing lipogenesis (production of body fat) o decreasing lipolysis (breakdown of body fat) • fibers-of-passage problem—part of the eating abnormality due to noradrenergic fiber interruption Role of the gastrointestinal tract in satiety • hunger pangs co-occur with stomach wall contractions • patients without stomachs still hungry • duodenums (first portions of the small intestine) may play role Hunger and satiety peptides (and neurotransmitters) • peptides (short chains of amino acids)—can be hormones and neurotransmitters • cholecystokinin (CCK)—gut peptide o induces smaller meals o induces nausea o also induces conditioned taste aversion o legitimate satiety peptide • satiety peptides act on hypothalamus • serotonin agonists (fenfluramine, dexfenfluramine, and fluoxetine)—reduce hunger and eating

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel 10.5 Body Weight Regulation: Set Points versus Settling Points (Use transparency TPS69 or digital image 12.10.)

Set-point assumptions about body weight and eating • •

poor at predicting major properties of hunger and eating o many people avoid obesity by ignoring urges to eat o body cues to eat are not accurate predictors of actual needs ad libitum (free-feeding) vs. restricted calorie diets o inhabitants of Okinawa ate less and were healthier o body cues to eat are not accurate predictors of what is needed o experiments in mice and other animals—low calorie diets reduced health problems (e.g., cancer), and increased life span by as much as 67%

Regulation of body weight through changes in the efficiency of energy utilization • how much a person eats is one factor • body controls its fat levels • diet-induced thermogenesis—weight loss triggers body to be more efficient o low-calorie diets produce initial effects o equilibrium is reached diminishing further weight loss • basal metabolic rate (rate of energy utilization)—varies among individuals Set points and settling points in weight control • settling point—point at which various factors controlling weight reach equilibrium • leaky-barrel model o water entering hose—food available o water pressure at nozzle—positive incentive value of food o amount of water entering barrel—energy consumed o water level in barrel—body fat o water leaking from barrel—energy expended o weight of barrel sitting on the hose—strength of satiety signal • leaky-barrel model accounts parsimoniously for most of the data • settling point model—more flexible than set point model Exercise 10.2 Instructions This exercise directs students to use the Internet to locate articles on obesity, anorexia nervosa, and bulimia nervosa. Explain how to find the conclusion of the report in the abstract. This exercise can also be used as an opportunity to learn more about a specific topic in this field. For example, recent reports suggest obesity is on the rise for children in the U.S., especially among certain ethnic groups. You can place special emphasis on a timely topic such as this.

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Chapter 10 Hunger, Eating, and Health Name: ________________________ Exercise 10.2 Research on Obesity and Eating Disorders How to get started: PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ links you to the National Library of Medicine and provides a comprehensive listing of journal articles. Scirus at: http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/ is a search engine specializing in scientific articles. You can type key words into these or any search engine. Remember that more key words will bring up fewer articles, but they will more closely match your search. If you have too few articles retrieved, decrease the number of search terms.

Directions: Find recent articles on obesity, anorexia nervosa, and bulimia. List the reference (authors, year, journal, volume, and pages) in the first column, the experimental subject in the second, and the main result in the third column. (Read abstract for main result.) Locate one article for each topic (obesity, anorexia nervosa, and bulimia).

One article reference for each topic Obesity

Subjects (males, females, age groups)

Anorexia nervosa

Bulimia

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Main result

Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel LECTURE LAUNCHER 2: What is Your Body Mass?

You might ask the students if what they learned about eating (and eating disorders) will change the way they manage their food intake and exercise schedules in the future. As a related activity, students can calculate their body mass indices used to determine normal weight range at: http://www.halls.md/body-mass-index/bmi.htm or http://www.consumer.gov/weightloss/bmi.htm 10.6 Human Obesity (Use transparency TSP70 or digital image 12.11.)

Why is there an epidemic of obesity?

• evolutionary pressure to prefer high calorie foods and to store excess calories • culture contributes to food choices • causes of obesity o intake of calories exceeds expenditure of energy o individual preferences for high-calorie food o cultural pressure to overconsume o large cephalic-phase response o too little exercise o low basal metabolic rate o diet-induced thermogenesis • nonexercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT)—energy expenditure due to nervous activity; enables some to avoid obesity without diet restriction Why are weight loss programs typically ineffective?

• weight comes back after program finished • exercise contributes little to weight loss • 80% of calories used to maintain temperature and chemical reactions in body • stomach stapling and wiring jaws shut provide only short-term losses Mutant obese mice and leptin • ob/ob mice—mice homozygous for ob gene o become very obese o deficient for leptin—a peptide hormone • leptin levels correlate with fat • leptin acts as a negative feedback signal • leptin receptors in brain • obese humans not deficient for leptin • leptin injections do not cure obesity • ‘The Case of the Child with No Leptin”—ob/ob child gained excessive weight until treated with leptin.

Serotonergic drugs and the treatment of obesity • increase short-term satiety signals • couldn’t remember sequence of steps in recipes

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Chapter 10 Hunger, Eating, and Health 10.7 Anorexia Nervosa •

• •

anorexia nervosa—underconsumption of food (can be life threatening) o prevalence—2.5% among North American female students o preoccupied with food, yet disgusted by sweet and fatty tastes o tend to feel ill after meals 50% of anorexics occasionally binge and purge (vomit or use laxatives) bulimia nervosa—binging and purging without excessive weight loss

The puzzle of anorexia • positive incentive for food—malfunctioning • re-feeding after starvation—stressful to body physiology and dangerous • meals—too large to feed to anorexics (must start with small amounts of food) • The case of the anorexic student—food lost positive incentive value because of aversive conditioning Exercise 10.3 Evaluate Goals Refer back to goals set. Ask students if they learned things applicable to their daily lives.

KEY TERMS (page number in Pinel text) absorptive phase (p. 303) adipsia (p. 314) amino acids (p. 303) anorexia nervosa (p. 326) aphagia (p. 314) appetizer effect (p. 311) basal metabolic rate (p. 320) bulimia nervosa (p. 327) cafeteria diet (p. 312) cephalic phase (p. 303) cholecystokinin (CCK) (p. 317) diet-induced thermogenesis (p. 320) digestion (p. 302) duodenums (p. 315) dynamic phase (p. 314) fasting phase (p. 303) free fatty acid (p. 304) glucagon (p. 304) gluconeogenesis (p. 304) glucose (p. 303) glucostatic theory (p. 306) homeostasis (p. 305) hyperphagia (p. 314) insulin (p. 303)

ketones (p. 304) lateral hypothalamus (LH) (p. 313) leaky-barrel model (p. 320) leptin (p. 325) lipids (p. 303) lipogenesis (p. 314) lipolysis (p. 314) lipostatic theory (p. 306) negative feedback mechanisms (p. 305) nutritive density (p. 310) ob/ob mice (p. 325) paraventricular nuclei (p. 315) positive incentive theory (p. 307) positive-incentive value (p. 307) satiety (p. 310) sensory-specific satiety (p. 312) set point (p. 301) set-point assumption (p. 305) settling point (p. 320) sham eating (p. 311) static phase (p. 314) ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) (p. 313)

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel ADDITIONAL READINGS AND MEDIA RESOURCES BOOKS Running on Empty: A Diary of Anorexia and Recovery by Carrie Arnold (2004) First Page Publications Turn Off the Hunger Switch Naturally: The Revolutionary New Program That Resets Your Brain Chemistry for Real Weight Loss Without Cravings or Hunger by Paul Rivas and E.A. Tremblay (2003) Avery.

MOVIES Eating Disorders: The Inner Voice (2000) (DVD, VHS; 30 minutes) A Cambridge Educational Production. (Explains how eating disorders are more than about being thin.)

Digestion: Eating to Live (1984) (DVD, VHS; 26 minutes) Films for the Humanities and Sciences. (Discusses appetite and hunger.)

WEBSITES The National Library of Medicine (PubMed): http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ Scirus: http://www.scirus.com/ Wikipedia on Obesity: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity Academy for Eating Disorders (AED): http://www.aedweb.org American Obesity Association: http://www.obesity.org/ National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associated Disorders (ANAD): http://www.anad.org National Eating Disorders Association (NEDA): http://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org Weight-control Information Network (WIN) from NIDDK, NIH, HHS: http://win.niddk.nih.gov/index.htm Your Digestive System and How It Works from NIDDK: http://digestive.niddk.nih.gov/ddiseases/pubs/yrdd/index.htm The Surgeon General's Call to Action to Prevent and Decrease Overweight and Obesity: http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/topics/obesity/ Anorexia from Women’s Health.gov: http://www.4woman.gov/faq/easyread/anorexia-etr.htm Eating Disorders: Facts About Eating Disorders and the Search for Solutions from NIMH: http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/eatingdisorders.cfm The Obs: An Interactive Learning Game About Nature, Nurture and Obesity from the Wellcome Trust in UK located at: http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/node5953.html Calculate Your Body Mass Index Sites: http://www.consumer.gov/weightloss/moreinfo.htm; http://www.halls.md/body-mass-index/bmi.htm Dr. Asha Bales at The University Hospital, Newark, NJ discusses gastric bypass surgery. Videos available at: http://www.theuniversityhospital.com/otc/html/surgical_option.htm

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CHAPTER 11

Hormones and Sex What’s Wrong with the Mamawawa?

Detailed Outline Introduction

11.1 The Neuroendocrine System

11.2 Hormones and Sexual Development

11.3 Three Cases of Exceptional Human Sexual Development

11.4 Effects of Gonadal Hormones on Adults

11.5 Neural Mechanisms of Sexual Behavior

11.6 Sexual Orientation, Hormones, and the Brain

Chapter At-A-Glance Instructor’s Print Resources Supplements Lecture Instructor’s Launcher 1 Manual for Relevancy of Basics of Sexuality to Biopsychology You Chapter 11 Exercise 11.1 Teaching Sexual Reproduction to Kids Lecture Launcher 2 Gender Testing of Female Athletes Exercise 11.2 Effects of Gonadal Hormones Exercise 11.3 Evaluate Goals

.

Key Terms

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Media Supplements Beyond the Brain and Behavior CD for Basics of Biopsychology Practice Tests for Chapter 11

Test Bank for Basics of Biopsychology Chapter 11

Transparencies for Physiological Psychology, Chapter 8, TSP71-TSP76, see Table of Contents, p. xv

Grade Aid for Basics of Biopsychology Chapter 11

Hard Copy for Chapter 11 Electronic Flashcards for Chapter 11 Digital Media Archive Log (DMA), 13.113.12, see Table of Contents, p. xxii PowerPoint Presentation Instructor’s Manual Additional Readings and Media Resources

Professor Notes

Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel CHAPTER 11 OVERVIEW Chapter 11 begins by outlining developmental (or organizational) versus activational effects of sex hormones. Pinel also presents the argument that the men-are-men-and-women-are-women assumption (MAMAWAWA) is inherently wrong.

The section entitled “The Neuroendocrine System” covers the basic plan of the hypothalamus–pituitary axis. The main flow of information, as well as feedback mechanisms, are explained. Relevant terms (e.g., anatomical structures, hormones, etc.) are defined.

In the next section, titled “Hormones and Sexual Development,” the development of external and internal genitalia is detailed. It is explained how the Wolffian system becomes seminal vesicles and vas deferens, whereas the Müllerian system becomes uterus and fallopian tubes.

Aromatization and sex differences in the brain are discussed, beginning with the conversion of testosterone, then examining estradiol and the masculinization of male brain in rats and several other mammalian species. Lastly, what happens during puberty is detailed, including hormonal changes and the development of secondary sex characteristics.

The next section, “Three Cases of Exceptional Human Sexual Development,” presents three unusual cases that prove the MAMAWAWA incorrect. The first case is that of androgenic insensitivity syndrome, in which a mutation to the androgen receptor gene leaves the patient insensitive to the effects of testosterone. The second case is adrenogenital syndrome, a disorder of sexual development, caused by deficient cortisol levels, which results in compensatory adrenal hyperactivity and excessive release of adrenal androgens. This can lead to a change in apparent gender occurring at puberty. The last case is ablatio penis, which is the accidental removal of the penis. In many cases of this type, the genitalia were reconstructed to appear female, and the child was raised as a girl. New ethical challenges to this practice advocate for the delay of surgery until the patient is old enough to choose his/her gender.

In “Effects of Gonadal Hormones on Adults,” the way in which sex hormones affect sexual behavior is examined. Differences between men and women are noted.

“Neural Mechanisms of Sexual Behavior” covers the structural differences between the male hypothalamus and the female hypothalamus. One such sexually dimorphic nucleus was discovered in the medial preoptic area of rats. This sexually dimorphic nucleus grows rapidly in male rats when triggered by estradiol, which is aromatized from testosterone. There may also be sexually dimorphic nuclei in the human hypothalamus.

“Sexual Orientation, Hormones, and the Brain” covers possible genetic and hormonal causes or contributors to sexual orientation. Transsexualism, which is independent of sexual orientation, is also discussed.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES OF CHAPTER 11 • To give students a working knowledge of the neuroendocrine system and sexual behavior.

• To teach about ambiguous sexual identity.

• To teach students how biopsychologists study these problems.

• To teach students how to assess the basic research literature covering effects of sex hormones on adults.

• To assess how the biopsychology of sexuality is relevant to their lives.

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Chapter 11 Hormones and Sex CHAPTER 11: LECTURE OUTLINE (key terms in boldface) LECTURE LAUNCHER 1: Relevancy of Sexuality to You Sexual anatomy and behavior has obvious relevance to college students. The aim here is to make the case for the relevance of what biopsychologists have learned about sexuality. Much of biopsychological research focuses on rat sexual behavior and the exceptional human cases, ranging from ambiguous sexual identity to transsexuality. You can point out that we have learned much about the fundamental relationships between hormones and sexual behavior from research done on rats, but also note how much more complex sexual behavior is for humans. You can explain that this is because we enjoy extensive cortical control over the hypothalamus, and in this manner modulate our sexual behavior. Be aware that it is relatively likely that some students will either be or know somebody who it homosexual or bisexual. You might mention that biopsychological research has increased awareness and acceptance of homosexuality and bisexuality. You might ask students whether they think that their level of awareness and acceptance is different from what was typical 20–30 years ago.

Introduction Developmental versus activational effects of sex hormones • developmental—the maturation of anatomy, physiology, and behavior related to sex • activational—triggering reproductive behavior in sexually mature adults • the men-are-men-and-women-are-women assumption—inherently wrong 11.1. The Neuroendocrine System (Use transparency TSP71 or digital images 13.1-13.4; see Tables of Contents for complete media listings.)

Glands and gonads • exocrine glands—sweat glands • endocrine glands—ductless glands; release hormones into circulatory system • gonads—glands that produce sex hormones • testes—male gonads • ovaries—female gonads • copulation—sexual intercourse • zygote—fertilized egg • sex chromosomes—X and Y chromosomes, which determine sex of organism (humans have a total of 23 pairs of chromosomes) Sex hormones (many are steroid hormones)—derived from cholesterol and are fatsoluble; penetrate cells easily, bind to nucleus • androgen (testosterone)—most common in males • estrogens (estradiol)—most common in females • progestins (progesterone)—third class of sex hormones • adrenal gland—releases small amounts of sex hormones • amino acid derivative hormones—made from amino acids (e.g., epinephrine) • peptide hormones—short chains of amino acids • protein hormones—long chains of amino acids

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel Hormones of the pituitary • tropic hormones (stimulate or change other hormone levels)—e.g., gonadotropin, which stimulates the gonads • posterior pituitary—a small outgrowth of the hypothalamus • posterior stalk—connects the posterior pituitary to the hypothalamus • anterior pituitary—derived from embryonic tissue destined to become the mouth; releases tropic hormones Female gonadal hormone levels are cyclic; male gonadal hormone levels are steady • female cycle approximately 28 days (e.g., the menstrual cycle) • cyclic nature NOT controlled by anterior pituitary Control of anterior and posterior pituitary by the hypothalamus • posterior pituitary receives hormones from the paraventricular nuclei and supraoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus o vasopressin—facilitates water reabsorption by kidneys o oxytocin—stimulates contractions during labor and milk ejection • hypothalamopituitary portal system—a vascular network carrying hormones from the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary Discovery of hypothalamic releasing hormones • first discovered: thyrotropin-releasing hormone—triggers the release of thyrotropin from pituitary.

• thyrotropin stimulates thyroid gland • took 1 million pig hypothamali to collect small amount of hormone • isolated—identified—synthesized • next to be isolated: gonadotropin-releasing hormone—stimulates: o follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)—released from anterior pituitary o luteinizing hormone (LH)—released from anterior pituitary • pulsatile hormone release—surges several times per day in both sexes Summary model of gonadal endocrine regulation • hypothalamus  anterior pituitary  gonads • gonads release hormones feedback to hypothalamus (usually negative) Exercise 11.1 Instructions This assignment gives students an opportunity to apply the biopsychological approach to teaching sex education to kids of different ages. The task is to locate media (books, DVDs, video clips, and Internet articles) useful in teaching this subject matter. Encourage students to be creative and to avoid the hackneyed, cliché approaches to sex education.

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Chapter 11 Hormones and Sex Name: ________________________ Exercise 11.1 Teaching Sexual Reproduction to Kids Locate media that would facilitate teaching the following topics to different age groups.

Possible sources for books, DVDs, video clips, and Internet articles include: www.amazon.com; www.barnesandnoble.com; and the Internet.

Give full title and media type, as well as the suitable age group, for each topic listed in the left-hand column.

Topic Developmental versus activation effects of sex hormones.

Media (intended age group)

Sex hormones.

The pituitary gland.

Reproduction cycle in the female.

Hypothalamic control over the pituitary.

Discovery of hypothalamic releasing hormones.

Gonadal endocrine regulation.

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel Exercise 11.1 Discussion Did students find interesting materials? You can discuss the material the students discovered in class. You can find some materials of your own at: The Public Broadcasting System: The Nature of Sex: http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/sex/index.html and Disney Educational Products: Genetic Diversity: Sexual Reproduction at: http://dep.disney.go.com/educational/lessons?id=219#genetic 11.2 Hormones and Sexual Development (Use transparencies TSP72-TSP74 or digital images 13.5-13.9.)

Humans are dimorphic (two sexes) • XX chromosome—female • XY chromosome—male • not always so clear (MAMAWAWA not correct) Fetal hormones and development of reproductive organs • primordial gonads—existing at the beginning o cortex—potential to develop into an ovary o medulla—potential to develop into a testis • 6 weeks after conception—synthesis of H-Y antigen triggered by Y chromosome • H-Y antigen causes medulla to grow to form a testis Internal reproductive ducts • Wolffian system (male)—becomes seminal vesicles and vas deferens • Müllerian-system (female)—becomes uterus and fallopian tubes • 3rd month fetal developments testes secrete testosterone and Müllerianinhibiting substance • testosterone stimulates the Wolffian system • Müllerian system develops in the absence of testosterone • ovariectomy—removal of the ovaries • orchidectomy—removal of the testes • gonadectomy (castration)—surgical removal of gonads External reproductive organs • bipotential precursor for male versus female genitals; depends on presence of testosterone • 2nd month of pregnancy: glans—urethral folds—lateral bodies—labioscrotal swellings • male: glans  head of penis; urethral folds  fuse; lateral bodies  shaft of penis; labioscrotal swellings  scrotum • female: glans  clitoris; urethral folds  labia minora; lateral bodies  hood of clitoris; labioscrotal swellings  labia majora

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Chapter 11 Hormones and Sex Sex differences in the brain • sexual dimorphisms—brain differences between sexes • male brain 15% larger—effect accounted for by body size differences Aromatization and sex differences in the brain • aromatization—conversion of testosterone to estradiol • aromatization critical step in masculinization of male brain in rats and several other mammalian species (but not in humans) • fetuses protected from mother’s estrogens by placenta Perinatal hormones and behavioral development • perinatal testosterone injection—masculinizes and defeminizes an adult female’s copulatory behavior • castrated and testosterone-treated females: o display more male mounting behavior o display less lordosis—arched back posture signaling receptivity • early lack of testosterone feminizes and demasculinizes adult copulatory behavior • male rats castrated after birth: o impaired mounting o impaired intromission o impaired ejaculation • less known about proceptive behaviors (female solicitation behaviors)— hopping, darting, ear wiggling Puberty: hormones and development of secondary sex characteristics • secondary sex characteristics—distinguish sexually mature men from women • increased secretion of hormones at puberty o growth hormone—stimulates bone and muscle to grow o adrenocorticotropic hormone—increase gonadal and adrenal hormones o androstenedione—androgen responsible for pubic and axillary hair in both sexes (released by adrenal cortex) LECTURE LAUNCHER 2: Gender Testing of Female Athletes Students can directly test the MAMAWAWA with this interactive game on the Internet.

Gender testing has been common among world-class female athletes since the 1960’s to ensure that an athlete is a female. Students can access this Gender-Testing forum presented by the Howard Hughes Medical Institute at: http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/gender/index.html 11.3 Three Cases of Exceptional Human Sexual Development The case of Anne S., the woman who wasn’t • little axillary hair, underdeveloped uterus • sex chromosomes of a man (XY) • diagnosis: androgenic insensitivity syndrome—mutation to the androgen receptor gene (see: http://www.medhelp.org/www/ais/)

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel • •

without the receptor, effects of testosterone disabled 10 androgen-insensitive patients studied—goals and behaviors matched those of females

The case of the girl who started to develop a man’s body • adrenogenital syndrome—a disorder of sexual development resulting from deficient cortisol levels • results in compensatory adrenal hyperactivity • excessive release of adrenal androgens • change in apparent gender can occur at puberty The case of the twin who lost his penis • ablatio penis—accidental removal of penis (in this case, during circumcision) • test of the nature–nurture controversy • social-learning theory of sexual development • satisfactory life as female (in this case)…

• …but not really • Joan/John liked male things; suspected she was really a boy • decided to change to male body • Joan/John never recovered emotionally; committed suicide Do these exceptional cases prove the rule?

• exceptions show MAMAWAWA is flawed • human sexuality complex Exercise 11.2 Instructions This assignment is for students to find materials on the Internet concerning gonadal hormones and their effects on adult behavior. Directions appear on the exercise to get the students started. The intended focus is to locate human studies; however, there may be complementary studies done on research animals that might also be appropriate to include. You can tailor the assignment to match the material you focus upon in the classroom, or, conversely, you can direct students to emphasize material you do not have time to cover in class.

This assignment can also serve as a springboard for giving oral presentations in class. One discussion topic is the difference between effects of gonadectomy in females and those of gonadectomy in males. You might ask the students to address these questions: What do sex differences in the response to gonadectomy imply? How do these differences support or disprove the MAMAWAWA?

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Chapter 11 Hormones and Sex Name: ________________________ Exercise 11.2 Effects of Gonadal Hormones How to get started: PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ links you to the National Library of Medicine and provides a comprehensive listing of journal articles. Scirus at: http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/ is a search engine specializing in scientific articles. You can type key words into these or any search engine. Remember that more key words will bring up fewer articles, but they will more closely match your search. If you have too few articles retrieved, decrease the number of search terms.

Directions: Find recent articles on effects of gonadal hormones in humans. List the reference (authors, year, journal, volume, and pages) in the first column, the subjects’ sex and age ranges in the second column, and the main effect in the third column. (Read abstract for main effect.) Locate one article for each topic (orchidectomy, ovariectomy, and anabolic steroid use).

One article reference for each topic Orchidectomy

Subject (sex, age)

Ovariectomy

Anabolic steroid use

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Effect on hormones levels and sexual activity

Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel 11.4 Effects of Gonadal Hormones on Adults (Use transparency TSP75.)

Male reproduction—related behavior and testosterone • 157 cases of orchidectomy—voluntary castration to reduce prison term o reduces sexual interest (to a variable degree) o reduction of face and body hair The case of the man who lost and regained his manhood • testosterone replacement therapy • effects on castrated World War I veteran o rapid erections o increased muscle mass • testosterone does NOT treat sterility (inability to impregnate a female) • within normal range, testosterone level NOT correlated with sex drive • testosterone—far in excess needed for normal sexual behavior • Viagra—works on the circulatory system to alleviate erectile dysfunction; not a factor in sexual motivation Female reproduction—related behavior and gonadal hormones • estrus—a 12–18 hour period of fertility (typical of rats and guinea pigs) o 4-day cycles (in rats and guinea pigs) o follicle begins releasing hormones 2 days before ovulation o surges of estrogen and progesterone initiate estrus o estrus—period of increased receptive, proceptive, and sexually attractive behaviors o ovariectomy eliminates proceptive and receptive behaviors • human females are less affected by ovariectomy • androgens—control human female sexuality • testosterone increases proceptivity in ovariectomized and adrenalectomized rhesus monkeys and human females • sexual motivation in human females correlated with testosterone, but not estradiol, levels • premenstrual syndrome (PMS)—cluster of symptoms few days before period o breast swelling and tenderness, abdominal distension, water retention, fatigue, acne, headache, joint pain o depression, anger, insomnia, food cravings, poor concentration o affects 75% of women Anabolic steroid abuse • anabolic steroids—growth-promoting steroids • illegal in most states • increase body building and muscle strength • used by athletes and body builders • side-effects of anabolic steroids o testicular atrophy and sterility in males o gynecomasty—breast growth in men o amenorrhea—absence of periods in women

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Chapter 11 Hormones and Sex

•

o hirsutism—excessive hair growth in women o growth of the clitoris in women o some side effects are irreversible behavioral effects of anabolic steroids—possible effects on copulatory behavior

11.5 Neural Mechanisms of Sexual Behavior (Use transparency TSP76 or digital images 13.1013.12.)

Structural differences between the male hypothalamus and the female hypothalamus • sexually dimorphic nucleus—discovered in the medial preoptic area of rats • the sexually dimorphic nucleus starts the same in males and females o first few days after birth, area grows rapidly in males o growth triggered by estradiol, aromatized from testosterone o growth complete by 4 days after birth (castration no longer has effect) o size of the sexually dimorphic nucleus correlated with the rat’s testosterone levels and sexual behavior o lesions to the sexually dimorphic nucleus in adult rats—only slight effects • dimorphic nuclei in the human hypothalamus The hypothalamus and male sexual behavior • bilateral medial preoptic area lesions o abolish male behaviors (mounting) in both sexes o electrical stimulation or implants of testosterone into the medial preoptic area—induces copulatory behaviors • medial preoptic area appears to underlie sexual motivation • lateral tegmental field receives projections from the medial preoptic area and mediates copulatory behavior in rats • neuropharmacological approaches—dopamine and endogenous opioids increase in the medial preoptic area before and during copulation • copulation reduces androgen receptors in medial preoptic area The hypothalamus and female sexual behavior • ventromedial nucleus (VMN)—critical for female sexual behavior o estradiol primes VMN by increasing progesterone receptors o estradiol and progesterone injected into the VMN induces estrus in ovariectomized rats o periaqueductal gray (PAG) involved

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel 11.6 Sexual Orientation, Hormones, and the Brain Sexual orientation and genes • male homosexuals—52% of monozygotic twins also homosexual; 22% of dizygotic twins also homosexual • female homosexuals—48% of monozygotic twins also homosexual; 16% of dizygotic twins also homosexual Sexual orientation and early hormones • homosexuality not based on hormonal differences • orchidectomy reduces homosexual behavior; similar to reduction of heterosexual behavior • sexual preference is NOT a choice • sexual preference determined early • early testosterone treatment of female animals—induces same-sex preferences • caution when applying to humans—strong cognitive and emotional components • exposure to diethylstilbestrol (a synthetic estrogen) increased attraction to other females What triggers the development of sexual attraction?

• first feelings of sexual attraction at approximately age 10 • may be governed by adrenal cortex steroids • may be a difference between the brains of homosexuals and heterosexuals Transsexualism • surgical sexual reassignment—surgery to change sex • male-to-female change—good results are obtained • independence of sexual orientation and sexual identity • sexual attraction, sexual identity, and body type unrelated Exercise 11.3 Evaluate Goals Because of biopsychology research, among other factors, we enjoy increased awareness that not everyone fits the traditional sexual role. With increased awareness comes increased responsibility. Ask students if they would be more accepting of non-traditional sexual orientations in others or in themselves after learning more about the underlying biopsychology. Ask students if they see the stark distinction between male behavior and female behavior differently after learning more about how genes, environment, and gonadal hormones affect sexual behavior.

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Chapter 11 Hormones and Sex KEY TERMS (page numbers in Pinel text) ablatio penis (p. 350) adrenal cortex (p. 335) adrenogenital system (p. 349) adrenocorticotropic hormone (p. 345) amino acid derivative hormones (p. 335) anabolic steroids (p. 354) androgenic insensitivity syndrome (p. 348) androgens (p. 335) androstenedione (p. 346) anterior pituitary (p. 336) aromatization (p. 343) bisexual (p. 359) copulation (p. 334) defeminizes (p. 344) demasculinizes (p. 345) ejaculation (p. 345) endocrine glands (p. 334) estradiol (p. 335) estrogens (p. 335) estrous cycle (p. 354) estrus (p. 354) exocrine glands (p. 333) feminizes (p. 345) follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) (p. 339) genitals (p. 342) gonadectomy (p. 341) gonadotropin-releasing hormone (p. 339) gonadotropin (p. 336) gonads (p. 334) growth hormone (p. 345) H-Y antigen (p. 341) heterosexual (p. 359) homosexual (p. 359) hormones (p. 334) hypothalamic pituitary portal system (p. 337) impotent (p. 352)

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intromission (p. 345) lordosis (p. 345) luteinizing hormone (LH) (p. 339) masculinizes (p. 344) medial preoptic area (p. 357) menstrual cycle (p. 336) Müllerian-inhibiting substance (p. 341) Müllerian system (p. 341) orchidectomy (p. 341) ovariectomy (p. 341) ovaries (p. 334) oxytocin (p. 337) paraventricular nuclei (p. 337) peptide hormones (p. 335) pituitary stalk (p. 336) posterior pituitary (p. 336) proceptive behaviors (p. 345) progesterone (p. 335) progestins (p. 335) protein hormones (p. 335) pulsatile hormone release (p. 339) releasing hormones (p. 338) replacement injections (p. 352) scrotum (p. 341) secondary sex characteristics (p. 345) sex chromosomes (p. 334) sexually dimorphic nucleus (p. 357) steroid hormones (p. 335) supraoptic nuclei (p. 337) testes (p. 334) testosterone (p. 335) thyrotropin (p. 338) thyrotropin-releasing hormone (p. 338) transsexualism (p. 360) vasopressin (p. 337) ventromedial nucleus (VMN) (p. 358) Wolffian system (p. 341) zygote (p. 334)

Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel ADDITIONAL READINGS AND MEDIA RESOURCES BOOKS Brain Gender by Melissa Hines (2005) Oxford University Press.

Neuroendocrinology: An Integrative Approach by David Lovejoy (2005) John Wiley and Sons. (A high-level overview of the field.)

MOVIES Men, Women, and the Brain (1998) (DVD, VHS; 57 minutes) Films for the Humanities and Sciences.

Endocrine, Reproductive, and Lymphatic Systems—Interactive CD-ROM (2004) A Cambridge Educational Production.

Behavioral and Biological Differences (DVD, VHS; 26 minutes) Films for the Humanities and Sciences. (Uses an African village to demonstrate cultural differences between the sexes for work roles and dress, in comparison to the strictly biological divisions in other animals.)

Understanding Sex (1994) (DVD, VHS; 51 minutes) A Disney Channel Production. (Topics include hormonal cascades, the evolution of sexual reproduction, the vital role of attraction, genetic engineering, homosexuality, and sexual orientation.)

WEBSITES The National Library of Medicine (PubMed): http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ Scirus: http://www.scirus.com/ Wikipedia on Sexual Dimorphism: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism Behavioral Neuroendocrinology Society: http://www.sbne.org/ Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome Support Group: http://www.medhelp.org/www/ais/ Gender and Sex Hormones Affects the Brain’s Pain Response and More, According to New Studies posted by the Society for Neuroscience at: http://apu.sfn.org/content/AboutSFN1/NewsReleases/am2004_gender.html Sex Differences and the Brain from the Science Daily webnews site, review recent work looking at functional correlates of sex differences and cognitive function: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/01/050121100142.htm Gender and Brain, a biography of Doreen Kimura, highlighting her work on sex differences in brain function: http://www.science.ca/scientists/scientistprofile.php?pID=10; http://www.sfu.ca/~dkimura/articles/NEL.htm Gender Testing of Female Athletes presented by the Howard Hughes Medical Institute and available at: http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/gender/index.html

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CHAPTER 12

Sleep, Dreaming, and Circadian Rhythms How Much Do You Need to Sleep?

Detailed Outline Introduction 12.1 Physiological and Behavioral Events of Sleep 12.2 REM Sleep and Dreaming

Chapter At-A-Glance Instructor’s Print Resources Supplements Lecture Instructor’s Launcher 1 Manual for Understand- Basics of ing Sleep Biopsychology Chapter 12 Exercise 12.1 The Sleep Quiz

12.3 Why Do We Sleep, and Why Do We Sleep When We Do? 12.4 Comparative Analysis of Sleep

Lecture Launcher 2 Sleep Across Species

12.5 Circadian Sleep Cycles 12.6 Effects of Sleep Deprivation 12.7 Four Areas of the Brain Involved in Sleep 12.8 The Circadian Clock: Neural and Molecular Mechanisms 12.9 Drugs That Affect Sleep

Exercise 12.2 Circadian Clock Mechanisms

Practice Tests for Chapter 12 Test Bank for Basics of Biopsychology Chapter 12

Hard Copy for Chapter 12 Electronic Flashcards for Chapter 12

Transparencies for Physiological Psychology, Chapter 9, TSP77-TSP82, see Table of Contents, p. xv

Digital Media Archive Log (DMA), 14.114.11, see Table of Contents, p. xxii PowerPoint Presentation

Exercise 12.3 Evaluate Goals

12.10 Sleep Disorders 12.11 The Effects of LongTerm Sleep Reduction

Media Supplements Beyond the Brain and Behavior CD for Basics of Biopsychology

Key Terms

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Grade Aid for Basics of Biopsychology Chapter 12

Instructor’s Manual Additional Readings and Media Resources

Professor Notes

Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel CHAPTER 12 OVERVIEW Chapter 12 starts by giving some interesting facts and examples. While getting enough sleep is important, that amount varies for different people and we can adjust to less sleep if necessary. “The case of the women who wouldn’t sleep” describes a woman reporting 1 hour of sleep nightly, yet functioning perfectly.

In the section “Physiological and Behavioral Events of Sleep,” Pinel outlines the basic methodology used in sleep research and then goes on to describe different stages of sleep: initial stage 1, stage 2, stage 3, stage 4, and, lastly, emergent stage 1, which is also called rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. Each stage of sleep corresponds with different brain wave frequencies, the presence or absence or muscle tone, and the presence or absence of eye movements.

Next, “REM Sleep and Dreaming” details misconceptions about dreams and presents the most recent theories on why we dream. It appears that random firing of neurons during REM sleep is synthesized into dreams. This is the basis of the activation-synthesis theory. The activationsynthesis theory challenged the Freudian notion that dreams have deep meanings.

The section “Why Do We Sleep, and Why Do We Sleep When We Do?” offers recuperation and circadian theories. A popular idea is that sleep restores energy levels. The reason most people sleep once a day is due to endogenous circadian rhythms.

“Comparative Analysis of Sleep” reveals the great diversity among different animals exhibiting markedly different sleep patterns. These differences challenge most sleep theories, suggesting no single reason given for sleep explains all known sleeping behavior.

“Circadian Sleep Cycles” gives examples of how shift workers and those experiencing jetlag can have their endogenous clocks shifted. And “Effects of Sleep Deprivation” evaluates studies done on human and animal subjects showing sleep rebound follows deprivation and that REM and non-REM sleep rebound separately.

“Four Areas of the Brain Involved in Sleep” discusses two areas of the hypothalamus, the reticular activating system, and the reticular REM-sleep nuclei. These areas interact to control sleep, wakefulness, and dreaming. Next, “The Circadian Clock: Neural and Molecular Mechanisms” describes the suprachiasmatic nuclei and the pineal gland as endogenous sites mediating circadian rhythms.

“Drugs That Affect Sleep” discusses hypnotic and antihypnotic drugs, as well as, melatonin, which may be a soporific compound in those who are deficient. The section titled “Sleep Disorders,” covers insomnia and hypersomnia. Insomniacs have trouble sleeping and narcoleptics (those suffering from a type of hypersomnia) have sleep attacks under inappropriate circumstances. The last section, “The Effects of Long-Term Sleep Reduction” presents new research suggesting people may function optimally with 6–7 hours of sleep, in contrast to the old rule of “8–9 hours of sleep being best.”

LEARNING OBJECTIVES OF CHAPTER 12 • • • • •

To give students a working knowledge of human sleep and wakefulness.

To teach about REM sleep and dreaming.

To teach students how biopsychologists study these problems.

To teach students how to assess the basic research literature concerning the circadian clock.

To assess how sleep is relevant to their lives.

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Chapter 12 Sleep, Dreaming, and Circadian Rhythms CHAPTER 12: LECTURE OUTLINE (key terms in boldface) LECTURE LAUNCHER 1: Understanding Sleep Start your lecture on sleep with a film, such as the Discovery Channel Production titled Understanding Sleep (2000, DVD, VHS, 51 minutes). This particular film covers circadian clocks, circadian rhythms, dreams, insomnia, and the effects of caffeine and sleeping pills. Another possible film to start with is Sleep: Dream Voyage (DVD, VHS, 26 minutes), which explains the EEG record during sleep. Any number of comprehensive films on the basics of sleep will give students direct exposure to sleep research. Look into films available to you.

Introduction Basic facts about sleep • most of us sleep over 175,000 hours in a lifetime • not clear how much sleep we need The case of the woman who wouldn’t sleep • sleeps about 1 hour per night • wakes refreshed 12.1 Physiological and Behavioral Events of Sleep (Use transparencies TSP77-TSP78 or digital images 14.1-14.2; see Tables of Contents for complete media listings.)

Three standard psychophysiological measures of sleep • sleep—mainly high-voltage, slow waves • rapid eye movements (REMs)—low voltage and fast activity • electroencephalogram (EEG)—measure of brain waves • electrooculogram (EOG)—measure of activity of muscles controlling eye movements • electromyogram (EMG)—measure of skeletal muscle activity • subjects sleep in laboratory; need several nights to acclimate Four stages of sleep EEG • alpha waves (8–12 Hz EEG activity)—occur during relaxation • stage 1 sleep—sudden transition to slower activity • stage 2 sleep—higher amplitude, lower frequency than stage 1 activity; K complexes (large negative waves or upward deflection) and sleep spindles (downward deflection) • stage 3—presence of some delta waves (1–2 Hz) • stage 4—predominance of delta waves • sleep cycle: initial stage 1 EEG stage 2  stage 3  stage 4  stage 3  stage 2  emergent stage 1 EEG (corresponds with REM sleep) • repeat cycle several times; each cycle around 90 minutes • REM sleep associated with rapid eye movements, loss of core-muscle tone, lowamplitude high-frequency EEG • REM periods increase in length as the night progresses • non-REM sleep—slow wave sleep (SWS), so-named because of delta waves

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel 12.2 REM Sleep and Dreaming Kleitman discovered REM sleep is highly correlated with dreaming Testing common beliefs about dreaming • external stimuli become incorporated into dreams some of the time • dreams run on real time, not instantaneous • everyone dreams; not all dreams are remembered • penile erections during REM not correlated with sexual dream content • sleeptalking and somnambulism (sleepwalking) occurs mostly during stage 4, not during REM Interpretation of dreams • Sigmund Freud—manifest (symbolic) and latent (hidden) content of dreams; no convincing evidence for Freud’s hypothesis • activation-synthesis theory (Hobson)—brain-stem circuits activate cortex randomly; cortex makes sense out of those signals 12.3 Why Do We Sleep, and Why Do We Sleep When We Do? Recuperation theories of sleep • being awake disrupts homeostasis (internal physiological stability) • sleep restores energy levels Circadian theories of sleep • internal timing mechanism responsible for sleep • biological clock Exercise 12.1 Instructions Instruct students to candidly fill out The Sleep Quiz. Tell them it will not be collected and no one will see their answers. The quiz takes only a few minutes to fill out and you can discuss the results right away in class. Compare responses with simple show of hands. Students who want to further analyze their sleep for average sleep time, sleep problems, and factors such as caffeine intake, can access a simple, easy-to-complete sleep log at: http://www.talkaboutsleep.com/sleepdisorders/archives/sleeplog.pdf. Ask students to remember their responses until the end of this chapter.

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Chapter 12 Sleep, Dreaming, and Circadian Rhythms Name: ________________________ Exercise 12.1 The Sleep Quiz Candidly answer the questions about your sleep habits. This quiz will not be collected and no one will see your answers.

If you want to further analyze your sleep habits for average sleep time, sleep problems, and factors such as caffeine intake, you can access a simple, easy-to-complete sleep log at: http://www.talkaboutsleep.com/sleep-disorders/archives/sleeplog.pdf.

Keep this sheet and other records you make until finishing the chapter on sleep.

Give approximate answers to the following: How many hours do you sleep per night during the week?

How many hours per night do you sleep on the weekend?

What time to you usually go to bed during the week?

What time do you usually wake up during the week?

What time do you usually go to bed on the weekend?

What time do you usually wake up on the weekend?

Do you remember your dreams?

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel LECTURE LAUNCHER 2: Sleep Across Species Every species is unique when it comes to sleep. To convey to your class the tremendous variation in sleep and wakefulness cycles across the animal kingdom, examine this cross-species sleep chart, provided by Dr. Eric Chudler’s Neuroscience for Kids site at: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/chasleep.html (Note that the brain of the dolphin sleeps one hemisphere at a time.)

12.4 Comparative Analysis of Sleep Individual species of mammals and birds sleep: • different number of hours per day • different times of day • according to their vulnerability to predators 12.5 Circadian Sleep Cycles (Use digital images 14.3-14.4.)

Circadian rhythms (activities at regular daily intervals; literally “about a day”) • sleep, eating, and activity • triggered or regulated by environmental cues called zeitgebers (time givers) • light–dark cycle is a zeitgeber—entrains the 24-hour cycle Free-running circadian sleep-wake cycles • free-running rhythms—occur in constant environments • free-running periods—vary in length Jet lag and shift work • east-bound flights (phase advances) • west-bound flights (phase delays) • shiftworkers have to deal with zeitgebers out of phase with their schedules • many shiftworkers (e.g., pilots, emergency personnel, and long-distance truck drivers) could be impaired on the job • remedies—gradually shift sleep-wake cycle before a long trip; use intense light to reset biological clock; rely on phase delays and avoid phase advances 12.6 Effects of Sleep Deprivation Sleep (Use digital image 14.5.)

Personal experience of sleep deprivation: a cautionary note • most people feel crabby the day after missed sleep • much of this perceived effect can be attributed to stress • people are poor judges of their own deficits Two classic sleep deprivation case studies • The case of sleep-deprived students o students could perform usual tasks the next day o became increasingly sleepy when sitting quietly as sleep deprivation continued

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Chapter 12 Sleep, Dreaming, and Circadian Rhythms •

The case of Randy Gardner o stayed awake 264 hours and 12 minutes o next night slept 14 hours, and after that, 8 hours

Experimental studies of sleep deprivation in humans • sleep deprivation affects selective measures of: o sleepiness (consistently increased) o mood (consistently disturbed) o vigilance (consistently impaired) o exceptions: inconsistent effects on cognition, motor performance, and physiological function • microsleeps (brief periods of sleep)—occur after 2–3 days of sleep deprivation Sleep-deprivation studies in laboratory animals • carousel apparatus—produces sleep deprivation with a yoked control condition; an EEG indicating sleep causes underlying disk to rotate pushing sleeping rat into water; yoked control rat who is not asleep can easily avoid this • experimental rats die after several days; yoked controls remained healthy • cannot rule out extreme stress as a factor (consistent with symptoms, such as swollen adrenal glands, gastric ulcers, and internal bleeding) REM sleep deprivation • human subjects woken up every time they go into REM sleep • REM-sleep deprivation: o increases tendency to initiate REM o produces a REM rebound • REM and non-REM sleep regulated separately • REM sleep theories o REM is necessary for mental health o REM is necessary for motivation o REM is necessary for processing memory • all of these theories still unproven • tricyclic antidepressant drugs—selectively block REM, yet are not debilitating • REM frequency increases right before and right after birth • default theory of REM sleep—suggests REM helps us keep from waking every 90 minutes; REM substitutes for periods of waking Sleep deprivation increases the efficiency of sleep • stage 3 and stage 4 sleep increase after sleep deprivation o subjects do not make up all lost sleep, but do make up most of lost stage 4 sleep o slow waves increase in stage 4 sleep after sleep deprivation o short sleepers get as much slow-wave sleep as do long sleepers o morning naps have few slow waves o subjects who reduce sleep time reduce stages 1 and 2 • sleep deprivation research needs to take this phenomenon into account

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel 12.7 Four Areas of the Brain Involved in Sleep (Use transparency TSP80 or digital images 14.614.8.)

Two areas of the hypothalamus involved in sleep • The case of Constantin von Economo, the insightful neurologist o von Economo hypothesized two sleep areas: posterior hypothalamus promoting wakefulness and preoptic area promoting sleep o damage to posterior hypothalamus correlated with excessive sleep o patients with difficulty sleeping had damage in the anterior hypothalamus and basal forebrain (preoptic area) Reticular activating system and sleep • Bremer (1936) cut cat’s brainstem at the level between the superior and inferior colliculi (cerveau isolé preparation)—cat continuously slept • only very strong visual or olfactory stimuli still produced a desynchronized EEG (activated EEG) • transection in the caudal brain stem—encéphale isolé preparation—produced normal cycle of sleep and wakefulness • concluded that wakefulness structure must be between the two cuts • reticular activating system responsible for wakefulness based on: o Bremer’s cuts o effects of reticular formation lesions o effects of reticular formation stimulation Reticular REM-sleep nuclei • caudal part of the reticular formation o site for reducing core-muscle tone o site for EEG desynchronization o site for rapid eye movements • REM sleep, slow-wave sleep, and wakefulness not each controlled by a single mechanism • interactions between several mechanisms responsible Exercise 12.2 Instructions Direct students to use the Internet to locate articles on circadian clock mechanisms. Explain how to find the conclusion of the report in the abstract.

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Chapter 12 Sleep, Dreaming, and Circadian Rhythms Name: ________________________ Exercise 12.2 Circadian Clock Mechanisms How to get started: PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ links you to the National Library of Medicine and provides a comprehensive listing of journal articles. Scirus at: http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/ is a search engine specializing in scientific articles. You can type key words into these or any search engine. Remember that more key words will bring up fewer articles, but they will more closely match your search. If you have too few articles retrieved, decrease the number of search terms.

Directions: Find articles on circadian rhythms, the suprachiasmatic nucleus, and the pineal gland.

List the reference (authors, year, journal, volume, and pages) in the first column and the main result in the second column. (Read abstract for main result.) Locate one article for each topic.

One article reference for each topic Circadian rhythms

Main result

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

Pineal gland

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel 12.8 The Circadian Clock: Neural and Molecular Mechanisms (Use transparency TSP82 or digital image 14.9.)

Location of the circadian clock: the suprachiasmatic nuclei • circadian clock—internal clocking mechanism • suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN)—located in the medial hypothalamus; lesion of SCN disrupts circadian cycles • transplanted SCN from mutant hamsters with 20-hour circadian clocks (abnormally short) into hamsters with normal circadian clocks and SCN lesions—recipients of transplants underwent changes of their clocks to 20-hour cycles • more biological clocks, in addition to the SCN Mechanisms of entrainment • light will entrain (reset) circadian cycle • cuts to the optic chiasm abolishes entrainment by light • retinohypothalamic pathway responsible • neither rods nor cones involved; a subtype of retinal ganglion cell responsible Genetics of circadian rhythms • tau—gene responsible for the 20-hour cycles in mutant hamsters • gene found in cells throughout the body 12.9 Drugs That Affect Sleep (Use digital image 14.10.)

Hypnotic drugs (increase sleep) • benzodiazepines (e.g., Valium and Librium) • decrease anxiety and produce drowsiness • decrease time to sleep; reduce number of awakenings; increase total sleep time • effective in the short-term; cause chronic sleep difficulties • because of tolerance, prolonged use requires increased dose; can produce insomnia (sleeplessness) • benzodiazepines—addictive; distort normal sleep pattern; increase duration of stage 2 sleep; and decrease duration of stage 4 and REM sleep Antihypnotic drugs (decrease sleep) • stimulants (e.g., cocaine, amphetamine) • tricyclic antidepressants • stimulants increase catecholamines (norepinephrine, epinephrine, and dopamine) by increasing release or blocking reuptake into terminal • antihypnotic drugs act preferentially on REM sleep • side effects include loss of appetite, disruption of sleep

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Chapter 12 Sleep, Dreaming, and Circadian Rhythms Melatonin • synthesized in the pineal gland (Descartes’ “seat of the soul”) • regulates circadian rhythms and seasonal changes in birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish • melatonin release controlled by the SCN in humans and other mammals • may play a role in promoting sleep • plays a role in sexual development • debate whether exogenous melatonin is soporific (sleep-promoting) • melatonin promotes sleep best in those who are deficient in melatonin or in blind people 12.10 Sleep Disorders Insomnia • disorders of initiating and maintaining sleep • iatrogenic insomnia (physician-induced insomnia) can be caused by prescription sleeping pills • Mr. B., the case of iatrogenic insomnia o prescribed barbiturate drug for sleeping o drug worked for a short time o Mr. B. developed tolerance, requiring him to increase dose o kept increasing dose without relieving disrupted sleep pattern • sleep apnea—patient stops breathing several times per night, leads to waking o can be diagnosed as insomnia or hypersomnia (because of sleepiness the next day) o caused by obstruction of air passages by spasms or atonia or failure of the nervous system o prevalent in older, obese males • nocturnal myoclonus—periodic twitching, especially of the legs; disrupts sleep, causes sleepiness • restless legs—hard-to-describe-tension in legs that interferes with sleep • benzodiazepines prescribed for nocturnal myoclonus and restless legs, but not very effective • insomniacs claim to take 1 hour to fall asleep, but not verified in laboratory • insomnia—too little undisturbed sleep, not too little sleep • sleep restriction therapy—decrease time in bed in order to decrease latency to fall asleep Hypersomnia • disorders of excessive sleep • narcolepsy—severe daytime sleepiness and repeated 10–15 minute daytime sleep episodes o narcoleptics fall asleep in inappropriate situations—situations in which arousal should be high o cataplexy—a symptom of narcolepsy involving recurring loss of muscle tone o sleep paralysis—a symptom of narcolepsy involving an inability to move when waking up or falling asleep

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel o o o

hypnagogic hallucinations—dreamlike experiences during wakefulness narcoleptics often go directly into REM when falling asleep narcoleptic dogs—abnormal gene the encodes for a receptor that binds orexin (orexin-A and orexin-B), orexin-producing neurons found in the posterior hypothalamus

REM-sleep-related disorders • The case of the sleeper who ran over tackle • REM sleep without core-muscle atonia—caused by damage to the nucleus magnocellularis in the caudal reticular formation 12.11 The Effects of Long-Term Sleep Reduction (Use digital image 14.11.)

Long-term reduction of nightly sleep • subjects systematically reduced sleep to 5.5 hours, then 5.0 hours, and finally to 4.5 hours per night • no deficits on mood, medical, or performance tests • continued to sleep less 1 year later Long-term sleep reduction by napping • polyphasic sleep cycles—regularly sleeping more than once per day (most mammals and human infants) • monophasic sleep cycles—sleeping once per day (most adult humans) • polyphasic sleep cycles—highly efficient; legend of Leonardo Da Vinci napping only 15 minutes every 4 hours • humans have to get used to napping • once adapted, humans nap efficiently—avoiding too little or too much sleep (the latter producing a groggy feeling called sleep inertia) Long-term sleep reduction: a personal case study • The case of the author who reduced his sleep o adopted a 5-hours-per-night schedule o gave him an extra 21 hours per week o few symptoms, except sleepiness at night • conclusion: sleeping 5–7 (or even fewer) hours per night appears to be healthier than sleeping 8–9 hours per night

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Chapter 12 Sleep, Dreaming, and Circadian Rhythms Exercise 12.3 Evaluate Goals Start by asking students if they now have a deeper understanding of their sleep cycles.

Then ask them to look at their copies of The Sleep Quiz and any other records they made. Have any of them changed the way they sleep?

KEY TERMS (page numbers in Pinel text) activation-synthesis theory (p. 372) alpha waves (p. 369) antihypnotic drugs (p. 389) benzodiazepines (p. 389) carousel apparatus (p. 379) cataplexy (p. 393) cerveau isolé preparation (p. 384) circadian clock (p. 387) circadian rhythms (p. 374) circadian theories of sleep (p. 372) delta waves (p. 369) desynchronized EEG (p. 384) electroencephalogram (EEG) (p. 368) electromyogram (EMG) (p. 368) electrooculogram (EOG) (p. 368) emergent stage 1 EEG (p. 369) encéphale isolé preparation (p. 385) free-running period (p. 375) free-running rhythms (p. 375) hypersomnia (p. 391) hypnagogic hallucinations (p. 393) hypnotic drugs (p. 389) iatrogenic (p. 392)

initial stage 1 EEG (p. 369) insomnia (p. 391) jet lag (p. 375) melatonin (p. 389) microsleeps (p. 379) monophasic sleep cycles (p. 396) narcolepsy (p. 393) nocturnal myoclonus (p. 392) nucleus magnocellularis (p. 394) orexin (p. 393) pineal gland (p. 390) polyphasic sleep cycles (p. 396) recuperation theories of sleep (p. 372) REM sleep (p. 370) restless legs (p. 392) reticular activating system (p. 386) sleep apnea (p. 392) sleep paralysis (p. 393) slow-wave sleep (p. 370) somnambulism (p. 371) suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) (p. 387) tricyclic antidepressant drugs (p. 381) zeitgebers (p. 374)

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel ADDITIONAL READINGS AND MEDIA RESOURCES BOOKS The Promise of Sleep by William C. Dement (2000) Dell.

Say Good Night to Insomnia: The Six-Week, Drug-Free Program Developed at Harvard Medical School by Greg Jacobs (1999) Henry Holt & Co. MOVIES Understanding Sleep (2000) (DVD, VHS, 51 minutes) A Discovery Channel Production. (An overview of circadian clocks, circadian rhythms, dreams, and insomnia.)

Sleep: Dream Voyage (DVD, VHS, 26 minutes) Films for the Humanities and Sciences. (Explains the EEG record during sleep.)

WEBSITES The National Library of Medicine (PubMed): http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ Scirus: http://www.scirus.com/ Wikipedia on Circadian Rhythm: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circadian_rhythm The National Sleep Foundation: http://www.sleepfoundation.org/ American Sleep Apnea Association: http://www.sleepapnea.org/ A webpage about Sleep Paralysis: http://watarts.uwaterloo.ca/~acheyne/S_P.html The SleepChannel website: http://www.sleepdisorderchannel.net/ How much do animals sleep? Dr. Eric Chudler’s Neuroscience for Kids site at: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/chasleep.html Biorhythms, a site maintained by the Society for Research on Biological Rhythms: http://www.srbr.org/ Biological and Circadian Rhythms from the Brain and Mind site, an overview of the neural structures involved in establishing circadian rhythms: http://www.epub.org.br/cm/n04/mente/cloks_i.htm Sleep Disorders from The National Center on Sleep Disorders Research, the National Institutes of Health at: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/about/ncsdr/index.htm The Role of Sleep in Health and Cognition, Sleep Apnea, and more from American Sleep Association Video Lectures: http://www.americansleepassociation.org/videos.htm The opinions and commentary of Dr. Daniel Dement, a pioneer in sleep research, part of the Sleep Well website: http://www.sleepquest.com/index.html

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CHAPTER 13

Health Psychology: Addiction, Emotion, and Stress Impact of Psychological Factors on Health Detailed Outline Introduction

13.1 Principles of Drug Addiction

13.2 Effects on Health of Five Commonly Abused Drugs

13.3 Addiction and the Neural Mechanisms of Motivation

13.4 Introduction to the Biopsychology of Emotion

Chapter At-A-Glance Instructor’s Print Resources Supplements Lecture Instructor’s Launcher 1 Manual for Drug Use in Basics of America Biopsychology Chapter 13 Exercise 13.1 Anticipated DrugTest Bank for Related Basics of Behavior at Biopsychology Age 40 Chapter 13 Lecture Launcher 2 The Case of Phineas Gage

13.5 Stress and Health

Exercise 13.2 Research on Psychoneuroimmunology

13.6 Brain Mechanisms of Emotion

Lecture Launcher 3 Show Some Emotion Exercise 13.3 Evaluate Goals Key Terms

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Transparencies for Physiological Psychology, Chapter 10, TSP83-TSP87 and Chapter 13, TSP98TSP101, see Table of Contents, pp. xvi

Media Supplements Beyond the Brain and Behavior CD for Basics of Biopsychology: Practice Tests for Chapter 13 Hard Copy for Chapter 13 Electronic Flashcards for Chapter 13 Digital Media Archive Log (DMA), 15.115.9 and 17.117.7, see Table of Contents, p. xxiixxiii PowerPoint Presentation

Grade Aid for Basics of Biopsychology Chapter 13

Instructor’s Manual Additional Readings and Media Resources

Professor Notes

Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel CHAPTER 13 OVERVIEW Pinel begins Chapter 13 by introducing a new discipline called health psychology. This new discipline melds behavioral neuroscience, clinical psychology, social psychology, and medicine. Drug addiction is a part of health psychology. Alcohol and tobacco are addictive drugs that impose serious health risks. Pinel stresses that a drug’s legal status does not mean it is safe in “The ironic case of the drugged high school teachers.”

The first section, “Principles of Drug Addiction,” covers drug tolerance, withdrawal, physical dependence, and drug conditioning. Addiction is difficult to define because every addictive drug has some features that might serve as essential criteria, but not others. Biological theories of addiction try to identify the reason why some drugs are addictive. A recent idea is that addiction occurs to the anticipation of the drug, not the drug effect itself.

“Effects on Health of Five Commonly Abused Drugs” details health effects of alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, stimulants, and the opiates. Pinel charts the legal history of many drugs, demonstrating that legality has more to do with sociopolitical factors than the dangerousness of the drug. Due to their widespread use, alcohol and tobacco have the highest death rates associated with their use. (Deaths due to illicit drugs, while much lower, would be expected to increase if usage increased.)

“Addiction and the Neural Mechanisms of Motivation” explains how addiction may depend on environmental cues. The drug self-administration paradigm and the conditioned placepreference paradigm are experimental set-ups used to study addictive behaviors in laboratory rats.

Rats in these experiments show that environmental cues, as well as the transmitter dopamine, are critical to addictive behaviors. Dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area are particularly involved in reward.

“Introduction to the Biopsychology of Emotion” starts with the story of Phineas Gage, a railroad worker who had his frontal lobe damaged by a tamping iron resulting in severe damage to his personality and emotional side. Early ideas on emotion, such as Darwin’s theory of emotion, the James-Lange theory, and the Cannon-Bard theory are covered. The limbic system is detailed, as this system is known to be involved in emotion. Sham rage and the Kluver-Bucy syndrome are given as examples demonstrating specific emotional circuits in the hypothalamus and amygdala play strong roles in emotion.

Next, “Stress and Health” outlines the stress response, the immune system, how stress affects susceptibility to disease, and the relationship between stress and the hippocampus. The field called psychoneuroimmunology focuses upon the interface between stress and the immune system.

Lastly, “Brain Mechanisms of Emotion” covers fear conditioning and the role of the amygdala in emotion.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES OF CHAPTER 13 • • • • •

To give students a working knowledge of health psychology.

To teach about drugs and addiction.

To teach students how biopsychologists study these problems.

To teach students how to assess the basic research literature concerning stress and disease (i.e., psychoneuroimmunology).

To assess how stress, emotion, and drug use are relevant to their lives.

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Chapter 13 Health Psychology CHAPTER 13: LECTURE OUTLINE (key terms in boldface) LECTURE LAUNCHER 1: Drug Use in America You can spend a few minutes at the start of this lecture to describe patterns of drug use and abuse in the U.S. A good source for data and figures can be found at the website supported by the Office of Applied Studies of SAMSHA (the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration) at: http://www.drugabusestatistics.samhsa.gov/oasftp.cfm#Data. They have data for both legal (alcohol, nicotine) and illegal drug use; the last survey was done in 2004, with some of their comparisons going as far back as the 1960s.

Introduction Health psychology • behavioral neuroscience • clinical psychology • social psychology • medicine The ironic case of the drugged high school teachers • cigarettes and alcohol are drugs • a drug’s safety not necessarily determined by its legal status 13.1 Principles of Drug Addiction (Use transparency TSP98 or digital images 15.1-15.5; see Tables of Contents for complete media listings.)

Drug tolerance • state of decreased sensitivity to a drug • shift in the dose-response curve • cross tolerance—one drug produces a tolerance to a second drug acting by the same mechanism • drug sensitization—increased effects with prolonged use of the drug • metabolic tolerance—reduced amount of drug getting to site of action • functional tolerance—reduced reactivity at the site of action • functional tolerance typifies psychoactive drugs (drugs with central effects) Drug withdrawal effects and physical dependence • withdrawal syndrome—adverse reactions upon stopping a drug • physically dependent—individuals who suffer withdrawal symptoms if they discontinue a drug they are taking Drug tolerance and conditioning • tolerance to psychoactive drugs—product of Pavlovian conditioning • situational specificity of drug tolerance • conditioned compensatory responses—stimuli that predict drug administration produce greater compensatory responses (opposite to that of the drug) countering the drug’s effect

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel Addiction: what is it?

• addicts—habitual users that continue drug use despite adverse effects and efforts to quit • The case of Sigmund Freud o started taking cocaine o wrote about cocaine in glowing terms o stopped cocaine use, without any difficulty, when its addictive nature became known o years later Freud had extreme difficulties quitting cigar smoking despite a heart arrhythmia and cancer Biological theories of addiction • physical-dependence theories of addiction—idea that the withdrawal symptoms were responsible for addiction • detoxified addicts—addicts having gone completely through withdrawal o detoxification often fails to cure addiction o evidence against physical-dependence theories • amphetamine and cocaine—addictive, yet NO withdrawal symptoms • addicts often alternate between binging and detoxification • positive-incentive theories of addiction—anticipated pleasure of drug • incentive-sensitization theory—addiction develops not for the drug effect, but for the feeling of “wanting the drug” Causes of relapse • stress contributes to relapse • priming—a single exposure to the drug; facilitates relapse • environmental cues—contribute to relapse 13.2 Effects on Health of Five Commonly Abused Drugs (Use transparency TSP101 or digital image 15.6.)

Tobacco • nicotine—psychoactive ingredient of tobacco • 4,000 additional chemicals in tobacco • tobacco responsible for 3 million deaths per year worldwide • tobacco is addictive • withdrawal symptoms of tobacco—depression, anxiety, restlessness, constipation, and difficulties sleeping • 70% of people who try tobacco become addicted (more than for alcohol or heroin) • only 20% of attempts to quit are successful at 2 years • nicotine addiction has genetic component • heritability estimate 65% • smoker’s syndrome o chest pain o labored breathing

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o wheezing o coughing o heightened susceptibility to respiratory infections chronic smokers susceptible to: o pneumonia o bronchitis—chronic inflammation of the bronchioles o emphysema—loss of elasticity of lung tissue o lung cancer (among other cancers) o cardiovascular disease—leading to heart attack or stroke o second hand smoke also causes health problems Buerger’s disease—affects smokers o blood vessels constrict upon exposure to nicotine o gangrene develops requiring amputation of leg o smokers continue to smoke after several amputations

Alcohol • 13 million American are heavy users • alcohol-related deaths o birth defects o ill health o accidents o violence • at moderate-to-high doses alcohol is a depressant—it decreases neural firing • at low doses alcohol stimulates neural firing and facilitates social interaction • alcohol addiction heritability estimate is 55% • alcohol levels of 0.5% can result in death from respiratory depression • red facial flush—due to dilation of blood vessels • alcohol is a diuretic—it increases production of urine by the kidneys • tolerance and physical dependence to alcohol • minor alcohol withdrawal symptoms (hangover) o headache o nausea o vomiting o tremulousness • full-blown alcohol withdrawal syndrome o phase 1—severe tremors, agitation, headache, nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, profuse sweating, and sometimes hallucinations o phase 2—convulsive activity; can be lethal • phase 3—delirium tremens (DTs)—disturbing hallucinations, bizarre delusions, agitation, confusion, hyperthermia (high temperature), and tachycardia (rapid heartbeat); can be lethal • chronic alcohol consumption associated with increased risk of: o brain damage o Korsakoff’s syndrome—neuropsychological disorder with memory loss and dementia o cirrhosis (scarring of the liver)—liver damage disrupts thiamine (vitamin B1) metabolism leading to brain damage o heart attack

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irritation of the lining of the digestive track oral and liver cancer, stomach ulcers, pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas), and gastritis (inflammation of the stomach) o automobile accidents o domestic problems fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)—birth defects caused from moderate to high alcohol consumption during pregnancy; symptoms may include: o brain damage o mental retardation o poor coordination, poor muscle tone o low birth weight o retarded growth o physical deformity not clear how much alcohol is safe NO alcohol during pregnancy is best

Marijuana • Cannabis sativa—hemp plant, which is source of marijuana • 2 million Americans used marijuana during the last month • route of ingestion: o joint—a marijuana cigarette o pipe o baked into foods (e.g., brownies) • psychoactive ingredients—THC (delta-9-tetra-hydrocannabinol) and 80 other cannabinoids • hashish—extraction of sticky resins in marijuana plant containing the cannabinoids • history of marijuana traces back 6,000 years to China • plant stems used to make rope and also used as a medicinal • George Washington grew marijuana crops for hemp rope • in the early part of the 20th century, marijuana became popular as a drug among Jazz musicians and Mexican immigrants • marijuana was misrepresented as causing drug-crazed violence • laws passed erroneously classifying marijuana as a narcotic (an opiate) • 1960s: marijuana became popular with the middle and upper classes • difficult to tell if someone is under the influence of marijuana • marijuana may curb aggressive behavior • marijuana not unusually addictive • side-effects rare, but those few include tachycardia • no evidence of brain damage • mixed results on cognitive effects • marijuana has beneficial effects: o decreases nausea related to chemotherapy o decreases severity of glaucoma o reduces some kinds of pain • marijuana used for medicinal purposes—legal in Canada • THC—fat soluble, but not a diffuse membrane effect

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THC (cannabinoid) receptors densest in: o basal ganglia o hippocampus o cerebellum o neocortex anandamide (“internal bliss”)—endogenous cannabinoid may protect brain from excitotoxins

Cocaine and other stimulants • stimulants—drugs that produce increases in neural activity • Coca-Cola used to contain small amounts of cocaine • cocaine (most commonly abused stimulant) o derives from the leaves of the coca bush o coca paste can be eaten o cocaine hydrochloride—extracted white powder (snorted or injected) o crack—residue from boiling cocaine hydrochloride with baking soda; crack can be smoked • cocaine causes a person to: o have a sense of well-being o have increased self-confidence o be alert and energetic o be friendly and outgoing o be fidgety and talkative o have less desire for food and sleep • cocaine sprees—binges of high cocaine intake • cocaine psychosis—psychotic behavior produced by cocaine sprees; can be confused with paranoid schizophrenia • risks during cocaine sprees o loss of consciousness o seizures o respiratory arrest o heart attack o stroke o fatalities most common after injections o withdrawal symptoms—mild: negative mood swing and insomnia • cocaine facilitates catecholamine transmission—blocks reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine into presynaptic neuron • amphetamine (speed)—wide illicit use since the 1960s o d-amphetamine (dextroamphetamine)—potent oral form; similar effects to cocaine o high doses produce amphetamine psychosis o methamphetamine—even more potent (ice or crystal can be smoked) o 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, or ecstasy) • stimulants are neurotoxins for dopaminergic and serotonergic neurons o MDMA causes brain damage o use of stimulants by pregnant women causes low IQ in offspring

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel The opiates: heroin and morphine • opium—sap from the seeds of the opium poppy • psychoactive ingredients of opium: o morphine o codeine (weaker than morphine) • opiates are excellent analgesics (painkillers) • opiates are highly addictive • eating opium popular 4000 B.C. in the Middle East—spread to Africa, Europe, and Asia • opium smoking started in China after tobacco outlawed in 1644 • morphine isolated in 1803 • hypodermic needle invented in 1856; Civil War soldiers became addicted to morphine • opium legal in early 20th century—laudanum (popular mixture of opium and alcohol) • many medicinals contained opium • Harrison Narcotics Act passed in 1914—made opium, morphine, and cocaine illegal in the U.S. • heroin—synthesized by adding two acetyl groups to morphine o more able to cross the blood–brain barrier than morphine o marketed by Bayer Drug Company in 1898 o made illegal by U.S. Congress in 1924 • 130,000 Americans use heroin • heroin rush—wave of intense abdominal, orgasmic pleasure and euphoria • mild physical side-effects (marked indirect risks) • opiate withdrawal symptoms o restlessness, watery eyes, running nose, yawning, and sweating o fitful sleep (lasts several hours) o chills, shivering, profuse sweating, gooseflesh, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, cramps, pains, dilated pupils, tremor, and muscle spasms (so-called “going cold turkey” or “kicking the habit”) o symptoms clear by 7 days • many indirect risks o expense of drugs increases crime o increased risk of AIDS due to prostitution and sharing needles o street drugs can be “stretched” with unsafe additives o death from overdose o made illegal by U.S. Congress in 1924 • opiates bind with endogenous opiate receptors that normally bind endorphins Comparison of the health hazards of tobacco. alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, and heroin • tobacco and alcohol have a far more negative effect because their use is far more prevalent than that of marijuana, cocaine, and heroin

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death rates differ as follows: o tobacco-related deaths per year in the U.S.—450,000 o alcohol-related deaths per year in the U.S.—100,000 o deaths due to all other drugs combined in the U.S.—40,000

13.3 Addiction and the Neural Mechanisms of Motivation (Use transparencies TSP99-TSP100 or digital images 15.7-15.9.)

Two methods of measuring drug-produced reinforcement • drug self-administration paradigm—laboratory rats or primates press lever to receive drug; microinjections directly into brain • animals show signs of addiction to addictive drugs • conditioned place-preference paradigm—rats receive drug in one compartment show preference for that compartment over control compartment Early evidence of the involvement of dopamine in drug addiction • dopamine signals reward • dopamine antagonists block self-administration of addictive drugs The dopamine system • substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area—location of dopamine cell bodies found in the midbrain • substantia nigra projects to the dorsal striatum—called the nigrostriatal pathway • ventral tegmental area neurons project to cortical and limbic sties o called the mesocorticolimbic pathway o projections also to the nucleus accumbens (most frequently implicated in addictive drugs) Evidence linking the dopamine system and the reinforcing effects of drugs • laboratory animals will self-administer addictive drugs into the nucleus accumbens • laboratory animals develop conditioned place preferences to where they have received microinjections of addictive drugs • lesions to the ventral tegmental area or nucleus accumbens block selfadministration and conditioned place preferences • positron emission tomography (PET) links the nucleus accumbens to the effects of addictive drugs in humans • addicts have reduced cerebral dopamine, except when the drug is administered The dopamine system and reward: the current view • food and sex also increase dopamine • anticipation of these rewards also increases dopamine • expectation-of-reward theory o unpredictable rewards increase dopamine o rewards presented in the early stages of conditioning increase dopamine o the reward itself, does not increase dopamine o lesions of nucleus accumbens do NOT cure opiate addicts

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel Exercise 13.1 Instructions Alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drugs are always a consideration among young adults because lifelong patterns are being established. Many surveys ask what drugs have ever been used. This survey is different. It asks questions about the students’ projections. Ask students to consider their behavior at age 40. (Students already 40 or older can add 10 years to this.) Ask them, “What drugs do you expect to be using then?” Ask them how is their current behavior similar or dissimilar to their long-term projections. This exercise takes only minutes to fill out and is intended to initiate a classroom discussion.

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Chapter 13 Health Psychology Name: _________________________ Exercise 13.1 Anticipated Drug-Related Behavior at Age 40 Drug-use patterns often change with age. On average, marijuana use tends to decrease with increasing age. On the other hand, biological factors such as genetically-based susceptibility to addiction means that some behaviors acquired in young adulthood (or earlier) will lead to exaggerated behaviors later in life, and, in some cases, problems. Alcohol addiction is one such example, where drinking at a young age is correlated with higher rates of alcoholism later in life.

This exercise asks you to look ahead and guess your drug-related behaviors at age 40. The sheet will NOT be collected, so be candid with your answers. Please incorporate into your answers other expectations you have for yourself at that age, including family and career aspirations.

Answer these questions hypothetically, as you expect them to be answered when you are 40 years old.

Do you use smoking tobacco on a regular basis? If yes, how much do you smoke per day?

Do you drink alcohol on a regular basis? If yes, how many drinks do you drink per week?

Do you smoke marijuana on a regular basis? If yes, how much do you smoke per month?

Do you use cocaine or amphetamine at all? If yes, how much do you use per year?

Do you use any other illicit drug at all? If yes, how much do you use per year?

Has your drug use, if any, affected your life? How? Is your level of drug use, if any, the same as when you were in college? Have the drugs you use changed?

Forum for classroom discussion: How is your current behavior similar or dissimilar to your expectations for yourself at age 40? Are you on the course you want to be?

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel LECTURE LAUNCHER 2: The Case of Phineas Gage Pinel opens the next section with a description of the celebrated case of Phineas Gage. You can build on this opener with information and images from The Phineas Gage Information Page maintained by Malcolm Macmillan from the School of Psychology, Deakin University, Victoria, Australia: http://www.deakin.edu.au/hbs/GAGEPAGE/index.htm. Images of Gage’s skull are found on The Damage to Phineas Gage’s Brain at: http://www.deakin.edu.au/hbs/GAGEPAGE/Pgdamage.htm.

13.4 Introduction to the Biopsychology of Emotion (Use transparencies TSP83-TSP85 or digital images 17.1-17.3.)

The mind-blowing case of Phineas Gage • large tamping iron exploded and pierced through Phineas’ face, skull, and brain • Phineas—changed from religious, respectful, and reliable into irreverent and impulsive • Phineas’ brain—damage to both medial prefrontal lobes Darwin’s theory of the evolution of emotion • facial expressions accompany the same emotion in all members of a species • emotions—products of evolution o evolve from behaviors that indicate what an animal is going to do next o evolve in ways that enhance communication function o opposite messages often have opposite postures (the principle of antithesis) • threat displays—signals impending aggression (e.g., gulls point their beaks) James-Lange and Cannon-Bard Theories • James-Lange theory—emotion-producing stimuli reaching cortex trigger changes in visceral organs; next, autonomic and somatic responses trigger experience of emotion; reverse of the common way of thinking about emotion • Cannon-Bard theory—emotional stimuli have two independent effects: feeling of emotion in the brain and expression of emotion via the autonomic and somatic nervous systems • James-Lange theory predicts emotion depends on visceral feedback; CannonBard posits emotion is independent—both theories are incorrect • third theory: three principal factors in emotion o the perception of the emotion-inducing stimulus o the autonomic and somatic responses to the stimulus o the experience of emotion Sham rage • decorticate cats—cats whose cortex has been removed • cortical removal causes exaggerated, poorly directed aggressive responses— sham rage • hypothalamus necessary for sham rage • suggests cortex normally inhibits hypothalamus

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Chapter 13 Health Psychology Limbic system and emotion • limbic system—collection of nuclei and tracts that border the thalamus (limbic means “border”) o amygdala o mammillary body o hippocampus o fornix o cingulate cortex o septum o olfactory bulb o hypothalamus • limbic system involved with emotion Kluver-Bucy syndrome • syndrome caused by removal of the temporal lobes • includes the following behaviors o consumption of everything edible o increased sexual activity (often directed at inappropriate targets) o tendency to repeatedly investigate familiar objects o tendency to investigate objects with mouth o lack of fear • due to amygdala damage • a human case of Kluver-Bucy syndrome: o flat affect o occasionally restless, but mostly placid o mostly indifferent, occasionally facetious o put all kinds of objects in mouth o changed his sexual orientation from heterosexual to homosexual Exercise 13.2 Instructions Direct students to use the Internet to locate articles on psychoneuroimmunology. Explain how to find the conclusion of the report in the abstract.

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel Name: ________________________ Exercise 13.2 Research on Psychoneuroimmunology How to get started: PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ links you to the National Library of Medicine and provides a comprehensive listing of journal articles. Scirus at: http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/ is a search engine specializing in scientific articles. You can type key words into these or any search engine. Remember that more key words will bring up fewer articles, but they will more closely match to your search. If you have too few articles retrieved, decrease the number of search terms.

Directions: Find articles on stress and susceptibility to infectious disease, early experiences of stress, and stress and the hippocampus. List the reference (authors, year, journal, volume, and pages) in the first column and the main result in the second column. (Read abstract for main result.)

Locate one article for each topic.

One article reference for each topic Stress and susceptibility to infectious disease

Main result

Early experiences of stress

Stress and the hippocampus

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Chapter 13 Health Psychology 13.5 Stress and Health (Use transparency TSP87 or digital images 17.4-17.5.)

The stress response (commonly called stress) • Han Selye first described stress response in the 1950s • short-term—produces adaptive responses • long-term—produces maladaptive responses (e.g., enlarged adrenal glands) • adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)—released from the anterior pituitary triggers release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex • stress also triggers the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla • stress response affected by coping mechanisms • fear or stress before surgery delays healing • subordination stress—caused by low rank in dominance hierarchies Stress and gastric ulcers • gastric ulcers—painful lesions to the lining of the stomach and duodenum • 500,000 new cases reported each year in the U.S. • stress produces ulcers o restraint in a tube can produce ulcers within a few hours in laboratory rats o ulcers were thought to be purely a psychosomatic disease (i.e., stress-induced) o ulcers also caused by the bacteria Helicobacter pylori o people without ulcers also have the bacteria o stress and H. pylori work together to produce ulcers Psychoneuroimmunology: stress, the immune system, and the brain • psychoneuroimmunology—study of interactions among psychological factors, the nervous system, and the immune response • started in the 1980s Immune system • microorganisms live in warm, damp, nutritive climates, such as our bodies • immune system—keeps our bodies from being overwhelmed by microorganisms • antigens—protein molecules on the surface of a cell that identify it as foreign • mucous membranes destroy many foreign invaders • phagocytosis—the process by which foreign microorganisms are consumed and destroyed, often by microglia • lymphocytes—specialized white blood cells produced in the bone marrow and stored in the lymphatic system • cell-mediated immunity—directed by T cells o macrophage—a type of phagocyte that ingests microorganisms, then displays the microorganism’s antigens on its cell surface, attracting T cells o millions of different receptors for foreign antigens on T cells o binding to the receptor  replication of more T cells

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antibody-mediated immunity—directed by B cells o B cell binds to a foreign antigen o B cell synthesizes a lethal form of its receptor molecules, called antibodies o memory B cells for the specific antigen are produced during the process o memory B cells have a long life and contribute to immunity immune response faster upon subsequent exposures to the same antigen

What effect does stress have on immune function?

• meta-analysis of stress and immune function (analysis of around 300 studies) o effects depend on the kind of stress o acute (brief) stress improves immune function o chronic stress (long-lasting) stress impairs immune function • immune system processes are complex How does stress affect the immune system?

• difficult to specify • stress produces widespread changes o effects on the anterior-pituitary adrenal-cortex system o effects on the sympathetic adrenal-medulla system o T and B cells have receptors for glucocorticoids o lymphocytes have receptors for epinephrine, norepinephrine, and glucocorticoids o stress-related behaviors also affect the body and its immune system Does stress affect susceptibility to infectious disease?

• only possible to show correlations • increased colds during exam periods • adverse reactions to stress may not increase illness because: o the immune system has redundant components o stress may be too short-lived o compensatory immune responses may accompany declines in other immune responses • difficult to prove a causal link between stress and infectious disease in humans • laboratory animal studies show strong link for stress and disruption of immune system Early experiences of stress • children exposed to maltreatment or other forms of high stress—brain and endocrine abnormalities • adverse effects of prenatal and early postnatal stressors • handling (or extra grooming) of rat pups decreases release of glucocorticoids in response to stress later in adulthood • rat pups separated from their mothers at birth show elevated stress responses • rats that are highly reactive to stress are poorest mothers • stress response passed on to next generation

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Chapter 13 Health Psychology Stress and the hippocampus • hippocampus—dense concentration of glucocorticoid receptors; highly susceptible to effects of stress • exposure to stress—pyramidal cell dendrites are shorter with less branching • adult neurogenesis is reduced • a few hours of stress—produce changes in the hippocampus lasting a month or more LECTURE LAUNCHER 3: Show Some Emotion Researcher Paul Eckman revolutionized the study of emotion through facial expression.

You can begin your discussion of Eckman’s work by having your students take part in an “emotion analysis” of the still photographs available from WIRED.com at http://www.wired.com/news/culture/0,1284,60232,00.html. Video clips are presented for two emotions that people often confuse: anger/disgust, and fear/surprise. Start by showing the first frame of each clip; the sidebar won’t give anything away. Take a class vote on which picture depicts anger/disgust or fear/surprise, then play the clip through.

13.6 Brain Mechanisms of Emotion (Use digital images 17.6-17.7.)

Fear conditioning • establishment of a fear response to a previously neutral stimulus (the conditioned stimulus) o conditioned stimulus must be repeatedly paired with the aversive stimulus (the unconditional stimulus) o the conditioned stimulus must come before the unconditioned stimulus o typically a rat hears a tone (conditioned stimulus) and then receives a mild electric shock to the feet (unconditioned stimulus) o rat responds by freezing and increased susceptibility to startle • neural mechanisms of auditory fear conditioning o lesions to medial geniculate nucleus block auditory fear conditioning o lesions to auditory cortex do NOT block auditory fear conditioning o amygdala critical to auditory fear conditioning o amygdala projects to brain-stem structures that control emotional responses (e.g., periaqueductal gray) o lateral hypothalamus elicits sympathetic responses • auditory cortex critical for conditioning to complex tones The role of the amygdala in human emotion • amygdala involved with human emotion • neuropsychological patients with amygdala damage—difficulty recognizing facial expressions of fear

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The case of S.P., the woman who couldn’t perceive fear o had right amygdala removed for treatment of epilepsy; since left amygdala was damaged, both amygdalae were affected o normal I.Q. and perceptual abilities o impairment in identifying facial emotions, especially fear Urbach-Wiethe disease—a genetic disorder involving calcification of the amygdala and surrounding regions; problems with identifying facial expressions of fear amygdala participates in negative, as well as positive, emotions—studies show mixed results

The case of Charles Whitman, the Texas tower sniper • had bizarre ideas; he suspected a neural cause • had been a model citizen (Eagle Scout, soldier in the Marine Corps) • left a note asking his brain be analyzed • killed his wife and mother first • then went to the Tower at the University of Texas • went on a shooting spree (total of 17 killed and 31 wounded) • at autopsy, a walnut-sized tumor found in Whitman’s right amygdala Exercise 13.3 Evaluate Goals You can ask students if they learned anything new about drug addiction, stress, or emotion.

Will anything they learned affect their future behavior? Ask the students what they plan to teach their kids about drugs.

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Chapter 13 Health Psychology KEY TERMS (page numbers in Pinel text) addicts (p. 408) adrenal cortex (p. 429) adrenal medulla (p. 429) adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) (p. 429) amphetamine (p. 416) analgesics (p. 417) antibodies (p. 432) antibody-mediated immunity (p. 431) antigens (p. 431) B cells (p. 431) Buerger’s disease (p. 411) Cannabis sativa (p. 413) Cannon-Bard theory (p. 426) cell-mediated immunity (p. 431) cirrhosis (p. 413) cocaine (p. 415) cocaine psychosis (p. 416) conditioned compensatory responses (p. 408) conditioned place-preference paradigm (p. 422) cross tolerance (p. 405) decorticate (p. 427) delirium tremens (DTs) (p. 412) depressant (p. 412) detoxified addicts (p. 409) drug self-administration paradigm (p. 421) drug sensitization (p. 406) drug tolerance (p. 405) fear conditioning (p. 435) fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) (p. 413) functional tolerance (p. 406) gastric ulcers (p. 430)

glucocorticoids (p. 429) Harrison Narcotics Act (p. 418) health psychology (p. 405) heroin (p. 418) immune system (p. 431) incentive-sensitization theory (p. 409) James-Lange theory (p. 426) Kluver-Bucy syndrome (p. 428) Korsakoff’s syndrome (p. 412) limbic system (p. 428) lymphocytes (p. 431) macrophage (p. 431) metabolic tolerance (p. 406) morphine (p. 417) narcotic (p. 414) nucleus accumbens (p. 423) opiates (p. 417) phagocytosis (p. 431) physical-dependence theories of addiction (p. 409) physically dependent (p. 407) positive-incentive theories of addiction (p. 409) psychoneuroimmunology (p. 431) sham rage (p. 427) psychoactive drugs (p. 406) smoker’s syndrome (p. 411) stimulants (p. 415) subordination stress (p. 430) T cells (p. 431) THC (p. 413) Urbach-Wiethe disease (p. 437) ventral tegmental area (p. 422) withdrawal syndrome (p. 406)

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel ADDITIONAL READINGS AND MEDIA RESOURCES BOOKS Introduction to Psychoneuroimmunology by Jorge H. Daruna (2004) Elsevier.

The Emotional Brain: the Mysterious Underpinnings of Emotional Life by Joseph LeDoux (1996) Touchtone.

MOVIES Dopamine Seduction (1998) (DVD, VHS; 25 minutes) A Discovery Channel Production.

(Examines the role of dopamine in the context of desire and its interaction with alcohol.)

Fetal Alcohol Exposure: Changing the Future (2006) (DVD, VHS; 35 minutes) Films for the Humanities and Sciences. (Delves into all the facets of fetal alcohol syndrome.)

Drugs: Uses and Abuses (1999) (DVD, VHS; eight 17 – 39 minute movies) A Cambridge Educational Production. (This series covers the sedatives, narcotics, stimulants, and THC, among other drugs.)

WEBSITES The National Library of Medicine (PubMed): http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ Scirus: http://www.scirus.com/ Wikipedia on Addiction: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addiction Alcohol-Related Deaths from Narconon at: http://www.stopaddiction.com/narconon_alcohol_deaths.html An Overview of Drug Tolerance from Dr. Paul Kenyon’s award-winning SALMON site: http://salmon.psy.plym.ac.uk/year3/psy337drugtolerance/drugtolerance.htm Overview of Drug Abuse from NIDA: http://www.drugabuse.gov/NIDAHome.html Brookhaven National Laboratory’s Images of Addiction: http://www.bnl.gov/CTN/default.asp Neural Bases of Fear from Washington University’s Neuroscience tutorial page: http://thalamus.wustl.edu/course/limbic.html Imaging the Emotional Brain from the University of Wisconsin’s Science of Emotions site: http://www.news.wisc.edu/packages/emotion/index.msql?get=media (Go to the bottom of this page for movies showing different patterns of brain activity underlying different emotional states.)

The Laughing Brain from the Society for Neuroscience’s website, a look at the brain regions activated when we are happy: http://apu.sfn.org/content/Publications/BrainBriefings/bb_humor.htm The Laughing Brain from Dr. Eric Chudler’s Neuroscience for Kids website: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/laugh.html The Limbic System from the Brain and Mind site: http://www.epub.org.br/cm/n05/mente/limbic_i.htm Stress and Psychosomatic Disorders from the Brain and Mind site: http://www.epub.org.br/cm/n03/doencas/stress_i.htm Stress and the Developing Brain from the NIH: http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/develop.cfm

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CHAPTER 14

Lateralization, Language, and the Split Brain The Left Brain and the Right Brain of Language Detailed Outline Introduction 14.1 Cerebral Lateralization of Function: Introduction 14.2 The Split Brain 14.3 Differences between the Left and Right Hemispheres 14.4 Cortical Localization of Language: The WernickeGeschwind Model 14.5 Evaluation of the Wernicke-Geschwind Model

Chapter At-A-Glance Instructor’s Print Resources Supplements Lecture Instructor’s Launcher 1 Manual for The Dichotic Basics of Listening Biopsychology Test Chapter 14 Exercise 14.1 Brain Damage and Language Deficits Lecture Launcher 2 The Brain and Language

14.6 The Cognitive Neuroscience Approach to Language

Exercise 14.2 Cognitive Neuroscience Studies of Language

14.7 The Cognitive Neuroscience Approach and Dyslexia

Lecture Launcher 3 Living with Dyslexia Exercise 14.3 Evaluate Goals Key Terms

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Media Supplements Beyond the Brain and Behavior CD for Basics of Biopsychology Practice Tests for Chapter 14

Test Bank for Basics of Biopsychology Chapter 14

Hard Copy for Chapter 14 Electronic Flashcards for Chapter 14

Transparencies for Physiological Psychology, Chapter 12, TSP93-TSP97, see Table of Contents, p. xvi

Digital Media Archive Log (DMA), 16.116.15, see Table of Contents, p. xxiii PowerPoint Presentation

Grade Aid for Basics of Biopsychology Chapter 14

Instructor’s Manual Additional Readings and Media Resources

Professor Notes

Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel CHAPTER 14 OVERVIEW Pinel begins Chapter 14 by introducing the commissures, fiber tracts that connect one hemisphere with the other. The largest of these commissures is the corpus callosum, which has been cut in a small number of epilepsy patients to markedly reduce seizures. Some of these patients have served as research subjects on the study of lateralization of brain function.

“Cerebral Lateralization of Function: Introduction” covers the basics of aphasia, apraxia, and language deficits. Some of the most common ways to test for language disorders include the sodium amytal test and dichotic listening.

The section “The Split Brain” details an expansive literature on split-brain subjects. Splitbrain patients appear normal (and are virtually seizure-free) except when experimenters design clever ways of allowing them to only receive sensory information to one of the two hemispheres.

The right hemisphere, in isolation, is not verbal enough to complete many tasks. When information is out of the verbal realm of consciousness, subjects often deny the existence of a stimulus, but can respond to it by touch. Under normal circumstances, split-brain persons use cross-cuing, helpinghand phenomena, and visual completion to respond verbally to information presented to the markedly-less-verbal right hemisphere.

Next, “Differences between the Left and Right Hemispheres” explains how the left hemisphere is specialized for verbal tasks and control over the ipsilateral side of the body (giving the left hemisphere the edge on body control). The right hemisphere, on the other hand, is superior at spatial ability, emotion, musical ability, and some memory tasks.

The section “Cortical Localization of Language: The Wernicke-Geschwind Model” outlines the seven component brain areas involved in the model—primary visual cortex, angular gyrus, primary auditory cortex, Wernicke’s area, arcuate fasciculus, Broca’s area, and primary motor cortex. Information flows through these brain regions, with specific language functions being accomplished in each brain region. All these components operate in the left hemisphere.

The following section, “Evaluation of the Wernicke-Geschwind Model,” probes the model for its inadequacies. Much of the current research supports the Wernicke-Geschwind model in the general sense; however, specific predictions of the model are not supported. First, highly restricted damage to the component regions does not produce aphasia. Second, brain damage outside the Wernicke-Geschwind regions can produce aphasia. Third, it is rare to find a pure Broca’s or Wernicke’s aphasia.

“The Cognitive Neuroscience Approach to Language” explains how PET and fMRI imaging studies of language in normal-speaking individual have supplanted lesion studies.

Nonetheless, many results confirm earlier ideas. In the final section “The Cognitive Neuroscience Approach and Dyslexia,” different kinds of dyslexia are described. Brain areas that may be involved are also discussed.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES OF CHAPTER 14 • • • • •

To give students a working knowledge of lateralization of language.

To teach about language deficits.

To teach students how biopsychologists study these problems.

To teach students how to assess the basic research literature concerning cognitive neuroscience and language.

To assess how language disorders are relevant to their lives.

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Chapter 14 Lateralization, Language, and the Split Brain CHAPTER 14: LECTURE OUTLINE (key terms in boldface) LECTURE LAUNCHER 1: The Dichotic Listening Test You can demonstrate this classical test for cerebral asymmetry using the simulation available at http://emsah.uq.edu.au/linguistics/teaching/ling2005/dichotic.htm. If you have a computer, headphones, and a sound system in your classroom, you can run the simulation from the web or download it to disk. The demonstration should be done using the headphones on a volunteer subject. Allow the rest of the classroom to hear the monosyllables and watch the student demonstrator respond. The results are graphed at the end of the simulation.

Introduction • • •

cerebral commissures—fibers that connect the two cerebral hemispheres lateralization of function—different functions for the two hemispheres split-brain patients—patients whose hemispheres have been separated by commissurotomy (cutting of the commissures)

14.1 Cerebral Lateralization of Function: Introduction (Use transparencies TSP94-TSP95 or digital image 16.2; see Tables of Contents for complete media listings.)

Aphasia, apraxia, and left-hemisphere damage • damage to the right hemisphere typically does NOT impair language o Marc Dax, 1836 o Paul Broca, 1864 • aphasia—brain damage-produced deficit in language • Broca’s area—language- related area in the inferior prefrontal cortex • apraxia—deficits in performing purposeful movements • dominant hemisphere—hemisphere playing a dominant role in complex behavioral and cognitive functions (usually the left hemisphere) • minor hemisphere—usually the right hemisphere Tests of cerebral lateralization • sodium amytal test (Wada, 1949) o often given before neurosurgery to avoid damage to language areas o injection of the anesthetic sodium amytal into the carotid artery on one side of the neck o language-impairment test while one hemisphere is anesthetized • dichotic listening test—non-invasive test o three pairs of digits presented through earphones (different digits to each ear) o most people report slightly more digits presented to the right ear o people with right hemispheric dominance for language better with left ear • functional brain imaging—PET and fMRI confirm left-hemispheric specialization for language

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel Speech laterality and handedness • handedness related to hemispheric specialization as shown by lesions o dextrals—right-handed persons o sinestrals—left-handed persons o 60% of dextrals with left-hemisphere lesions, and 2% of dextrals with right-hemisphere lesions are language impaired o 30% of sinestrals with left-hemisphere lesions, and 24% of sinestrals with right-hemisphere lesions are language impaired • sodium amytal tests show 92% of right-handers are left-hemisphere dominant for speech, whereas, only 69% of left-handers and ambidextrous people are left-hemisphere dominant for speech Sex differences in brain lateralization • the results of stroke suggest that males are more lateralized for speech than females • result not confirmed by other laboratories • brain imaging studies show that females, more than males, use both hemispheres in language-related tasks 14.2 The Split Brain (Use transparency TSP93 or digital images 16.1 and 16.3-16.6.)

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corpus callosum—the largest cerebral commissure, made of 200 million axons; absence of corpus callosum can be virtually undetected

Groundbreaking experiment of Myers and Sperry • in 1953 Myers and Sperry did experiments on cats that showed: o corpus callosum transfers learned information from one hemisphere to the other o each hemisphere operates independently with corpus callosum cut • made cuts to corpus callosum and optic chiasm— sensory information was not passed to both sides of brain • cuts to optic chiasm create a scotoma—an area of blindness • one hemisphere can learn as much as two hemispheres, but without a corpus callosum, there is no transfer of learning to the other hemisphere • cats with the corpus callosum cut behave as if they had two separate brains Commissurotomy in human epileptics • in epileptics, seizure activity spreads from one hemisphere to the other • commissurotomy treats epilepsy by halting that spread • typically the corpus callosum is transected and the smaller commissures are left intact • many commissurotomized patients never experience another major seizure • sensitive tests designed to test impairments of commissurotomies o subjects asked to fixate on one point o stimuli presented to the right or left visual field o information stays on one side of the brain (usually the contralateral side)

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Chapter 14 Lateralization, Language, and the Split Brain Evidence that the hemispheres of split-brain patients function independently • flash an apple in the right visual field (reaches the left hemisphere) of split-brain subject o subject identifies “apple” verbally o can reach for the apple and identify other objects like it • flash an apple in the left visual field (reaches the right hemisphere) of split-brain subject o cannot identify “apple” verbally, denies anything was seen o without apparent awareness, subject can reach for the apple and identify other objects like it Cross-cuing • two hemispheres in a split-brain subject cannot directly communicate, but can communicate indirectly by cross-cuing • facial expressions are one manner of cross-cuing Learning two things at once • two hemispheres can learn the same thing twice • helping-hand phenomenon—one hand of a split-brain subject reaches out and redirects the actions of the other hand • visual completion—filling in missing information in a visual scene; split-brain subjects fill in information from the other hemisphere • chimeric figures test—combined pictures (e.g., two halves of different faces); split-brain subjects do not see anything odd about chimeric faces Dual mental functioning and conflict in split-brain patients • in most split-brain patients left hemisphere in control • in a few split-brain patients the right hemisphere in control • The case of Peter, the split-brain patient tormented by conflict o severe seizures o split-brain operation at age 20 o conflict between left hemisphere and left side of the body o could not control left (ipsilateral) side of body o left hand would turn off TV shows or strike relatives o Peter hated the left side of his body o right hemisphere was controlling this unwanted behavior • lateralization of function present in many mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles, and fish 14.3 Differences between the Left and Right Hemispheres (Use digital images 16.7-16.8.)

Slight biases versus all-or-none hemispheric differences • many functions do not show lateralization • many functions show slight differences in lateralization • language-related abilities show the most laterality o on dichotic listening—right ear advantage only slight o in most split-brain subjects, right hemisphere can understand some words and simple sentences o right hemisphere language comparable to that of a preschool child

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Some examples of lateralization of function • neither hemisphere superior in every task • right hemisphere superior for: o spatial ability o emotion o musical ability o some memory tasks • superiority of the left hemisphere in controlling ipsilateral movement o left hemisphere controls the opposite of the body and, to a lesser extent, the same side of the body o less true of the right hemisphere • superiority of the right hemisphere in spatial ability o right hemisphere better than left at identifying palpated 3D shapes o the two hemispheres approach this task in different ways o the left hemisphere’s tendency to verbalize the task is a deterrent • superiority of the right hemisphere in emotion o right hemisphere better than left at detecting emotion o information passed on to left hemisphere o example—left finger traces first letter of name onto right hand • superiority of the right hemisphere in musical ability o in dichotic listening, right ear superior in perception of digits o left ear superior in perception of melodies • hemispheric differences in memory o both hemispheres can remember o experimental condition—top light comes on 80% of the time o both controls and split-brain subjects look for sequence pattern and score around 68% correct o right hemispheres, like rats, will consistently select the top light and be correct 80% of the time What is lateralized—broad clusters of abilities or individual cognitive processes?

• notable exceptions to all broad categories of lateralization • constituent cognitive processes are lateralized Anatomical asymmetries of the brain • asymmetrical brain regions involved in language o planum temporale—temporal cortex posterior to the lateral fissure; larger on left in 65% of humans o Heschl’s gyrus—temporal cortex anterior to the planum temporale; tends to be larger on right o frontal operculum—area of frontal cortex anterior to the face area of primary motor cortex; tends to be larger on right • planum temporale more lateralized in musicians with perfect pitch (as shown by MRI scan) • hand area of cortex contralateral to preferred hand tends to be larger

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Chapter 14 Lateralization, Language, and the Split Brain Theories of cerebral asymmetry • analytic–synthetic theory o two main ways of thinking o left hemisphere more analytical o right hemisphere more synthetic o the theory is too vague • motor theory o left hemisphere controls movement (not just speech) o some experimental support • linguistic theory o primary role of left hemisphere is language o supported by study on deaf people using American Sign Language The case of W.L., the man who experienced aphasia for sign language • congenitally deaf • suffered stroke resulting in large lesion to the left frontotemporoparietal lobe • stroke produced deficits in using and understanding signing, but not in producing and understanding pantomime gestures • videotapes from before the stroke confirm the impairments Evolution of cerebral lateralization of function • handedness also occurs in non-human primates o chimpanzees use right hand to extract peanut butter o hand area larger in right primary motor cortex in wide range of nonhuman primates o tool use did NOT cause handedness • what would be Wernicke’s area in human brain is larger on the left in nonhuman primates • cerebral laterality preceded human evolution Exercise 14.1 Instructions Damage to different brain regions is often (but not always) associated with certain kinds of language deficits. Have students give as much information as possible regarding the most likely areas of brain damage given certain language deficits.

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel Name: ________________________ Exercise 14.1 Brain Damage and Language Deficits Describe the areas of brain involved with the following language deficits as accurately as possible.

Mention the lobe, the anterior–posterior, dorsal–ventral, or medial–lateral position, if appropriate, and the relation to other language areas.

Answer the following questions, giving as much detail as possible.

Damage to what part of the brain is frequently associated with Broca’s aphasia?

Damage to what part of the brain is frequently associated with Wernicke’s aphasia?

Damage to what part of the brain is frequently associated with conduction aphasia?

Damage to what part of the brain is frequently associated with global aphasia?

Damage to what part of the brain is frequently associated with alexia?

Damage to what part of the brain is frequently associated with agraphia?

Damage to what part of the brain is frequently associated with dyslexia?

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Chapter 14 Lateralization, Language, and the Split Brain LECTURE LAUNCHER 2: The Brain and Language Visual aids to launch this lecture dealing with Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area, and associated aphasias can be found at The Brain and Language website maintained by Eric Chudler at Washington University: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/lang.html.

14.4 Cortical Localization of Language: The Wernicke-Geschwind Model (Use transparency TSP96 or digital images 16.9-16.12.)

Historical antecedents of the Wernicke-Geschwind model • Wernicke’s area—language comprehension cortex located in the left planum temporale • Broca’s aphasia—deficit in producing speech; an expressive aphasia o normal comprehension o speech retains some of its meaningfulness o slow, labored, disjointed, poorly articulated • Wernicke’s aphasia—deficit in comprehending speech o deficits that are primarily receptive o poor comprehension of both written and spoken speech o retains superficial structure, rhythm, and intonation—results in word salad (nonsensical strings of words) • conduction aphasia—third kind of aphasia o difficulty with repeated words o caused by damage to the arcuate fasciculus—the fibers connecting Wernicke’s area with Broca’s area • angular gyrus—temporal and parietal cortex posterior to Wernicke’s area • alexia—inability to read • agraphia—inability to write • a case of pure alexia and agraphia following a selective lesion to visual fibers connecting to the angular gyrus The Wernicke-Geschwind model • seven components o primary visual cortex—receives reading input o angular gyrus—receives from primary visual cortex and translates information into an auditory code o primary auditory cortex—receives speech sounds o Wernicke’s area—receives from primary auditory cortex o arcuate fasciculus—sends information to Broca’s area o Broca’s area—generates speech programs o primary motor cortex—commands speech movements • all these components operate in the left hemisphere

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel 14.5 Evaluation of the Wernicke-Geschwind Model (Use transparency TSP97 or digital images 16.13-16.14.)

Effects of damage to various areas of cortex on language-related abilities • the Wernicke-Geschwind model is based on lesion studies • lesion data have certain problems o surgical removal restricted to Broca’s area—no long-lasting language deficits o surgical lesions to arcuate fasciculus and angular gyrus—no permanent language deficits o same may be true for surgical excision restricted to Wernicke’s area (fewer known cases) • accidental or disease-related brain damage o assessed articulation, fluency, comprehension, naming ability, ability to repeat sentences, reading, and writing in 214 subjects o large lesions needed to produce significant effects o none of the subjects had a totally expressive or comprehensive aphasia • CT and structural MRI scans of aphasic patients o global aphasia—a severe disruption of all language-related abilities; associated with very large left hemisphere lesions o aphasias can also be due to subcortical damage; left basal ganglia, left thalamus Electrical stimulation of the cortex and localization of language • much more localized than lesions • sites of stimulation that blocked or disrupted speech scattered throughout the cortex • found no tendency for particular types of speech deficits being associated with particular brain areas o intermingled sites of disrupted pronunciation, counting, or naming objects o right hemisphere stimulation almost never distorted speech • recent cortical stimulation studies assessed naming, reading of simple sentences, short-term verbal memory, ability to mimic facial movements, and ability to recognize phonemes (speech sounds) o stimulation beyond the Wernicke-Geschwind regions produced deficits o each language test disrupted by stimulation at scattered sites o major differences between subjects Current status of the Wernicke-Geschwind model • the Wernicke-Geschwind model supported in the general sense • specific predictions of the model not supported: o highly restricted damage does not produce aphasia o brain damage outside the Wernicke-Geschwind regions can produce aphasia

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o pure Broca’s or Wernicke’s aphasia is rare o individual differences useful in the classroom and clinic, but not in research

14.6 The Cognitive Neuroscience Approach to Language (Use digital image 16.15.)

•

• •

premise 1—language-related behaviors mediated by activity in those brain areas involved in specific cognitive processes required for those behaviors o phonological analysis—analysis of the sound of language o grammatical analysis—analysis of the structure of language o semantic analysis—analysis of the meaning of language premise 2—areas of the brain involved in language are not solely dedicated to the function premise 3—language areas of the brain are likely to be small, widely distributed, and highly specialized

Functional brain imaging and language • fMRI and PET studies have revolutionized field • Bavelier’s fMRI study of reading o compared silent reading with viewing strings of consonants on screen o areas of activity were patchy—5% to 10% of larger areas involved o areas of activity varied, from trial to trial and from subject to subject o activity extended beyond Wernicke-Geschwind areas o far more activity in the left hemisphere • Damasio’s PET study of naming o presented pictures of famous faces, animals, and tools o asked subjects to name images o naming objects activated left temporal lobe outside Wernicke’s area o category-specific brain regions • more comparisons needed between cognitive neuroscience data and lesion studies Exercise 14.2 Instructions Direct students to use the Internet to locate articles on cognitive neuroscience approaches to language. Explain how to find the conclusion of the report in the abstract.

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel Name: ________________________ Exercise 14.2 Cognitive Neuroscience Studies of Language How to get started: PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ links you to the National Library of Medicine and provides a comprehensive listing of journal articles. Scirus at: http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/ is a search engine specializing in scientific articles. You can type key words into these or any search engine. Remember that more key words will bring up fewer articles, but they will more closely match your search. If you have too few articles retrieved, decrease the number of search terms.

Directions: Find articles in which the researchers used PET or fMRI imaging to study naming, reading, or speaking. List the reference (authors, year, journal, volume, and pages) in the first column and the main result in the second column. (Read abstract for main result.) Locate one article for each topic.

One article reference for each topic PET or fMRI study on naming

Main result

PET or fMRI study on reading

PET or fMRI study on speaking

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Chapter 14 Lateralization, Language, and the Split Brain LECTURE LAUNCHER 3: Living with Dyslexia It is often hard for students to identify with some of the problems that dyslexics experience when trying to read even the simplest passage. After introducing the topic of dyslexia, you can give your students a better idea of how people with dyslexia struggle with reading problems by asking them to participate in at least one of the simulations available at http://jarmin.com/demos/course/dyslexia/print.html#05.

14.7 The Cognitive Neuroscience Approach and Dyslexia •

dyslexia—difficulty in reading o developmental dyslexia—15% of English-speaking males and 5% of English-speaking females fail to learn to read; genetic component with a heritability estimate of 50% o acquired dyslexia

Developmental dyslexia: cultural diversity and biological unity • influenced by culture • differences between English and Italian speakers o more English-speaking dyslexics o more phonemes in English (40) than in Italian (25), and far more possible spellings (1120 versus 33, respectively) o in PET scans, English-speaking subjects use different brain regions than Italian-speaking subjects o in PET scans, underlying pathology in dyslexia is same regardless of language spoken—less than normal reading-related activity in the posterior temporal lobe Cognitive neuroscience analysis of reading aloud: deep and surface dyslexia • two ways to read aloud o lexical procedure—specific stored information about written words; dominates with familiar words o phonetic procedure—reader sounds out the word; dominates with novel words • two different kinds of dyslexia having different losses o surface dyslexia—difficulty of pronouncing words that do not follow common rules of pronunciation; lexical procedure lost; phonetic procedure spared o deep dyslexia—unable to apply rules of pronunciation in their reading; phonetic procedure lost; lexical procedure spared; damage in widespread areas of frontal and temporal cortex; surviving ability may come from surviving parts of the lefthemisphere language areas or from the right hemisphere The case of N.I., the woman who read with her right hemisphere • periods of aphasia followed by generalized convulsions at age 13 • ischemic damage to the left hemisphere • 2 years later—continual seizures, right visual field blindness, and no meaningful movement of right side of body

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left hemispherectomy (removal of hemisphere) performed seizures stopped retained some language ability performed as if she had deep dyslexia

Exercise 14.3 Evaluate Goals Ask students if they learned anything they did not already know about the lateralization of language. Did they have any previous misconceptions? Would any of them be interested in careers related to language disorders? In general, teachers have to be at least aware of language disorders, such as dyslexia. More language-focused careers include clinical neuropsychology with specializations in language (testing persons with language deficits) and cognitive neuroscience (performing experiments on persons with language deficits compared to language-unimpaired controls).

KEY TERMS (page numbers in Pinel text) agraphia (p. 463) alexia (p. 463) angular gyrus (p. 463) aphasia (p. 444) apraxia (p. 444) arcuate fasciculus (p. 463) Broca’s aphasia (p. 462) Broca’s area (p. 444) cerebral commissures (p. 443) chimeric figures test (p. 453) commissurotomy (p. 443) conduction aphasia (p. 463) corpus callosum (p. 447) cross-cuing (p. 452) deep dyslexia (p. 476) dextrals (p. 445) dichotic listening test (p. 445) dyslexia (p. 474) expressive (p. 462) frontal operculum (p. 458) global aphasia (p. 468) grammatical analysis (p. 471)

helping-hand phenomenon (p. 453) hemispherectomy (p. 476) Heschl’s gyrus (p. 458) lateralization of function (p. 443) lexical procedure (p. 475) phonemes (p. 470) phonetic procedure (p. 475) phonological analysis (p. 471) planum temporale (p. 458) receptive (p. 462) scotoma (p. 448) semantic analysis (p. 471) sinestrals (p. 445) sodium amytal test (p. 445) split-brain patients (p. 443) surface dyslexia (p. 475) visual completion (p. 453) Wernicke’s aphasia (p. 462) Wernicke’s area (p. 462) Wernicke-Geschwind model (p. 463) word salad (p. 462)

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Chapter 14 Lateralization, Language, and the Split Brain ADDITIONAL READINGS AND MEDIA RESOURCES BOOKS Talking About Aphasia: Living with Loss of Language After Stroke by Susie Parr, Sally Byng, and Sue Gilpin (1997) Open University Press.

Dyslexia, Fluency, and the Brain by Maryanne Wolf (2001) York Press.

MOVIES Broken English: The Effects of Brain Damage on Language (1990) (DVD, VHS; 47 minutes) Films for the Humanities and Sciences. (Illustrates the effects of damage to Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas.)

Dyslexia: An Unwrapped Gift (2001) (DVD, VHS; 22 minutes) Films for the Humanities and Sciences. (A new view of dyslexia, emphasizing unique aptitudes of dyslexics.)

WEBSITES The National Library of Medicine (PubMed): http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ Scirus: http://www.scirus.com/ Wikipedia on Aphasia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphasia The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke: Aphasia: http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/aphasia/aphasia.htm The Corpus Callosum from Paul Pietsch’s Shuffle Brain: http://www.indiana.edu/~pietsch/callosum.html Laterality in Primates from M.K. Holder at the University of Indiana on handedness and laterality of function: http://www.indiana.edu/~primate/index.html; http://www.indiana.edu/~primate/brain.html Nobel Prize and Sperry, an autobiography on Roger Sperry, celebrating the Nobel Prize “for his discoveries concerning the functional specialization of the cerebral hemispheres”: http://www.nobel.se/medicine/laureates/1981/sperry-autobio.html Conversation’s With Neil’s Brain, a full-text version of the book by William Calvin and George Ojemann; very well-written exposition on language and laterality of function, amongst other topics: http://williamcalvin.com/bk7/bk7.htm Neural Bases of Dyslexia, a brief overview from the Society for Neuroscience: http://www.sfn.org/content/Publications/BrainBriefings/dyslexia.html Evolution and Language from the Brain Connection website: http://www.brainconnection.com/topics/?main=fa/evolution-language

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CHAPTER 15

Behavioral Neuroscience of Psychiatric Disorders The Brain Unhinged Detailed Outline Introduction

15.1 Schizophrenia

15.2 Affective Disorders: Depression and Mania

Chapter At-A-Glance Instructor’s Print Resources Supplements Lecture Instructor’s Launcher 1 Manual for The Increase Basics of of Mental Biopsychology Illness Chapter 15 Exercise 15.1 Treatments for Mental Disorders: Timelines Lecture Launcher 2 Antidepressants Alter Brain Activity

15.3 Anxiety Disorders Lecture Launcher 3 The Placebo Effect 15.4 Tourette Syndrome

15.5 Clinical Trials: Development of New Psychotherapeutic Drugs

Exercise 15.2 Research into New Psychiatric Drugs Exercise 15.3 Evaluate Goals Key Terms

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Media Supplements Beyond the Brain and Behavior CD for Basics of Biopsychology Practice Tests for Chapter 15

Test Bank for Basics of Biopsychology Chapter 15

Hard Copy for Chapter 15 Electronic Flashcards for Chapter 15

Transparencies for Psychology, Chapter 14, TSP102TSP106, see Table of Contents, p. xvi

Digital Media Archive Log (DMA), 18.118.3, see Table of Contents, p. xxiii PowerPoint Presentation

Grade Aid for Basics of Biopsychology Chapter 15

Instructor’s Manual Additional Readings and Media Resources

Professor Notes

Chapter 15 Psychiatric Disorders CHAPTER 15 OVERVIEW Pinel begins Chapter 15 by explaining how psychiatric disorders are different from neuropsychological disorders in that neural damage is far subtler for psychiatric disorders. As methodology improves, the neural substrates of mental disorders are becoming known. Psychiatric disorders have genetic bases, but are often triggered by stress.

The section titled “Schizophrenia” outlines the basics of what is known about this complex and puzzling disorder. Schizophrenia affects about 1% of the population, and, although a strong genetic basis exists, concordance rates in identical twins are 50%, falling far short of 100%.

Thus, environmental triggers must factor into the equation. The symptoms of schizophrenia include hallucinations, bizarre thoughts, delusions, and social withdrawal. Schizophrenia can be treated successful in many cases with drugs called antipsychotics or neuroleptics. Examples include chlorpromazine and haloperidol.

The next section, “Affective Disorders: Depression and Mania,” covers depression and bipolar disorder. Depression is more common, whereas bipolar disorder occurs at a rate close to 1%, about the same as for schizophrenia. Treatments for depression include tricyclic antidepressants, monoamine oxidase inhibitors, and selective reuptake inhibitors. All antidepressants increase monoamine neurotransmitters, lending support to the monoamine theory of depression. Another theory, called the diathesis-stress theory, suggests that genetic vulnerability and stress interact to cause depression. Lithium, a metallic salt, is used to treat bipolar disorder.

Other treatments include mood stabilizers, many of which are anti-epilepsy drugs.

As detailed in “Anxiety Disorders,” these disorders are relatively common, affecting 25% of the population at one time in their lives. The five kinds of anxiety disorder include: generalized anxiety disorder, phobias, panic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder. Treatments for anxiety disorders include benzodiazepines and serotonin agonists.

“Tourette Syndrome” outlines some of the symptoms of this rare disorder. The most prominent symptoms are tics, starting with simple involuntary movements, evolving into complex stereotyped behaviors, such as copralalia (blurting out obscene language), echolalia (repeating other’s phrases back to them), and palilalia (repeating one’s own phrases). Some of the worst consequences of the disorder involve the social rejection and ridicule, which is especially damaging to young children with Tourette syndrome.

The final section, “Clinical Trials: Development of New Psychotherapeutic Drugs,” enumerates the steps necessary to bring a new drug to market. This involves a combination of basic science, clinical testing, and business strategies.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES OF CHAPTER 15 • • • • •

To give students a working knowledge of psychiatric disorders.

To teach about the treatments for psychiatric disorders.

To teach students how biopsychologists search for new drug and behavioral therapies.

To teach students how to assess the basic research literature concerning drug treatments for mental illnesses.

To assess how understanding clinical conditions, and the science behind them, is relevant to their lives.

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel CHAPTER 15: LECTURE OUTLINE (key terms in boldface) LECTURE LAUNCHER 1: The Increase of Mental Illness For many years, E. Fuller Torrey (President of the Treatment Advocacy Center and “the most famous psychiatrist in America,” according to the Washington Post) has argued that there has been a significant increase in the incidence of major mental illness in the United States. You can begin your lectures on the biology of psychiatric disorders by discussing this topic with your class, aided with information for a 2002 article by Torrey available at: http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/p020401b.html.

Introduction Differences between psychiatric and neuropsychological disorders • psychiatric disorder (or psychological disorder)—a disorder of psychological function sufficiently severe to require treatment • based on archaic mind-brain dichotomy—psychological disorders have to do with mind • brain dysfunction now known to underlie psychiatric disorders • psychiatric disorders more influenced by stress • psychotherapeutic drugs used to treat psychiatric disorders 15.1 Schizophrenia (Use transparency TSP102 or digital images 18.1-18.2; see Tables of Contents for complete media listings.)

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affects 1% of the population onset in late adolescence or early adulthood

The case of Lena, the catatonic schizophrenic • quiet, withdrawn, and odd • after marriage became even more withdrawn • husband found her staring into space • demonstrated waxy flexibility—reacting like a mannequin, not resisting movement, but holding new position without moving • diagnosed as stuporous catatonic schizophrenia • echolalia—repetition of what is heard What is schizophrenia?

• bizarre and complex symptoms • recurrence of one of the following symptoms for 8 months: o bizarre delusions—delusions of being controlled, of persecution, or of grandeur o inappropriate affect—failure to react with an appropriate level of emotionality to positive or negative events o hallucinations—imaginary voices

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Chapter 15 Psychiatric Disorders o o

incoherent thought—illogical thinking, peculiar associations among ideas, or belief in supernatural forces odd behavior—long periods of no movement (catatonia), lack of personal hygiene, talking in rhymes, avoiding social interaction, or echolalia

Casual factors in schizophrenia • genetic basis for schizophrenia • concordance rates: o identical twins—45% o fraternal twins—10% • risk increased if parents have schizophrenia • NOT increased by schizophrenia in adoptive parents • concordance in identical twins of less than 100% implicates environment • two twins discordant for schizophrenia have offspring at similar risk—indicates that their genetic load is the same • experiential (environmental) factors—early infections, autoimmune reactions, toxins, traumatic injury, and stress all can alter neurodevelopment Discovery of the first antischizophrenic drugs • chlorpromazine—first drug for schizophrenia; discovered in the 1950s; French surgeon noticed the drug had a calming effect o agitated schizophrenics were calmed by the drug o emotionally blunted schizophrenics were activated by the drug • reserpine—active ingredient in snakeroot plant o antipsychotic action o dangerous decline in blood pressure o not currently used • many antipsychotic drugs have similar effects o take 2–3 weeks to take effect o produce Parkinson-like tremor and rigidity—suggest an action at dopamine synapses Dopamine theory of schizophrenia • 1960s—discovered that the striatum of Parkinson’s disease patients were deplete of dopamine • the idea arose that antipsychotic drugs might work the same way • dopamine theory of schizophrenia—too much dopamine is present in schizophrenia; antipsychotic drugs reduce dopamine’s effects by decreasing dopamine levels o reserpine breaks down synaptic vesicles and depletes monoamines, including dopamine o amphetamine and cocaine increase dopamine and other monoamines and can trigger schizophrenic episodes in normal subjects • chlorpromazine and reserpine act in two different ways o reserpine depletes the brain of dopamine o chlorpromazine is a receptor blocker—it antagonizes dopamine at its receptors leading to increased dopamine metabolites

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NOT high levels of dopamine in schizophrenia; high levels of dopamine receptor activity many antipsychotic drugs tested; all bound with high affinity to dopamine receptors, with some exceptions; haloperidol (a potent antipsychotic drug) has a low affinity for dopamine receptors explained by five different dopamine receptor subtypes phenothiazines—a class of antipsychotic drugs that includes chlorpromazine; bind D 1 and D 2 receptors butyrophenones—a class of antipsychotic drugs that includes haloperidol; bind D 2 but not D 1 receptors suggested hyperactivity at D2 receptors might account for schizophrenia neuroleptics (antipsychotic drugs)—seemed to mostly bind D2 receptors

Current research on the neural basis of schizophrenia • revision of early hypothesis—excessive activity at dopamine receptors, plus other unidentified causal factors • receptors other than D 2 receptors are involved in schizophrenia o glutamate and serotonin receptors involved o atypical neuroleptics (e.g., clozapine)—high affinity for D1, D 4, and serotonin receptors o D 2 theory of schizophrenia not abandoned because all antipsychotics bind weakly to D 2 receptors • takes several weeks of neuroleptic therapy to alleviate schizophrenic symptoms o neuroleptics block D 2 receptors within hours o time lag unaccounted-for o must be due to some slow-developing compensatory change • schizophrenia is associated with widespread brain damage o enlarged ventricles found in schizophrenics o damage in prefrontal, cingulate, and medial temporal cortex o NO damage to dopamine circuits o widespread pattern of damage does not increase with progression of illness—suggests damage present from early on • neuroleptics only help some schizophrenics o 30% of schizophrenics NOT helped by typical neuroleptics o neuroleptics better at treating positive symptoms of schizophrenia (incoherence, hallucinations, and delusion) than negative symptoms (lack of affect, cognitive deficits, and poverty of speech) Exercise 15.1 Instructions Ask students to make timelines charting the development of treatments for two major categories of mental disorders: schizophrenia and affective disorders.

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Chapter 15 Psychiatric Disorders Name: ________________________ Exercise 15.1 Treatments for Mental Disorders: Timelines Beginning with the 1950s, fill in the notable discoveries of drugs used to treat schizophrenia and the affective disorders: depression and bipolar disorder.

Timeline for the Development of Treatments for Schizophrenia

1950 present [_______________________________________________________________________]

Timeline for the Development of Treatments for Affective Disorders

1950 present [_______________________________________________________________________]

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel LECTURE LAUNCHER 2: Antidepressants Alter Brain Activity Modern imaging techniques have shown changes in brain activity following treatment with antidepressant medications. You can illustrate these changes with the movies and still images available at http://www.news.wisc.edu/packages/emotion/media.html#movies, from the Brain and Emotions Research Center at the University of Wisconsin. You can point out that in many cases, similar changes can be seen following successful non-drug therapies, such as interpersonal therapy, suggesting a link in the therapeutic consequences of both drug-based and non-drug treatments for affective illnesses.

15.2 Affective Disorders: Depression and Mania (Use transparency TSP103 or digital image 18.3.)

The case of P.S., the weeping widow • suddenly become more fatigued, less cheerful • cancelled social engagements • rocked in chair, sobbing • was not eating, bathing, or changing clothes • trouble sleeping • admitted to the hospital • responded to antidepressants and was discharged Major categories of affective disorders • depression—a clinical affective disorder associated with loss of self-esteem, despair, loss of interest in social functions • mania—the opposite of depression o overconfidence o impulsivity o positive attitude • bipolar affective disorder—depression with periods of mania; about 1% of the population affected • unipolar affective disorder—depression without mania; about 6% of the population affected at one point in their lives; twice as prevalent in females • reactive depression—depression that is triggered by an event such as loss of a job or death of a loved one • endogenous depression—depression without an apparent trigger • 10% of persons with an affective disorder commit suicide Casual factors in affective disorders • genetic factors—concordance rates: o identical twins: 60% o fraternal twins: 15% o rates higher for bipolar disorder • severe stress can trigger depression in vulnerable individuals

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Chapter 15 Psychiatric Disorders Discovery of antidepressant drugs • monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors o iproniazid—the first antidepressant drug; developed for the treatment of tuberculosis, made patients less depressed about their disease (but did not help the tuberculosis); first marketed as an antidepressant in 1957 o iproniazid works by inhibiting MAO o MAO inhibitors—a class of drugs like iproniazid that inhibit MAO and increase monoamine neurotransmitters o cheese effect—cheese, wine, and pickles contain high levels of tyramine that is normally metabolized by MAO in the liver; MAO inhibitors prevent tyramine breakdown causing risk of stroke to due increased blood pressure • tricyclic antidepressants (contain three rings of atoms) o imipramine—the first tricyclic antidepressant drug; originally thought to be an antischizophrenic drug o tricyclics block the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine • lithium—a simple metallic ion o John Cade mixed lithium with urine of manic patients and injected the solution into guinea pigs o calmed the guinea pigs rather than producing mania o 1954: Cade tried lithium on 10 manic patients o lithium is classified as a mood stabilizer—a drug that blocks the rapid transition between depression and mania o new mood stabilizers include some anti-epileptic drugs • selective monoamine-reuptake inhibitors o 1980s: selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) introduced for depression o block the reuptake of serotonin from synapses o Prozac (fluoxetine)—first SSRI developed o followed by Paxil, Zoloft, Luvox, and Remeron o SSRIs initially reported to have fewer side effects than tricyclics • effectiveness of drugs in the treatment of depression o regardless of the type of antidepressant—50% of patients on antidepressant improve compared to 25% of patients on placebo who improve o antidepressants do NOT block recurrence of depression o new evidence for side effects of monoamine-reuptake inhibitors— increased suicide risk, addiction, sexual dysfunction, motor problems, gastrointestinal problems, obesity, and anxiety Theories of depression • monoamine theory of depression—depression associated with underactivity at serotonergic and noradrenergic synapses • certain subtypes of serotonin and norepinephrine receptors elevated at autopsy • suggests compensatory up-regulation of these receptors as a result of underactivity • diathesis-stress model of depression—diathesis (genetic susceptibility) and stress interact

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel • •

depressed people release more stress hormones—e.g., more corticotropinreleasing hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, and glucocorticoids depressed people do not show the normal feedback inhibition of further glucocorticoid release produced by dexamethasone injections

Antidepressant effect of sleep deprivation • 50% of depressed persons show improvement after one night sleep deprivation • short-lived effect Brain pathology and affective disorders • damage in many parts of the brain o amygdala o prefrontal cortex o mesotelencephalic dopamine system • depressed patients suffer from anhedonia—inability to experience pleasure; may explain link to dopamine system 15.3 Anxiety Disorders (Use transparencies TSP105-TSP106.)

• •

•

anxiety—chronic fear that persists in the absence of any direct threat anxiety disorder—anxiety that disrupts normal functioning; associated with physiological stress reactions: o tachycardia—rapid heart rate o hypertension—high blood pressure o nausea o difficulty breathing o sleep disturbances o high glucocorticoid levels 25% of people suffer from an anxiety disorder at one time in their life

The case of M.R., the woman who was afraid to go out • sudden onset—fear of leaving home • suffered dizziness, sweatiness, and heart pounding • had to be escorted out by husband, or one of her children • terrified of crowds Five classes of anxiety disorders • generalized anxiety disorders—stress responses and extreme anxiety in the absence of any precipitating stimuli • phobic anxiety disorders—anxiety triggered by specific objects (e.g., birds, spiders) or situations (e.g., crowds, darkness) • panic disorders—rapid-onset attacks with extreme symptoms (e.g., choking, heart palpitations, shortness of breath) • obsessive-compulsive disorders—frequently occurring anxiety-producing thoughts and behavioral responses to them

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Chapter 15 Psychiatric Disorders • •

posttraumatic stress disorder—persistent pattern of psychological distress following exposure to extreme stress M.R. suffered from agoraphobia—the pathological fear of public places and open spaces

Etiology of anxiety disorders • anxiety triggered by stress • anxiety has a genetic component that interacts with stress Pharmacological treatment of anxiety disorders • Benzodiazepines—e.g., chlordiazepoxide (Librium) and diazepam (Valium) o prescribed for anxiety disorders o also prescribed as hypnotics (sleep-inducing drugs) o most widely prescribed of all drugs o 10% of adults currently take them o side effects: sedation, ataxia, tremor, nausea, addiction, and a withdrawal reaction o because of addictive nature, should only used be used on short-term basis o behavioral effects most likely mediated by GABAA antagonism • serotonin agonists o buspirone—5-HT1A receptor agonist o fewer side effects than benzodiazepines o SSRIs and tricyclic antidepressants also used to treat anxiety Animal models of anxiety • used to study behavior and test anti-anxiety drugs • defensive behaviors o elevated-plus-maze—four-arm maze with two arms enclosed and two arms exposed; measure time rats spend on exposed arms o defense-burying test—measures mount of time rats spray bedding material onto wire-wrapped wooden dowels that deliver shocks o risk-assessment test— rats burrow after brief exposure to a cat, but occasionally surface to assess risk o these paradigms are mostly sensitive to benzodiazepines, but not always to other anxiolytics Neural bases of anxiety disorders • based on benzodiazepines effects on GABAA receptors or serotonin agonists • the amygdala is implicated because of its role in fear • amygdala has high concentration of GABAA receptors • brain imaging has not revealed structural pathology in the amygdala for anxiety disorders • functional brain changes reported, but not consistently

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel 15.4 Tourette Syndrome The case of R.G.—barking mad • tics—involuntary, repetitive, stereotyped movements or vocalizations; first sign • blinking, followed by movements of arms and legs • next he began cursing (a common symptom of Tourette syndrome) and barking like a dog • echolalia (repeating back another person’s phrases) • medication reduced his symptoms by 99% What is Tourette syndrome?

• a disorder of tics, typically beginning in childhood o simple motor tics o complex motor tics, including lewd gestures, hitting, touching, squatting, and twirling o verbal tics—inarticulate sounds, copralalia (obscenities), echolalia, and palilalia (repeating one’s own phrases) • occurs in 0.7% of children • three times more frequent in males than in females • concordance rates for identical twins: 55%; for fraternal twins: 8% • sometimes co-occurs with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, obsessivecompulsive disorder, or both Impediments to the study of the neuropathology of Tourette syndrome • little is known about the neural mechanisms of Tourette syndrome • difficult to study the neural basis of Tourette syndrome o no animal model o no genes implicated o difficult to image brain during tics because of movement Brain mechanisms of Tourette syndrome • very few brains studied postmortem • functional brain imaging of Tourette syndrome o abnormalities in the basal ganglia o abnormalities in the limbic and association cortex Treatment of Tourette syndrome • education of family about the disorder • treat emotional consequences of the disorder • D 2 receptor blockers (antischizophrenic drugs)—decreases activity of basal ganglia • supports the theory of an abnormal basal ganglia–thalamus–cortex feedback circuit The case of P.H., the neuroscientist with Tourette syndrome • medical school faculty member with 30 year history of Tourette syndrome • emotional scars of being teased an important component of the disorder

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Chapter 15 Psychiatric Disorders LECTURE LAUNCHER 3: The Placebo Effect One of the most interesting clinical drug effects is not a drug effect at all, but the placebo effect—a clinically effective response to an inert substance. You can stimulate a great discussion of the placebo effect just by mentioning the term. For some interesting background information, show your class one or more of the online video clips from The Wonder Pill, a show from the Scientific American Frontiers series on PBS available at: http://www.pbs.org/saf/1307/video/watchonline.htm.

15.5 Clinical Trials: Development of New Psychotherapeutic Drugs (Use transparency TSP104.)

• • • •

• •

new treatments discovered daily, but few reach the market 50 years after the start of molecular biology, yet no single gene therapy in use because of high monetary cost and labor-intensive effort testing of new drugs is tightly regulated by the government basic research—first steps of developing a drug (takes at least 5 years) o synthesize the drug o find ways to synthesize it economically o collect evidence from nonhuman subjects that the drug is safe and has a positive effect second set of steps o clinical trials—studies on human subjects o clinical trials have three phases third set of steps—selling drug to the public

Clinical trials: the three phases • screening for safety (phase 1) o small amounts delivered to healthy subjects o on average takes 1.5 years and costs $10 million • establishing the testing protocol (phase 2) o discover the doses that will be effective o administer to patients suffering from the disorder o compare with placebo-control groups o designs are double-blind—neither the patients nor the physicians know whether one is receiving drug or placebo o on average takes 2 years and costs $20 million • the final tests (phase 3) o large study on many patients o benefits must exceed adverse side effects o on average takes 3.5 years and costs $45 million Controversial aspect of clinical trials • requirement for double-blind design and placebo controls o may put patients in the placebo groups at risk o necessary for making clear conclusions • the need for active placebos (placebos with side effects) o otherwise, side effects alert patient to the fact that they are receiving drug, not placebo o active placebos circumvent this problem • length of time required—many want the process speeded up 209

Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel •

financial issues o drug companies make huge investments o companies ask researchers to sign agreements that prohibit publishing negative findings without the consent of the company o because of costs, drug companies rarely invest in drugs to treat rare disorders

Effectiveness of clinical trials • the clinical trial method is objective • produces trustworthy results, although it is a slow and expensive process The case of S.B., the biopsychology student who took control • S.B. is a graduate student of the author • suffered from severe depression, low self-esteem in spite of high achievement • 2 years later became euphoric (i.e., manic), followed rapidly by feelings of inferiority, stupidity, and persecution • hospitalized and diagnosed as having bipolar affective disorder with a mixed episode • needed to take mood stabilizers for the rest of his life • S.B. used his knowledge of biopsychology to read up on newer mood stabilizers and asked to be prescribed one that had recently been shown to have excellent results; the psychiatrists agreed Exercise 15.2 Instructions Direct students to use the Internet to locate articles on research into new psychiatric drugs.

Explain how to find the conclusion of the report in the abstract.

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Chapter 15 Psychiatric Disorders Name: ________________________ Exercise 15.2 Research into New Psychiatric Drugs How to get started: PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ links you to the National Library of Medicine and provides a comprehensive listing of journal articles. Scirus at: http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/ is a search engine specializing in scientific articles. You can type key words into these or any search engine. Remember that more key words will bring up fewer articles, but they will more closely match your search. If you have too few articles retrieved, decrease the number of search terms.

Directions: Find articles on recent drugs of potential use in treating schizophrenia, affective disorders, and anxiety disorders. List the reference (authors, year, journal, volume, and pages) in the first column and the main result in the second column. (Read abstract for main result.) Locate one article for each topic.

One article reference for each illness Schizophrenia

Main result

Affective disorders

Anxiety disorders

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Instructor’s Manual Basics of Biopsychology, Pinel Exercise 15.3 Evaluate Goals Since this is the last chapter of the book, you can ask students if they learned anything new about biopsychology that they found particularly interesting. Do they now have a better appreciation how basic research in biopsychology applies to clinical treatments? Are any of the students interested in patient-oriented careers, for example, as clinical psychologists or psychiatrists? Would any of them like to pursue a career in a research branch of biopsychology? Is there anything about biopsychology that they will find especially useful in their everyday lives?

KEY TERMS (page numbers in Pinel text) active placebos (p. 503) agoraphobia (p. 495) anhedonia (p. 493) anxiety (p. 494) anxiety disorder (p. 494) benzodiazepines (p. 495) bipolar affective disorder (p. 489) butyrophenones (p. 485) cheese effect (p. 490) chlorpromazine (p. 483) clinical trials (p. 501) clozapine (p. 486) depression (p. 488) diathesis (p. 492) endogenous depression (p. 489) generalized anxiety disorders (p. 494) haloperidol (p. 485) imipramine (p. 490) iproniazid (p. 490)

lithium (p. 490) mania (p. 489) MAO inhibitors (p. 490) mood stabilizer (p. 491) neuroleptics (p. 485) obsessive-compulsive disorders (p. 494) panic disorders (p. 495) phenothiazines (p. 485) phobic anxiety disorders (p. 494) posttraumatic stress disorder (p. 495) Prozac (p. 491) psychiatric disorder (p. 481) reactive depression (p. 489) reserpine (p. 483) tics (p. 498) tricyclic antidepressants (p. 490) unipolar affective disorder (p. 489) up-regulation (p. 492)

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Chapter 15 Psychiatric Disorders ADDITIONAL READINGS AND MEDIA RESOURCES BOOKS Surviving Schizophrenia: A Manual for Families, Consumers, and Providers (4th Edition) by E. Fuller Torrey (2001) Harper Collins.

An Unquiet Mind: A Memoir of Moods and Madness by Kay Jamison (1996) Random House.

(An autobiographical account of bipolar disorder.)

MOVIES Troubled Minds: The Lithium Revolution (2004) (DVD, VHS; 52 minutes) Films for the Humanities and Sciences. (Discusses the John Cade discovery of lithium.)

Understanding Mental Illness and Schizophrenia (2004) (DVD, VHS; 24 minutes) Films for the Humanities and Sciences. (An overview of schizophrenia and affective disorders.)

Van Gogh: Medical Secrets (2003) (DVD, VHS; 49 minutes) A Discovery Channel Production.

(Discuses whether or not Van Gogh had bipolar disorder.)

Circuits of Fear: Anxiety Disorders (2001) (DVD, VHS; 51 minutes) A Discovery Channel Production. (Covers panic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder.)

WEBSITES The National Library of Medicine (PubMed): http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ Scirus: http://www.scirus.com/ Wikipedia on Mental Illness: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_illness The National Institute of Mental Health: Specific Conditions: Schizophrenia: http://www.nimh.nih.gov/healthinformation/schizophreniamenu.cfm Bipolar Disorder: http://www.nimh.nih.gov/healthinformation/bipolarmenu.cfm Anxiety Disorders: http://www.nimh.nih.gov/healthinformation/anxietymenu.cfm National Alliance for Research on Schizophrenia and Depression: http://www.narsad.org National Anxiety Foundation: http://lexington-on-line.com/naf.html Tourette’s Syndrome Association: http://www.tsa-usa.org/ Shock Therapy from the Brain and Mind site and the State University of Campinas in Brazil, an examination of the role of ECT, insulin shock, convulsions and other forms of shock therapy: http://www.epub.org.br/cm/n04/historia/shock_i.htm

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APPENDIX

Name: _________________________ Exercise 1.1 Overview of Biopsychology The field of biopsychology is relatively new; however, it is flourishing. This is partly because biopsychology relates to a number current neuroscience disciplines, such as neuroanatomy, neurochemistry, neuroendocrinology, neuropathology, neuropharmacology, and neurophysiology.

The emphasis in biopsychology is upon the relationship between the nervous system and behavior or cognition.

Take this opportunity to look through the entire Pinel book. Pay particular attention to the Table of Contents to get an overview of the field of biopsychology.

Based on material in Chapter 1, as well as on any other part of the book or any prior knowledge you have concerning the brain and behavior, fill out the columns to the right, stating the relationship each neuroscience field has with biopsychology. The first answer is given.

Neuroscience Field Neuroanatomy

Neurochemistry

Neuroendocrinology

Neuropathology

Neuropharmacology

Neurophysiology

Neural cell biology

Relationship to Biopsychology The structure of the brain is related to behavior. Examples include brain size and cognition (although not always proportional), cerebral convolutions and cognition, and areas of brain and cognition.

Name: _________________________ Exercise 1.2 The Human Genome Project How to get started: There are a few guidelines to follow. Look for Websites that end in .org or .gov. These sites are monitored and kept up-to-date by health organizations or governmental agencies, for example, by the National Institutes of Health (NIH). PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ links you to the National Library of Medicine.

You can type key words into any search engine, but there are also search engines that specialize in scientific information such as Scirus at: http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/. Remember that the Internet is always changing, so be creative. You can find sites in any number of different ways. Check the last date the Website was updated to be sure the information offered is current.

Directions: Find websites giving information about the Human Genome Project related to topics listed in the first column. Fill in the website address, the name of the host institute or organization, and a brief description of the information on the site.

Address of a website Name of the institute or Brief description of concerning each topic organization host information History of the Human Genome Project

Structural proteins found in the human genome

Brain proteins found in the human genome

Name: _________________________ Exercise 2.1 Neurons, Neurons, Neurons There are many techniques that beautifully illustrate neurons. In this exercise you will either copy photomicrographs (photos of microscopic images) from academic journals in the library or print examples from journal articles or other websites on the Internet, then paste these examples on this page or attach on separate pages.

You can access journals articles using PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/, which links you to the National Library of Medicine. Any search engine, but particularly a science-specialized search engine such as Scirus at: http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/, will locate scientific articles, as well as websites maintained by governmental agencies, universities, and research institutes.

Find photomicrographs of neurons. List journal reference (authors, year, journal, volume, and pages) or Internet webpage address and give credit to scientist, then paste photomicrograph.

Journal reference or website Paste photomicrograph here or attach on separate sheet address and credits Golgi technique

Nissl stain

Other methods (e.g., fluorescent dyes)

Name: _________________________ Exercise 2.3 Having Fun with Neuroanatomy Neuroanatomical structures have seemingly ancient names, which in many cases are Latin or Greek in derivation. Often these names are suggestive of the structure’s pigmentation or shape (e.g., the hippocampus is named for its sea-horse shape, and the amygdala is named for its almond shape).

Students often complain that neuroanatomical names are difficult to learn because the language is awkward and out-of date. Here is your chance to do a better job at naming neuroanatomical structures. Be sincere and try to think of names that relate to the shape, pigmentation, or function of the structure, yet are simple and modern.

Description of the neuroanatomical structure This structure is found in the midbrain and has a dark, blackish pigment. It participates in voluntary motor functions.

This is a small version of the cerebrum found in the hindbrain. It is involved with fast, repetitive movements.

This collection of nuclei forms a large, two lobed structure responsible for relaying different kinds of sensory information.

These matched protruding structures are found in the midbrain and are involved with vision.

This structure has a tail-like shape and its function is related to voluntary movement.

This structure is composed of fibers circling around the thalamus connecting the hippocampus with the septum.

Given Name

You intent a new, more contemporary name

Name: _________________________ Exercise 3.1 The Resting Potential The neuron has a resting potential, which is essential for the generation of graded potentials and action potentials.

(1) Sketch ions on both sides of the neuronal membrane: Include sodium ions, potassium ions, and chloride ions.

(2) Adjust the concentration of ions across the membrane so that it reflects a typical resting potential of –70 mV. Be sure to show which ions: sodium, potassium, or chloride ions are more concentrated outside the neuron, as compared to inside, and which ions are more concentrated inside the neuron compared to the outside of the neuron.

(3) Show what keeps ions on one or the other side of the neuronal membrane.

Inside of Neuron

Outside of Neuron

Name: _________________________ Exercise 3.2 Knockout Mice and Transgenics How to get started: PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ links you to the National Library of Medicine and provides a comprehensive listing of journal articles. Scirus at: http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/ is a search engine specializing in scientific articles. You can type key words into these or any search engine. Remember that more key words will bring up fewer articles, but they will more closely match your search. If you have too few articles retrieved, decrease the number of search terms.

Directions: Find recent articles on knockout mice and transgenics. List the reference (authors, year, journal, volume, and pages) in the first column and the main result in the second column.

(Read abstract for main result.) Locate one article for each topic (knockout mice missing a glutamate receptor, knockout mice missing a nicotinic receptor, and transgenic mice having a human gene added).

One article reference for each topic Knockout mice missing a glutamate receptor

Knockout mice missing a nicotinic receptor

Transgenic mice having a human gene added

Main result

Name: _________________________ Exercise 4.1 Sketch the Eye and the Retina (1) Make a sketch of the eyeball. Include the cornea, lens, ciliary muscles, retina, fovea, optic nerve, and blind spot.

(2) Make a sketch of the retina. Include the photoreceptor cells (rods and cones), bipolar cells, horizontal cells, amacrine cells and ganglion cells The Eye

The Retina

Name: _________________________ Exercise 4.2 Research into Blindsight and Agnosias How to get started: PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ links you to the National Library of Medicine and provides a comprehensive listing of journal articles. Scirus at: http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/ is a search engine specializing in scientific articles. You can type key words into these or any search engine. Remember that more key words will bring up fewer articles, but they will more closely match your search. If you have too few articles retrieved, decrease the number of search terms.

Directions: Find articles on blindsight, face agnosia (prosopagnosia), and visual agnosia (other than prosopagnosia). List the reference (authors, year, journal, volume, and pages) in the first column and the main result in the second column. (Read abstract for main result.) Locate one article for each topic.

One article reference for each topic Blindsight

Face agnosia (prosopagnosia)

Visual agnosia (other than prosopagnosia)

Main result

Name: _________________________ Exercise 5.1 Sketch the Ear and the Auditory Pathway (1) Make a sketch of the ear. Include major parts of the outer, middle, and inner ear. Also include fine details of the cochlea cut in cross section (e.g., the organ of Corti, tectorial membrane, basilar membrane, and hair cells).

(2) Make a sketch of the auditory pathway starting with the cochlear nucleus and ending in primary auditory cortex.

The Ear

The Auditory Pathway

Name: _________________________ Exercise 5.2 Research into Selective Attention How to get started: PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ links you to the National Library of Medicine and provides a comprehensive listing of journal articles. Scirus at: http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/ is a search engine specializing in scientific articles. You can type key words into these or any search engine. Remember that more key words will bring up fewer articles, but they will more closely match your search. If you have too few articles retrieved, decrease the number of search terms.

Directions: Find articles on selective attention, change blindness, and simultanagnosia. List the reference (authors, year, journal, volume, and pages) in the first column and the main result in the second column. (Read abstract for main result.) Locate one article for each topic.

One article reference for each topic Selective attention

Change blindness

Simultanagnosia

Main result

Name: _________________________ Exercise 6.1 Sketch the Areas of Motor Cortex Make two sketches of the cerebral cortex: one of the outer surface, the other a midline view. Draw and label the following motor areas: primary motor cortex, secondary motor cortex, posterior parietal association cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and cingulate motor areas.

Motor Areas Seen on the Outer Cortical Surface

Motor Areas on Medial Cortical Surface

Name: _________________________ Exercise 6.2 Research into Sensorimotor Deficits How to get started: PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ links you to the National Library of Medicine and provides a comprehensive listing of journal articles. Scirus at: http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/ is a search engine specializing in scientific articles. You can type key words into these or any search engine. Remember that more key words will bring up fewer articles, but they will more closely match your search. If you have too few articles retrieved, decrease the number of search terms.

Directions: Find articles on apraxia, contralateral neglect, and astereognosia. List the reference (authors, year, journal, volume, and pages) in the first column and the main result in the second column. (Read abstract for main result.) Locate one article for each topic.

One article reference for each topic Apraxia

Contralateral neglect

Astereognosia

Main result

Name: ________________________ Exercise 7.1 Early Neural Development Fill out the blanks on this sheet based on the following information.

(1) Typical Early Pregnancy Tests—tests for human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) show positive results 14 – 19 days after conception; however, retesting may be necessary if results are negative. Some more sensitive tests have recently become available.

(2) First sign of missed period—occurs approximately 14 days after conception (varies with female).

(3) Average time female becomes sure of missed period—approximately 21 days after conception. (This is highly individual.)

Stage Conception

Neural plate

Neural groove

Neural tube

Cell proliferation (begins)

Cell migration (begins)

Age of Embryo (in days)

How can the woman tell she is pregnant? (1, 2, or 3)

Name: _________________________ Exercise 7.2 Neurogenesis in adult animals How to get started: PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ links you to the National Library of Medicine and provides a comprehensive listing of journal articles. Scirus at: http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/ is a search engine specializing in scientific articles. You can type key words into these or any search engine. Remember that more key words will bring up fewer articles, but they will more closely match your search. If you have too few articles retrieved, decrease the number of search terms.

Directions: Find recent articles on neurogenesis in the different brain regions and different species listed. List the reference (authors, year, journal, volume, and pages) in the first column, the species in the second and the time the neurons survived in the third column. Locate two articles for each brain area.

Two article references for each brain area Hippocampus

Olfactory bulb

Neocortex

Species (rat, monkey)

Survival period (days, months)

Name: _________________________ Exercise 8.1 Locate Websites for Neurological Disorders If you or a family member were ever faced with a potentially serious neurological disease or injury, you might want to learn as much as possible about it. The Internet is a valuable aid, but what information can you trust? How do you get valid information from the Internet? We will learn these skills.

There are a few guidelines to follow. Look for Websites that end in .org or .gov. These sites are monitored and kept up-to-date by health organizations and by the US government, often by the National Institutes of Health (NIH). PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ links you to the National Library of Medicine.

You can type key words into any search engine, but there are also search engines that specialize in scientific information such as Scirus at: http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/. Remember that the Internet is always changing, so be creative. You can find sites in any number of different ways. Check the last date the Website was updated to be sure the information offered is current.

Directions: Use the Internet to find Websites that give up-to-date information to patients, family members, clinicians or researchers for the following neurological disorders.

Disorder Internet Address Information available for whom (e.g., patients) Brain tumors

Epilepsy

Parkinson’s disease

Huntington’s disease

Multiple sclerosis

Alzheimer’s disease

Name: _________________________ Exercise 8.2 Locate Potential Treatments for Parkinson’s Disease or Alzheimer’s Disease If you or a family member were ever faced with a potentially serious neurological disease or ailment, you might want to try the most recent treatments available. How would you find this information?

There are a few guidelines to follow. Use Websites that end in .org or .gov. These sites are monitored and kept up-to-date by health organizations and by the US government. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) has a Website linking to clinical trials: http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/. At this site you can browse by condition or search by location. PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ links you to the National Library of Medicine and provides a comprehensive listing of journal articles. You can limit your search to clinical studies. National associations also post news reports or summaries of up-and-coming treatments. Some potential treatments are at the preclinical stage (i.e., limited to animal models).

You can type key words into any search engine, but there are also search engines that specialize in scientific information such as Scirus http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/. Remember that the Internet is always changing, so be creative. You can find sites in any number of different ways. Check the last date the Website was updated to be sure the information offered is current.

Directions: Use the Internet to find clinical trials, journal articles, news reports or grant project summaries suggesting new treatments for Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease.

Name of the website for the following disorder Parkinson’s disease

Alzheimer’s disease

Internet address and last time updated

Potential treatment and current status

Name: ________________________ Exercise 9.1 Amnesia as a Subject in Cinema Movies portraying amnesia are currently popular, and they have been a theme of films for many years. The purpose of this exercise is to show how the portrayal of amnesia is often not realistic, even though the dramatic quality of the film may be excellent.

(1) Watch a movie that deals amnesia—You can find movies dealing with amnesia online using key search terms such as: “movie” and “amnesia” or “DVD” and “amnesia”. Dr. John Kihlstrom at UC Berkeley has listed a number of films dealing with amnesia at: http://istsocrates.berkeley.edu/~kihlstrm/movies.htm (2) Compare the way amnesia is portrayed in the film to the ways it is discussed in class— Usually, amnesia will not be represented accurately (see Baxendale, S. Memories aren't made of this: amnesia at the movies. BMJ. 329:1480–1483, 2004.) Available on PubMed. (3) Fill out the worksheet.

What was the name of the movie?

What caused amnesia in the film’s character?

Was the cause the amnesia realistic? Why or why not?

How was retrograde memory affected in the film’s character?

How was anterograde memory affected in the film’s character?

Was the affect on retrograde or anterograde memory realistic?

Did you enjoy this movie?

Why or why not?

Name: ________________________ Exercise 9.2 Synaptic Mechanisms of Learning and Memory How to get started: PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ links you to the National Library of Medicine and provides a comprehensive listing of journal articles. Scirus at: http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/ is a search engine specializing in scientific articles. You can type key words into these or any search engine. Remember that more key words will bring up fewer articles, but they will more closely match your search. If you have too few articles retrieved, decrease the number of search terms.

Directions: Find recent articles on synaptic mechanisms of learning and memory. List the reference (authors, year, journal, volume, and pages) in the first column, the experimental preparation in the second and the main result in the third column. (Read abstract for main result.)

Locate one article for each topic (LTP, LTD, and dendritic spine plasticity).

One article reference for each topic LTP

LTD

dendritic spine plasticity

Preparation (intact animal, tissue slice, computer model)

Main result

Name: _________________________ Exercise 10.1 Are You More Influenced by Set Points or Positive Incentives? your answers on the right. Note that the Yes and No order is reversed for the second set of questions. Tally your answers at the bottom of the sheet.

FIRST SET OF QUESTIONS

Mark

Yes

No

No

Yes

Do you interpret feeling physically tired as a sign you need to eat?

Have you ever felt weak, and needed to eat something quickly?

Have you ever eaten several small snacks, and skipped meals?

Does exercising make you hungry?

Do you get very hungry after having been out in the cold?

When you exercise less, do you feel barely hungry?

Do you eat about the same, regardless of the dish?

Do you eat less after watching TV than after vigorous exercise?

Are you always able to resist tempting foods when you are not hungry?

When out for dinner, do you eat about the same amount as at home?

When eating out, do you order the same type of food as you eat at home?

SECOND SET OF QUESTIONS Do you love the smell of certain foods?

Does the way food looks affect your appetite for it?

Do you love to eat your own cooking?

Do you like to make cookies?

Do you like to go out to eat?

Do you order things on the menu that you ordinarily do not eat at home?

Are these menu items ever rich in calories?

Is one of your favorite foods ice cream?

Do you ever eat candy or ice cream when you have just had a meal?

Do you think that food is more fun with friends?

Do you ever eat fatty, fast food?

Totals

#1 ___ #2 ___

Name: ________________________ Exercise 10.2 Research on Obesity and Eating Disorders How to get started: PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ links you to the National Library of Medicine and provides a comprehensive listing of journal articles. Scirus at: http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/ is a search engine specializing in scientific articles. You can type key words into these or any search engine. Remember that more key words will bring up fewer articles, but they will more closely match your search. If you have too few articles retrieved, decrease the number of search terms.

Directions: Find recent articles on obesity, anorexia nervosa, and bulimia. List the reference (authors, year, journal, volume, and pages) in the first column, the experimental subject in the second, and the main result in the third column. (Read abstract for main result.) Locate one article for each topic (obesity, anorexia nervosa, and bulimia).

One article reference for each topic Obesity

Anorexia nervosa

Bulimia

Subjects (males, females, age groups)

Main result

Name: ________________________ Exercise 11.1 Teaching Sexual Reproduction to Kids Locate media that would facilitate teaching the following topics to different age groups.

Possible sources for books, DVD’s, video clips, and Internet articles include: www.amazon.com; www.barnesandnoble.com; and the Internet.

Give full title and media type, as well as the suitable age group, for each topic listed in the left-hand column.

Topic Developmental versus activation effects of sex hormones.

Sex hormones.

The pituitary gland.

Reproduction cycle in the female.

Hypothalamic control over the pituitary.

Discovery of hypothalamic releasing hormones.

Gonadal endocrine regulation.

Media (intended age group)

Name: ________________________ Exercise 11.2 Effects of Gonadal Hormones How to get started: PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ links you to the National Library of Medicine and provides a comprehensive listing of journal articles. Scirus at: http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/ is a search engine specializing in scientific articles. You can type key words into these or any search engine. Remember that more key words will bring up fewer articles, but they will more closely match your search. If you have too few articles retrieved, decrease the number of search terms.

Directions: Find recent articles on effects of gonadal hormones in humans. List the reference (authors, year, journal, volume, and pages) in the first column, the subjects’ sex and age ranges in the second column, and the main effect in the third column. (Read abstract for main effect.) Locate one article for each topic (orchidectomy, ovariectomy, and anabolic steroid use).

One article reference for each topic Orchidectomy

Ovariectomy

Anabolic steroid use

Subject (sex, age)

Effect on hormones levels and sexual activity

Name: ________________________ Exercise 12.1 The Sleep Quiz Candidly answer the questions about your sleep habits. This quiz will not be collected and no one will see your answers.

If you want to further analyze your sleep habits for average sleep time, sleep problems, and things such as caffeine intake, you can access a simple, easy-to-complete sleep log at: http://www.talkaboutsleep.com/sleep-disorders/archives/sleeplog.pdf.

Keep this sheet and other records you make until finishing the chapter on sleep.

Give approximate answers to the following: How many hours do you sleep per night during the week?

How many hours per night do you sleep on the weekend?

What time to you usually go to bed during the week?

What time do you usually wake up during the week?

What time do you usually go to bed on the weekend?

What time do you usually wake up on the weekend?

Do you remember your dreams?

Name: ________________________ Exercise 12.2 Circadian Clock Mechanisms How to get started: PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ links you to the National Library of Medicine and provides a comprehensive listing of journal articles. Scirus at: http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/ is a search engine specializing in scientific articles. You can type key words into these or any search engine. Remember that more key words will bring up fewer articles, but they will more closely match your search. If you have too few articles retrieved, decrease the number of search terms.

Directions: Find articles on circadian rhythms, the suprachiasmatic nucleus, and the pineal gland.

List the reference (authors, year, journal, volume, and pages) in the first column and the main result in the second column. (Read abstract for main result.) Locate one article for each topic.

One article reference for each topic Circadian rhythms

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

Pineal gland

Main result

Name: _________________________ Exercise 13.1 Anticipated Drug-Related Behavior at Age 40 Drug-use patterns often change with age. On average, marijuana use tends to decrease with increasing age. On the other hand, biological factors such as genetically-based susceptibility to addiction means that some behaviors acquired in young adulthood (or earlier) will lead to exaggerated behaviors later in life, and in some cases, problems. Alcohol addiction is one such example, where drinking at a young age is correlated with higher rates of alcoholism later in life.

This exercise asks you to look ahead and guess your drug-related behaviors at age 40. The sheet will NOT be collected, so be candid with your answers. Please incorporate into your answers other expectations you have for yourself at that age, including family and career aspirations.

Answer these questions hypothetically, as you expect them to be when you are 40 years old.

Do you use smoking tobacco on a regular basis? If yes, how much do you smoke per day?

Do you drink alcohol on a regular basis? If yes, how many drinks do you drink per week?

Do you smoke marijuana on a regular basis? If yes, how much do you smoke per month?

Do you use cocaine or amphetamine at all? If yes, how much do you use per year?

Do you use any other illicit drug at all? If yes, how much do you use per year?

Has your drug use, if any, affected your life? How? Is your level of drug use, if any, the same as when you were in college? Have the drugs you use changed?

Forum for classroom discussion: How is your current behavior similar or dissimilar to your expectations for yourself at age 40? Are you on the course you want to be?

Name: ________________________ Exercise 13.2 Research on Psychoneuroimmunology How to get started: PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ links you to the National Library of Medicine and provides a comprehensive listing of journal articles. Scirus at: http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/ is a search engine specializing in scientific articles. You can type key words into these or any search engine. Remember that more key words will bring up fewer articles, but they will more closely match your search. If you have too few articles retrieved, decrease the number of search terms.

Directions: Find articles on stress and susceptibility to infectious disease, early experiences of stress, and stress and the hippocampus. List the reference (authors, year, journal, volume, and pages) in the first column and the main result in the second column. (Read abstract for main result.)

Locate one article for each topic.

One article reference for each topic Stress and susceptibility to infectious disease

Early experiences of stress

Stress and the hippocampus

Main result

Name: ________________________ Exercise 14.1 Brain Damage and Language Deficits Describe the areas of brain involved with the following language deficits as accurately as possible.

Mention the lobe, the anterior-posterior, dorsal-ventral, or medial-lateral position, if appropriate, and the relation to other language areas.

Answer the following questions, giving as much detail as possible.

What part of the brain is frequently damaged with Broca’s aphasia?

What part of the brain is frequently damaged with Wernicke’s aphasia?

What part of the brain is frequently damaged with conduction aphasia?

What part of the brain is frequently damaged with global aphasia?

What part of the brain might be damaged with alexia?

What part of the brain might be with agraphia?

What part of the brain might be damaged with dyslexia?

Name: ________________________ Exercise 14.2 Cognitive Neuroscience Studies of Language How to get started: PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ links you to the National Library of Medicine and provides a comprehensive listing of journal articles. Scirus at: http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/ is a search engine specializing in scientific articles. You can type key words into these or any search engine. Remember that more key words will bring up fewer articles, but they will more closely match your search. If you have too few articles retrieved, decrease the number of search terms.

Directions: Find articles in which the researchers used PET or fMRI imaging to study naming, reading, or speaking. List the reference (authors, year, journal, volume, and pages) in the first column and the main result in the second column. (Read abstract for main result.) Locate one article for each topic.

One article reference for each topic PET or fMRI study on naming

PET or fMRI study on reading

PET or fMRI study on speaking

Main result

Name: ________________________ Exercise 15.1 Treatments for Mental Disorders: Timelines Beginning with the 1950’s, fill in the notable discoveries of drugs used to treat schizophrenia and the affective disorders: depression and bipolar disorder.

Timeline for the Development of Treatments for Schizophrenia

1950 present [_______________________________________________________________________]

Timeline for the Development of Treatments for Affective Disorders

1950 present [_______________________________________________________________________]

Name: ________________________ Exercise 15.2 Research into New Psychiatric Drugs How to get started: PubMed at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ links you to the National Library of Medicine and provides a comprehensive listing of journal articles. Scirus at: http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/ is a search engine specializing in scientific articles. You can type key words into these or any search engine. Remember that more key words will bring up fewer articles, but they will more closely match your search. If you have too few articles retrieved, decrease the number of search terms.

Directions: Find articles on recent drugs of potential use in treating schizophrenia, affective disorders, and anxiety disorders. List the reference (authors, year, journal, volume, and pages) in the first column and the main result in the second column. (Read abstract for main result.) Locate one article for each topic.

One article reference for each illness Schizophrenia

Affective disorders

Anxiety disorders

Main result