Biophilia in Climate Adaptive Architecture

Biophilia in Climate Adaptive Architecture

By Basak Su SAHIN

University of Greenwich ARCT 1014 Year 2018/2019

To be presented to the department of architecture and Landscape at the University of Greenwich as part of the BA (Hons) Architecture course.

Except where stated otherwise, this dissertation is based entirely on the author’s own work.

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Acknowledgements

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my academic advisor Benzion Kotzen, for his constructive feedback, advice and enthusiasm.

I am also thankful for the help received by Kimia Daylami, whom supported me with my written English and proofreading.

Finally, l would like to give my thanks to my parents, for their encouragement and support.

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Abstract

This paper looks at the biophilic structures and its relation to climate-adapted architecture and suggests ideas for London. It describes the best way to build a truly biophilic building is by studying the climate around it and choosing materials and doing design that responds to it. The paper describes some extreme climatic factors around the globe, and their architectural methods of dealing with the problem. The paper concludes by suggesting some techniques and methods that can be used for London’s particular climate and the best way to make the city biophilic in a less complicated way.

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6 7 9 11 16 17 20

List of Figures

22 26 27 28 29 29 31 31 32

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Figure 1: Koppen’s climate classification map.

Figure 2: Human thermal comfort diagram.

Figure 3: Psychometric chart, comfort zone of human thermal comfort in relative humidity.

Figure 4: Basic factors of climate that affects human comfort.

Figure 5: Traditional Japanese house, illustrating the air circulation inside & outside.

Figure 6: Traditional Cairo house, illustrating the air circulation inside & outside.

Figure 7: Tokyo as an example of an urban heat island, chart showing the temperature difference between rural areas and downtown during summer period.

Figure 8: Winter Garden in Sheffield, UK, example of engineered wood structure.

Figure 9: Phase-changing material, stabilizes indoor climate during day & night.

Figure 10: Phase-changing material diagram.

Figure 11:

Trombe wall efficiency on summer and winter sun.

Figure 12: Trombe wall storing heat during day.

Figure 13: Trombe wall releasing heat during night.

Figure 14: Sustainable living in Bedzed.

Figure 15: Bedzed as an example for biophilic design.

Figure 16: Bales of straw as an insulation material.

Figure 17: Photograph of the Straw House.

1 4 12 24 34 38 39 40

Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 2 Climate Chapter 3 Design & Materials Chapter 4 Adapting it to London?

Chapter 5 Conclusion List of Figures and their sources References Bibliography

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word count: 7495

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

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The term biophilia was ‘popularized by Edward O Wilson’, in his book Biophilia, ‘when he observed how increasing rates of urbanisation were leading to a disconnection with the natural world (Heath). Biophilia is the need of humans to seek connection with nature. The lack of contact with nature in normal, day to day human life has thus brought forward a new concept of biophilia and biophilic architecture. The concept of biophilia and those who support it make it clear that nature should play a big role in daily life and it is important for human beings to be surrounded by nature (Heerwagen, Kellert and Mador, 2013). As consumers started demanding a greater type of green living (Booth, 2012, 133), biophilic architecture started to play a bigger role in the 21st century, as it promises a lot of benefits. The understanding of human comfort also changed with biophilia, and biophilia has started to play a significant role in the city landscapes.

One of the promises of biophilic design is that it can play a significant role in healing and in human health. Major differences and improvements can be seen with the introduction of biophilic architecture on human mental

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and physical health (Heerwagen, Kellert and Mador, 2013). A biophilic approach provides solutions for sick building syndrome that many office workers have experienced because of mechanical replacements. Such as the conversion from natural ventilation (using windows) to the use of mechanical air conditioning (air conditioners). Even though biophilic design has shown to bring positive benefits, it comes with its own consequences. This is since the philosophical value of biophilia has sometimes been misunderstood and misconceived. The most common misconception is that biophilic design increases the energy consumption of a building (Booth, 2012). Since the environment and natural conditions are not the same all around the world, the designs and materials should not be either.

For example, the type of nature experienced in Japan and Egypt are not the same, therefore the architecture is should be diverse too.

Unfortunately, the understanding of biophilic architecture today, is rather simplistic, for example, to bring nature in with green walls and to let light in with increased glazing on buildings. One of the most important misunderstandings is in the kind of construction

materials that are used and their impact in design. The use of unsustainable construction materials plays a role in huge energy and resource consumption, major biodiversity loss, widespread chemical pollution and contamination, extensive atmospheric degradation and climate change (Booth, 2012). Producing construction materials play a significant role in climate change. By using sustainable materials, the rate of climate change may be prevented or at least slowed down.

The main principles behind biophilia is to connect human beings to nature as much as possible and not to harm the environment by creating unsustainable buildings. The essential concept behind architecture for human need, is to provide protected space that promotes human comfort. Therefore, when taking biophilia into account, biophilic structures should meet most of the requirements that provide comfort for people and to the extent that is possible, it should be done naturally. Such as natural light, natural ventilation and natural heating and cooling (Booth, 2012). When providing more natural solutions into building, the harmful effects of construction materials and processes

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that affect the environment also decrease dramatically. Where traditional vernacular buildings in the past did little or no harm to the environment, by working with it, it is important to understand how to operate with nature, now, and to choose materials according to the surrounding local climate and to initiate design that fits the climate. Today, some of the issues in cities like London, regarding energy use, sick building syndrome and the urban heat island effect can be partly solved by the use of biophilic architecture, and climate adaptive methods. Climate plays a big role in biophilic architecture where the design and materials should be suitable to the environment around the construction. Otherwise some of the consequences would be a high amount of energy waste, sick building syndrome and alienation from nature.

CHAPTER 2: Climate

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Humans are inescapably part of nature, and none of the mechanical replacements of the environment (air conditioning, lighting, etc.) can adequately replace the natural responses to nature and the elements. 90% of the environment that people experience daily is built (Day, 2003). Human convenience and comfort can be brought together more easily and naturally by using climate adapted architecture. (GauzinMuller, 2002). The fundamental reason for a building’s existence remains as a provider of a sustainable internal environment (Booth, 2012). Bioclimatic principles have been used traditionally throughout history in order to provide the comfort that people have needed. To respond to particular local climatic conditions, it is thus important to study traditional architecture principles of climate adapted buildings, which can be found in vernacular architecture (Oliver, 2006). It is important to make the built environment suitable both for human and physical health.

Climate is the key factor when designing a biophilic building, as climateadapted architecture carries all the values of biophilic design. Climate has helped to shape

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the architecture of the world for centuries. The globalization of an international architecture expression/style has resulted in the neglect of climate when designing (Oliver, 2006). Using climate adapted architecture means that most of the natural elements from the environment can be utilized, which benefits both to the environment as well as for people. Therefore, when designing climate adapted architecture, it is important to understand the surrounding climate, and to design according to its context.

It is not a coincidence that the same colour grids on Koppen’s climate classification had the similar functions on their vernacular architectures throughout the past centuries. Wladimir Koppen (1846, 1940) , German climatologist, brought the idea of climate classification (Zhai and Previtali, 2009). The map color grids the climates around the globe according to their temperature experienced during year. However, some similar parts of architecture can be seen on the same color areas. For instance, in temperate and hot climates, the dark blue areas, the light skeleton structures have been used as vernacular architecture (Zhai and Previtali, 2009).

Fig. 1: Koppen’s climate classification map.

Generally, most vernacular architecture has been designed in response to climatic factors, like seasonal rain or summer heat (Dahl, 2010).

Even though, these responses are not always perfect, for example many Mediterranean houses are designed for the summer heat but are not comfortable in the winter period when the houses generally stay cold. Thus, the aim when designing with nature is to adapt the climatic aspects of the building to the surroundings, and design according to it. If this is not enough, the use of mechanical replacements within the structure can be acceptable. Torben Dahl’s principles for climate adaptation provides a good example

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of how to learn to deal with these different scenarios. In ‘Climate and Architecture’ Dahl (2010), comments on three ways to deal with climate. The first one is ‘passive’ control where rooms are used for different purposes during different seasons. This includes zone division, in which a room for instance can be used in two different ways, divided both vertically and horizontally. For example, in Mediterranean buildings, this method is considered, using south facing rooms during winter, as these get more of the warming sunlight and moving to north facing rooms during hot summer period. The strategy also calls for using different types of insulation and materials on different sides of the building. The second principle is ‘active’ intervention, which includes adapting dynamic changes during different climate conditions.

The third principle is to combine the first two principles and use them at the same time, which provides the best strategy for creating climate adaptable architecture (Dahl, 2010).

The idea behind climate adapted architecture and the use of biophilic principles is to create the best possible environment for human comfort as well as maintaining and if

possible improving health and wellbeing in the workplace, which ultimately increasing productivity and motivation (Parsons, 1993).

The way architecture deals with the environment is crucial to this, since people’s senses are directly connected to climatic elements such as light, sound, temperature, wind and humidity (Dahl, 2010). Therefore, if any of these elements are either on the low side or on the extreme side, it obviously creates discomfort for people who experience it. As it is a subjective matter, it is difficult to measure it since everyone has different standards where they feel comfortable (Alwetaishi, 2016).

Although an average of pleasant temperature can be found according to the climatic factors. For example, a suitable air temperature would not be same for most people in a hot dry climate and a hot humid climate. Environmental and personal factors affect the thermal comfort differently and makes it unique for everyone. Therefore, it is important to find an average thermal comfort to make everyone comfortable than the ‘extreme’ weather outside.

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Fig. 2: Human thermal comfort diagram.

air velocity

air temperature

humidity

Human Thermal Comfort clothing, insulation

radiant temperature

metabolic heat

Internal thermal comfort is the pleasant state of the environment for people where they feel satisfied when indoors. Thermal sensation and comfort affect the physiological state of the person, if not thought through properly the causes can be the change in mood, aggression and even depression (Parsons, 1993). It is important not only for psychological satisfaction but also to fulfil the physiological needs of the human body. When designing for human thermal comfort, it is essential to consider solar radiation and metabolic energy since they are the main sources of energy available to heat a person (Brown and Gillespie,1995). The importance of thermal comfort can be explained by its direct connection with human health and physiology.

Air conditioning generally causes thermal stress, when there is a big difference between the outdoors and the indoors (Hyde, 2007).

‘Architecture is a connecting link, between place, climate and human life.’ (Oliver, 2006, 13)

As designers start considering climate adaptive architecture and working with the nature, it becomes more understandable how

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much is lost by not working intelligently with natural, environmental and biophilic factors.

According to Torben Dahl (2010), there are four basic factors of climate that affect human comfort, described as follows: •Heat is the first factor, where temperature, usually air temperature, plays a big role in human comfort, both indoors and outdoors.

Temperature is usually measured in Centigrade or Fahrenheit (for example in the USA). This aspect of human comfort is influenced both by humidity and wind. Heat plays a big role in human comfort and in the energy consumption of a building, and it is necessary to get the balance right in order to provide the appropriate conditions for the activities that will be undertaken in the building.

•The second factor is light, which is one of the trickiest ones when designing to meet human thermal comfort. There are two types of radiation, the first one is solar radiation which is emitted by the sun and the second one is terrestrial radiation which is emitted by the objects on the earth (Brown and Gillespie,1995). Most terrestrial

radiation is absorbed by natural surfaces, where a small percentage of it is reflected or transmitted (Brown and Gillespie, 1995). To get most of the natural light during the day most of the whole structures are built with glass, which can cause a change of climate in the area because of the reflected high solar radiation from the sun (Dahl, 2010, 54).

During summer days it generally does behave as a greenhouse, where the interior can get hot and unbearable. During winter it can cause a lot of energy loss because of the poor insulation of the glass material. If it is a hot climate and dealing with solar radiation problem, glare and overheating, the screens should be designed accordingly (Dahl, 2010). As the climate construction industry will keep affecting the climate change, the architecture would change with the climate.

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•The third factor is humidity, which is measured as relative humidity (rh), it is the measurement of how much moisture there is in the air as a percentage. Having a high humidity in extreme climates (cold or hot) is quite challenging to deal with and affects human comfort directly and dramatically. Humidity

directly affects the temperature that is felt

Fig. 3: Psychometric chart, comfort zone of human thermal comfort in relative humidity.

by people, for example, whilst 25 degrees Celsius is pleasant if the humidity is low or average (rh 30-60%), in a high humidity, (say with a rh of 90%) 25 degrees Celsius can be experienced as being unbearable. Even though the temperature is in the appropriate area for thermal comfort, the humidity might make feel it like over 30 degrees Celsius. Construction in humid climates can be tricky if the right construction materials are not chosen. For example, in high humid areas, steel structures rust fast, and the high humidity can also cause molds and fungi on timber structures as well.

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•The fourth factor is the wind, which can be helpful during hot summer days, or it can be really challenging to have a strong wind during cold winter days, which makes it feel much colder than it already is. When designing in an area with an extreme wind factor, the orientation of the building is important to reduce the negative effects, such as the structure getting cold faster during winter (Olgyay and Olgyay, 1973). Aero comfort is an important part when designing architecture and thermal comfort. Air movements can be

used for natural air renewal and cooling in natural ways in architecture. One of the reasons that in the city people feel a lack of air has to do with the poor orientation of the buildings collectively as well as individually (Olgyay and Olgyay, 1973).

Cities and buildings are not generally designed to direct air and wind to pass into and through buildings. Additionally, during the summer heat it is hard to cool down the structure naturally. Cool air, can however, be supplied simply, from cold cellars or subterranean,ducts and hollow building parts in walls and floors and by water evaporation.

Climate change is a major issue of our future world that cannot be ignored.

The construction industry has a role to play in helping to reduce climate change as do architects and designers (Booth, 2012). The aim is to design suitable climate adapted architecture that pays attention to both the design and materials. Introducing biophilic principles will help as a truly biophilic building should not harm the environment in any way, and they must be efficient with energy whilst producing the least amount of energy waste. To

have standardized temperatures, atmosphere and humidity requires a lot of fossil fuel-based energy source. It is therefore important to apply the natural standardized level of comfort to the architecture with the minimal use of fossil fuel base (Oliver, 2006). As the energy savings and CO2 reduction is synonymous with climatic adaptation, it is important to benefit from renewable energy and recycled materials in order to give the environment the most amount of protection (Booth, 2012). As it is believed that climate is affecting the human psychology and behavior, it is the main inspiration of climate adaptive architecture that the designs have been done to decrease the climatic stress and create a perfect microclimate.

Fig. 4: Basic factors of climate that affects human comfort.

Temperature

Humidity Sunlight

Airflow

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Radiant heat

CHAPTER 3: Design & Materials

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Traditional architecture can, in the main, be considered to be climate adapted architecture, where there is a connection between the design and the local climate. The tougher the climate, the more characteristic and unique the resulting architecture becomes.

(Oliver, 2006) The design and materials is one of the key principles when planning according to the climate. If it is used cleverly with nature, there would be many benefits that can be achieved. With the help of technology and innovations on the new materials, the new designs and structures of the building should keep developing for better climate adapted structures (Booth, 2012).

MATERIALS

In today’s world most of the so called biophilic structures look similar, almost in every climate, with tall, glazed buildings, many with green walls and roofs. As the climate is not the same all around the world, the designs should not be same as well. It is significant, in order to design for climate, the climate cases should be analyzed, and the problems determined according to it. With the use of technology, the sun path can be analyzed on the site and the

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radiation levels can be measured according to it, where the most effective shading calculations can be done and the most advantage can be taken from it. This method is called shading masks, and some of the buildings have been designed according to it. Using this technology the calculations can also be calculated for the wind openings, and through this the times of opening can be unlocked and locked. For instance, during summer the wind can be used as a cooling breeze instead of using mechanical air ventilation, and during winter some of the extra openings can be closed, allowing only enough air flow for natural ventilation. With the use of technology certain aspects of the insulation materials can keep improving until there is no heat loss during winter, and any energy loss during summer (Olgyay and Olgyay, 1973). KÜppen’s climate classification system can be taken as a map to use the climate as a key to design on those specific elements. For instance, in a moderately humid climate, the use of skylights would bring natural lighting inside the structure and decrease the energy use for lighting, but it would significantly increase the amount of energy used on the heating and makes the heating of the building more difficult.

According to these problems, designing the biophilic structure with the help of vernacular and climatic responsive architecture would help solve the problem of the unnecessary use of energy and climate change that is brought with it. The most basic design factor when designing with climate is the walls and roofs.

For instance, in heavy rain areas like tropical savannas and equatorial forests, the walls are less fundamental than the roof. For areas like Mauretania, Gobi and Mexico the role of walls are more important than the roof (Olgyay and Olgyay, 1973). There is a relationship that can be seen between the roof types and the climates. For instance, in hot zones the roofs are generally flatter whereas in drier areas roofs appear as vaulted. In temperate climates, which have dry summers, the roof structure is generally inclined, whereas in the wet-temperate and cooler territories generally higher roofs are used (Olgyay and Olgyay, 1973).

One of the well-known aspects of biophilic architecture is the use of green areas, such as the roof and the walls. A green roof on the structure brings the benefits with it, where the principle of the green roof is

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to replace the amount of land that has taken for the construction and replace the amount that has been removed on the roof (Heerwagen, Kellert and Mador, 2013). One of the benefits of having green roofs is that it also acts as a natural insulation, where there is an increase of thermal and acoustic insulation.

By regulating the temperature changes the roof life is extended and can compare with non-green roofs; therefore, it can also be treated as an essential climate adaptive architectural design feature.

Even though the climate is not the same everywhere, the green areas can be designed with the surrounding vegetation in mind. The use of local vegetation in green areas is quite important in order to prevent water and energy waste which then keeps the flora alive, since it is already adapted to the climate in the area.

Having a green area on the buildings also helps in reducing the atmospheric dust and maintains air humidity, where at the same time having a green roof, (at least simple green roofs, such as sedum roofs) does not need much maintenance and budget compared to roof gardens and still able to serve the same benefits (Gauzin-Muller,

2002). A green roof at the top of the structure can be quite beneficial in rainy areas, during heavy rains as the roof acts as a temporary sponge and absorbs 70- 90% of rainwater, while reducing the usual high pressure on ground drainage systems. Green roof and walls can be practical during hot summer periods where they can contribute to a lower temeperature of between 1-4 Celsius difference that can be seen in the area (Gauzin-Muller, 2002). In the dry city environment, trees increase air water content. On the other hand, during the winter period, the green surface acts as part of insulation materials, and the energy savings can be benefited from it (Gauzin-Muller, 2002).

The vital thing thus to do is to work with nature not against it, and benefit from the local characteristic environmental factors.

Lowered cost and great comfort can be achieved through reducing mechanical air conditioning, when working with nature. When looking at good examples of climate adapted architecture, it can be seen that most of them have been designed for the extreme climates (Olgyay and Olgyay, 1973). •Designing with the humidity;

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Humidity is one of the essential factors when designing for climate, because when it is not at the right level it can be uncomfortable.

In a hot humid climate, traditional, vernacular buildings are generally open skeleton structures.

The structures in general are lightweight, and the materials that are used are bamboo, fibres and leaves. The benefit of having light walls allows the house to be well ventilated, which makes the best possible use of the wind circulation.

Elevated structures, above the ground, allows the structure to be protected against flooding, moisture and small animals, and also allows air circulation underneath the structure, which is cooling. Most of the houses have large roofs to protect against rain as well and to maximise air flow. To allow maximum amount air-cooling, some houses have been built on water (Dahl,2010).

In subtropical areas, the purpose of the buildings is to protect against the humid and hot summer. The second purpose is to protect against the cool, short winters. Classical Japanese houses provice the perfect example to use to when designing for high humid and hot climate zones. The ventilation and air circulation during the hot humid periods are

Fig. 5: Traditional japanese house, illustrating the air circulation inside & outside.

Summer sun

Lower winter sun Air circulation

the main design motivation for the vernacular architecture in Japan. The exterior walls are mainly comprise the layering of movable screens, which makes it easier to adapt the structure to the different climatic scenarios, and also during the day and night. Fully opening the screens during the summer period provides full air circulation inside, with the high-ceilinged room the benefit of cooling ventilation doubles.

The roof structure diverts the rain and hot sun during summer but allows the lower winter sun to heat the rooms during cold times. As the structure has been raised above the ground, there is also ventilation going under the floor, which also provides coolness. Having light

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interiors and raised structure from the ground benefits the buildings to avoid having moisture and heat inside. The structures are made from light materials as well, mostly timber. Most of the houses are surrounded by gardens, water and shading trees (Dahl, 2010).

•Designing with the Wind;

Using the wind factor, as a benefit during summer period, designing a house according to it for hot climatic areas would lower the mechanical costs (like air conditioning) and ease the stress of the building during extreme circumstances (Olgyay and Olgyay, 1973). In Cairo, original vernacular houses are a good example where the wind is used as a cooling mechanism. The wind towers raised above the roof are facing north, which allows them to catch the cool air and direct it indoors during the hot summer days in this hot dry climate. The wind catchers allow the continual air circulation inside the house, bringing fresh air constantly.

The warm air inside the house rises and escapes through the small openings on ‘durqa’a’ (Dahl, 2010).

In a moderately humid climate, it is important to design the structure against wind and humidity. In order to protect the structure from wind and cold the windows are quite small. Traditional Danish houses are good examples when dealing with cold humid climates.

Mostly constructed with heavy local materials insulates the house very well (Dahl, 2010).

Inside the house the walls, floors and the ceilings generally constructed out of wood to break the thermal bridges by increasing the room’s surface temperature (Dahl, 2010).

Fig. 6: Traditional Cairo house, illustrating the air circulation inside & outside.

Fresh Air Warm air

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durqa’a

•Designing with Solar Radiation;

Sun is the most essential part for biophilic design, which brings natural lighting and heat. In hot climates the roof plays a big role, where it is the most important part of the shading and the broad source of the cooling (Hyde, 2007). According to Felix Marboutin’s research, in the northern hemisphere, the best living conditions can be achieved by having the fundamental facades of structures facing south, in order to use the heat during winter and to provide cooling in summer. During summer, east and west facing facades are warmer, and colder in winter compare to south, southeast, and southwest (Olgyay and Olgyay, 1973, 53).

Glass walls only provide 12% protection from radiation, which is low for hot periods during summer (Olgyay and Olgyay, 1973). On the other hand, having an opaque curtain wall, leaves people with physiological conditions and health problems. Therefore, it is important to find the middle ground, where there is enough protection from radiation and no disbenefits for human health when separated fully from nature. The colour on the shading can actually make a big difference, where an off-white color offers 20% more protection with venetian blinds and 40%

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for roller shades comparde to dark coloured ones (Olgyay and Olgyay, 1973). Another big difference can be seen with the location of the shade protection, where 35% more protection can be seen when the shading is used outside of the window compared to installing indoor ones (Olgyay and Olgyay, 1973). In most of the vernacular houses, which deals with high heat factor during summer, the integration of water and vegetation features is really important, as they help to have a natural cooling factor.

MATERIALS

Materials are one key part when planning for biophilic architecture. It is important to research the materials that would be used according to the climate that the structure would be built in. It is essential to consider the manufacture process, as most of the materials that are used on biophilic architecture (e.g. concrete, steel, glass) consume a lot of energy during production and the transportation of those materials to the site plays an important role in CO2 emissions (Booth, 2012).

The embodied energy of a building means the energy used during gaining raw materials, process, manufacture, transport and building

before and during construction, where many standard building materials uses large amounts of energy also leading high CO2 emissions for in production (Booth, 2012). In ‘Solutions to climate, challenges in the built environment’ Booth (2012) mentions: The key to sustainable construction materials is to consume less, making efficient utilization of available resources, reusing and recycling. As the consumption rate gets higher the world resources and reserves will not provide raw materials anymore for the constructions.

Insulation is also an important part when dealing with climate adaptive architecture, whether it is to keep the heat inside or outside, and there are many ways of insulating buildings to achieve human thermal comfort. One way of insulating a building that has been used is to trap air in between walls because air is a poor heat conductor. In climates, which are hot during the day and cold at night heavy weighted structured with heavy mass walls are used to deal with the temperature difference (Hyde, 2007). For instance, using heavy stone walls in these kinds of climates, are quite practical.

During the day the wall stores the heat, where

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the indoors stays cool, and then the heat is released during the night, which would make the indoors warmer, which is beneficial in the colder months. Buildings, suffering from heat during summer, are hard to cool down naturally.

Air can be supplied from a cold cellar or subterranean ducts and hollow building parts in walls and floors, and by water evaporation. On the exterior of the structures, where it rains heavily, there needs to be adequate moisture proofing, and facades should be heavily insulated when it is also in a cold climate. If in a hot climate and dealing with solar radiation problems, glare and overheating, screens can be applied (Dahl, 2010).

GLASS

Glass is mainly made of; sand, sodium carbonate and limestone, and requires a temperature of 1600 Celsius to create it (Booth, 2012). It is advertised as a sustainable and resilient construction material because of it is wide range of availability of raw materials and it is impermeable and resistant weathering.

Due to its brittle nature, the use of the glass inconstruction is limited. Including steel mesh and fibers during the process of making it can

actually make the glass stronger and can be used broadly on structures such as on staircases and bridges. Although no recycled materials can be used as a by-product in order to manufacture glass, it can be recycled and reused again for many ways, such as aggregate replacement in concrete and even on water treatment plants as a filtering medium (Booth, 2012).

Glass is a tricky material to use, it can bring comfort or change the microclimate around the surroundings if not used wisely (GauzinMuller, 2002). The microclimate has changed in Tokyo, because of the high use of glazing, where the downtown area acts as a greenhouse during summer period (where summers are humid and hot).

There are two different types of glass materials to consider in construction, and it is important to understand the differences between them when designing a climate-adapted architecture. Glass can be coated either during the manufacturing process or after. Coating the glazing can affect light transmission, heat transfer, reduce emittance, and produce effects as mirroring (English Heritage, 2011). Low-

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emissivity glass is used either to absorb or reflect radiant energy, and the coatings of this type is generally done with metal oxides. The use of low emissivity glass can be useful both during summer and winter periods, as it prevents high solar heating and heat loss (English Heritage, 2011).

Fig. 7: Tokyo as an example of an urban heat island, chart showing the temperature difference between rural areas and downtown during summer period.

CONCRETE

Concrete is the most widely used construction material globally, and the reason of this is because it can build high-rise, strong, builkding in various forms and shapes and as relatively cheaper structures. Conventional concrete consists of cement, water, and coarse and fine aggregates (Booth, 2012). The cement industry causes 5% of the global CO2 emissions, because of the burning of fossil fuels (Booth,

2012). According to recent research 30% of the cement can be replaced by fly ash, which is a by-product of the coal industry (Booth, 2012).

BRICK

Manufacturing brick requires temperature between 900 and 1050 Celsius (Booth, 2012). It is mainly made of clay. The use of industrial wastes, such as PFA, ground glass, and sewage sludge, on clay can be beneficial during the manufacture process of brick (Booth, 2012).

The mixing of by-products in clay can reduce the firing temperature and act as a source of fuel (Boot, 2012). The use of non-fired brick can reduce the amount of CO2 required by 85%, but the durability and mechanical performance is lower compared to the fired bricks (Booth,

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2012).

Bricks are used around the world as a building material especially in areas where the clay is found. Bricks are hard wearing and are used in vernacular structure sand as road surfacing, e.g. in the Netherlands (Booth, 2012).

TIMBER

Timber is one of the oldest materials that have been used on construction. It is versatile and widely available and can also be considered as an eco- friendly material. Felled trees can be replaced by new tres and thus and CO2 is absorbed. As the process of producing timber releases oxygen by photosynthesis and consumes CO2, and as it sequesters the CO2 it is considreed carbon neutral and thus is widely considered as a sustainable material. It can be classified as soft or hardwood depending on the species of tree and this relates directly to the natural growth speed of the tree. The nature of hardwood is stronger, costs more and takes longer to grow compared to softwood (Booth, 2012). The harvesting of softwood generally takes 25 years, and 50 years for hardwood. It is mainly used in many construction applications

Fig. 8: Winter Garden in Sheffield, UK, example of engineered wood structure.

like, joints, framing and stud walls (Booth, 2012).

Bamboo is other component that can be used in construction comparable to timber (Booth, 2012) . Compared to timber, it is easier to produce as it grows faster and due to its extensive root system, there is no need for replanting because bamboo shoots grow spontaneously. The harvesting takes 3-5 years (Booth, 2012). Compared to its weight ratio,

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bamboo has high strength and can be used in construction in many ways such as, scaffolding, roofing, decking and sheathing (Booth, 2012).

As timber, bamboo is regarded as a sustainable construction material due to its frequent harvesting and replenishment. It is also ecofriendly as timber because of its consumption of CO2 and release of oxygen.

STEEL

Steel requires high-energy during its manufacturing process. Even though it has high embodied energy it can be used in many ways on construction, either by itself or with the use of other materials, such as concrete. Due to its strength most of the high-rise constructions has been built by steel. Sustainability is a concern but it can be recycled. If the proper measures have been taking during the design, steel can be protected against corrosion. If it is protected well enough such as coating the steel and cathodic protection, the material can last for a long time. Cathodic protection is used for protecting reinforced concrete bridges, and preserve historic steel-framed buildings (Booth, 2012).

POLYMERS

Polymer-based materials have been used on lightweight structures, since it is lighter than concrete, brick and steel. It has been generally used on floating houses. Polymers can also be mixed with alternative components such as waste products and fine aggregates to produce new composite material to increase strength and durability (Booth, 2012). As the selfweight reduces, the amount of building materials

that has been used on the construction reduces equally. With the use of fiber-reinforced plastic, more strong and durable structures can be made (Booth, 2012). Even though plastic does not count as biophilic material; in the climates where there are a lot of floods it can be quite beneficial.

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RECYCLED AND NANO MATERIALS

With the use of nanotechnology, classic construction materials can be developed in a way to contain more recycled materials and to have less embodied energy. Also new materials like fiber-reinforced plastic can be experimented in a way, which can be used on specific kind of climate for the benefit (Booth, 2012).

CHAPTER 4: Adapting It To London?

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The British climate has changed throughout the last centuries, alongside of which architecture also changed with it.

During the years between 1560 and 1600, Europe experienced climate change, and it was the coldest ever known in Britain. Even though the climate has changed temporarily and acted as a little ice age, the condition was not ignored and architects still worked with the climate (Hawkes, 2012). The change in climate actually influenced Collen Campbell, and inspired him to write Vitruvius Britannicus, which has been the key when designing a house according to British standards. Unfortunately, in the 20th century the relationship has changed between design and climate, mostly due to natural elements being replaced or wrongly adapted mechanically.

Alison and Peter Smithson have been one of the practitioners of climatic adaptive architecture in Britain. The Upper Lawn Pavilion has been an experimental practice focusing on understanding the climatic factors and the design relationship.

Even though London is at the same latitude as Berlin, the climate is quite different. In London every season is experienced during the year and has a temperate climate. Even though the city keeps getting hotter every year because

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of climate change, generally snow may occur during winter. Rain is regular both in summer and winter periods.

In a humid climate like London, it is essential to use humidity-proof materials, such as glass and brick. These materials are significantly solid, and therefore are not able to absorb any humidity from the air. Due to its nature of absorbing humidity out of the air, it should be important in considering humidity levels when constructing with hygroscopic material, like wood. If the humidity level is excessive, the moisture on the wood can cause rot, fungi and would be more disposed to insect attacks. Even though timber and timber-based construction materials are hard to work with in humid climates, the new ways of treating timber have made it possible for it to be used in humid environments (Dahl, 2010). London can benefit from mostly using construction materials of brick, wood and glass, since these can be locally available and most easy materials to recycle.

During winter, the structures should be carefully placed in order to decrease convection.

The air movements outside the buildings can cause cooling of the structure. The wind directions and strengths should be measured carefully, in order not to lose any energy during the cold winter periods and the design and orientation of the building can be done according to it.

The benefit of building heavy structures can reduce the direct reflection of the climate experienced outdoors on the indoors. Passive building ideas like zone division would not work in London, as the use of different rooms in different time of the year probably is not convenient to London standards, where there is lack of space for everyone. In this case the materials that have been used in every room should be suitable at all time during the year.

Having heavy insulation, on the whole structure would keep the heat during winter and would be cool during the summer period. The use of huge mass and thick walls with a mixture of high insulation can ensure a stable humidity and heat level indoors.

and seasons as well. When the temperature inside is higher than 24 Celsius, the material changes into fluid and stores heat. When the temperature drops below 24 Celsius, it becomes solid and releases the heat that was stored inside (Dahl, 2010). It can be used as to stabilize the indoor climate during constant temperature changes.

Fig. 9: Phase-changing material, stabilizes indoor climate during day & night.

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Wall

Wall

Outside

A new way of passive heating can be created by the use of phase-changing materials on the walls. The material is designed to be adaptable for temperature change during the day,

Night

Day

Inside

Fig. 10: Phase-changing material diagram Phase-change material in solid state

temperature rises

as it solidifies, pcm releases heat energy back as it melts, pcm absorbs heat energy photomicrograph of pcm temperature falls

Phase-change material in liquid state

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Insulated and uninsulated trombe walls are an efficient way to gain passive heating during winter, and during summer period it can be blocked by a use of shade. In both ways the purpose of the wall is to get most of the solar energy during the day and release it during the night time. Heavy, generally black painted walls are placed behind of a glass surface, insulated trombe walls mostly has transparent insulation materials, on the most sun facing part of the structure (Dahl, 2010). The air space between the wall and the glass generally acts as another layer of insulation. To have air circulation during summer time, the windows can be opened and let fresh air inside. It is also important to have shutters outside the glazing, as it can overheat during hot summer days. Therefore, on one part of the structure where there is direct sunlight a trombe wall can be used to increase the passive heating effect inside the building during cold times.

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Fig. 11: Trombe wall efficiency on summer and winter sun.

Summer Sun

Winter Sun

Controlled heat enterance

Fig. 12: Trombe wall storing heat during day.

Day

Fig. 13: Trombe wall releasing heat during night.

Night Air Circulation

Controlled heat entrance

Heat Release

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It is important to consider three types of daylight when window designing; sunlight, skylight and reflected light. As the brightness contrasts can get high between inside and outside, it is really essential to consider the right transition. To reduce the glare; deep openings, light surfaces and areas at varying angles in relation to the light can be used (Dal, 2010). A simple way to adjust the glare is to use screens against the light.

Depending on the function of the building, two types of screen can be used according to the season to protect the eyes from glare. Indoor screening can be used during the winter period to trap the heat inside the room, and during the summer period outside screenins can be used to keep away the excess heat.

Bedzed (in Sutton, South London) is a good example of sustainable living, with the use of climate. It is the UK’s first largescale, mixed use sustainable community, which was completed in 2002 (Schoon, 2016).

The land is originally placed on the sewage sludge, where the community needed cheaper accommodation. Compared to regular housing, the heating, power and electricity bills are

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much cheaper, because of its climate-adapted architecture. The most important energy savings has been accomplished by having high levels of insulation, airtightness and passive solar heating (Schoon, 2016). The use of airtightness allows fresh air circulation inside the building without wasting any heat and energy. The use of solar power helped to save 27% in electricity and 36% in gas consumption during 2012 and 2015 (Schoon, 2016). Most of the homeowners have their own private gardens, and there is also a green area for all of the community.

The structure has many green walls and roofs which allows residents to be with nature at all times. By providing natural ventilation, light and heating the Bedzed project is an excellent example of climate-adapted architecture, therefore biophilic designs.

Fig. 14: Sustainable living in bedzed.

Fig. 15: Bedzed as an example for biophilic design.

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The Straw House is a good example of biophilic building in London because the design has been focused in order to have the most energy savings. It was built in 2004, at Stock Orchard Street and can be shown as a unique biophilic architecture because of its design and material use (Dahl, 2010). Low-tech materials and systems have been used to build this house.

On the south facing part of the structure, large windows have been used to get most of the passive solar energy. Extra insulations have been used in the walls which is facing east, north and west (Dahl, 2010). The insulation has been made out of bales of straw, which can be used as a perfect example of what can insulation materials can be replaced with.

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Fig. 15: Bales of straw as an insulation material.

Fig. 15: Photograph of the straw House.

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In general London would benefit with more use of climate adapted structures that respond to the local conditions and availability of materials and within the bigger picture helping to increase sustainability and reduce climate change effects.

CHAPTER 5: Conclusions

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The use of biophilic principles in architecture is likely to become more prevalent as people integrate green and natural elements into the design of buildings. Alongside that, biophilic materials and their arrangement is of significant importance. When climate change becomes a reality, designers need to ensure that their projects are sustainable and that the internal environments are conducive to the lowest energy demands. Whilst creating spaces that are functional and thermally comfortable, which in addition, facilitate the health and wellbeing of their occupants. The new ideas of materials, buildings that heal and heat themselves with building managements systems that control energy inputs and outputs efficiently is really important for biophilic architecture.

As most of the world’s cities are getting hotter partly because of constructed architecture and its effect on climate change, cities like London, can benefit most from biophilic designs. In cities like London, where climate change is one of the many factors of construction industry, is essential to consider working with climate again. To not repeat the design mistakes made by the construction industries for many years, it is important to understand the variety of

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materials and their sources before building the structure. Whilst the study of new technology on materials and design keeps improving, it is essential also not to forget the traditional ways of dealing with climate. This dissertation suggest that the most suitable materials that can be used in the London climate are bricks, wood and glass, and with the use of green walls and roofs the structures can become a true biophilic buildings. As biophilia stands for connecting people back with nature, it is important to include natural aspects into the design. If the biophilic structure promises to cure the environment, it should also do no harm during the building process. The benefit of studying vernacular architecture in the local area would improve the understanding of design and materials that have been used for past generations as part of climate adapted architecture. Since the focus of the vernacular architecture has been climate, it is important to understand how the comfort has been created by only using natural aspects (Booth, 2012).

The aim of the construction for biophilic architecture should be based on consuming less, making efficient utilization of available sources,

reusing and recycling. Today climate adapted architecture can potentially be referenced as biophilic architecture. It is important to consider climate-adapted architecture when designing biophilic structures. It heals the environment and human health, whilst during the processes does no harm to its surroundings.

Today climate adapted architecture is particularly synonimous with energy reduction and CO2 savings.

As the study of climateadapted architecture advances, the philosophy of biophilic architecture will become much clearer and better understood.

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FIGURE SOURCES

Figure 1: Map by Wood, E., Beck, H., Zimmermann, N., McVicar, T., Vergopolan, N. and Berg, A. (2018). New and improved KรถppenGeiger classifications. Available at: https:// www.nature.com/articles/sdata2018214/figures/1

Figure 2: Diagram by Basak Su Sahin, (2018).

Figure 3: Chart by Bujar Bajcinovci,

(2017) Psychometric chart, comfort zone of human thermal comfort. Available at: https:// www.researchgate.net/figure/Psychometricchart-comfort-zone-of-human-thermal-comfort_ fig4_321997810

Figure 4: Illustration by Basak Su Sahin, (2018).

Figure5: Illustration by Basak Su Sahin, (2018).

Figure 6: Illustration by Basak Su Sahin, (2018).

Figure 7: Chart by Royal Meteorological Society (n.d.). Urban Heat Island Introduction. Available at: http://www. metlink.org/other-weather/urban-heat-islands/ urban-heat-island-background/#!prettyPhoto/-1/

Figure 8: Photograph by Weddle

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Landscape Design (n.d.). Sheffield Winter Gardens. Available at: http://weddles.co.uk/ wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/SWGTudor-square-night-690x474-690x474.jpg

Figure 9: Illustration by Basak Su Sahin, (2018).

Figure 10: Diagram by Basak Su Sahin, (2018).

Figure 11&12&13: Illustration by Basak Su Sahin, (2018).

Figure 14&15: Photograph by Bioregional (n.d.). BedZED. Available at: https://www. bioregional.com/bedzed/

Figure 16&17: Photography by HARTMAN, H. (2015). Is this the most influential house in a generation?. Available at: https://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/ buildings/isthisthemostinfluentialhouseinageneration/8677581.article

Figure cover: Illustration by Daker, A. (2018). London Skyline. Available at: https://cityscapeillustrator.com/wp-content/ uploads/2013/04/london-skyline-illustrationnewer-Abi-Daker-uai-2064x410.jpg

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