Decarbonisation In Megacities: A Case Of Shenzhen, China
March 2023
Decarbonisation In Megacities: A Case Of Shenzhen.
Research Project submitted in partial fulfilment
M.Sc. International Cooperation in Urban Development
Technische Universität Darmstadt
Student
Swarna Selvarajhan
Supervisor
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jörg Dettmar
5.2.3
Abstract
China is the world's largest energy consumer and accounts for about one-third of the global carbon emissions, making the nation's role in limiting the global temperature rise to 1 5°C much bigger In recent decades, China has made a great effort to invest in renewable and clean energy and has fostered efforts to develop low-carbon economies by creating low-carbon cities. This study aims to understand the low carbon city development in the context of China. Furthermore, the research narrows down its focus on the case of Shenzhen. It aims to analyse the effect of decarbonisation policies on the urban development of Shenzhen city. The methodological framework of this research is primarily qualitative. The research methods are a literature review, semi-structured interviews, and a case study approach The low-carbon city (LCC) initiative was proposed in the Fourth Plenary Session of the 16th Chinese Communist Party Central Committee. In the case of Shenzhen, it seems to show a long-term positive effect when it comes to decarbonisation.
Keywords: Low-Carbon Cities, Low-Carbon Development, Decarbonisation, Shenzhen, China, Policy Direction
1. Introduction
China is the world's largest energy consumer and accounts for one-third of the global carbon emissions, making the nation's role in limiting the global temperature rise to 1.5 °C much bigger. Addressing the UN General Assembly in late 2020, President Xi Jinping announced that China will aim to peak its CO2 emissions before 2030 and achieve carbon neutrality by 2060 (IEA, 2021a). As noted in IRENA (2022), China’s renewable electricity accounted for approximately 30% of total electricity output and 42% of the national power generation capacity at the end 2020. Renewables in the energy mix are critical Currently, 60% of the nation's population reside in cities, consuming 85% of the total national energy supply and are responsible for around 70% of total national energy-related CO2 emissions. Furthermore, in the next three decades, it has been projected that another 250 million people will become urban dwellers in China (IRENA, 2022).
In recent decades, China has made a great effort to invest in renewable and clean energy. According to an article from BloombergNEF from early 2022, China has become the leading country for energy transition investment, with a reported $266 billion spent on developing low-carbon technologies, over $137 billion invested in solar projects, and $110 billion invested in the electrified transport sector. Moreover, according to the South China Morning Post, from January 2022, China will have more hydropower, wind, solar and biomass capacity in 2020 than any other country, at 385GW, 299GW, 282GW and 35 34GW, respectively
In response to rapid urbanisation and environmental impacts, China launched the Low-Carbon Pilot Cities (LCPC) as a part of the 12th Five-Year Plan (FYP) in 2010. The Low Carbon Pilot Cities Program aims to steer China’s cities to achieve early carbon peaking and neutrality through strategic intervention for deep decarbonisation and create a low-carbon economy by transitioning to non-fossil fuel energy systems. Accordingly, eight low-carbon pilot cities and five pilot provinces were chosen to test the policies and practices (Khanna et al , 2014; Peng and Deng, 2021) The pilot projects present exciting opportunities for reform and governance (Song et al., 2020).
Shenzhen was amongst the first cities to be a part of LCPC through its ambitious multilayered Low-Carbon City (LCC) initiative. It demonstrated innovation in sustainable urban transformation and future-oriented city planning. The city developed into a carbon-intense technological R&D hub and the built environment was to be transformed into a low-carbon, post-industrial urban revitalisation model under this initiative. LCC prioritised preserving and renovating existing buildings to meet the most recent environmental standards; while pursuing new construction of cutting-edge, low-carbon buildings and urban infrastructure (C40 Cities, 2017a; Kanagawa and Saito, 2013).
The study aims to evaluate the performance of Chinese cities on low-carbon economic growth through the case study of Shenzhen city. This research focuses on understanding the implementation and the effect of policies on the economy and development in Shenzhen, China and on how the policies have shaped the city's development in the past decade.
1.1 Why Shenzhen?
Since China transformed its planned socialist system to a market-based economy under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping in 1978, China has accomplished unparalleled economic and social development growth. Industrialisation and GDP have been the core of its economic transition. The Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party (CPC) has focused on developing the coastal regions. Four of five coastal provinces Guangdong, Henan, Jiangsu and Shandong are the most heavily populated regions in the country. Shenzhen is a major city in Guangdong province (IEA, 2021a; Khanna et al , 2014)
Concentrated industrialisation has been accompanied by rapid urbanisation and increasing economic prospects. At the same time, such a radical shift caused some negative environmental consequences, such as high energy consumption and emission (IEA, 2021a; IEA, 2021b; IEA, 2022). The annual migration was approximately 13 million people from rural areas to urban centres by 2010 in China's cities (Khanna et al , 2014)
Intranational migration from rural to urban regions can boost migrants' livelihoods and
assist those who remain in their home nations This social and economic stability can only be realised through energy, which allows migrants to earn a living and sustain themselves at their destination and their families back home (Scott et al., 2018).
Shenzhen has become one of China's most urbanised port cities, since it was selected as the first Special Economic Zone (SEZ) to practise market-capitalism in 1979. With favourable policies attracting Chinese and foreign investments, it has been the first experimental ground for four pillar industries high-tech, modern finance, logistics and culture (Du, 2020; Ng, 2003; Wang et al., 2009). The nominal GDP of Shenzhen exceeded that of its neighbouring cities, Guangzhou and Hong Kong, and is among the top ten global cities with the largest economies in 2019. However, the environment has taken a hit in the face of the city's ambitious economic reforms and industrial-focused development (Kanagawa and Saito, 2013; South China Morning Post, 2018).
According to a study done by Wu et al (2016) on energy usage data, the city had 106 Mt CO2 in 2010. Unlike most Chinese cities, Shenzhen's CO2 emissions were prominently from electricity consumption and not coal consumption, which accounted for 36% of the total emission volume. While 55% of emissions are a result of industrial emissions and 32% for service industries.
Therefore, the case study of Shenzhen the leading industrial city of China is significant to grasp the transformation of an industrial and manufacturing positioned high-carbon generating city into a low-carbon city. Since industrialisation and carbon emission is a common phenomenon in cities around the world, it is worth considering a case study of a city in China where it appears extreme.
1.2 Research Questions
The study aims to understand the Low carbon city development in the context of China. Furthermore, the research narrows down its focus to the case of Shenzhen. It aims to analyse the effect of decarbonisation policies on the urban development of Shenzhen city, through the following questions:
1 What policies and regulations framework are directed in the city of Shenzhen to achieve the goal of a low-carbon city?
2. What are the challenges of implementing the policies in Shenzhen to achieve the goal of a low-carbon city?
2. Methodology
The methodological framework of this research is primarily qualitative. This method is chosen because it allows an understanding of the development of low-carbon city initiatives in Shenzhen and understand how decarbonisation is being realised. Additionally, qualitative research allows for a detailed exploration of a topic of interest in which a researcher collects information through literature review, case studies, and semi-structured interviews. Therefore, the research methods are a literature review, semi-structured interviews, and a case study approach
Firstly, the literature review uses secondary data such as scientific papers, journals, books, reports, newspaper articles, video documentaries, publicly available government documents, etc. It helped to understand and collect data on the concept and various evolving definitions of low-carbon city initiatives. It also expanded the understanding by studying and analysing various critiques and debates
Secondly, the literature review and the document analysis allowed an understanding of how Low-carbon city initiatives shaped Chinese cities’ development policies. Furthermore, these documents revealed how Shenzhen defines low-carbon city initiatives and development policies. It gives a detailed record of the initiatives implemented in the city.
Five semi-structured interviews were conducted to understand the impact of the low-carbon initiatives in Shenzhen. The semi-structured interviews enabled different interviewees to express their experiences in detail. They provided the opportunity to capture a wide diversity of experiences, perceptions, and understanding of the study area. Two of the five interviews were extended as they were available for more questions.
The case study approach is chosen as this helps to avoid over-generalisation
The case city chosen was Shenzhen. Shenzhen is an ideal case study to understand the low-carbon city initiatives in China because it is the leading industrial city of Southern China and is significant in understanding the transformation of a carbon-dependent industrial hub into a low-carbon city. Since industrialisation and carbon emission are common phenomena in cities around the world today, it is worth considering a case study of a city in China where it appears extreme. Therefore, making it an ideal case study for the research Finally, selecting Shenzhen as a case study also allows for a deeper understanding of the place-based dynamics of a city’s interpretation of the low-carbon initiatives.
3. Literature Review
3.1 Low Carbon Development (LCD)
With ever-increasing fossil energy consumption, carbon emission has grown beyond what the ecological environment can tolerate, resulting in rising global temperatures, polar glaciers melting, and extreme weather and climate events occurring frequently (Revesz et al., 2014). Thus making an emphasis on low-carbon (LC) development an essential tool to reduce Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Baeumler et al., 2012). It is the symbiosis of climate change mitigation and development (Urban et al., 2013). The IPCC (2018) report highlights that it is necessary to reduce GHG emissions to 45% by 2030 and achieve net-zero by 2050 to limit global warming to 1.5 °C, indicating a need for a drastic shift in the energy system. Thus, there is a need to prioritise the development and economy from fossil energy to a more sustainable, green, and renewable form of energy (IEA, 2022; Urban and Nordensvärd, 2013; Yuan and Zuo, 2011; Mulugetta and Urban, 2010)
As the global advocate and pioneer in low-carbon economy development, the UK focused on solving its domestic carbon emissions reduction and alternative transition problems. It actively promoted low-carbon economic development worldwide (The Government of the UK, 2011). Japan attached great importance to a low-carbon economy
in Asia, mainly promoting energy and environmental technology research and development (Hayashida, 2018).
Similarly, China has the initiative to integrate low-carbon development (LCD) by readjusting the industrial structure, improving energy efficiency, and developing clean and renewable energy strategies (IEA, 2021a). As a significant greenhouse gas-emitting nation and a responsible world power, China committed to cutting down carbon dioxide emissions per unit of GDP by 40–45 % by the year 2020 compared with that in 2005 (Wen, 2009). According to the Energy Research Institute of China National Development and Reform Commission's report on 'China's Low-carbon Development Path to 2050,' low-carbon development's core is establishing a socio-economic framework that can effectively achieve low carbon emissions. (Energy Institute Team, 2009). A World Bank publication emphasises that the main areas focused on are the emission reduction potentials in energy efficiency, consumer management, power generation from renewable energy, and low-carbon transport (Fay et al., 2015). Similarly, in the case of Singapore, the three main features of the low-carbon transaction are more clean energy and improved energy efficiency, reducing carbon footprint through technological and policy innovation; and becoming the leader of low-carbon development and helping developing countries to cope with climate change (Council and Level, 2015).
In Corwin and Pankratz (2021), the authors argue that the Low-carbon development will help upgrade and maintain a climate-versatile system by developing climate-integrated technologies. A better management and conservation of natural resources on which economic development relies on , whilst reducing pollution which can jeopardise long-term prosperity. Low-carbon development includes, among other things, implementing policies and indicators that regulate energy efficiency measures, integration of renewable energy, and sustainable transportation. These policies and measures can be implemented at the national, regional, and local levels (OECD, 2015a; OECD, 2015b)
At the same time, certain developing nations, including Guyana, seek more excellent growth prospects through low-carbon development. Guyana's approach to low-carbon development involves investing in low-carbon economy infrastructure,
increasing resources allocated to low-carbon economy sectors, promoting sustainable development of forestry-based economic sectors, and enhancing human capital (LCDS, 2022). Despite variations in interpretations, there is a shared understanding that low-carbon development entails reducing greenhouse gas emissions, utilising low-carbon energy, and ensuring economic advancement.
3.1.1 Low-carbon economy
The low-carbon economy has become the predominant model for economic development. The UK government introduced the concept in its Energy White Paper in 2003, which aimed to achieve greater economic output while consuming fewer natural resources and causing less environmental pollution (The Government of UK, 2015)
According to The Guardian (2008), the EU's low-carbon economy is focused on reducing CO2 emissions, decreasing the use of traditional fossil fuels and increasing the utilisation of renewable energy based on individual targets. As a key member of the EU, Germany believes that a low-carbon economy should balance economic growth with expensive climate protection (Tänzler, 2008). In the 21st century, a low-carbon economy means harmonising population growth, economic development, and environmental protection (Cranston and Hammond, 2010).
Deliberating two US researchers, Hughes and Chandler in Mao (2009), as cited in Yuan et al. (2011), the primary objective of a low-carbon economy,, is to minimise CO2 emissions while adhering to economic regulations. In Australia's Action on Climate Change, the low-carbon economy is centred around reducing CO2 emissions, encouraging the adoption of renewable energy, enhancing research and development of clean energy and CCS technology, and promoting the reduction of CO2 emissions by all residents, businesses, and communities, according to the Government of Australia in 2010 (Yuan et al., 2011). The Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership (REEEP, 2012) report explains that a low-carbon economy is a developmental trajectory that strives for global economic growth while controlling the rise in energy demand, promoting the production of low-carbon products, and ensuring an adequate and secure energy supply simultaneously. China has also prioritised low-carbon
development, with Wang et al (2018) defining it as achieving minimal CO2 emissions through technological and systemic innovations while maintaining economic growth.
According to Jiang and Kang (2019), Zhang (2010) and Zhang et al. (2017), a low-carbon economy links regional pollution control, climate change mitigation and sustainable development. The core concept of a low-carbon economy is to prioritise economic growth with low consumption, low emissions, and high output A low-carbon economy is a broad concept that includes low-carbon industry, technology, and lifestyle. Its primary objective is to improve energy efficiency, encourage the development of clean regions, promote low-carbon production, and maintain the world's ecological balance. While the above interpretations share various similarities, Liu (2012) states that there is yet to be a consensus on a standardised definition of a low-carbon economy.
To achieve a low-carbon economy, it is essential to maintain low levels of energy consumption, pollution, and emissions. Advancements in the energy sector through innovative technologies are necessary to promote a low-carbon economy. The ultimate aim of a low-carbon economy is to achieve sustainable development. Japan and other nations often refer to the concept of a low-carbon society. ADB (2013) reports that Japan's Low-Carbon Society stresses the need for a low-carbon society to adhere to these fundamental principles: minimising emissions in all sectors, adopting a simple lifestyle whilst enhancing quality and living in harmony with nature
Skea and Nishioka (2015) concluded that a low-carbon society should carry out actions consistent with principles of sustainable development: ensure all social groups' development demands can be satisfied, contribute to reducing GHG emissions in the course of preventing disasters caused by climate change, achieve high energy efficiency, use low-carbon energy and manufacturing technologies and finally adopt low-carbon living and consumption styles. This aligns with 'The Government Foresight Report on Climate and Energy Policy'
According to the report published by the Government of Finland in 2009, a low-carbon society is one where climate preservation and minimising CO2
emissions ultimately encompassing zero emissions have been accomplished worldwide.
3.2 Low-Carbon City Development of China
During the Copenhagen Conference in 2009, China announced its plan to reduce its carbon emission intensity by 40% from the 2005 level by 2020 (Baeumler et al., 2012), a particular target in reducing GHG emissions. In 2010, the 12th Five-Year Plan (FYP) was published, which proposed a series of social and economic development initiatives and oriented China’s development over the next five years. It clearly stated a desire to “significantly reduce the intensity of our energy consumption and CO2 emissions, as well as effectively regulate GHG emissions”. Several important GHG-emitting sectors, such as manufacturing, construction, transportation, and agriculture, were mentioned in the FYP, as was the Central Government’s determination to advance low-carbon pilot cities and related projects (Baeumler et al., 2012). This led to the emergence of various low-carbon cities as pilot projects backed by the Central Government.
3.2.1 Five-Year Plan (FYP)
China's FYPs are a series of national, social and economic policy-making units issued by the Chinese Communist Party since 1953. They are vigorous and provide the framework and tools necessary for development. Because of the specific time frame in which it is written and approved, each Five-Year Plan has its distinct characteristics The contents and major goals of the Five-Year Plans change significantly depending on economic and social growth conditions. Every Five-Year Plan includes energy-related content that is becoming more specific and important (Yuan and Zuo, 2011).
With the 10th FYP in 2001, domestic sustainability targets have been included for social and economic development, proliferating environmental targets, energy transition and resource efficiency. National policy making has become conjugal with sustainability concepts; environmental regulations and emission standards are becoming stricter, and fighting pollution has become a top-level priority (MERICS, 2021; Holzmann and Grünberg, 2021).
The FYPs that followed have had a significant impact on energy transition and carbon emission reduction in China. The 12th FYP incorporated emission mitigation targets, providing incentives and optimisation in energy consumption and conservation; improved laws, regulations and standards for energy conservation and emission reduction, strengthening the assessment. This FYP also set a rigid target for 16% energy consumption per GDP, 17% CO2 emission reduction per GDP and a 21.66% increase in forest coverage rate (NPC, 2011; Jain-Chandra et al., 2018). The 12th Five-Year Plan specifies the significant structure to phase out the use of fossil fuels to convert the economy to a low-carbon economy by setting primary targets and establishing low-carbon polite cities (LCPC).
3.2.2 Low-Carbon Pilot Cities (LCPC)
The low-carbon city (LCC) initiative was proposed in the Fourth Plenary Session of the 16th Chinese Communist Party Central Committee. The model aims to develop a self-sustaining, eco-friendly community and improve energy efficiency (Sarker et al., 2018). Although a low-carbon city has often been discussed together with the concept of sustainable or eco-city by scholars from various perspectives, a low-carbon city has a primary purpose of reducing energy consumption and carbon emission (Mcintyre et al., 2000; Kanagawa and Saito, 2013; Khanna et al., 2014). According to Sarker et al. (2018) the low-carbon city facilitates a contemporary type of urban economics for the cities
National Development and Reform Committee (NDRC) launched a pilot program for national low-carbon province and city development in August 2010. Considering their industrial capacity and geological importance, five provinces - Guangdong, Liaoning, Hubei, Shaanxi, and Yunnan, and eight cities - Tianjin, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Xiamen, Hangzhou, Nanchang, Guiyang, and Baoding; were selected
Fig 1: The Initially selected eight low-carbon pilot cities of China, 2010
According to NDRC, the selected pilot provinces and cities incorporated climate change into their local 12th Five-Year Plans and formulated specific low-carbon development plans, including in the following areas:
(i) developing low-carbon urban planning incorporating economic structural changes, low-carbon energy mix, and energy conservation considerations
(ii) establishing low-carbon policies to encourage energy conservation and renewable energy
(iii) accelerating innovation and R&D for low-carbon industries
(iv) establishing GHG emission database and management systems
(v) encouraging green lifestyles changes.
(Baeumler et al., 2012)
Shenzhen was amongst the first of the eight pilot cities to sign the agreement with MoHURD and the Shenzhen government in January 2010. Following this National Low-Carbon Pilot City initiative (2010–20) was implemented in October 2010.
Furthermore, the city has developed a set of indicators to implement and monitor low-carbon projects. These indicators will be integrated into new projects' environmental impact assessment and approval processes (Khanna et al., 2014).
3.3 Key Framework Direction in LCD of China
3.3.1 Policy and Regulatory Framework Direction
The Low-carbon city policy has become an important national and local development strategy (Wang et al., 2013). As a result, the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) of China launched a plan to develop 1000 low-carbon communities in March 2014. The Central Government has emphasised emission regulation on various occasions. Starting in 2006, the Chinese government enacted a series of policies and regulations, including the Law on Energy Conservation, the Renewable Energy Law, and the Cleaner Production Promotion Law, to build a social consensus and a legal foundation upon which the campaign for energy conservation and emission reduction can be further developed (Ying, 2007).
To make climate-related targets more viable, they should be made legally binding through laws and regulations. A framework that includes policy statements, plans, objectives and targets will help achieve LCD. Renewable energy and energy efficiency standards, mandates, quotas, and development codes should all be used to support the policy and regulatory frameworks (Polack, 2021). Creating a supportive policy environment for innovation and investment can incentivise and finance adopting low-carbon technologies and practices (Kampel et al., 2018).
The policy goal of reducing the urban GHG emission is further emphasised in the process of urbanisation. In 2014, China unveiled the National New Urbanisation Plan and committed that urbanisation should follow a scientific and rational development model, with green production and consumption becoming mainstream in urban economic activities. In sum, urbanisation aims to build human-centred and environmentally friendly urban areas in China. In addition to the specific targets, the Central Government also touched upon strategies for reaching those targets. Two strategies gained welcome. The first one is international cooperation. In terms of
building low-carbon cities, developed countries have gathered large amounts of helpful experience; thus, learning from those forerunners is a smart strategy. In addition to experience and wisdom, the learning process may bring technologies and investment from developed countries. As early as 2009, China, with the help of the World Wildlife Fund, launched a low-carbon city initiative and explored low-carbon city models in different cities in China. Subsequently, Singapore, Denmark, Japan, Sweden, The Netherlands, the United States and international organisations like the UN have all been involved in China's construction of low-carbon cities (Wu, 2016)
The second procedure is to build low-carbon cities through policy experiments. The low-carbon city counts as a new concept for China. Although low-carbon has gained consensus, specific policy contents and instruments must be explored and tested. China's cities, as mentioned earlier, show diverse spatial patterns and development stages. No single model for developing low-carbon cities exists, so the central government strongly encourages local experiments. China could gradually reach its GHG reduction goal through this local policy experiment process (Kampel et al , 2018)
Policy and regulatory mandates give the administration legal means and impetus to regulate the contamination standard. The incentive policy promotes environmental protection through economic means such as the collection of environmental taxes and pollution emission fees. Furthermore, disseminating environmental knowledge increases social willingness to protect the environment Many corporations in China's mid-industrialization are unconcerned about environmental protection. The central and district governments' stress, including mandatory and incentive policies, is the driving force behind environmental protection. The central government develops environmental policies based on environmental improvement. Meanwhile, the industry and energy structure optimises through the internal industry domino effect, regional domino effect, and energy domino effect, ultimately improving environmental quality and forming a benign closed loop (Liu, 2012).
Fig 2: Policies direct that shapes the environmental protection (Liu et al, 2022)
3.3.2
Energy Framework Direction
Energy Efficiency: Energy efficiency action measures can reduce global energy-related issues such as energy demand, energy prices and GHG emissions. Adopting energy-efficient technologies, practices and policies in built environments, industrial sectors, and transportation will aid in a low-carbon development (IEA 2021b, 2022).
Renewable Energy: Renewable energy technologies such as solar, wind, and hydropower have significantly reduced GHG emissions. Low-carbon energy investments are critical for shifting the economy from GHG emissions Policy changes can significantly boost renewables’ growth and are expected to overtake coal as the prime source of global electricity generation by early 2025 (Tierney and Bird, 2020, IEA, 2022).
Implementation of energy efficiency measures and increased use of renewables require policy changes and actions that are multi-layered and cross-cutting across multiple sectors The following section will review frameworks supporting the transition to Low Carbon Development.
4. Case Study: City of Shenzhen
4.1 Shenzhen Special Economic Zone (SSEZ)
Originally a small village in Bao'an county, Shenzhen was set up as a city in 1979 to prevent the population's illegal migration into British Hong Kong, the city became a part of the first Special Economic Zone (SEZ) in 1980 (Ng, 2003; Du, 2020; Wang et al., 2009). Forming the basis for the city’s steady growth into the global mega-centre for high-tech research, design and production melting pot we have today, earning nicknames such as 'China's Silicon Valley', 'China's Smartest City' (Hu, 2019; Xu et al., 2022).
Citing Shenzhen Museum (1999) in Ng (2003), the author explains that the primary function of the SSEZ was to act as a window, to observe and learn global trends and phenomena, to be the training ground for all talents in the country and finally, to serve as a testing ground for reforms to improve economic cooperation and technology exchange between China and other nations. The establishment of the SEZ led to the local economy being run by the city/local administration instead of only relying on inputs from the central ministry, a first in the People’s Republic of China. This allowed the local administration and planners to pioneer experimental reforms The industrial sector was prioritised in SSEZ. While economical, educational, R&D, tourism, culture and entertainment as well as the residential sectors were all included. During its establishment, the SSEZ consisted only of its southern districts of Nanshan, Futian, Luohu, and Yantian. However, the Shenzhen administration applied to the State Council in 2010 to expand the SEZ to include the entire municipality. This meant when the LCC was established, all of Shenzhen municipality was a part of the initiative (Ge, 1999; Ng, 2003; Zhu, 1994)
4.2 Low-Carbon development in Shenzhen
Shenzhen was one of the eight cities to become China’s first low-carbon pilot cities by the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC), as a part of the 12th FYP. Unlike its counterparts, Shenzhen set two targets, a 2015 intermediate target
and a final 2020 target Allowing the low-carbon plan (LCP) to be evaluated and adjusted during the 13th FYP. The target was to incorporate low-carbon energy (LCE) such as solar, wind, biomass and natural gas with the existing energy use; 50% in 2015 and 60% in 2020 (Liang and Lin, 2022; Wu et al., 2016; Ng, 2003). Shenzhen's low-carbon transition policies primarily come from both the NDRC and the Shenzhen Development and Reform Commission (SDRC) (Wu et al., 2016). As explained by Li and Lin, (2022), there are two types of Low-carbon cities (LCC):
Type I - Municipality-level top-down programs associated with national pilot programmes spearheaded by the central government and can involve a full range of regulatory, legal, and planning tools. Type II - Sub Municipality-level bottom-up programs and new town development. These novel LCCs are widely regarded as an equivalent, sub-category, or successor to the eco-cities that have been popularised in China in the past couple of decades. Shenzhen municipality became home to both the types with overlapping boundaries. Shenzhen is a Type-I LCC in its entirety, while the Pingdi neighbourhood is in the Longgang district, which was not a part of SSEZ is home to the Type-II Shenzhen International Low-Carbon City (SILCC) (Li and Lin, 2022).
Fig 3: Map of Shenzhen (Li and Lin, 2022)
4.2.1 Emission
According to a study done by Wu et al. (2016) on energy usage data, the city had 106 Mt CO2 in 2010. Unlike most Chinese cities, Shenzhen's CO2 emissions were prominently from electricity consumption and not coal consumption, which accounted for 36% of the total emission volume While the other 55% and 32% of emissions are a result of industrial emissions and service industries emissions respectively (Liu, 2012 as cited in Wu et al., 2016).
According to another study by the Research Office Legislative and Council Secretariat (2022), despite a strong population growth of 65% and an economic growth of 168% between 2010 and 2019, the GHG emissions in Shenzhen increased at a relatively moderate rate of 21%. This meant the per capita emissions decreased by 25% causing the carbon intensity to be reduced by 68% between 2005 and 2020. This means the city achieved the national target of 65% reduction set for 2030 a decade earlier.
4.2.2 Policy and Regulation
Decarbonisation policy and regulatory framework are directed by:
1. Phasing out of fossil-based energy: The use of coal in Shenzhen’s energy grid has halved between 2000 and 2020 from 58% to 23%. Whereas the use of oil has been stopped completely since 2015 (Research Office Legislative and Council Secretariat, 2022).
2. Production and transition to renewable energy: The city has built seven Waste-to-energy (WTE) facilities, a hydro-power plant- Shenzhen PSP, nuclear-power plant - Lin’ao. The energy mix of renewable, natural gas and nuclear in 2022 was 77% well above the national average of 52% The city’s target for 2025 is set at 90% (Research Office Legislative and Council Secretariat, 2022).
3. Electrifying road transportation sector: Incentives have been offered to electric vehicle (EV) owners since 2010. Incentives such as the cost of purchase, charging fee, recycling of old EV batteries, setup of private EV charging stations, parking fee
and road tax This resulted in an increase in the number of EVs between 2012 and 2020 from 3000 units to 480,000 units. In 2015 the city also began a transition in public transportation. Shenzhen, for the first time in the history of the modern world, succeeded in phasing out carbon fuels for the entirety of their public transportation system in 2018 (Research Office Legislative and Council Secretariat, 2022).
4. Decarbonising the sea and air transportation sector: The maritime and aviation sectors account for only 15% of Shenzhen's transport-related GHG emissions. The city has developed policies to support their decarbonization from 2016. One of which is constructing shore power facilities covering 80% of vessel berths; shore power is land-based equipment that supplies electricity to a vessel at berth, allowing the vessel to shut down its engines. This reduces up to 90% of the vessel's emissions at the port. Other measures include electrifying handling equipment and vehicles in airports and ports, using solar power for terminals and major facilities, and encouraging cleaner fuels anywhere possible (Research Office Legislative and Council Secretariat, 2022; Meet Hydrogen, 2021).
5. Emissions Trading Systems (ETS): Establishing emission caps and setting permits for heavy polluters allows the city administration to monitor emissions intensities. Allowances are assigned to regulated agencies based on their past emissions intensity records Shenzhen has chosen an intensity-based capping approach, with a cap set according to the quantity of GHG emission per unit of GDP. To offset excess emissions, operations that have exhausted their allowances must purchase residual ETS quotas from others. Between 2013 and 2022 carbon intensity of regulated industrial operations have decreased by 40%. In 2020, there is an estimated amount of 687 operations across 32 sectors, such as utilities, public transportation, and manufacturing, covered by ETS. And they account for 40% of the city's annual emissions The cap on intensity assists in managing the uncertainty surrounding emission levels in the midst of Shenzhen's speedy expansion and structural adaptation (Boute and Zhang, 2019; Research Office Legislative and Council Secretariat, 2022).
6 Infrastructure: From 2011, the policies were targeted at the implementation of green ecological urban areas as a demonstration project, the implementation of green building (GB) standards for government-invested buildings, large public buildings, and commercial real estate projects. With the new FYP in 2016, the targets were, one, energy-saving reconstruction of existing buildings, improvement of building energy-saving standards and two, expansion of the renewable energy building application scale (Wu et al., 2021).
4.2.3 Decarbonisation of Public Transport
Shenzhen Transport Sector Energy Saving Regulation and Shenzhen Energy Saving and New-Energy Vehicle Regulation were issued during the initial stages of the EV transition in the form of top-down approach. The city operated an initial pilot project between 2012 and 2015, where they slowly started rolling out zero-emission buses and taxis. In 2015, Shenzhen decided to achieve a public transportation network free of GHG emissions. This year also marked the start of the transition in the public transportation system (Li et al., 2016; Wu et al., 2016; Meet Hydrogen, 2021).
By 2015 there were an estimated 28,000 EV units on the road. And a law passed in 2017 mandating all buses operating within the city limits to be electric from 2018 onwards, prohibiting the use of internal combustion engines. The law applied to both public and private transport services. The city offered immunity on fossil fuel surcharges to those who use electric taxis. At the cost of US$490 million, the city set out to reduce its emissions up to 1.35 Mt CO2 per year. This was realised with government subsidies and the companies involved in the manufacturing of the electrical infrastructure and buses. Amongst the many manufacturing companies, Shenzhen is also home to the one of the world's largest electrical vehicle(EV) manufacturers the BYD Company and leading new-technology development and production companies Shenzhen CSG and Shenzhen Pengcheng. This promoted homegrown new-generation vehicles. With incentives in place, the city saw a boon in EV usage. Thus, replacing all of its 16,359 public buses with EVs by 2018 (Clairand et al., 2019; Li et al., 2016; Lin et al., 2020; Jiang et al., 2021; Wu et al., 2016; Meet Hydrogen, 2021).
5. Findings
5.1 Targets and Achievements
5.1.1
China
In 2020, China achieved several national targets for emission control. The Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action (NAMA) target aimed to reduce carbon intensity by 40-45% relative to 2005 levels. As of 2019, carbon intensity had been cut b 48 1% i i t 48 4% b 2020 di th t t Additi ll th h f
5.1.2 Shenzhen
Per the government statistics, Shenzhen's carbon dioxide emissions per unit of GDP dropped by roughly 70% in 2020 compared to 2005. In 2020, energy consumption per unit of GDP was one-third of the national average, while carbon dioxide emissions per unit of GDP were one-fifth of the national average (Mo, 2022)
Target Detail
Target Achieved
Carbon intensity (CO2 per unit GDP) Decreased by 68% between 2005 and 2020
Share of non-fossil fuels Oil not used since 2015. Coal dropped to 23% in 2020.
Green buildings' share of total new construction 62.1% in 2020
Buses per 10,000 people 16,759 units in 2019
Increase in number of new energy (i.e., 28,000 units
electric) cars by 2015
R&D investment in low carbon technologies
241 projects launched in 2014 under the Technology Start-up Support Scheme for Universities
382 projects launched in 2019 Partnership Research Programme - a Public private partnership
Table 1: Targets and achievement of Shenzhen (World Bank, 2021; UNDP, 2022; Khanna, 2013; Research Office Legislative and Council Secretariat, 2022)
Shenzhen launched its 14th Five-Year Plan (2021-25) on ecological environmental protection in late 2021, laying out the framework for the city's green development in the
5.2 Lessons from Low-Carbon cities of China
5.2.1 Balance of multilayered decision-making
NRDC delegated authority to the City of Shenzhen to implement policies and approaches that best fit its local circumstances. Thus, collaboration derived from the national government's commitment, combined with rule-making and goal-setting authority granted to the City of Shenzhen, has played and will keep playing a substantial driving role in realising the establishment of LCC (C40 Cities, 2017b).
5.2.2
Strategy monitoring
The use of the low-carbon index and its comprehensive set of indicators will allow for objective, quantitative monitoring of environmental, economic, and societal performance as the eco-city develops. Not only will these serve to measure progress, but they will also serve as yardsticks of sustainability against which various project proposals can be evaluated. Furthermore, they send an explicit vision and set of guiding principles for urban planners and new industries regarding the types of environmental performance required by the individual components for the entire city (C40 Cities, 2017a).
5.2.3
International and local collaborations
In the case of ILCC, it is constantly infused with expertise and emerging technologies from around China and the world, allowing for cutting-edge ideas from outside to enter the developing eco-city. This drives innovation and progress in ways that domestic policy and industry know-how alone would not have been able to Pingdi and Shenzhen's international identity is also highlighted by ILCC. Significant efforts are being made to increase English usage through language education, international schools, and signage, among other things. This makes it easier for foreign firms, urban designers, and engineers to relocate or work in the country. The financial resources of Shenzhen and the national government's commitment to driving green development enable these experts to contribute to achieving a high level of innovation and socio-environmental impacts (C40 Cities, 2017a)
5.2.4 Transportation Decarbonisation
China announced its New Energy Vehicle (NEV) mandate in 2018. China is a vehicle electrification pioneer (Steer, 2018). EVs took off in China between 2015 and early 2021. The number of NEV units increased from 0.58 million to 5.5 million, putting China ahead of all the other nations China aspires to promote NEVs further and achieve a 20% target in annual new sales in 2025, according to the China NEV Industrial Development Plan 2020-2035 (Khanna et al., 2021). To achieve their carbon neutrality goals, countries and regions around the world have set aggressive vehicle electrification targets (Graham et al., 2021; Lutsey et al., 2021; . Shenzhen is a prime example for how rigorously implemented mandates can work in achieving such goals (Graham et al., 2021; Steer, 2018).
5.3 The Future for Low-Carbon cities of China
Key areas of technology, such as energy storage, hydrogen fuel and even fusion energy, are expected to mature at a reasonable cost in the coming decades to address the challenges posed by other contributors. In the meantime, a clear role in long-term strategies, a unified system of regulatory standards and mature commercial practice for a massive as well as a secure use will be critical to the widespread adoption of these technologies. Digital technologies are also expected to transform energy systems' supply and demand. In the course ofthis dramatic transition ofthe energy and economic systems, whichwillcreate bothwinners andlosers on a large scale, great challenges in terms of social cost and political stability lie ahead (Liu et al., 2022).
6. Conclusion
To illustrate low-carbon development in Chinese cities, this study examines the working of Shenzhen. During this time, Shenzhen experienced rapid economic growth over the past decade. The city aimed to decouple carbon emissions from economic growth This result demonstrates that Shenzhen's rapid economic development is accompanied by low carbon emissions. Although the analysis of carbon emission policies and regulations shows that decreasing energy intensity and improving industry
structure effectively limit the increase in carbon emissions, the rapid growth of economic output, industrial scale and irrational energy structure, on the other hand, stimulates the rise in carbon emissions. However, this rise is a by-product of upgradation and is relevant in achieving emission peak by 2030 (Yang et al., 2022; Liang et al., 2022)
For the study, the majority of the data available are from a single source, the Government of China, which are also not released regularly. However, these data and the resulting outcomes do not contradict the research done by international organisations such as IEA, UNCFFF, IRENA, IPCC and more. It is also important to note that although a strikingly high number of research papers only tend to show the positive impacts of the initiatives, it is not hard to find researches that explain the critical divergence. This paradox in large-scale green development can be seen in the likes of Fang et al. (2017) and Weber and Cabras (2017) as cited in Cheng et al. (2019); the assumption that the construction of low-carbon cities benefits the green economy remains contentious Some studies suggest that large-scale projects have been carried out during the construction of low-carbon cities under the guise of the green economy, despite the rapid growth of the sustainable energy industry. China's low-carbon pilot cities, in particular, experienced "weak decoupling," meaning that carbon emissions did not eliminate their reliance on high-carbon energy consumption during new urbanisation. Consequently, these large-scale projects have failed to significantly reduce carbon emissions or boost green growth. Inconsistencies between the construction of low-carbon cities and green growth were attributed to differences in sample selection and research methods.
These initiatives are rigorous and strict. In the case of Shenzhen, they are leaning more towards economic development, whereas environmental protection and climate adaptation seem to be by-products. In fact, ecological factors were not considered in the case of Shenzhen during the pilot period (Khanna, 2013) According to all the interviews, it seems that the initiatives have had long-term positive effects, the air is cleaner and the sky is blue. People’s response to the term LLC is varied, it is mostly seen as a low-carbon lifestyle. Something the population has come to accept
due to years of government interventions and developmental promotion The LCPCs seem to have a good reputation.
It may be interpreted that China’s aims to pioneer a decarbonised economy on a large scale and their definition of clean energy is up for debate. According to the IAEA, China is one of the largest producers of nuclear energy. In Shenzhen, nuclear energy takes the lead over renewables Nuclear energy may be carbon-free, but there is currently no technology to prevent nuclear disasters and nullify radiation. If humans were to disappear today, the planet would end up in a nuclear winter as there is no one to regulate the power plants. The safety of this energy is divided even amongst the population. But the country has no plan to stop. According to the Research Office Legislative and Council Secretariat, nuclear power plants are to be expanded in favour of decarbonisation.
Further detailed research is needed to provide suggestions But despite a few understandable drawbacks, Shenzhen is a great prototype for understanding decarbonisation in megacities and their economy.
a. Abbreviations
CPC - Chinese Community Party
CO2 - Carbon dioxide
ETS - Emissions Trading Systems
GHG - Greenhouse Gases
GDP - Gross Domestic Product
NEV - New Energy Vehicle
IEA - International Energy Agency
ILCC - International Low Carbon City
FYPs - Five-Year Plans
LCC - Low Carbon CIty
LCD - Low Carbon Development
LCP - Low- Carbon Plan
LCPC - Low-Carbon Pilot City
NDRC - National Development and Reform Commission
Mt CO2 - Million metric Tonnes of Carbon Dioxide
REEP - The Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership
R&D - Research and Development
SDRC - Shenzhen Development and Reform Commission
SEZ - Special Economic Zone
SSEZ - Shenzhen Special Economic Zone
b. Semi-structured interview:
Interview 1
1. Whichregion city/province doyou come from? Guangdong
2. Whatisyourprofession? Student.
3. Doyou know aboutChinese low-carbon city initiatives(低碳城市)introducedin the year 2010?
Actually I don't know which specific cities. I just know that we are working on that.
4. Haveyou ever livedin a Low-Carbon city?
I think I have been.
5. Doyou know any measures thathave been implementedunder the Low-carbon initiatives?
The government proposes that people go out to walk or by bicycles
6. Areyou aware ifrenewable energy(Solar or windetc.)is usedtoprovide electricity in your city?
I don’t know.
7. Is there an improvementin airquality because ofLow-carbon initiatives?
Sure.
8. Is lifequality in Low-Carbon cities differentfrom other cities?
I will feel more comfortable in a low carbon city.
9. Inyour opinion, do low-carbon city initiatives workas intended?
It is gradually working.
10 Whatisyour opinion on Shenzhen as a low-carbon city?
I have never been there, but I think it's a good way to do it as it benefits people's daily life.
11. Wouldyou consider Shenzhen a success story?
It’s a good sample for others, based on the improved weather in the city.
Interview 2: Extended
1. Whichregion city/province doyou come from?
I am from Guangxi.
2. Whatisyourprofession?
Freelancer
3. Doyou know aboutChinese low-carbon city initiatives(低碳城市)introducedin the year 2010?
Yes I know
4 Haveyou ever livedin a Low-Carbon city?
Yes, I think my city, Hezhou, is a low-carbon place with clothing exchange, tree planting initiatives, and prohibition on firecrackers. Clothing exchange is reuse and second-hand buying, which is not a government initiative but comes from people’s awareness.
5. Doyou know any measures thathave been implementedunder the Low-carbon initiatives?
6. Areyou aware ifrenewable energy(Solar or windetc.)is usedtoprovide electricity in your city?
Yes, and I think it's a great step in the right direction
7. Is there an improvementin airquality because ofLow-carbon initiatives?
I’m not sure if it works as intended, but the air is fresher and the sky is clearer.
8. Is lifequality in Low-Carbon cities differentfrom other cities?
Yes, because there are more mountains and rivers than in other cities.
9 Inyour opinion, do low-carbon city initiatives workas intended?
10. Whatisyour opinion on Shenzhen as a low-carbon city?
I think Shenzhen sets a good example for low carbon initiative
11 Wouldyou consider Shenzhen a success story?
Yes, because of the application of new Energy-efficient technologies and equipment, energy-saving motors, energy-saving pumps, energy-saving transformers, rectifiers, inductors, green building materials, etc. and advanced environmental protection.
12. Doesyour city have any EVpublic transportation?
Yes, there are a lot.
13. Is there a rise in the number ofEVs forprivate use?
I tend to buy an EV, which is environmentally protective and is convenient to charge
14. Areyou aware ifnuclear energy is usedinyour cities'energygrid?
Yes
15. Whatisyour/ageneralpublic opinion on nuclearpowerplants in the country?
As a power source with zero carbon emissions and firm capacity, nuclear power will continue to be important for China as it builds its renewable-centred power system into the long term
Interview 3
1. Whichregion city/province doyou come from? Shenzhen
2. Whatisyourprofession?
Professional in International Trade
3. Doyou know aboutChinese low-carbon city initiatives(低碳城市)introducedin the year 2010?
No, it’s my first time hearing it. But I know we have been promoting low-carbon life for a long time. In our opinion, every city, each person should be involved in this move.
4 Haveyou ever livedin a Low-Carbon city?
Yes (Shenzhen). I just know Shenzhen is a low-carbon city.
5 Doyou know any measures thathave been implementedunder the Low-carbon initiatives?
Planting trees, replacing gas buses with electric ones (and some cities replacing gas taxes too), using cleaning power like solar and water electricity, being strict about the pollution from factories, and promoting people to take public transportation more and drive less Those are very common methods in protecting the environment, the most important thing is keep doing it.
6. Areyou aware ifrenewable energy(Solar or windetc.)is usedtoprovide electricity in your city?
I know we’re using some cleaning energy in some places, but I don’t know in which cities.
7. Is there an improvementin airquality because ofLow-carbon initiatives?
Actually the air quality in this city is always very good. I came to Shenzhen for travel in 2015 and stayed for about a month. Now that I worked here for a year, I don’t see much difference. Just as good as 8 years ago, maybe it’s better now, but I can’t feel it.
8. Is lifequality in Low-Carbon cities differentfrom other cities?
I have spent a lot of time in these cities. Xiaogan in Hubei province, my hometown Xiamen in Fujian province, where I spent four years staying there for college. Shenzhen, where I worked. The quality of life in Xiamen and Shenzhen is better than Xiaogan, because Xiaogan is a small city compared with Shenzhen and Xiamen. But if only talking about air quality, the difference is not too big.
9 Inyour opinion, do low-carbon city initiatives workas intended?
I would say it works For me I live comfortably here, the sky is blue and clean For me, maintaining the current air condition is a good success with the population growing fast in Shenzhen.
10. Whatisyour opinion on Shenzhen as a low-carbon city?
Very successful
11. Wouldyou consider Shenzhen a success story?
Yes, of course. But Beijing is doing better than Shenzhen because the air quality in Beijing was very bad in the past. But now it is very well for a living.
Interview 4: Extended
1. Whichregion city/province doyou come from?
I am from Tianjin, one of the four municipalities in China.
2 Whatisyourprofession?
Freelancer.
3 Doyou know aboutChinese low-carbon city initiatives(低碳城市)introducedin the year 2010?
Yes.
4. Haveyou ever livedin a Low-Carbon city?
Yes, Tianjin is a low-carbon city, and I’ve been living in this city for 7 years.
5. Doyou know any measures thathave been implementedunder the Low-carbon initiatives?
Reduce the use of disposable chopsticks and lunch boxes, plastic shopping bags and paper, buy environmental products in life, save energy (water, electricity), use public transportation, garbage sorting (although we don’t seem to do well), car restrictions ban some heavy industry factories (which is the most effective way) now the fast increase of EV, etc.
6. Areyou aware ifrenewable energy(Solar or windetc.)is usedtoprovide electricity in your city?
Yes. Solar energy is used everywhere, wind in some parts, yes.
7. Is there an improvementin airquality because ofLow-carbon initiatives?
Absolutely. Air quality is much better, and we rarely see smog in winter in my city.
8. Is lifequality in Low-Carbon cities differentfrom other cities?
Definitely People’s health and mood are pretty much depending on the environment.
9. Inyour opinion, do low-carbon city initiatives workas intended?
No doubt. The government has made efforts and people have become more aware of environmental protection.
10. Whatisyour opinion on Shenzhen as a low-carbon city?
I’ve never known much about it.
11. Wouldyou consider Shenzhen a success story?
Yes, of course.
12. Doesyour city have any EVpublic transportation?
Definitely, all the buses, subways and car hailing (not taxis, taxis are fueled with gas). Not only my city, most cities in China are the same.
13. Is there a rise in the number ofEVs forprivate use?
An increasing number of private EVs We have so many brands of EVs in China, and you can see private EVs everywhere. (Including Tesla, of course, which is still popular). Majority of the country's renewable come from nuclear power.
14. Areyou aware ifnuclear energy is usedinyour cities'energygrid?
I have never heard of nuclear energy being used in my city. As I know, only cities with less resources will build nuclear power plant, while my city has plenty of resources like natural gas and oil resources, so no need to use nuclear energy. Still, there are many nuclear power plants in China though.
15. Whatisyour/ageneralpublic opinion on nuclearpowerplants in the country?
Honestly, I have never done too much research on this. But as for me, NPP seems a little bit dangerous because we have all heard of Chernobyl accident and the large amount of nuclear waste water Japan has released into the sea
Interview 5
1. Whichregion city/province doyou come from?
Shandong Province
2. Whatisyourprofession?
Project Controller, Mining Site, Tanzania
3. Doyou know aboutChinese low-carbon city initiatives(低碳城市)introducedin the year 2010?
It's on the news and social media, basically everywhere
4. Haveyou ever livedin a Low-Carbon city?
No
5. Doyou know any measures thathave been implementedunder the Low-carbon initiatives?
The “licence plate restrictions based on the last digit”, It refers to a traffic management policy in which vehicles are allowed to drive on certain roads or in certain areas on specific days based on the last digit of their licence plate. This policy is often implemented in big cities as a way to reduce traffic congestion and air pollution.
Basically, you cannot use your car freely every day, you have to check the policy first.
6. Areyou aware ifrenewable energy(Solar or windetc.)is usedtoprovide electricity in your city?
I think renewable energies are used more in the industry than in daily life. Such as wind and solar power
7. Is there an improvementin airquality because ofLow-carbon initiatives?
Yes
8. Is lifequality in Low-Carbon cities differentfrom other cities?
Yes, there are marked differences as compared to other cities
9. Inyour opinion, do low-carbon city initiatives workas intended?
The impact of the low-carbon strategy on the economy will depend on a range of factors. On the one hand, the strategy will develop new job opportunities related to renewable resources line of work, on the other hand, certain factories in the traditional industry will have to pay a high cost for implementing the new technology and infrastructure. Maybe they will have to reduce the production capacity
10. Whatisyour opinion on Shenzhen as a low-carbon city?
The city has made significant progress towards its goal of becoming a sustainable and environmentally friendly city
11. Wouldyou consider Shenzhen a success story?
Very much so
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