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Gluten-Free Ancient Grains: Cereals, Pseudocereals, and Legumes: Sustainable, Nutritious, and Health-Promoting Foods for the 21st Century John R.N. Taylor & Joseph M. Awika

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Gluten-Free Ancient Grains

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Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition

Gluten-Free Ancient Grains

Cereals, Pseudocereals, and Legumes: Sustainable, Nutritious, and Health-Promoting Foods for the 21st Century

Edited by

John R.N. Taylor

University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Joseph M. Awika

Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States

Woodhead Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier

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Regine Schoenlechner

7. Buckwheat: Its Unique Nutritional and

Attributes

Sándor Tömösközi, Bernadett Langó

3.4

3.5

3.6

8. Lupins: Their Unique Nutritional and Health-Promoting Attributes

Stuart K. Johnson, Jonathan Clements, Casiana Blanca J. Villarino, Ranil Coorey

5.6

5.7

6.1

6.2

6.3

6.4

9. African Legumes: Nutritional and

Attributes

Kwaku G. Duodu, Franklin B. Apea-Bah

10. Wild Rice: Nutritional and Health-Promoting Attributes

Dorota Klensporf-Pawlik, Felix Aladedunye

11. Future Research Needs for the Ancient Grains

John R.N. Taylor, Joseph M. Awika

List of Contributors

Felix Aladedunye, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada

Franklin B. Apea-Bah, BNARI-Ghana Atomic Energy Commission, Accra, Ghana

Joseph M. Awika, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States

Jonathan Clements, Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia, South Perth, WA, Australia

Ranil Coorey, Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia

Stefano D’Amico, BOKU-University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria

Timothy J. Dalton, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, United States

Kwaku G. Duodu, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Stuart K. Johnson, Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia

Dorota Klensporf-Pawlik, Poznań University of Economics and Business, Poznań, Poland

Bernadett Langó, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest, Hungary

Regine Schoenlechner, BOKU-University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria

Sándor Tömösközi, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest, Hungary

John R.N. Taylor, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Casiana Blanca J. Villarino, University of the Philippines-Diliman, Quezon City, The Philippines

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Foreword

It is a great pleasure to write the foreword to this excellent and timely book Gluten-free Ancient Grains: Cereals, Pseudocereals, and Legumes: Sustainable, Nutritious, and Health-Promoting Foods for the 21st Century, edited by John Taylor of the University of Pretoria and Joseph Awika of Texas A&M University.

The book is a compendium of current knowledge on ancient grains and builds a case on why, despite the apparent neglect and underinvestment in research, as well as market development, these grains have persisted over the years, emerging recently as important sources for supply of critical foods for our nutrition and health in the 21st century.

Meeting the world’s demand and choice for food and nutrition continues to be among the greatest challenges of human society. As the global population continues to increase, living standards are rising in parts of the world and the diets of people are shifting where more people want to eat meat in place of plant foods, raising the overall demand for grain. Our ability to produce more grain is constrained in parts of the world, and the global food system is at risk as a result of climate change and associated agronomic problems. This is particularly the case in third-world nations, especially sub-Saharan Africa, where the world’s most chronically food-insecure reside, and penetrance of modern agricultural technology has been very limited.

Today, the world is also facing an additional food and nutrition challenge— the pandemic of noncommunicable, diet-related diseases, particularly obesity, type 2 diabetes, and a rise in cardiovascular diseases. Both high-income countries with their aging populations and the rapidly urbanizing middle- and low-income developing countries are affected. These so-called Western lifestyle diseases are, in part, a consequence of our shifting diet and changes in food habits from a predominantly plant-based diet rich in micronutrients, dietary supply of phytochemicals, to diets dominated by energy-dense, animal fat-, and sugar-rich foods. As a result, in a world endowed with great biodiversity and rich in genetic resources, only three major crops—wheat, rice, and maize—are counted upon to supply nearly two-thirds of the global dietary energy intake.

Most crops of the world originated and evolved in the old world. These old civilizations are responsible for the evolution, selection, and preservation of global crop biodiversity and many of the endowments of this planet that we cherish. Biodiversity is not a result of happenstance. Plants and animals exist where they do because of natural environmental adaptation and the powers of human selection that encouraged their survival and cultivation. The ancient

grains are those cereal grains, pseudocereals, and pulses that have been sustained as traditional staple food crops in rural areas of the old world, because they met the food and nutrition needs of people in those regions.

As major crops of the world are more seriously threatened by climate change, ancient grains thrive in many of these places because they have built-in adaptive traits that make them suitable for cultivation in harsh environments. Ancient grains are also crops of high premium potential and value. In addition to strong environmental stress tolerance, many of the ancient grains are sources of better nutrition as excellent sources of macronutrients and many micronutrients. They are notably rich in health-promoting phytochemicals with promising potential for prevention or alleviation of diet-related diseases.

This book, therefore is not simply a compendium of facts and tales about ancient grains. With its holistic coverage by expert authors from around the world, the book has wealth of information that imparts new insights on the global range of adaptation, stress tolerance, as well as nutritional and health potential of these indispensable crops of the poor. Eight-grain types from across the world are discussed: Sorghum, the Millets, Quinoa, Amaranth, Buckwheat, Lupin, African Legumes, and Wild rice. They represent the three different groups of grain staples: cereals, pseudocereals, and pulses (grain legumes) and all are characteristically gluten-free.

This book provides authoritative data on nutrient and phytochemical values of ancient grains in comparison with today’s major food grains. It offers information on new developments in food processing technologies that enhance their food and nutrition potential, and offers a critical evaluation of the current research findings on their health-promoting properties. Additionally, the book portends the fundamental social and economic issues that currently constrain the supply of ancient grains, and suggests solutions required to make ancient grains major world staples so that far more people can benefit from their unique nutritional and health-promoting attributes.

Gebisa Ejeta

Distinguished Professor and 2009 World Food Prize Laureate Director, Center for Global Food Security Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States

Chapter 1 Environmental, Nutritional, and Social Imperatives for Ancient Grains

John R.N. Taylor

University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter focuses on the reasons why the Ancient Grains should be of interest to all those who are concerned about food: the world’s food supply, our nutrition, and the role of foods in our long-term health and well-being. The chapter is three parts. The first section explains what ancient grains are and which particular grains are dealt with. The main section examines the societal and grain-specific trends, which are driving interest and activity in ancient grains. The concluding section gives an overview of the scope and content of the book.

2 WHAT ARE ANCIENT GRAINS

2.1 Definitions

Currently, there is no universally accepted definition as to what are ancient grains. According to the Whole Grains Council, a respected advocacy group working toward increasing whole grain consumption for improved consumer health, ancient grains can be loosely defined as “grains that are largely genetically (author’s insertion) unchanged over the last several hundred years” (Oldways Whole Grains Council, Undated). A similar but more detailed definition comes from Food Navigator.com (2015) that “ancient grains is a category covering grains (cereals), pseudo-grains (more properly pseudocereals) and seeds that are “ancient” in the sense that they have remained largely unchanged over hundreds, even thousands of years, unlike, say modern wheat varieties.” Alternative terms for ancient grains include: specialty grains (Abdel-Aal and Wood, 2005), less common grains (Belton and Taylor, 2002), native grains (National Research Council, 1996), traditional grains (Taylor and Stading, 2014), and neglected and underutilized grains (Padulosi et al., 2013).

Gluten-Free Ancient Grains. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100866-9.00001-7

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Another expression, which helps define ancient grains is “Lost Crops”. This was coined by the National Research Council of the US National Academies of Science. The concept of “Lost Crops” is that, these are plant foods, which are lost to the mainstream of international science and to people outside the less-developed rural regions of the world, where they are primarily cultivated. To enable the scientific community and the wider world to “find” these lost crops, in the late 1980s the Council, under the leadership of Dr. Noel Vietmeyer commenced publishing an on-going series of books, including Lost Crops of the Incas (1989), Lost Crops of Africa: Vol. I Grains (1996), Vol. II Vegetables (2006) (National Research Council, 1989, 1996, 2006). The “Lost Crop” books are literally a cornucopia of fascinating information about the ancient grains and other ancient food plants, and are a great introduction to the subject for the general reader.

Regarding consumer perceptions about ancient grains, these are apparently highly positive. According to the Canadean Consumer (2015), more than 80% of consumers worldwide are familiar with ancient grains as food ingredients. Furthermore, more than 50% of consumers consider that consumption of ancient grains has a positive impact on health and weight-conscience women in particular view ancient grains positively. A rather more conservative and probably realistic figure comes from a Health Focus International Survey of consumers in the Americas, Europe, and Asia, where 35% of respondents expressed an interest in ancient grains (Webb, 2016). The author also reported on a survey by Today’s Dietitian of 450 dieticians in the USA, which found that 50% of respondents stated that ancient grains would achieve “super food” status among consumers in 2016.

As to which particular grain species or varieties can be considered as ancient grains, the Whole Grains Councils limits the category to cereals and pseudocereals, and includes grains largely ignored by Western palates, that is, sorghum, teff and millet (sic), the pseudocereals quinoa, and amaranth, plus less common grains, such as wild rice and buckwheat (a pseudocereal). It also includes primitive wheats like einkorn, emmer/faro, Kamut (khorasan wheat), and spelt, and possibly heirloom varieties of other cereals, such as black barley, red and black rice, and blue corn (maize) (Oldways Whole Grains Council, Undated).

In view of the great interest in ancient grains by the both scientific community and the general public, there is clearly a need for better definition of what are ancient grains. This author is of the opinion that ancient grains should be primarily defined in terms of their properties.

Several properties are associated with the ancient grains:

l They are good sources of many macro- and micronutrients.

l They generally contain high levels of phytochemicals that have health-promoting actions.

l They are hardy crop plants that can be cultivated in environments with poor soils, high temperatures, and low rainfall.

l They are traditional staple food crops of communities in less technologically developed regions of the world.

l They have not undergone the substantial and deliberate genetic changes typical of the major grain crops.

Taking these together, the following is a working definition of ancient grains: Ancient grains are species or particular varieties of cereal grains, pseudocereals, and pulses that have been cultivated and consumed for hundreds of years as traditional staple foods by communities outside the mainstream of technological development, and hence have undergone relatively limited genetic improvement. They are hardy crop plants enabling them to be cultivated in challenging agro-ecologies and in an environmentally sustainable manner. When consumed as substantially whole grain foods, ancient grains can provide significant levels of phytochemicals with evidence-based health-promoting activities.

On the basis that several pulses (grain legumes) have only undergone limited genetic improvement, are traditional staple food grains, good sources of many macro- and micronutrients and contain significant levels of phytochemicals, the author is strongly of the opinion that such pulses should also be considered as ancient grains, in addition to the cereals and pseudocereals aforementioned. Hence, some pulse types are the subjects of chapters in the book.

2.2 Grain Species Dealt With in This Book

This book is focused on a limited number of ancient grain species:

l True cereals: sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench); all the 11 economically significant cultivated millet species: Barnyard millet (also known as Indian barnyard millet) (Echinochloa frumentaceaLink), Finger millet (Eleucine coracana (L.) Gaertn.), Foxtail millet (Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauv.), Japanese barnyard millet [Echinochloa esculenta (A. Braun) H. Scholz], Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum L.), Little millet (Panicum sumatrense Roth), Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.), Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.), Fonio (Digitaria exilis (Kippist) Stapf and D. iburua (Stapf) and Teff [Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter], and Wild rice (Zizania spp.).

l Pseudocereals (starch seeds of cotyledonous plants): Amaranth (Amaranthus spp.); Buckwheat [Fagopyrum esculentum (Moench) and F. tataricum (L.) Gaertn.]; and Quinoa [Chenopodium quinoa (Willd)].

l Pulses: African yam bean [Sphenostylis stenocarpa (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Harms]; Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.; Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp); Marama bean [Tylosema esculentum (Burch.) A. Schreib.]; West African locust-bean [Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) R. Br. ex G. Don]; and Lupins (Lupinus spp.).

These grains contain either starch and/or protein as their major nutrients and normally high levels of B vitamins and minerals, and importantly all are rich in phytochemicals.

The major criterion for inclusion of these particular grains is that they have been, and largely staple are staple foods for local rural communities in less developed regions of the world and importantly, they have the potential to become significant sources of nutrients and health-promoting phytochemicals for the wider world. A second important criterion related to their nutrient composition is that all these grains are gluten-free and can be consumed by celiacs. Hence, primitive wheat and cereals related to wheat (members of the Pooideae subfamily) are excluded, such as barley, oats, and rye. Also excluded, in the interests of conforming to the definition of ancient grains as traditional staple foods and maintaining the book’s focus, as well as keeping it to manageable proportions, are oil-rich seeds, such as chia, flax, and jobaba.

3 WHAT IS DRIVING INTEREST AND ACTIVITY IN ANCIENT GRAINS?

Today, there are many factors that are impacting on ancient grains as foods. The relative importance of the various factors and how they influence each other is almost impossible to quantify. However, for the sake of simplicity they are divided into drivers influencing production and consumption. Although, one directly affects the other.

3.1 Drivers Influencing Ancient Grain Production

Table 1.1 summarizes the drivers of the ancient grain production—positive and negative. The most important is global food insecurity. According to the CGIAR institution Biodiversity International, to feed the predicted the world population of 9 billion people by 2050 and at the same time protect the environment and provide healthy and nutritious food, we need a more diverse agricultural and food systems than at present (Padulosi et al., 2013). Currently, just 103 crops provide 90% of the world’s calories from starch. Furthermore, wheat, maize, rice, and potato account 60% of the starch caloric intake.

The continent most affected by food insecurity is Africa. In the past 50 years its population has increased by more than 400%, whereas, cereal production has only increased by 300% (FAO, 2014). The impact of this can be seen by the very high incidence of undernutrition. Data for 2011–13 reveal that 25% of Africa’s people were undernourished compared with an overall figure, for developing countries, of 14% (FAO, 2014). This dire situation is likely to get worse. FAO’s predictions is that the world’s population will increase by 2 billion (a 14% increase) over the 40 year period from 2010 to 2050. Sub-Saharan Africa’s population will be more than double, increasing alone by 1 billion people (FAO, 2009). The FAO furthermore predicts that, to meet the world’s demand, global cereal production will have to increase from 2.1 to 3 billion tonnes over this 40 year period.

TABLE 1.1 Drivers Related to Ancient Grain Production

Drivers

Food Supply Issues

Promotion of production and consumption of ancient grains by international governmental and official organizations like the FAO and CGIAR institutions—driven by concerns over global food security

Rapid population growth in developing countries—threat to food security

Climate change—adverse influence on crop production in tropical and subtropical regions

Genetic engineering breeding technology—short cut to increase in crop yields and grain quality

Hybrid cultivar technology—higher yield potential than open-pollinated varieties but higher inputs are generally required

Improved varieties—higher yield than traditional landraces

Biofortification—breeding of crop varieties with high levels of critical micronutrients

Sustainable and conservation agriculture—reduced adverse effects on the environment

Large-scale mechanized agriculture— reduced production costs

Societal concerns

Great resistance to genetic modification of ancient grains—concerns about environmental impacts and loss of genetic diversity—both uninformed and some informed concern

Resistance to the implementation of ancient grain hybrid cultivars—concerns about viability and morality of hybrid seed systems in developing countries— both informed and uninformed concern

Ancient Grain Crop Characteristics

Ancient grains are a greatly underutilized food resource

Yield potential of ancient grains currently lags behind the major grains

Ancient grains noted for ability to yield under harsh conditions

No genetically modified ancient grain is currently in commercial production— mitigates against cultivation in countries cultivating genetically modified (GM) maize

Ancient grain hybrid cultivars increasingly developing

Improved ancient grain varieties are rapidly and widely being implemented, even in small-holder agriculture

Considerable success has already been achieved with mineral biofortification of sorghum and pearl millet

Ancient grains noted for their capacity to produce a crop with minimal inputs

Improved open pollinated varieties and preferably hybrids are required

Not applicable

Ancient grains by their very nature are valued because they have great genetic diversity and perceived to be natural

As aforementioned

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place. I was convinced that the greatest calamity that ever befell the benighted nations of the ancient world was in their having passed away without a knowledge of the actual existence of Duluth; that their fabled Atlantis, never seen save by the hallowed vision of the inspired poesy, was, in fact, but another name for Duluth; that the golden orchard of the Hesperides, was but a poetical synonym for the beer-gardens in the vicinity of Duluth. I was certain that Herodotus had died a miserable death, because in all his travels and with all his geographical research he had never heard of Duluth. I knew that if the immortal spirit of Homer could look down from another heaven than that created by his own celestial genius upon the long lines of pilgrims from every nation of the earth to the gushing fountain of poesy opened by the touch of his magic wand, if he could be permitted to behold the vast assemblage of grand and glorious productions of the lyric art called into being by his own inspired strains, he would weep tears of bitter anguish that, instead of lavishing all the stores of his mighty genius upon the fall of Illion, it had not been his more blessed lot to crystalize in deathless song the rising glories of Duluth. Yes, sir, had it not been for this map, kindly furnished me by the legislature of Minnesota, I might have gone down to my obscure and humble grave in an agony of despair, because I could nowhere find Duluth. Had such been my melancholy fate, I have no doubt that with the last feeble pulsation of my breaking heart, with the last faint exhalation of my fleeting breath, I should have whispered, “Where is Duluth?”

But, thanks to the beneficence of that band of ministering angels who have their bright abodes in the far-off capital of Minnesota, just as the agony of my anxiety was about to culminate in the frenzy of despair, this blessed map was placed in my hands; and as I unfolded it a resplendent scene of ineffable glory opened before me, such as I imagined burst upon the enraptured vision of the wandering peri through the opening gates of Paradise. There, there, for the first time, my enchanted eye rested upon the ravishing word, “Duluth!” This map, sir, is intended, as it appears from its title, to illustrate the position of Duluth in the United States; but if gentlemen will examine it, I think they will concur with me in the opinion, that it is far too modest in its pretensions. It not only illustrates the position of Duluth in the United States, but exhibits its relations with all created things. It even goes further than this. It hits the shadowy vale

of futurity, and affords us a view of the golden prospects of Duluth far along the dim vista of ages yet to come.

If gentlemen will examine it, they will find Duluth not only in the center of the map, but represented in the center of a series of concentric circles one hundred miles apart, and some of them as much as four thousand miles in diameter, embracing alike, in their tremendous sweep the fragrant savannas of the sunlit South and the eternal solitudes of snow that mantle the ice-bound North. How these circles were produced is perhaps one of those primordial mysteries that the most skilled paleologist will never be able to explain. But the fact is, sir, Duluth is pre-eminently a central point, for I am told by gentlemen who have been so reckless of their own personal safety as to venture away into those awful regions where Duluth is supposed to be, that it is so exactly in the center of the visible universe that the sky comes down at precisely the same distance all around it.

I find, by reference to this map, that Duluth is situated somewhere near the western end of Lake Superior, but as there is no dot or other mark indicating its exact location, I am unable to say whether it is actually confined to any particular spot, or whether “it is just lying around there loose.” I really cannot tell whether it is one of those ethereal creations of intellectual frostwork, more intangible than the rose-tinted clouds of a summer sunset; one of those airy exhalations of the speculator’s brain which, I am told, are very flitting in the form of towns and cities along those lines of railroad, built with government subsidies, luring the unwary settler as the mirage of the desert lures the famishing traveler on, and ever on, until it fades away in the darkening horizon; or whether it is a real, bona fide, substantial city, all “staked off,” with the lots marked with their owners’ names, like that proud commercial metropolis recently discovered on the desirable shores of San Domingo. But, however that may be, I am satisfied Duluth is there, or thereabouts, for I see it stated here on the map that it is exactly thirty-nine hundred and ninety miles from Liverpool, though I have no doubt, for the sake of convenience, it will be moved back ten miles, so as to make the distance an even four thousand.

Then, sir, there is the climate of Duluth, unquestionably the most salubrious and delightful to be found anywhere on the Lord’s earth.

Now, I have always been under the impression, as I presume other gentlemen have, that in the region around Lake Superior it was cold enough for at least nine months in the year to freeze the smoke-stack off a locomotive. But I see it represented on this map that Duluth is situated exactly half way between the latitudes of Paris and Venice, so that gentlemen who have inhaled the exhilarating air of the one, or basked in the golden sunlight of the other, may see at a glance that Duluth must be the place of untold delight, a terrestrial paradise, fanned by the balmy zephyrs of an eternal spring, clothed in the gorgeous sheen of ever blooming flowers, and vocal with the silvery melody of nature’s choicest songsters. In fact sir, since I have seen this map, I have no doubt that Byron was vainly endeavoring to convey some faint conception of the delicious charms of Duluth when his poetic soul gushed forth, in the rippling strains of that beautiful rhapsody—

“Know ye the land of the cedar and the vine, Whence the flowers ever blossom, the beams ever shine; Where the light wings of Zephyr, oppressed with perfume, Wax faint o ’ er the gardens of Gul in her bloom; Where the citron and olive are fairest of fruit, And the voice of the nightingale never is mute; Where the tints of the earth and the hues of the sky, In color though varied, in beauty may vie?”

As to the commercial resources of Duluth, sir, they are simply illimitable and inexhaustible, as is shown by this map. I see it stated here that there is a vast scope of territory, embracing an area of over two millions of square miles, rich in every element of material wealth and commercial prosperity, all tributary to Duluth. Look at it, sir, (pointing to the map.) Here are inexhaustible mines of gold, immeasurable veins of silver, impenetrable depths of boundless forest, vast coal measures, wide extended plains of richest pasturage —all, all embraced in this vast territory—which must, in the very nature of things, empty the untold treasures of its commerce into the lap of Duluth. Look at it, sir, (pointing to the map); do not you see from these broad, brown lines drawn around this immense territory, that the enterprising inhabitants of Duluth intend some day to inclose it all in one vast corral, so that its commerce will be bound to go there whether it would or not? And here, sir, (still pointing to the

map), I find within a convenient distance the Piegan Indians, which, of all the many accessories to the glory of Duluth, I consider by far the most inestimable. For, sir, I have been told that when the smallpox breaks out among the women and children of the famous tribe, as it sometimes does, they afford the finest subjects in the world for the strategical experiments of any enterprising military hero who desires to improve himself in the noble art of war, especially for any valiant lieutenant-general whose

“Trenchant blade, Toledo trusty, For want of fighting has grown rusty, And eats into itself for lack, Of somebody to hew and hack.”

Sir, the great conflict now raging in the Old World has presented a phenomenon in military science unprecedented in the annals of mankind, a phenomenon that has reversed all the traditions of the past as it has disappointed all the expectations of the present. A great and warlike people, renowned alike for their skill and valor, have been swept away before the triumphant advance of an inferior foe, like autumn stubble before a hurricane of fire. For aught I know the next flash of electric fire that simmers along the ocean cable may tell us that Paris, with every fibre quivering with the agony of impotent despair, writhes beneath the conquering heel of her loathed invader. Ere another moon shall wax and wane, the brightest star in the galaxy of nations may fall from the zenith of her glory never to rise again. Ere the modest violets of early spring shall ope their beauteous eyes, the genius of civilization may chant the wailing requiem of the proudest nationality the world has ever seen, as she scatters her withered and tear-moistened lilies o’er the bloody tomb of butchered France. But, sir, I wish to ask if you honestly and candidly believe that the Dutch would have overrun the French in that kind of style if General Sheridan had not gone over there, and told King William and Von Moltke how he had managed to whip the Piegan Indians.

And here, sir, recurring to this map, I find in the immediate vicinity of the Piegans “vast herds of buffalo” and “immense fields of rich wheat lands.” [Here the hammer fell.]

[Many cries: “Go on!” “go on!”]

The Speaker—Is there any objection to the gentleman from Kentucky continuing his remarks? The chair hears none. The gentleman will proceed.

Mr. Knott—I was remarking, sir, upon these vast “wheat fields” represented on this map in the immediate neighborhood of the buffaloes and Piegans, and was about to say that the idea of there being these immense wheat fields in the very heart of a wilderness, hundreds and hundreds of miles beyond the utmost verge of civilization, may appear to some gentlemen as rather incongruous, as rather too great a strain on the “blankets” of veracity. But to my mind there is no difficulty in the matter whatever. The phenomenon is very easily accounted for. It is evident, sir, that the Piegans sowed that wheat there and ploughed it in with buffalo bulls. Now, sir, this fortunate combination of buffaloes and Piegans, considering their relative positions to each other and to Duluth, as they are arranged on this map, satisfies me that Duluth is destined to be the best market of the world. Here, you will observe, (pointing to the map), are the buffaloes, directly between the Piegans and Duluth; and here, right on the road to Duluth, are the Creeks. Now, sir, when the buffaloes are sufficiently fat from grazing on those immense wheat fields, you see it will be the easiest thing in the world for the Piegans to drive them on down, stay all night with their friends, the Creeks, and go into Duluth in the morning. I think I see them, now, sir, a vast herd of buffaloes, with their heads down, their eyes glaring, their nostrils dilated, their tongues out, and their tails curled over their backs, tearing along toward Duluth, with about a thousand Piegans on their grass-bellied ponies, yelling at their heels! On they come! And as they sweep past the Creeks, they join in the chase, and away they all go, yelling, bellowing, ripping and tearing along, amid clouds of dust, until the last buffalo is safely penned in the stock-yards at Duluth.

Sir, I might stand here for hours and hours, and expatiate with rapture upon the gorgeous prospects of Duluth, as depicted upon this map. But human life is too short, and the time of this house far too valuable to allow me to linger longer upon this delightful theme. I think every gentleman upon this floor is as well satisfied as I am that Duluth is destined to become the commercial metropolis of the universe and that this road should be built at once. I am fully

persuaded that no patriotic representative of the American people, who has a proper appreciation of the associated glories of Duluth and the St. Croix, will hesitate a moment that every able-bodied female in the land, between the ages of eighteen and forty-five, who is in favor of “woman’s rights,” should be drafted and set to work upon this great work without delay. Nevertheless, sir, it grieves my very soul to be compelled to say that I cannot vote for the grant of lands provided for in this bill.

Ah, sir, you can have no conception of the poignancy of my anguish that I am deprived of that blessed privilege! There are two insuperable obstacles in the way. In the first place my constituents, for whom I am acting here, have no more interest in this road than they have in the great question of culinary taste now, perhaps, agitating the public mind of Dominica, as to whether the illustrious commissioners, who recently left this capital for that free and enlightened republic, would be better fricasseed, boiled, or roasted, and, in the second place, these lands, which I am asked to give away, alas, are not mine to bestow! My relation to them is simply that of trustee to an express trust. And shall I ever betray that trust? Never, sir! Rather perish Duluth! Perish the paragon of cities! Rather let the freezing cyclones of the bleak northwest bury it forever beneath the eddying sands of the raging St. Croix.

Henry Carey’s Speech on the Rates of Interest.

In the Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention, 1873.

In the Constitutional Convention, in Committee of the Whole on the article reported from the Committee on Agriculture, Mining, Manufactures, and Commerce, the first section being as follows:—“In the absence of special contracts the legal rate of interest and discount shall be seven per centum per annum, but special contracts for higher or lower rates shall be lawful. All national and other banks of issue shall be restricted to the rate of seven per centum per annum.” Mr. H. C. Carey made an address in favor of striking out the section. The following is an abstract of his remarks:—

Precisely a century and a half since, in 1723, the General Assembly of Pennsylvania reduced the legal charge for the use of money from eight to six per cent. per annum. This was a great step in the direction of civilization, proving, as it did, that the labor of the present was obtaining increased power over accumulations of the past, the laborer approaching toward equality with the capitalist. At that point it has since remained, with, however, some change in the penalties which had been then prescribed for violations of the law.

Throughout the recent war the financial policy of the National Government so greatly favored the money-borrower and the laborer as to have afforded reason for believing that the actual rate of interest was about to fall permanently below the legal one, with the effect of speedily causing usury laws to fall into entire disuse. Since its close, however, under a mistaken idea that such was the real road to resumption, all the Treasury operation of favoring the moneylender; the result exhibiting itself in the facts that combinations are being everywhere formed for raising the price of money; that the long loans of the past are being daily more and more superseded by the call loans of the present; that manufacturer and merchant are

more and more fleeced by Shylocks who would gladly take “the pound of flesh nearest the heart” from all over whom they are enabled to obtain control.

Anxious for the perpetuation of this unhappy state of things, these latter now invite their victims to give their aid towards leveling the barriers by which they themselves are even yet to a considerable extent protected, assuring them that further grant of power will be followed by greater moderation in its exercise. Misled thereby, money borrowers, traders, and manufacturers are seen uniting, year after year with their common enemy in the effort at obtaining a repeal of the laws in regard to money, under which the State has so greatly prospered. Happily our working men, farmers, mechanics, and laborers fail to see that advantage is likely to accrue to them from a change whose obvious tendency is that of increasing the power of the few who have money to lend over the many who need to borrow; and hence it is that their Representatives at Harrisburg have so steadily closed their ears against the siren song by which it is sought to lead their constituents to give their aid to the work of their own destruction.

Under these circumstances is it that we are now asked to give place in the organic law to a provision by means of which this deplorable system is to be made permanent, the Legislature being thereby prohibited, be the necessity what it may, from placing any restraint upon the few who now control the supply of the most important of all the machinery of commerce, as against the many whose existence, and that of their wives and children, is dependent upon the obtaining the use thereof on such terms as shall not from year to year cause them to become more and more mere tools in the hands of the already rich. This being the first time in the world’s history that any such idea has been suggested, it may be well, before determining on its adoption, to study what has been elsewhere done in this direction, and what has been the result.

Mr. Carey then proceeded to quote at great length from recent and able writers the results that had followed in England from the adoption of the proposition now before the convention. These may be summed up as the charging of enormous rates of interest, the London joint stock banks making dividends among their stockholders to the extent of twenty, thirty, and almost forty per

cent., the whole of which has ultimately to be taken from the wages of labor employed in manufactures, or in agriculture. At no time, said Mr. Carey, in Britain’s history, have pauperism and usury traveled so closely hand in hand together; the rich growing rich to an extent that, till now, would have been regarded as fabulous, and the wretchedness of the poor having grown in like proportion.

After discussing the effects of the repeal of the usury laws in some of the American States, Mr. Carey continued:—

“We may be told, however, that at times money is abundant, and that even so late as last summer it was difficult to obtain legal interest. Such certainly was the case with those who desired to put it out on call; but at that very moment those who needed to obtain the use of money for long periods were being taxed, even on securities of unexceptionable character, at double, or more than double, the legal rates. The whole tendency of the existing system is in the direction of annihilating the disposition for making those permanent loans of money by means of which the people of other countries are enabled to carry into effect operations tending to secure to themselves control of the world’s commerce. Under that system there is, and there can be, none of that stability in the price of money required for carrying out such operations.

Leaving out of view the recent great combination for the maintenance and perpetuation of slavery, there has been none so powerful, none so dangerous as that which now exists among those who, having obtained a complete control of the money power, are laboring to obtain legal recognition of the right of capital to perfect freedom as regards all the measures to which it may be pleased to resort for the purpose of obtaining more perfect control over labor. Already several of the States have to some extent yielded to the pressure that has been brought to bear upon them. Chief among these is Massachusetts, the usury laws having there been totally repealed, and with the effect, says a distinguished citizen of that State, that “all the savings institutions of the city at once raised the rate from six to seven per cent.; those out of the city to seven and a half and eight per cent. and there was no rate too high for the greedy. The consequence,” as he continues, “has been disastrous to industrial pursuits. Of farming towns in my county, more than one quarter have diminished in population.” Rates per day have now to a great

extent, as I am assured, superseded the old rates per month or year; two cents per day, or $7.30 per annum, having become the charge for securities of the highest order. What, under such circumstances, must be the rate for paper of those who, sound and solvent as they may be, cannot furnish such security, may readily be imagined. Let the monopoly system be maintained and the rate, even at its headquarters, New England, will attain a far higher point than any that has yet been reached; this, too, in despite of the fact that her people had so promptly secured to themselves a third of the whole circulation allowed to the 40,000,000 of the population of the Union scattered throughout almost a continent. How greatly they value the power that has been thus obtained is proved by the fact that to every effort at inducing them to surrender, for advantage of the West or South, any portion thereof, has met with resistance so determined that nothing has been yet accomplished.

Abandonment of our present policy is strongly urged upon us for the reason that mortgages bear in New York a higher rate of interest. A Pennsylvanian in any of the northern counties has, as we are told, but to cross the line to obtain the best security at seven per cent. Why, however, is it that his neighbors find themselves compelled to go abroad when desirous of obtaining money on such security? The answer to this question is found in the fact that the taxation of mortgages is there so great as to absorb from half to two-thirds of the interest promised to be paid.

Again, we are told that Ohio legalizes “special contracts” up to eight per cent. and, that if we would prevent the efflux of capital we must follow in the same direction. Is there, however, in the exhibit now made by that State, anything to warrant us in so doing? Like Pennsylvania, she has abundant coal and ore. She has two large cities, the one fronting on the Ohio, and the other on the lakes, giving her more natural facilities for maintaining commerce than are possessed by Pennsylvania; and yet, while the addition to her population in the last decade was but 306,000, that of Pennsylvania was 615,000. In that time she added 900 to her railroad mileage, Pennsylvania meantime adding 2,500. While her capital engaged in manufactures rose from 57 to 141 millions, that of Pennsylvania grew from 109 to 406, the mere increase of the one being more than fifty per cent. in excess of the total of the other. May we find in these

figures any evidence that capital has been attracted to Ohio by a higher rate of interest, or repelled from our State by a lower one? Assuredly not!

What in this direction is proposed to be done among ourselves is shown in the section now presented for our consideration. By it the legal rate in the absence of “special contracts” is to be raised to seven per cent., such “contracts,” however ruinous in their character, and whatsoever the nature of the security, are to be legalized; the only exception to these sweeping changes being that national banks, issuing circulating notes are to be limited to seven per cent. Shylock asked only “the due and forfeit of his bond.” Let this section be adopted, let him then present himself in any of our courts, can its judge do other than decide that “the law allows it and the court awards it,” monstrous as may have been the usury, and discreditable as may have been the arts by means of which the unfortunate debtor may have been entrapped? Assuredly not. Shylock, happily, was outwitted, the bond having made no provision for taking even “one jot of blood.” Here, the unfortunate debtor, forced by his flintyhearted creditor into a “special contract” utterly ruinous, may, in view of the destruction of all hope for the future of his wife and children, shed almost tears of blood, but they will be of no avail; yet do we claim to live under a system whose foundation-stone exhibits itself in the great precept from which we learn that duty requires of us to do to others as we would that others should do unto ourselves.

By the English law the little landowner, the mechanic who owns the house in which he lives, is protected against his wealthy mortgagee. Here, on the contrary, the farmer, suffering under the effects of blight or drought, and thus deprived of power to meet with punctuality the demands of his mortgagee, is to have no protection whatsoever. So, too, with the poor mechanic suffering temporarily by reason of accidental incapacity for work, and, with the sheriff full in view before him, compelled to enter into a “special contract” doubling if not trebling, the previous rate of interest. Infamous as may be its extortion the court may not deny the aid required for its enforcement.

The amount now loaned on mortgage security in this State at six per cent. is certainly not less than $400,000,000, and probably extends to $500,000,000, a large portion of which is liable to be

called for at any moment. Let this section be adopted and we shall almost at once witness a combined movement among mortgagees for raising the rate of interest. Notices demanding payment will fly thick as hail throughout the State, every holder of such security knowing well that the greater the alarm that can be produced and the more utter the impossibility of obtaining other moneys the larger may be made the future rate of interest. The unfortunate mortgagor must then accept the terms, hard as they may be, dictated to him, be they 8, 10, 12, or 20 per cent. Such, as I am assured has been the course of things in Connecticut, where distress the most severe has been produced by a recent abandonment by the State of the policy under which it has in the past so greatly prospered. At this moment her savings’ banks are engaged in compelling mortgagers to accept eight per cent. as the present rate. How long it will be before they will carry it up to ten or twelve, or what will be the effect, remains to be seen. Already among ourselves the effects of the sad blunders of our great financiers exhibit themselves in the very unpleasant fact that sheriffs’ sales are six times more numerous than they were in the period from 1861 to 1867, when the country was so severely suffering under the waste of property, labor, and life, which had but then occurred. Let this section be adopted, giving perfect freedom to the Shylocks of the day, and the next half dozen years will witness the transfer, under the sheriff’s hammer, of the larger portion of the real property of both the city and the State. Of all the devices yet invented for the subjugation of labor by capital, there is none that can claim to be entitled to take precedence of that which has been now proposed for our consideration.

Rightly styled the Keystone of the Union, one duty yet remains to her to be performed, to wit: that of bringing about equality in the distribution of power over that machinery for whose use men pay interest, which is known as money. New England, being rich and having her people concentrated within very narrow limits, has been allowed to absorb a portion of that power fully equal to her needs, while this State, richer still, has been so “cabined, cribbed, confined,” that her mine and furnace operators find it difficult to obtain that circulating medium by whose aid alone can they distribute among their workmen their shares of the things produced.—New York, already rich, has been allowed to absorb a fourth of the permitted circulation, to the almost entire exclusion of the States south of

Pennsylvania and west of the Mississippi; and hence it is that her people are enabled to levy upon those of all these latter such enormous taxes. To the work of correcting this enormous evil Pennsylvania should now address herself. Instead of following in the wake of New Jersey and Connecticut, thereby giving to the monopoly an increase of strength, let her place herself side by side with the suffering States of the West, the South, and the Southwest, demanding that what has been made free to New York and New England shall be made equally free to her and them. Let her do this, and the remedy will be secured, with such increase in the general power for developing the wonderful resources of the Union as will speedily make of it an iron and cloth exporting State, with such power for retaining and controlling the precious metals as will place it on a surer footing in that respect than any of the powers of the Eastern world. The more rapid the societary circulation, and the greater the facility of making exchanges from hand to hand, and from place to place, the greater is the tendency toward reduction in the rate of interest, toward equality in the condition of laborer and employer, and toward growth and power to command the services of all the metals, gold and silver included.

It will be said, however, that adoption of such measures as have been indicated would tend to produce a general rise of prices; or, in the words of our self-styled economists, would cause “inflation.” The vulgar error here involved was examined some thirty years since by an eminent British economist, and with a thoroughness never before exhibited in reference to any other economic question whatsoever, the result exhibiting itself in the following brief words of a highly distinguished American one, published some twelve or fifteen years since, to wit:

“Among the innumerable influences which go to determine the general rate of prices, the quantity of money, or currency, is one of the least effective.”

Since then we have had a great war, in the course of which there have been numerous and extensive changes in the price of commodities, every one of which is clearly traceable to causes widely different from those to which they so generally are attributed. Be that, however, as it may, the question now before us is one of right and justice, and not of mere expediency. North and east of Pennsylvania eight millions of people have been allowed a greater

share of the most important of all powers, the money one, than has been allotted to the thirty-two millions south and west of New York, and have thus been granted a power of taxation that should be no longer tolerated. The basis of our whole system is to be found in equality before the law, each and every man, each and every State, being entitled to exercise the same powers that are permitted to our people, or other States. If the Union is to be maintained, it can be so on no terms other than those of recognition of the existence of the equality that has here been indicated. To the work of compelling that recognition Pennsylvania should give herself, inscribing on her shield the brief words fiat justitia, ruat cœlum—let justice be done though the heavens fall!

Speech of Gen. Simon Cameron.

On the benefits derived by Pennsylvania from the Policy of Internal Improvements.

Any one will see, who will take the trouble to read the debates on the location of the National Capital, that the decision of that question seems to have been made solely with reference to a connection of the East with the then great wilderness of the West. All the sagacious men then in public life looked to the time when the West, with its wonderful productive soil brought under subjection by industry, would exercise a controlling influence on the destiny of the country. Columbia, in the State of Pennsylvania, was at one time within one vote of becoming the site of the Capital; and Germantown, near, and now a part of, Philadelphia, was actually decided on as the proper location by a majority of one. The first of these was favored because it was believed to be a favorable point from which to begin a slack water route to the west. Germantown near the Schuylkill, was chosen for the same reason. All looked forward to a system of canals which would accomplish this desirable object, and experience has fully demonstrated their wisdom in that great design. About 1790, General Washington and the great financier Robert Morris, traveled on horseback from Philadelphia to the Susquehanna river, with a view of deciding whether a canal could be built over that route.

Shortly after this, some gentlemen near Philadelphia actually began building a canal to the west, did some work on its eastern end, built one or two locks on the dividing ridge near Lebanon, and for want of sufficient funds and knowledge of the subject the work was stopped. The money expended on the enterprise was lost.

But the progressive men of the country, keeping their minds on the subject, continued to agitate the popular mind on it until 1820, when the Legislature of Pennsylvania chartered the Union Canal Company, and appropriated one million dollars to aid its construction. In a few

years the canal was completed between the Schuylkill and Susquehanna. Although very small, this improvement did a great deal of good. And the most remarkable thing about it was its unpopularity with the masses. Not only the members of General Assembly who passed the bill, but Governor Heister, who signed the act of incorporation, were driven from office at the first opportunity legally presented for testing public opinion, and the party to which they belonged went into a minority. I remember well what a mighty sum a million dollars seemed to be; and the political revolution caused by this appropriation showed me that the idea of its vastness was not confined by any means to myself.

Our system of canals was completed, and the benefits derived from them were incalculable. When they were commenced our State was poor. Industry languished. The interchange of her products was difficult. Population was sparse. Intelligence was not generally diffused. Manufactures struggled weakly along. Work was not plentiful. Wages were low. When they were finished the busy hum of industry was heard on every hand. Our population had grown until we numbered millions. Our iron ore beds were yielding their precious hoards for human use. Coal mines, unknown or useless until means were provided for transporting their wealth to market, now sent millions of tons in every direction. Progress in every walk of advanced civilization was realized, and we were on the high road to permanent prosperity. But in the meantime a new and better means of communication had been discovered, and the building of railroads quickly reduced the value of canals, and the works we had completed at so much cost, and with such infinite labor, were suddenly superseded. We lost nearly all the money they had cost us, but this investment was wisely made. The return to our State was many times greater than the outlay.

Like all great projects intended for the public good, that of Internal Improvement progressed. In 1823, the New York canal—which had been pushed through against the prejudiced opposition of the people, by the genius of De Witt Clinton—was opened. Its success caused a revolution in the public mind all over the country. The effect was so marked in the State, that in 1825 a convention was called to consider the subject. Every county in the State was represented, I believe. That body pronounced in favor of a grand

system of public works, which should not only connect the East and West, but also the waters of the Susquehanna with the great lakes, the West and the Northwest. Appropriations were recommended to the amount of three millions of dollars, and in 1826, I think the work began. This sum seemed to be enormous, and the estimates of the engineers reached a total of six millions of dollars. Meeting an ardent friend of the system one day, he declared that a sum of that magnitude could never be expended on these works. I ventured to reply, with great deference to his age and experience, that I thought it would be insufficient, and before they were completed I would not be surprised if ten millions would be found necessary. Looking at me steadily for a few moments, he closed the conversation by exclaiming, “Young man, you are a d——d fool!” I was thus left in full possession of his opinion of me. But after we had spent $41,698,594.74 in the construction of these works, I found my estimate of his judgment was singularly in harmony with my opinion of his politeness. His candor I never doubted.

In the convention of 1825, there were two gentlemen who voted for railways instead of canals. One was professor Vethake of Dickinson College, Carlisle; and the other was Jacob Alter, a man of very little education, but of strong understanding. The professor was looked upon as a dreamer, and was supposed to have led his colleague astray in his vagaries. But they both lived to see railroads extended over the whole world. As a part of our system of public works, we built a railroad from the Delaware to the Susquehanna, from Philadelphia to Columbia, and one from the eastern base of the Allegheny mountains to their western base. They were originally intended to be used with horse power. In the meantime the railroad system had been commenced, and the Pennsylvania Railroad, under the charge of a man of extraordinary ability, John Edgar Thompson, was rapidly pushed to completion. Another great railway, the Philadelphia and Reading, was built to carry anthracite coal from the Schuylkill mines to the market. A railroad was built each side of the Lehigh river, that another part of our coal territory might find a market in New York. Another was built from the north branch of the Susquehanna, connecting with the New York roads, and leading to the northern coal field. And yet another was built along the Susquehanna, through the southern coal basin, to the city of Baltimore. The total cost of these roads, independent of the

Pennsylvania railroad, was $95,250,410.10, as shown by official reports. Their earnings last year are officially given at $24,753,065.32. Each of these was forced to contend with difficulty and prejudice. All were unpopular, and all were looked upon with suspicion until they actually forced their usefulness on the public mind. Those who made the fight for canals were forced to go over the whole ground again for railroads, and their double victory is greater than the success generally vouchsafed to the pioneers in any cause. These roads, with the Pennsylvania railroad and the lesser lines of improvements running through the coal region cost over $207,000,000.

The Reading Railroad will serve to illustrate the struggle of these great schemes. Its stock, now worth over par, once sold for twenty cents on the dollar; and at one time it was forced to sell its bonds at forty cents on the dollar to pay operating expenses. The vindication of the sagacity of the pioneers in these great enterprises is complete. All these lines are now profitable, and it has been demonstrated everywhere in the United States, that every new railroad creates the business from which its stockholders receive their dividends. It seems, therefore, scarcely possible to fix a limit to our profitable railroad expansion. They open new fields of enterprise, and this enterprise in turn, makes the traffic which fills the coffers of the companies.

I cannot now look back to the struggle to impress the people with the advantages of railways, without a feeling of weariness at the seeming hopeless struggle, and one of merriment at the general unbelief in our new-fangled project. Once at Elizabethtown in this State a public meeting had been called for the purpose of securing subscriptions to the stock of the Harrisburg and Lancaster Railroad. This road was intended to complete the railway between Philadelphia and Harrisburg, one hundred and five miles. A large concourse had gathered. Ovid F. Johnson, Attorney-General of our State, and a brilliant orator, made an excellent speech; but the effect was not in proportion to the effort. I determined to make an appeal, and I gave such arguments as I could. In closing I predicted that those now listening to me would see the day when a man could breakfast in Harrisburg, go to Philadelphia, transact a fair day’s business there, and returning, eat his supper at home. Great

applause followed this, and some additional subscriptions. Abram Harnly, a friend of the road, and one of the most intelligent of his class, worked his way to me, and taking me aside whispered, “That was a good idea about going to Philadelphia and back to Harrisburg the same day;” and then, bursting with laughter, he added,—“But you and I know better than that!” We lived to see the road built; and now people can come and go over the distance twice a day, which Abram seemed to consider impossible for a single daily trip.

The peculiar condition of the States then known as “the West” was the subject of anxiety to many. They had attracted a large population, but the people were exclusively devoted to agriculture. Lacking diversified industry, they were without accumulated wealth to enable them to build railways; nor were the States in condition to undertake such an onerous duty, although several of them made a feeble attempt to do so. At one time the bonds of Illinois, issued to build her canals, sold as low as thirty cents on the dollar. So with Indiana. Both States were supposed to be bankrupt. It became, therefore, an important problem as to how means of communication should be supplied to the people of the West. Congress, in 1846, gave a grant of land to aid in building a railroad in Illinois. Every alternate section was given to the Company, and each alternate section was reserved by the Government. The road was built; and the one-half of the land retained by the government sold for a great deal more than all was worth before the road was constructed. This idea was original, I think, with Mr. Whitney of Mass., who spent two winters in Washington, about 1845, endeavoring to induce Congress to adopt that plan for the construction of a Trans-Continental Railway.

He died before seeing his scheme succeed. Others have built a road across the continent on the Central route. Another on the Northern route is now progressing, and the wealth and enterprise of those having it in charge renders its completion certain. And it yet remains for us to give the people of the Southern route a road to the Pacific which shall develop the magnificent region through which it will pass, and give the country one route to the great ocean protected from the ordinary difficulty of climate with which railroads must contend over so large a part of our territory. But I am admonished by the value of your space to confine myself to the limits of my own State.

I have said that the outlay we have made in building our public works was of great benefit to us even when the canals had been rendered almost valueless through the competition of railroads. This is paradoxical, but it is true nevertheless. That expenditure gave our people a needed knowledge of our vast resources. It familiarized them with large expenditures when made for the public good. And it showed them how a great debt may be beneficially incurred, and yet not break down the enterprise of the people. We at one time owed $41,698,595.74. By a steady attention to our finances, it is now reduced to $31,000,000, with resources,—the proceeds of the sale of public works—on hand amounting to $10,000,000. And while we have been steadily reducing our State debt, we have built 5,384 miles of railway on the surface of the earth, and 500 miles underground in our mines, at a cost of not less than $350,000,000, for a mile of railroad in Pennsylvania means something. We sent 368,000 men to the Federal Army. And our credit stands high on every stock exchange. Gratifying as this progress is, it is only a fair beginning. There is a large part of our territory rich in timber and full of iron, coal, and all kinds of mineral wealth, so entirely undeveloped by railroads that we call it “the Wilderness.” To open it up is the business of to-day, and I sincerely hope to see it done soon.

Forty years ago George Shoemaker, a young tavern-keeper of more vigor and enterprise than his neighbors, came to the conclusion that anthracite coal could be used as fuel. He went to the expense of taking a wagon load of it to Philadelphia, a hundred miles away, and, after peddling it about the streets for some days, was forced to give it away, and lose his time, his labor and his coal. He afterwards saw a great railway built to carry the same article to the same point, and enriching thousands from the profits of the traffic. But his experience did not end there. He saw a thousand dollars paid eagerly for an acre of coal land, which at the time of his venture to Philadelphia, no one would have, and he could not give away.

I have thought that a retrospective survey of our wonderful development might point plainly to the duty of the future. For if the experience of what has gone before is not useful to cast light on what is yet to come, then it will be difficult indeed to discover wherein its value lies. It teaches me to devote time and labor for the advancement of all Public Improvements, and I trust it may have a