Solutions Manual for Laboratory Manual For Hole's Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

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LABORATORY MANUAL

2023

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COMPLETE Elaborated Laboratory Manual For Hole's Human Anatomy and Physiology 16th Edition Phillip Snider Terry Martin

2023

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Hole's Laboratory Manual for Human Anatomy & Physiology 16th Edition by Phillip Snider & Terry Martin

ISBN-10 1264262868 ISBN-13 978-1264262861 Test bank for Hole's Laboratory Manual for Human Anatomy & Physiology 16th Edition by Phillip Snider & Terry Martin

ISBN-10 1264262868 ISBN-13 978-1264262861

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Fundamentals of Human Anatomy and Physiology Laboratory Exercise 1 – Scientific Method and Measurements Laboratory Exercise 2 – Body Organization and Terminology Laboratory Exercise 3 – Chemistry of Life Laboratory Exercise 4 – Care and Use of the Microscope Cells Laboratory Exercise 5 – Cell Structure and Function Laboratory Exercise 6 – Movements Through Cell Membranes.

Laboratory Exercise 7 – Cell Cycle.

Tissues Laboratory Exercise 8 – Epithelial Tissues Laboratory Exercise 9 – Connective Tissues10 Laboratory Exercise 10 – Muscle and Nervous Tissues

Integumentary System Laboratory Exercise 11 – Integumentary System

Skeletal System Laboratory Exercise 12 – Bone Structure and Classification Laboratory Exercise 13 – Organization of the Skeleton Laboratory Exercise 14 – Skull Laboratory Exercise 15 – Vertebral Column and Thoracic Cage Laboratory Exercise 16 – Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb Laboratory Exercise 17 – Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Laboratory Exercise 18 – Joints

Muscular System Laboratory Exercise 19 – Skeletal Muscle Structure

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Laboratory Exercise 20 – Muscles of the Face, Head, and Neck Laboratory Exercise 21 – Muscles of the Chest, Shoulder, and Upper Limb Laboratory Exercise 22 – Muscles of the Deep Back, Abdominal Wall, and Pelvic Outlet Laboratory Exercise 23 – Muscles of the Hip and Lower Limb Laboratory Exercise 24 – Cat Dissection: Musculature

Nervous System Laboratory Exercise 25 – Nervous Tissue and Nerves Laboratory Exercise 26 – Meninges and Spinal Cord Laboratory Exercise 27 – Reflex Arc and Reflexes Laboratory Exercise 28 – Brain and Cranial Nerves Laboratory Exercise 29 – Dissection of the Sheep Brain

General and Special Senses Laboratory Exercise 30 – Receptors and General Senses Laboratory Exercise 31 – Smell and Taste Laboratory Exercise 32 – Ear and Hearing Laboratory Exercise 33 – Equilibrium Laboratory Exercise 34 – Eye Structure Laboratory Exercise 35 – Visual Tests and Demonstrations Endocrine System Laboratory Exercise 36 – Endocrine Histology and Diabetic Physiology

Cardiovascular System Laboratory Exercise 37 – Blood Cells.43 Laboratory Exercise 38 – Blood Testing – A Demonstration Laboratory Exercise 39 – Blood Typing Laboratory Exercise 40 – Heart Structure.

Laboratory Exercise 41 – Cardiac Cycle.

Laboratory Exercise 42 – Blood Vessels Laboratory Exercise 43 – Pulse Rate and Blood Pressure Laboratory Exercise 44 – Arteries and Veins

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Laboratory Exercise 45 – Cat Dissection: Cardiovascular System.

Lymphatic System Laboratory Exercise 46 – Lymphatic System

Digestive System Laboratory Exercise 47 – Digestive Organs Laboratory Exercise 48 – Cat Dissection: Digestive System Laboratory Exercise 49 – Action of a Digestive Enzyme

Respiratory System Laboratory Exercise 50 – Respiratory Organs Laboratory Exercise 51 – Cat Dissection: Respiratory System Laboratory Exercise 52 – Breathing and Respiratory Volumes and Capacities Laboratory Exercise 53 – Control of Breathing

Urinary System Laboratory Exercise 54 – Kidney Structure Laboratory Exercise 55 – Urinalysis Laboratory Exercise 56 – Cat Dissection: Urinary System

Reproductive Systems and Development Laboratory Exercise 57 – Male Reproductive System Laboratory Exercise 58 – Female Reproductive System Laboratory Exercise 59 – Cat Dissection: Reproductive Systems Laboratory Exercise 60 – Fertilization and Early Development Laboratory Exercise 61 – Genetics.

Supplemental Frog Laboratory Exercises Laboratory Exercise 62 – Skeletal Muscle Contraction Laboratory Exercise 63 – Nerve Impulse Stimulation Laboratory Exercise 64 – Factors Affecting the Cardiac Cycle

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Appendix 1: Materials Needed Appendix 2: Laboratory Suppliers Appendix 3: Student Safety Rules Agreement Appendix 4: Student Informed Consent Form

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Laboratory Exercise 20 – Muscles of the Face, Head, and Neck Laboratory Exercise 21 – Muscles of the Chest, Shoulder, and Upper Limb Laboratory Exercise 22 – Muscles of the Deep Back, Abdominal Wall, and Pelvic Outlet Laboratory Exercise 23 – Muscles of the Hip and Lower Limb Laboratory Exercise 24 – Cat Dissection: Musculature

Nervous System Laboratory Exercise 25 – Nervous Tissue and Nerves Laboratory Exercise 26 – Meninges and Spinal Cord Laboratory Exercise 27 – Reflex Arc and Reflexes Laboratory Exercise 28 – Brain and Cranial Nerves Laboratory Exercise 29 – Dissection of the Sheep Brain

General and Special Senses Laboratory Exercise 30 – Receptors and General Senses Laboratory Exercise 31 – Smell and Taste Laboratory Exercise 32 – Ear and Hearing Laboratory Exercise 33 – Equilibrium Laboratory Exercise 34 – Eye Structure Laboratory Exercise 35 – Visual Tests and Demonstrations Endocrine System Laboratory Exercise 36 – Endocrine Histology and Diabetic Physiology

Cardiovascular System Laboratory Exercise 37 – Blood Cells.43 Laboratory Exercise 38 – Blood Testing – A Demonstration Laboratory Exercise 39 – Blood Typing Laboratory Exercise 40 – Heart Structure.

Laboratory Exercise 41 – Cardiac Cycle.

Laboratory Exercise 42 – Blood Vessels Laboratory Exercise 43 – Pulse Rate and Blood Pressure Laboratory Exercise 44 – Arteries and Veins

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Laboratory Exercise 45 – Cat Dissection: Cardiovascular System.

Lymphatic System Laboratory Exercise 46 – Lymphatic System

Digestive System Laboratory Exercise 47 – Digestive Organs Laboratory Exercise 48 – Cat Dissection: Digestive System Laboratory Exercise 49 – Action of a Digestive Enzyme

Respiratory System Laboratory Exercise 50 – Respiratory Organs Laboratory Exercise 51 – Cat Dissection: Respiratory System Laboratory Exercise 52 – Breathing and Respiratory Volumes and Capacities Laboratory Exercise 53 – Control of Breathing

Urinary System Laboratory Exercise 54 – Kidney Structure Laboratory Exercise 55 – Urinalysis Laboratory Exercise 56 – Cat Dissection: Urinary System

Reproductive Systems and Development Laboratory Exercise 57 – Male Reproductive System Laboratory Exercise 58 – Female Reproductive System Laboratory Exercise 59 – Cat Dissection: Reproductive Systems Laboratory Exercise 60 – Fertilization and Early Development Laboratory Exercise 61 – Genetics.

Supplemental Frog Laboratory Exercises Laboratory Exercise 62 – Skeletal Muscle Contraction Laboratory Exercise 63 – Nerve Impulse Stimulation Laboratory Exercise 64 – Factors Affecting the Cardiac Cycle

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Appendix 1: Materials Needed Appendix 2: Laboratory Suppliers Appendix 3: Student Safety Rules Agreement Appendix 4: Student Informed Consent Form

Instructor’s Manual

to accompany

Hole’s Human Anatomy and Physiology Laboratory Manual, Eleventh Edition

Terry R. Martin Kishwaukee College

i

CONTENTS PREFACE ..............................................................................................................................................................................................vi AN OVERVIEW..................................................................................................................................................................................... vii INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES ...................................................................................................................................................... viii CORRELATION OF TEXTBOOK SYSTEMS AND SUPPLEMENTAL FROG LABORATORY EXERCISES ....................................... ix SUGGESTED TIME SCHEDULE ......................................................................................................................................................... xii

Fundamentals of Human Anatomy and Physiology Laboratory Exercise 1 – Scientific Method and Measurements..............................................................................................................1 Laboratory Exercise 2 – Body Organization and Terminology................................................................................................................2 Laboratory Exercise 3 – Chemistry of Life ..............................................................................................................................................4 Laboratory Exercise 4 – Care and Use of the Microscope .....................................................................................................................5

Cells Laboratory Exercise 5 – Cell Structure and Function .............................................................................................................................6 Laboratory Exercise 6 – Movements Through Cell Membranes.............................................................................................................7 Laboratory Exercise 7 – Cell Cycle.........................................................................................................................................................8

Tissues Laboratory Exercise 8 – Epithelial Tissues .............................................................................................................................................9 Laboratory Exercise 9 – Connective Tissues........................................................................................................................................10 Laboratory Exercise 10 – Muscle and Nervous Tissues.......................................................................................................................11

Integumentary System Laboratory Exercise 11 – Integumentary System .................................................................................................................................12

Skeletal System Laboratory Exercise 12 – Bone Structure and Classification................................................................................................................13 Laboratory Exercise 13 – Organization of the Skeleton........................................................................................................................14 Laboratory Exercise 14 – Skull .............................................................................................................................................................15 Laboratory Exercise 15 – Vertebral Column and Thoracic Cage..........................................................................................................17 Laboratory Exercise 16 – Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb...................................................................................................................19 Laboratory Exercise 17 – Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb ......................................................................................................................21 Laboratory Exercise 18 – Joints............................................................................................................................................................23

Muscular System Laboratory Exercise 19 – Skeletal Muscle Structure ............................................................................................................................24 Laboratory Exercise 20 – Muscles of the Face, Head, and Neck .........................................................................................................25 Laboratory Exercise 21 – Muscles of the Chest, Shoulder, and Upper Limb .......................................................................................26 Laboratory Exercise 22 – Muscles of the Deep Back, Abdominal Wall, and Pelvic Outlet ...................................................................27 Laboratory Exercise 23 – Muscles of the Hip and Lower Limb............................................................................................................ 28 Laboratory Exercise 24 – Cat Dissection: Musculature ........................................................................................................................29

Nervous System Laboratory Exercise 25 – Nervous Tissue and Nerves.........................................................................................................................30 Laboratory Exercise 26 – Meninges and Spinal Cord...........................................................................................................................31 Laboratory Exercise 27 – Reflex Arc and Reflexes ..............................................................................................................................32 Laboratory Exercise 28 – Brain and Cranial Nerves.............................................................................................................................33 Laboratory Exercise 29 – Dissection of the Sheep Brain......................................................................................................................35

iii

General and Special Senses Laboratory Exercise 30 – Receptors and General Senses...................................................................................................................36 Laboratory Exercise 31 – Smell and Taste ...........................................................................................................................................37 Laboratory Exercise 32 – Ear and Hearing...........................................................................................................................................38 Laboratory Exercise 33 – Equilibrium ...................................................................................................................................................39 Laboratory Exercise 34 – Eye Structure ...............................................................................................................................................40 Laboratory Exercise 35 – Visual Tests and Demonstrations ................................................................................................................41

Endocrine System Laboratory Exercise 36 – Endocrine Histology and Diabetic Physiology..............................................................................................42

Cardiovascular System Laboratory Exercise 37 – Blood Cells...................................................................................................................................................43 Laboratory Exercise 38 – Blood Testing – A Demonstration ................................................................................................................44 Laboratory Exercise 39 – Blood Typing ................................................................................................................................................45 Laboratory Exercise 40 – Heart Structure.............................................................................................................................................46 Laboratory Exercise 41 – Cardiac Cycle...............................................................................................................................................48 Laboratory Exercise 42 – Blood Vessels ..............................................................................................................................................49 Laboratory Exercise 43 – Pulse Rate and Blood Pressure...................................................................................................................50 Laboratory Exercise 44 – Arteries and Veins........................................................................................................................................51 Laboratory Exercise 45 – Cat Dissection: Cardiovascular System.......................................................................................................53

Lymphatic System Laboratory Exercise 46 – Lymphatic System........................................................................................................................................54

Digestive System Laboratory Exercise 47 – Digestive Organs .........................................................................................................................................55 Laboratory Exercise 48 – Cat Dissection: Digestive System ................................................................................................................57 Laboratory Exercise 49 – Action of a Digestive Enzyme ......................................................................................................................58

Respiratory System Laboratory Exercise 50 – Respiratory Organs......................................................................................................................................59 Laboratory Exercise 51 – Cat Dissection: Respiratory System ............................................................................................................60 Laboratory Exercise 52 – Breathing and Respiratory Volumes and Capacities ...................................................................................61 Laboratory Exercise 53 – Control of Breathing .....................................................................................................................................62

Urinary System Laboratory Exercise 54 – Kidney Structure ..........................................................................................................................................63 Laboratory Exercise 55 – Urinalysis .....................................................................................................................................................64 Laboratory Exercise 56 – Cat Dissection: Urinary System ...................................................................................................................65

Reproductive Systems and Development Laboratory Exercise 57 – Male Reproductive System ..........................................................................................................................66 Laboratory Exercise 58 – Female Reproductive System......................................................................................................................67 Laboratory Exercise 59 – Cat Dissection: Reproductive Systems........................................................................................................68 Laboratory Exercise 60 – Fertilization and Early Development ............................................................................................................69 Laboratory Exercise 61 – Genetics.......................................................................................................................................................70

Supplemental Frog Laboratory Exercises Laboratory Exercise 62 – Skeletal Muscle Contraction ........................................................................................................................72 Laboratory Exercise 63 – Nerve Impulse Stimulation ...........................................................................................................................73 Laboratory Exercise 64 – Factors Affecting the Cardiac Cycle.............................................................................................................74

iv

Appendix 1: Materials Needed..............................................................................................................................................................75 Appendix 2: Laboratory Suppliers.........................................................................................................................................................78 Appendix 3: Student Safety Rules Agreement......................................................................................................................................80 Appendix 4: Student Informed Consent Form.......................................................................................................................................81

v

PREFACE This instructor’s manual is designed to assist those who are using the Laboratory Manual to Accompany Hole’s Human Anatomy and Physiology, eleventh edition by Terry R. Martin. It describes the purpose of the laboratory manual and its special features, and provides suggestions for presenting the laboratory exercises to students. The instructor’s manual also parallels the laboratory manual, exercise by exercise, providing labels for unlabeled diagrams and answers to questions that appear in the laboratory reports. For some exercises, special instructional suggestions that propose alternative procedures, laboratory equipment, or laboratory techniques are provided.

Most of the illustrations and labels parallel the textbook very closely as requested by many of the users of the laboratory manual. Many of the leader lines are arranged differently than the book, and several illustrations are different than the textbook. This has been requested also by many of the users of the laboratory manual. I have attempted to reach a balance that will be beneficial for all students and instructors.

vi

AN OVERVIEW The Laboratory Manual to Accompany Hole’s Human Anatomy and Physiology, eleventh edition, was written to accompany the textbook Hole’s Human Anatomy and Physiology, eleventh edition, by Shier, Butler, and Lewis. As in the case of the textbook, the laboratory manual is planned for students pursuing careers in allied health fields who have minimal backgrounds in the physical and biological sciences.

The manual contains sixty-four laboratory exercises that are closely integrated with the content of a textbook (three of these exercises only appear in the text website). The exercises are designed to review and illustrate various anatomical and physiological facts and principles presented in the textbook and to help students investigate some of these ideas in more detail.

The laboratory exercises include a variety of special features that are designed to stimulate student interest in the subject matter, to involve students in the learning process, and to guide them through the planned experiences. These features include the following: Materials Needed. The laboratory materials listed are those that students require to complete the exercise and to perform the demonstrations and learning extensions.

Safety. If the laboratory exercise requires special safety guidelines, this section is included. General safety guidelines also appear inside the front cover.

Some institutions might have committees for reviewing labs using live animals, biohazards, and physiology experiments performed on students. Be sure your labs conform to their guidelines. You might find the forms available in Appendixes 3 and 4 useful at your school.

Introduction. The introduction briefly describes the subject of the exercise or the ideas that will be investigated.

Purpose of the Exercise. The purpose provides a statement concerning the intent of the exercise—that is, what will be accomplished.

Learning Objectives. The learning objectives list in general terms what a student should be able to do after completing the exercise.

Procedure. The procedure provides a set of detailed instructions for accomplishing the planned laboratory activities. Usually these instructions are presented in outline form so that a student can proceed through the exercise in stepwise fashion. Frequently, the student is referred to particular sections of a textbook for necessary background information or for review of subject matter presented in some previous part of the course.

The procedures include a wide variety of laboratory activities and, from time to time, direct the student to complete various tasks in the laboratory reports.

Demonstrations. Demonstrations appear in separate boxes. They describe specimens, specialized laboratory equipment, or other materials of interest that the instructor may want to display to enrich the student’s laboratory experience.

Learning Extensions. Learning extensions also appear in separate boxes. They are planned to encourage students to extend their laboratory experiences. Some of these activities are open-ended in that they suggest how a student can plan an investigation or experiment and carry it out after receiving approval from the laboratory instructor.

Illustrations. Diagrams are used as aids for reviewing subject matter. Other illustrations provide visual instructions for performing steps in procedures or are used to identify parts of instruments or specimens. Micrographs often are included to help students identify microscopic structures or to evaluate student understanding of tissues.

Some figures, such as those involving the skull, are presented so that they are suitable for coloring. You may want to have your students use colored pencils to highlight various parts of these illustrations. This activity should enhance their ability to observe the figures more carefully and help them locate and identify important anatomical features.

Laboratory Reports. Immediately following each exercise, there is a laboratory report to be completed by the student. These reports include various types of review activities, spaces for sketches of microscopic objects, tables for recording observations and experimental results, and questions dealing with the analysis of such data.

As a result of these laboratory exercises, students should develop a better understanding of the structural and functional characteristics of their bodies. In addition, their skills in gathering information by observation and experimentation should increase.

vii

INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES Exercise Selection Although the laboratory manual contains sixty-four separate exercises, it may not be possible to include all of them in any one program. However, because many of the exercises are relatively short and because the procedures of others are divided into sections, an instructor can easily select those exercises or parts of exercises that best meet the needs of a particular class.

These exercises also vary in the quantities of equipment needed to complete them; if necessary, an instructor can make some selection based upon the amount of laboratory equipment available for use by a class.

Animal Dissection In the laboratory manual, the preserved cat is used as the major animal to be dissected. Detailed instructions for dissecting certain organs, such as the sheep brain, sheep heart, pig kidney, and mammalian eye are also included.

A laboratory option is to obtain a cadaver as a demonstration specimen. If this is not possible, consider a field trip to a location that has a prosected cadaver. A minimum of two viewings is recommended—one during muscle study and the other near the end of the course.

The Use of Animals in Biology Education* The National Association of Biology Teachers (NABT) believes that the study of organisms, including nonhuman animals, is essential to the understanding of life on Earth. NABT recommends the prudent and responsible use of animals in the life science classroom.

NABT believes that biology teachers should foster a respect for life. Biology teachers also should teach about the interrelationship and interdependency of all things.

Classroom experiences that involve nonhuman animals range from observation to dissection. NABT supports these experiences so long as they are conducted within the long-established guidelines of proper care and use of animals, as developed by the scientific and educational community.

As with any instructional activity, the use of nonhuman animals in the biology classroom must have sound educational objectives. Any use of animals, whether for observation or dissection, must convey substantive knowledge of biology. NABT believes that biology teachers are in the best position to make this determination for their students.

NABT acknowledges that no alternative can substitute for the actual experience of dissection or other use of animals and urges teachers to be aware of the limitations of alternatives. When the teacher determines that the most effective means to meet the objectives of the class do not require dissection, NABT accepts the use of alternatives to dissection including models and the various forms of multimedia. The Association encourages teachers to be sensitive to substantive student objections to dissection and to consider providing appropriate lessons for those students where necessary.

To implement this policy, NABT endorses and adopts the “Principle and Guidelines for the use of Animals in Precollege Education” of the Institute of Laboratory Animals Resources (National Research Council). Copies of the “Principle and Guidelines” may be obtained from the ILAR (2101 Constitution Avenue, NW, Washington DC 20418; 202-334-2590). *Adopted by the Board of Directors in October 1995. This policy supersedes and replaces all previous NABT statements regarding animals in biology education.

Background Information The procedures of many exercises begin by suggesting that students review specific sections of the textbook. If the subject matter involved in a particular exercise has been covered recently in lecture, the students may be able to accomplish such a review rather quickly. On the other hand, if the material has not been presented previously, this part of a procedure may be used as a means of introducing information needed to understand the ideas presented in the exercise.

When the procedure is used to introduce new material, an instructor may ask students to complete the first section before coming to the laboratory. Following this, some portion of the laboratory time may be needed for class discussion of the new material.

viii

CORRELATION OF TEXTBOOK CHAPTERS AND LABORATORY EXERCISES Textbook Chapters Ch. 1 Introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology

Related Laboratory Exercises Ex. 1 Scientific Method and Measurements Ex. 2 Body Organization and Terminology

Ch. 2

Chemical Basis of Life

Ex. 3

Chemistry of Life

Ch. 3

Cells

Ex. 4 Ex. 5 Ex. 6 Ex. 7

Care and Use of the Microscope Cell Structure and Function Movements Through Cell Membranes Cell Cycle

Ch. 4

Cellular Metabolism

Ch. 5

Tissues

Ex. 8 Ex. 9 Ex. 10

Epithelial Tissues Connective Tissues Muscle and Nervous Tissues

Ch. 6

Integumentary System

Ex. 11

Integumentary System

Ch. 7

Skeletal System

Ex. 12 Ex. 13 Ex. 14 Ex. 15 Ex. 16 Ex. 17

Bones and Structure and Classification Organization of the Skeleton Skull Vertebral Column and Thoracic Cage Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb

Ch. 8

Joints of the Skeletal System

Ex. 18

Joints

Ch. 9

Muscular System

Ex. 19 Ex. 20 Ex. 21 Ex. 22 Ex. 23 Ex. 24

Skeletal Muscle Structure Muscles of the Face, Head, and Neck Muscles of the Chest, Shoulder, and Upper Limb Muscles of the Deep Back, Abdominal Wall, and Pelvic Outlet Muscles of the Hip and Lower Limb Cat Dissection: Musculature

Ch. 10

Nervous System I: Basic Structure and Function

Ex. 25

Nervous Tissue and Nerves

Ch. 11

Nervous System II: Divisions of the Nervous System

Ex. 26 Ex. 27 Ex. 28 Ex. 29

Meninges and Spinal Cord Reflex Arc and Reflexes Brain and Cranial Nerves Dissection of the Sheep Brain

Ch. 12

Nervous System III: Senses

Ex. 30 Ex. 31 Ex. 32 Ex. 33 Ex. 34 Ex. 35

Receptors and General Senses Smell and Taste Ear and Hearing Equilibrium Eye Structure Visual Tests and Demonstrations

Ch. 13

Endocrine System

Ex. 36

Endocrine Histology and Diabetic Physiology

Ch. 14

Blood

Ex. 37 Ex. 38 Ex. 39

Blood Cells Blood Testing—A Demonstration Blood Typing

Ch. 15

Cardiovascular System

Ex. 40 Ex. 41 Ex. 42 Ex. 43 Ex. 44 Ex. 45

Heart Structure Cardiac Cycle Blood Vessels Pulse Rate and Blood Pressure Arteries and Veins Cat Dissection: Cardiovascular System

ix

Ch. 16

Lymphatic System and Immunity

Ex. 46

Lymphatic System

Ch. 17

Digestive System

Ex. 47 Ex. 48 Ex. 49

Digestive Organs Cat Dissection: Digestive System Action of a Digestive Enzyme

Ch. 18

Nutrition and Metabolism

Ch. 19

Respiratory System

Ex. 50 Ex. 51 Ex. 52 Ex. 53

Respiratory Organs Cat Dissection: Digestive System Breathing and Respiratory Volumes and Capacities Control of Breathing

Ch. 20

Urinary System

Ex. 54 Ex. 55 Ex. 56

Kidney Structure Urinalysis Cat Dissection: Urinary System

Ch. 21

Water, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance

Ch. 22

Reproductive Systems

Ex. 57 Ex. 58 Ex. 59

Male Reproductive System Female Reproductive System Cat Dissection: Urinary System

Ch. 23

Human Growth and Development

Ex. 60

Fertilization and Early Development

Ch. 24

Genetics and Genomics

Ex. 61

Genetics

x

CORRELATION OF TEXTBOOK CHAPTERS AND SUPPLEMENTAL FROG LABORATORY EXERCISES

Ch. 9

Muscular System

Ex. 62

Skeletal Muscle Contraction

Ch. 10

Nervous System I: Basic Structure and Function

Ex. 63

Nerve Impulse Stimulation

Ch. 15

Cardiovascular System

Ex. 64

Factors Affecting the Cardiac Cycle

xi

SUGGESTED TIME SCHEDULE Different instructional programs provide different lengths of time for laboratory preparations, work activities, and follow-up discussions. Other factors that influence the time required for each exercise are the availability and variety of laboratory equipment and materials. Consequently, it is difficult to make precise suggestions for the amounts of time that should be set aside for particular laboratory exercises.

The suggested time schedule was prepared with these limitations in mind. The hours listed for each exercise indicate the minimal time that probably will be needed for students who are acquainted with the subject matter of the exercise to complete the laboratory work. Students who lack background information and who have to read various sections of the textbook before beginning an exercises probably will require additional time. Similarly, students who are expected to complete the laboratory reports in class may need more time.

Laboratory Exercise Minimal Time Ex. 1 Scientific Method and Measurements 2 hr.

Ex. 2 Body Organization and Terminology 2 hr.

Ex. 3 Chemistry of Life 2 hr.

Ex. 4 Care and Use of the Microscope 2 hr.

Ex. 5 Cell Structure and Function 2 hr.

Ex. 6 Movements Through Cell Membranes 3 hr.

Ex. 7 Cell Cycle 1 hr.

Ex. 8 Epithelial Tissues 2 hr.

Ex. 9 Connective Tissues 2 hr.

Ex. 10 Muscle and Nervous Tissues 1 hr.

Ex. 11 Integumentary System 1 hr.

Ex. 12 Bone Structure and Classification 1 hr.

Ex. 13 Organization of the Skeleton 1 hr.

Ex. 14 Skull 3 hr.

Ex. 15 Vertebral Column and Thoracic Cage 2 hr.

Ex. 16 Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb 2 hr.

Ex. 17 Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb 2 hr.

Ex. 18 Joints 2 hr.

Ex. 19 Skeletal Muscle Structure 1 hr.

Ex. 20 Muscles of the Face, Head, and Neck 1 hr.

Ex. 21 Muscles of the Chest, Shoulder, and Upper Limb 2 hr.

Ex. 22 Muscles of the Deep Back, Abdominal Wall, and Pelvic Outlet 1 hr.

Ex. 23 Muscles of the Hip and Lower Limb 2 hr.

Ex. 24 Cat Dissection: Musculature 6 hr.

Ex. 25 Nervous Tissue and Nerves 2 hr.

Ex. 26 Meninges and Spinal Cord 1 hr.

Ex. 27 Reflex Arc and Reflexes 1 hr.

Ex. 28 Brain and Cranial Nerves 2 hr.

Ex. 29 Dissection of the Sheep Brain 2 hr.

Ex. 30 Receptors and General Senses 2 hr.

Ex. 31 Smell and Taste 2 hr.

Ex. 32 Ear and Hearing 2 hr.

Laboratory Exercise Minimal Time Ex. 33 Equilibrium 1 hr.

Ex. 34 Eye Structure 3 hr.

Ex. 35 Visual Tests and Demonstrations 2 hr.

Ex. 36 Endocrine Histology and Diabetic Physiology 2 hr.

Ex. 37 Blood Cells 2 hr.

Ex. 38 Blood Testing—A Demonstration 2 hr.

Ex. 39 Blood Typing 1 hr.

Ex. 40 Heart Structure 2 hr.

Ex. 41 Cardiac Cycle 3 hr.

Ex. 42 Blood Vessels 1 hr.

Ex. 43 Pulse Rate and Blood Pressure 2 hr.

Ex. 44 Arteries and Veins 2 hr.

Ex. 45 Cat Dissection: Cardiovascular System 3 hr.

Ex. 46 Lymphatic System 1 hr.

Ex. 47 Digestive Organs 2 hr.

Ex. 48 Cat Dissection: Digestive System 2 hr.

Ex. 49 Action of a Digestive Enzyme 2 hr.

Ex. 50 Respiratory Organs 2 hr.

Ex. 51 Cat Dissection: Respiratory System 2 hr.

Ex. 52 Breathing and Respiratory Volumes and Capacities 1 hr.

Ex. 53 Control of Breathing 1 hr.

Ex. 54 Kidney Structure 2 hr.

Ex. 55 Urinalysis 3 hr.

Ex. 56 Cat Dissection: Urinary System 1 hr.

Ex. 57 Male Reproductive System 2 hr.

Ex. 58 Female Reproductive System 2 hr.

Ex. 59 Cat Dissection: Reproductive Systems 2 hr.

Ex. 60 Fertilization and Early Development 2 hr.

Ex. 61 Genetics 2 hr.

Ex. 62 Skeletal Muscle Contraction 3 hr.

Ex. 63 Nerve Impulse Stimulation 3 hr.

Ex. 64 Factors Affecting the Cardiac Cycle 3 hr.

xii

LABORATORY EXERCISE 1 SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND MEASUREMENTS

Critical Thinking Application Answers Answers and data will vary.

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. (experimental results) 2. (experimental results) 3. Answers will vary, however many students will conclude that the data will support the original hypothesis.

PART B 1-6. Answers will vary

1

LABORATORY EXERCISE 2 BODY ORGANIZATION AND TERMINOLOGY Instructional Suggestions If a dissectible human torso model (manikin) is not available, you might want to have students consult the figures in various sections of a textbook, particularly the body sections in the reference plates, to gain some understanding of the organizational pattern of the human body.

Figure Labels FIG. 2.1 1. Thoracic cavity 2. Abdominal cavity 3. Abdominopelvic cavity

4.

5.

6.

Pelvic cavity Cranial cavity Vertebral canal (spinal cavity)

FIG. 2.2.a 1. Visceral pleura 2. Pleural cavity 3. Parietal pleura

4.

5.

6.

Visceral pericardium (epicardium) Pericardial cavity Parietal pericardium

FIG. 2.2b 7. Visceral peritoneum 8. Peritoneal cavity

9.

Parietal peritoneum

FIG. 2.5 1. Sagittal plane (midsagittal plane) 2. Coronal (frontal) plane

3.

Transverse (horizontal) plane

FIG. 2.6a 1. Epigastric region 2. Right hypochondriac region 3. Right lumbar region 4. Umbilical region 5. Right iliac region (right inguinal region)

6.

7.

8.

9.

Left hypochondriac region Left lumbar region Left iliac region (left inguinal region) Hypogastric region

12.

13.

Left upper quadrant (LUQ) Left lower quadrant (LLQ)

FIG. 2.6b 10. Right upper quadrant (RUQ) 11. Right lower quadrant (RLQ) FIG. 2.7a 1. Nasal 2. Oral 3. Cervical 4. Acromial 5. Axillary 6. Mammary 7. Brachial

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

Antecubital Abdominal Antebrachial Carpal Palmar Digital Gential

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

Crural Tarsal Cephalic Frontal Orbital Buccal Mental

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

FIG. 2.7b 29. Otic 30. Occipital 31. Acromial 32. Vertebral

33.

34.

35.

36.

Brachial Dorsum Cubital Lumbar

37.

38.

39.

40.

Sacral Gluteal Perineal Femoral

41. Popliteal 42. Sural (calf) or crural (leg) 43. Plantar

2

Sternal Pectoral Umbilical Inguinal Coxal Patellar Pedal

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. a 2. d 3. a

4.

5.

6.

a b c

7.

8.

9.

a c d

10. e 11. d 12. a

PART B 1. c 2. d 3. h

4.

5.

6.

g j i

7.

8.

9.

e f k

10. b 11. a

PART C 1. Inferior 2. (Correct) 3. (Correct)

4.

5.

6.

Anterior (Correct) (Correct)

7.

8.

9.

Distal (Correct) Superficial

10. (Correct) 11. Contralateral 12. Deep

PART D 1. e 2. k 3. b

4.

5.

6.

i l j

7.

8.

9.

g c d

10. h 11. f 12. a

PART E 1. h 2. c 3. i

4.

5.

6.

j l f

7.

8.

9.

k g d

10. a 11. b 12. e

4.

5.

6.

RUQ LUQ or LLQ LUQ

Critical Thinking Application Answers PART F 1. LUQ 2. RLQ 3. Any or all quadrants

3

LABORATORY EXERCISE 3 CHEMISTRY OF LIFE Instructional Suggestions 1. The 7 assorted common liquids for the pH tests could include among the following: orange juice, lemon juice, milk, bottled water, baking soda solution, aspirin solution, borax solution, ammonia, vinegar, antacid, liquid soap, cola, and diluted catsup. Any beverage can be used, and any household product, even solids if they can be dissolved.

2.

The unknown compounds could include among the following: diluted milk, diluted corn syrup, chicken or beef broth, diluted potato soup, diluted pudding, salad dressing, egg substitute, and diluted yogurt. It is very important to use some numbering code to keep track of which unknown is which. The unknowns often look alike and are easily confused. The students need to be instructed to take care not to contaminate their unknown. They need to be reminded to perform all tests, as students often think if they get one positive result they can stop. Be aware that different brands of food products can contain different ingredients. Inform the students when heating the samples using Benedict’s solution, if there is a protein present it may denature or become solid, which should not be interpreted as a positive result.

Laboratory Report Answers PART A (matching) 1. b 2. e 3. h 4. j

5.

6.

7.

8.

f i c d

PART A (molecules and bonding) 1. 1; 1 3. (sketches) 2. 17; 7 4. No; No PART B 1. (experimental results) 2. (experimental results) 3. No PART C 1. (experimental results) 2. (experimental results)

4.

Various substances dissolved in tap water will influence the pH

3.

4.

(experimental results) (experimental results)

9.

10.

11.

12.

k g a l

5.

6.

Ionic (sketches)

5.

(experimental results)

Critical Thinking Application Answers Answers will vary. However, albumin has the highest protein value along with the lowest amount of carbohydrates (starch and sugar.)

PART D 1-4. (experimental results) Answers will vary depending upon the unknown compound selected.

4

LABORATORY EXERCISE 4 CARE AND USE OF THE MICROSCOPE Instructional Suggestions 1. To stimulate student interest in use of the microscope, you may want to have students prepare wet mounts of pond water and observe the various forms of life present. A plankton net is a helpful device to concentrate pond organisms. Students can be encouraged to bring samples of pond water to class in preparation for this experiment.

2.

You may want to provide students with prepared slides of major human organs to examine as a way of increasing their experience with using the microscope.

3.

If oil-immersion objectives are available, you may want to provide students with prepared slides of various forms of bacteria to observe using these objectives.

Critical Thinking Application Answers Answers will vary depending upon the order of the three colored threads. However, the colored thread on the top will be in focus first, the middle one second, and the bottom one last as the student continues to turn the fine adjustment the same direction.

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. 100 ×

2. 1,000 ×

PART B 1. (sketch) 2. About 4.5 mm for scanning power (using 4× objective) 3. About 4,500 micrometers

4.

5.

PART C 1. (sketch) 5.

2. About 1.7 mm (using a 10× objective) 6.

3. The diameter of the scanning-power field of view is 7. about 2.6 times greater than that of the low-power 8. field of view.

9.

4. Student is unable to see two adjacent mm lines on the scale in a high-power field of view.

PART D 1. f 2. i 3. c 4. a 5. h

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

About 2.2 mm About 2,200 micrometers

Light intensity is decreased when high-power objective is used. (sketch) Upside down and reversed from right to left Left Toward the observer

j d b g e

PART E (sketches)

5

LABORATORY EXERCISE 5 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Instructional Suggestions 1. Instead of preparing cheek cell slides, you may want to have students prepare slides of plant cells using Elodea leaves or onion skin.

2. If live frogs are available, you may want to pith the frogs and have students prepare wet mounts using small samples of the ciliated epithelium that lines the oral cavity. They also can prepare smears of frog blood and stain the cells with methylene blue, and prepare wet mounts of sperm cells from the testes of the male frogs. You then might provide students with prepared slides of human ciliated epithelium, blood, and sperm cells and have the students compare the frog cells with the human cells.

Figure Labels FIG. 5.1 1. Flagellum 2. Centrioles 3. Golgi apparatus 4. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum 5. Nucleus

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Nuclear envelope Mitochondrion Ribosomes Cell membrane Cilia

Critical Thinking Application Answers The outer body surface is the same tissue as inside the cheek, however outer surface cells are dead from drying out.

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. a 2. g 3. k 4. l

5.

6.

7.

8.

i f c b

9.

10.

11.

12.

PART B 1. (sketch) 3.

2. The wet-mount cells look like shells or “ghosts.”

The stained cells made the nucleus and other cellular components more clearly visible.

PART C 1. (sketches) 2. They should always notice cytoplasm, nucleus, nuclear envelope, and cell membrane

d e h j

Yes. The stained cheek cells are essentially the same size and shape; however, the process of cell removal may cause many of the cells to become folded and distorted.

3.

Answers will vary.

PART D (FIG. 5.4) 1. Ribosomes 2. Nuclear envelope 3. Golgi apparatus 4. Mitochondrion (cross section) 5. Chromatin 6. Mitochondria

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

Endoplasmic reticulum Nuclear envelope Nucleolus Chromatin Centrioles Cell membrane

PART E 1. Answers will vary.

2.

Only nonliving cells can be observed, and only sections of a cell can be observed.

6

LABORATORY EXERCISE 6 MOVEMENTS THROUGH CELL MEMBRANES Instructional Suggestion Instead of using human blood for Procedure C, you may want to substitute some other type of animal blood obtained from a meat packing house, a veterinarian, or a biological supplier. The hemolysis experiment, using RBCs from a safe source, demonstrates concepts of osmosis, tonicity, and membrane characteristics.

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. (experimental results) 2. (experimental results) 3. Answers will vary.

4.

Diffusion is the movement of a substance from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration as a result of molecular motion.

4.

5.

No Yes

4.

Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration through a selectively permeable membrane.

4.

5.

Yes Yes

3.

4.

Tube 1. There was a net movement of water into the cells.

Tube 2. There was no net movement of water into or out of the cells.

5.

6.

Pore in the filter paper were too small.

Filtration is the movement of substances through a membrane as a result of hydrostatic pressure that is greater on one side of the membrane than on the other side.

4.

5.

No Yes

Critical Thinking Application Answers 1.

2.

3.

Yes Yes No

PART B 1. Answers will vary.

2. Answers will vary.

3. A greater volume of fluid is in the thistle tube.

Critical Thinking Application Answers 1.

2.

3.

Yes Yes No

PART C 1. (sketches) 2. Tube 3. There was a net movement of water out of the cells.

PART D 1. Water, glucose, and starch.

2. The tests for glucose and starch were positive.

3. Gravity 4. Charcoal

Critical Thinking Application Answers 1.

2.

3.

No Yes No

7

LABORATORY EXERCISE 7 CELL CYCLE Figure Labels FIG. 7.2 1. Chromosome (chromatid) 2. Centromere

3.

4.

Centriole Spindle fiber (microtubules)

Critical Thinking Application Answers Interphase. Even in rapidly dividing cells interphase is the most prevalent because it requires the longest period of time for growth and duplication of cell structures.

Laboratory Report Answers PART A Table: Stage Interphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Cytoplasmic division

Major Events Occurring Growth, duplication of cell structures, and normal metabolism take place.

Nuclear envelope disappears; chromatin fibers condense, forming chromosomes (paired chromatids); centrioles move to opposite sides of the cell.

Chromosomes align midway between centrioles.

Microtubules pull chromosomes toward centrioles.

Chromosomes elongate and become chromatin fibers; nuclear envelopes reappear.

Cell membrane constricts, dividing cell into new cells (daughter cells).

PART B (sketches) PART C 1. Each new cell contains identical chromosomes.

2. They may be slightly different in size and numbers of organelles.

3.

Mitosis involves the division of the nuclear contents and the distribution of identical sets of chromosomes to the new cells; cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis) involves the division of the cytoplasm and cytoplasmic organelles.

PART D (FIG. 7.5a-d) a. Metaphase b. Telophase

c. d.

Prophase Anaphase

PART E (FIG. 7.5a-d) 1. Chromosome (chromatid) 2. Cytokinesis (cleavage furrow) 3. Cell membrane

4.

5.

6.

Nuclear envelope Centrioles/centrosome Spindle fibers (microtubules)

8

LABORATORY EXERCISE 8 EPITHELIAL TISSUES Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. f 2. d 3. c

4.

5.

6.

d c d

7.

8.

9.

e f b

10. a 11. a 12. e

PART B (sketches)

Critical Thinking Application Answers Stratified squamous epithelium would have excellent protection as it is several cells thick. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium with cilia would provide good movement of mucus and trapped particles away from the lungs.

9

LABORATORY EXERCISE 9 CONNECTIVE TISSUES Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. e 2. a 3. b 4. c

5.

6.

7.

8.

i d a h

9.

10.

11.

12.

g c f j

PART B (sketches)

Critical Thinking Application Answers The spleen is composed of reticular connective tissue. This type of tissue contains only short, thin, collagenous fibers (reticular fibers) that are widely scattered. The result is a delicate distribution of fibers among cells and a fluid ground substance. (Spleen repair is almost impossible due to the short reticular fibers. A ruptured spleen is usually removed in surgery.)

10

LABORATORY EXERCISE 10 MUSCLE AND NERVOUS TISSUES Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. b 2. a 3. d 4. a

5.

6.

7.

8.

c b c a

9. d 10. b

PART B (sketches)

11

LABORATORY EXERCISE 11 INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM Figure Labels FIG. 11.1 1. Epidermis 2. Dermis 3. Subcutaneous layer (hypodermis) 4. Hair shaft

5.

6.

7.

8.

Stratum corneum Stratum basale Sebaceous gland Arrector pili muscle

9. Hair follicle 10. Sweat gland (eccrine gland) 11. Blood vessels

FIG. 11.2 1. Stratum corneum 2. Stratum lucidum

3.

4.

Stratum granulosum Stratum spinosum

5.

6.

Stratum basale Basement membrane

4.

5.

Sebaceous gland Hair follicle

6.

Sweat gland (eccrine gland)

FIG. 11.3 1. Arrector pili muscle 2. Region of cell division 3. Hair shaft

Critical Thinking Application Answers Melanin granules are concentrated within some of the most superficial living cells of the body. Because melanin absorbs the ultraviolet radiation of sunlight, minimal damaging wavelengths reach the living cells of the dermis. (Most of the melanin granules are orientated on the superficial side of the nucleus that serve as a protective shield of the nucleus of the epidermal cells.)

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. j 2. l 3. a 4. h

5.

6.

7.

8.

c d e i

9.

10.

11.

12.

g k f b

PART B 1. Answers will vary.

2. Answers will vary.

3. Epidermal cells at the base of the hair follicle divide and grow, pushing older cells outward; as these cells die, they become keratinized parts of the hair.

4. The pigment melanin is produced by melanocytes.

PART C 1. Epidermis is the outer layer of the skin, whereas dermis is the inner layer; the subcutaneous layer binds the dermis to the underlying organs.

2. Cells of the stratum basale are living and reproduce actively; cells of the stratum corneum are dead and keratinized and form the surface layer of the skin.

PART D 1. Hair root 2. Dermis

3.

Melanin is found in the stratum basale.

4.

It contains both elastic and collagenous fibers that give the dermis the qualities of elasticity and strength.

3.

Sebaceous glands are usually connected to hair follicles and secrete sebum into the follicles.

Dermis

4.

PART E (sketch)

12

LABORATORY EXERCISE 12 BONE STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION Figure Labels FIG. 12.1 1. Articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage) 2. Spongy bone (red marrow) 3. Medullary cavity 4. Yellow marrow 5. Compact bone FIG. 12.2 1. Spongy bone 2. Compact bone 3. Osteon 4. Perisoteum 5. Central canal

6.

7.

8.

9.

Periosteum Proximal epiphysis Diaphysis Distal epiphysis

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Perforating canal Blood vessels Nerve Canaliculus Osteocyte

Critical Thinking Application Answers The closest blood supply to an osteocyte is located in the central canal of an osteon unit. Nutrients and wastes can move from one cell to another via small cellular processes located in minute tubes in the matrix called canaliculi. In this way, all of the osteocytes of one osteon are tied together to a blood source.

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. Flat 8.

2. Short 9.

3. Long 4. Irregular 10.

5. Round or sesamoid 6. Flat 7. Epiphysis refers to the expanded end of a long bone; diaphysis refers to the shaft between the ends of such a bone.

PART B 1. Compact bone has osteons closely packed together, 3. and spongy bone has large spaces between thin bony plates called trabeculae.

2. Compact bone provides strength in the shaft and along the borders of the bone. Spongy bone reduces the weight of the bone and provides spaces occupied by red marrow.

PART C (FIG. 12.5 a-b) 1. Epiphysis (distal) 2. Diaphysis 3. Epiphysis (proximal)

4.

5.

6.

Hyaline cartilage covers the articular ends of a long bone.

Dense connective tissue comprises the periosteum that encloses the bone except for its articular ends Periosteum forms the outer covering of a bone, whereas endosteum lines its hollow, internal chambers.

The marrow of the medullary cavity of an adult is yellow, but marrow in the spaces of spongy bone is red.

Medullary cavity Compact bone Spongy bone

13

LABORATORY EXERCISE 13 ORGANIZATION OF THE SKELETON

Figure Labels FIG. 3.1a 1. Cranial bones (cranium)5.

2. Facial bones (face) 6.

3. Skull 7.

4. Clavicle

Sternum Rib Vertebral column (vertebra)

8.

9.

10.

11.

Coxa (hipbone) Carpals Metacarpal Phalanx

12.

13.

14.

15.

FIG. 13.1b 1. Scapula 2. Humerus 3. Ulna

Radius Femur Tibia

7.

8.

Fibula Vertebral column (vertebra)

9. Sacrum 10. Coccyx

4.

5.

6.

Patella Tarsals Matatarsal Phalanx

Critical Thinking Application Answers The largest foramen in the skull is the foramen magnum in the occipital bone. The largest foramen in the human body is the obturator foramen in the coxae (hipbones).

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. Sutural bones (wormian bones) 2. Sesamoid 3. Skull 4. Hyoid 5. Coccyx

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Sternum Twelve Pectoral girdle Ulna Carpals

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

Sacrum Pelvis Patella Tarsals Phalanges

PART B 1. c 2. f

3.

4.

a e

5.

6.

g b

7.

d

PART C 1. c 2. a

3.

4.

g e

5.

6.

b d

7.

f

PART D (FIG. 13.2) 1. Coxa (hipbone; pelvic bone; innominate) 2. Sternum 3. Sacrum

4.

5.

6.

7.

Fibula Ulna Scapula Radius

8.

9.

10.

11.

Clavicle Humerus Patella Femur

12. Tibia 13. Rib

14

LABORATORY EXERCISE 14 SKULL Instructional Suggestion You might want to have the students use colored pencils to color the bones in figures 14.1 and 14.2. They should use a different color for each of the individual bones in the series. This activity should cause the students to observe the figures more carefully and help them to locate the various bones that are shown from different views in the figures. The students can check their work by referring to the corresponding full-color figures in the textbook.

Figure Labels FIG. 14.1 1. Parietal bone 2. Frontal bone 3. Coronal suture 4. Temporal bone 5. Perpendicular plate (of ethmoid bone) 6. Infraorbital foramen 7. Vomer bone 8. Mandible

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

Supraorbital foramen Nasal bone Sphenoid bone Zygomatic bone Middle nasal concha (of ethmoid bone) Inferior nasal concha Maxilla Mental foramen

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

Coronal suture Frontal bone Sphenoid bone Lacrimal bone Nasal bone Zygomatic bone Maxilla Mandible Coronoid process

FIG. 14.3 1. Maxilla 2. Zygomatic bone 3. Sphenoid bone 4. Vomer bone 5. Zygomatic arch 6. Styloid process 7. Mastoid process

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

Occipital condyle Temporal bone Palatine process (of maxilla) Palatine bone Foramen magnum Lambdoid suture Occipital bone

FIG. 14.4 1. Ethmoid bone 2. Foramen magnum 3. Crista galli 4. Cribriform plate (olfactory foramina) 5. Frontal bone

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Sphenoid bone Temporal bone Sella turcica Parietal bone Occiptal bone

FIG. 14.5 1. Coronal suture 2. Frontal bone 3. Sphenoid bone 4. Frontal sinus 5. Nasal bone 6. Maxilla 7. Parietal bone 8. Temporal bone

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

Squamous suture Lambdoid suture Occipital bone Sella turcica Styloid process Sphenoidal sinus Vomer bone Mandible

FIG. 14.2 1. Parietal bone 2. Squamous suture 3. Lambdoid suture 4. Temporal bone 5. Occipital bone 6. Temporal process (of zygomatic bone) 7. External acoustic meatus 8. Mastoid process 9. Styloid process 10. Mandibular condyle 11. Zygomatic process (of temporal bone)

15

Critical Thinking Application Answers The cribiform plate of the tehmoid bone with numerous olfactory foramina is a weak location of the cranium. Excessive pressure on the cribiform plate could result in a skull fracture.

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. d 2. a 3. a

4.

5.

6.

f c f

PART B 1. Coronal 2. Sagittal 3. Lambdoid

7.

8.

9.

f a c

10. e 11. f 12. b

4.

5.

6.

Squamous Frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid Maxillary bone

PART C 1. e 2. c 3. c

4.

5.

6.

h d g

7.

8.

9.

h a d

10. c 11. f 12. b

PART D 1. c 2. a

3.

4.

g f

5.

6.

d b

7.

6.

7.

8.

9.

Mandible Middle nasal concha (of ethmoid bone) Inferior nasal concha Mental foramen

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

Mandibular condyle Coronal suture Frontal bone Zygomatic process (of temporal bone) Zygomatic bone Maxilla Mandible

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Palatine process of maxilla Palatine bone Vomer bone Occipital condyle Foramen magnum

5.

6.

7.

8.

Ethmoid bone Sphenoid bone Sella turcica Foramen magnum

5.

6.

7.

Maxilla Frontal bone Mandible

e

PART E (FIG. 14.7-14.11) FIG. 14.7 1. Frontal bone 2. Nasal bone 3. Zygomatic bone 4. Infraorbital foramen 5. Maxilla FIG. 14.8 1. Parietal bone 2. Squamous suture 3. Temporal bone 4. Lambdoid suture 5. Occipital bone 6. External acoustic meatus 7. Mastoid process FIG. 14.9 1. Maxilla 2. Zygomatic bone 3. Sphenoid bone 4. Temporal bone 5. Occipital bone 6. Incisive foramen FIG. 14.10 1. Frontal bone 2. Temporal bone 3. Parietal bone 4. Occiptal bone FIG. 14.11 1. Parietal bone 2. Sphenoid bone 3. Temporal bone 4. Zygomatic bone

16

LABORATORY EXERCISE 15 VERTEBRAL COLUMN AND THORACIC CAGE

Figure Labels FIG. 15.1 1. Cervical vertebrae 2. Thoracic vertebrae 3. Lumbar vertebrae 4. Sacrum

FIG. 15.2 a-b 8 3 4 7

FIG. 15.3 a-c 6 7 3 5 4

5.

6.

7.

Coccyx Intervertebral foramina Intervertebral discs

5.

6.

7.

8.

Superior articular process Tubercle Posterior sacral foramen Sacral hiatus

1 6 5 2

1 9 2 8

FIG. 15.4 1. Superior articular process 2. Anterior sacral foramen 3. Coccyx 4. Sacral canal

Critical Thinking Application Answers The four curvatures allow more resiliency and flexibility, which will enable the vertebal column to function more like a spring instead of a rigid rod.

FIG. 15.5 1. True ribs 2. False ribs 3. Thoracic vertebra 4. Manubrium 5. Body

6.

7.

8.

9.

Xiphoid process Sternum Costal cartilage Floating ribs

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

Axis Dens Lumbar Five Sacroiliac Sacral promontory Sacral hiatus

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. Spinal cord 2. 26 3. Bodies 4. Intervertebral discs 5. Spinous process 6. Spinal nerves 7. Vertebral arteries 8. Atlas

17

PART B Vertebra

Number

Size

Body

Spinous Process

Cervical

7

Smallest

Smallest

Thoracic

12

Intermediate

Intermediate

Lumbar

5

Largest

Largest

C2 through C5 are forked Pointed and angled downward Short, blunt, and nearly horizontal

PART C 1. 206 2. Floating 3. Transverse 4. Hyaline cartilage PART D (FIG. 15.6) 1. Spinous process 2. Atlas 3. Axis

Transsverse Foramina Present Absent Absent

5.

6.

Clavicles a. Supports shoulder girdle and upper limbs b. Protects visceral organs c. Functions in breathing

4.

5.

6.

Transverse process Intervertebral disc Body (of sixth cervical vertebra)

18

LABORATORY EXERCISE 16 PECTORAL GIRDLE AND UPPER LIMB Figure Labels FIG. 16.1 1. Clavicle 2. Rib 3. Sternum 4. Costal cartilage 5. Scapula 6. Humerus

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Ulna Radius Acromion process Head of humerus Coracoid process

FIG. 16.2 1. Acromion process 2. Coracoid process 3. Spine 4. Supraspinous fossa 5. Infraspinous fossa

6.

7.

8.

9.

Glenoid cavity Acromion process Coracoid process Glenoid cavity

Critical Thinking Application Answers The clavicles brace the freely movable scapulae, helping to hold the shoulders in place. If an excessive lengthwise force occurs on this structurally weak bone, as when a person breaks a fall with an outstretched rigid upper limb, it is likely to fracture.

FIG. 16.3a-b 1. Head 2. Greater tubercle 3. Lesser tubercle 4. Deltoid tuberosity 5. Medial epicondyle 6. Coronoid fossa 7. Lateral epicondyle

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

Capitulum Trochlea Greater tubercle Anatomical neck Surgical neck Medial epicondyle Olecranon fossa

5.

6.

7.

Trochlear notch Coronoid process Head of ulna

FIG. 16.5 1. Olecranon process 2. Humerus 3. Olecranon fossa

4.

5.

6.

Head of radius Radius Ulna

FIG. 16.6 1. Scaphoid 2. Capitate 3. Trapezoid 4. Trapezium 5. Carpals (carpus) 6. Metacarpals (metacarpus)

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

Phalanges Lunate Triquetrum Proximal phalanx Middle phalanx Distal phalanx

5.

6.

7.

8.

Spine Acromion process Coracoid process Head

FIG. 16.4 1. Head of radius 2. Radial tuberosity 3. Styloid process of radius 4. Olecranon process

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. Scapulae 2. Manubrium (clavicular notch) 3. Acromion processes 4. Clavicle

19

PART B 1. a 2. b 3. b

4.

5.

6.

b c d

7.

8.

9.

b a b

PART C (FIGS. 16.7, 16.8, and 16.9) 1. Ulna 2. Humerus 3. Olecranon process 4. Head of radius 5. Radius 6. Acromion process 7. Head of humerus 8. Humerus

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

Clavicle Scapula Rib Phalanges Metacarpals Carpals Distal phalanx Proximal phalanx

PART D (FIG. 16.10) 1. Scaphoid 2. Lunate 3. Triquetrum 4. Pisiform 5. Hamate 6. Capitate

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

Trapezoid Trapezium Metacarpals Proximal phalanges Middle phalanges Distal phalanges

20

10. e 11. a 12. f

LABORATORY EXERCISE 17 PELVIC GIRDLE AND LOWER LIMB Figure Labels FIG. 17.1 1.

2.

Coxa (hipbone; pelvic bone; innominate) Sacrum

3.

Coccyx

FIG. 17.2a 1. Ilium 2. Posterior superior iliac spine 3. Greater sciatic notch 4. Ischial spine 5. Lesser sciatic notch 6. Ischium

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

Ischial tuberosity Iliac crest Anterior superior iliac spine Acetabulum Pubis Obturator foramen

FIG. 17.2b 13. Anterior superior iliac spine 14. Ilium 15. Pubis 16. Iliac crest

17.

18.

19.

20.

Iliac fossa Posterior superior iliac spine Ischial spine Ischium

Critical Thinking Application Answers All of the features examined are wider in the female pelvis which will result in a larger pelvic cavity and must also serve as a birth canal for a vaginal delivery.

FIG. 17.3a-b 1. Head 2. Fovea capitis 3. Greater trochanter 4. Neck

5.

6.

7.

8.

Lateral epicondyle Lesser trochanter Lateral condyle Medial condyle

FIG. 17.4 1. Head of fibula 2. Fibula 3. Lateral malleolus 4. Medial condyle

5.

6.

7.

Tibial tuberosity Tibia Medial malleolus

FIG. 17.5 1. Medial condyle 2. Femur 3. Lateral condyle

4.

5.

Fibula Tibia

FIG. 17.6 1. Calcaneus 2. Talus 3. Cuboid 4. Navicular 5. Lateral cuneiform 6. Intermediate cuneiform 7. Medial cuneiform

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

Proximal phalanx Middle phalanx Distal phalanx Tarsals (tarsus) Metatarsals (metatarsus) Phalanges

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. Coxae (hipbones) 2. Acetabulum 3. Ilium

4.

5.

6.

Ischial spines Symphysis pubis Iliac crest

7.

8.

9.

Tuberosity Pubic arch Obturator foramen

21

10. Sacroiliac

PART B 1. e 2. a 3. g

4.

5.

6.

a f f

7.

8.

9.

g f a

PART C (FIGS. 17.7, 17.8, and 17.9) 1. Obturator foramen 2. Symphysis pubis 3. Ilium 4. Sacrum 5. Head of femur 6. Pubis 7. Femur 8. Tibia 9. Lateral epicondyle PART D (FIG. 17.10) 1. Distal phalanges 2. Proximal phalanges 3. Metatarsals 4. Medial cuneiform 5. Intermediate cuneiform 6. Lateral cuneiform

22

10. b 11. d 12. c

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

Lateral condyle Head of fibula Fibula Tibia Talus Calcaneus Metatarsal Proximal phalanx Distal phalanx

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Navicular Talus Middle phalanges Cuboid Calcaneus

LABORATORY EXERCISE 18 JOINTS

Critical Thinking Application Answers Maximum flexion of body parts can occur when in fetal position or performing a cannon ball into a swimming pool.

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. b 2. c 3. d

4.

5.

e a

PART B (FIG. 18.6) 1. Suture (fibrous) 2. Symphysis (cartilaginous) 3. Symphsysis (cartilaginous) 4. Gliding/plane (synovial) 5. Hinge (synovial)

6.

7.

8.

9.

Pivot (synovial) Condyloid/ellipsoid (synovial) Saddle (synovial) Ball-and-socket (synovial)

PART C 1. a 2. b 3. e 4. d 5. d

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

a d (b and c also present) f c c

PART D (FIG. 18.7) 1. Rotation 2. Elevation 3. Depression 4. Supination 5. Pronation 6. Abduction 7. Adduction 8. Flexion 9. Extension 10. Abduction 11. Adduction 12. Circumduction 13. Protraction 14. Retraction

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

Extension Flexion Extension Flexion Flexion Extension Flexion Extension Flexion Extension Flexion Extension Dorsiflexion Plantar flexion

PART E Table: Type of Joint Ball-and-socket Hinge, gliding, and pivot

Ball-and-socket Hinge (modified), condyloid, and gliding

Bones Included Humerus, scapula Humerus, radius, ulna

Femur, coxa Femur, tibia, patella

Types of Movement Possible Movements in all planes and rotation Flexion and extension between humerus and ulna; twisting movements occur between radius and humerus; rotation between radius and ulna Movements in all planes and rotation Flexion and extension between femur and tibia and slight rotation when flexed; sliding (gliding) movements occur between femur and patella

23

LABORATORY EXERCISE 19 SKELETAL MUSCLE STRUCTURE Figure Labels FIG. 19.2 1. Fascicle 2. Sacrolemma (cell membrane) 3. Sacroplasmic reticulum 4. Tendon

5.

6.

7.

8.

Epimysium Perimysium Nucleus Myofibrils

FIG. 19.4 1. Coracoid process 2. Origins of biceps brachii (tendons) 3. Biceps brachii

4.

5.

6.

Radius Insertion of biceps brachii (tendon) Ulna

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. l 2. i 3. c

4.

5.

6.

f g b

PART B (FIG. 19.5) 1. Sarcomere 2. Z line PART C 1. Origin 2. Insertion

3.

4.

Two heads Biceps brachii

7.

8.

9.

h a j

3.

4.

I band (light) A band (dark)

5.

6.

Prime mover Synergists

24

10. k 11. e 12. d

7.

Prime movers

LABORATORY EXERCISE 20 MUSCLES OF THE FACE, HEAD, AND NECK Figure Labels FIG. 20.1 1. Temporalis 2. Occipitalis (epicranius) 3. Masseter 4. Sternocleidomastoid 5. Platysma

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Frontalis (epicranius) Orbicularis oculi Zygomaticus major Orbicularis oris Buccinator

FIG. 20.2 1. Lateral pterygoid

2.

Medial pterygoid

3.

Splenius capitis

PART A 1. Zygomaticus major 2. Buccinator 3. Orbicularis oris 4. Lateral pterygoid 5. Raise the jaw/elevate mandible (as in biting) 6. Medial

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

Lateral Orbicularis oculi Sternocleidomastoid Splenius capitis Platysma Zygomaticus

PART B 1. Epicranius 2. Zygomaticus major 3. Masseter 4. Lateral pterygoid 5. Sternocleidomastoid

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Buccinator Platysma Temporalis Splenius capitis Semispinalis capitis

4.

5.

Orbicularis oris Platysma

FIG. 20.3 1. Longissimus capitis (erector spinae) 2. Semispinalis capitis Laboratory Report Answers

Critical Thinking Application Answers PART C (FIG. 20.4) 1. Epicranius (frontalis) 2. Zygomaticus major 3. Orbicularis oculi

25

LABORATORY EXERCISE 21 MUSCLES OF THE CHEST, SHOULDER, AND UPPER LIMB Figure Labels FIG. 21.1 1. Trapezius 2. Deltoid 3. Latissimus dorsi 4. Levator scapulae 5. Supraspinatus

6.

7.

8.

9.

Infraspinatus Teres minor Teres major Rhomboid major

FIG. 21.2 1. Pectoralis minor 2. Internal intercostal 3. Pectoralis major

4.

5.

Deltoid Serratus anterior

FIG. 21.3a 1. Levator scapulae 2. Supraspinatus 3. Deltoid

4.

5.

6.

Teres minor Teres major Triceps brachii

FIG. 21.3b 1. Deltoid 2. Subscapularis

3.

4.

Biceps brachii Brachialis

FIG. 21.4a 1. Pronator teres 2. Brachioradialis

3.

4.

Flexor carpi radialis Palmaris longus

FIG. 21.4b 1. Flexor carpi ulnaris 2. Extensor carpi ulnaris

3.

4.

Extensor carpi radialis longus Extensor digitorum

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. c 2. g 3. e

4.

5.

6.

i h j

7.

8.

9.

a b l

PART B 1. Rhomboid major 2. Serratus anterior 3. Pectoralis minor 4. Coracobrachialis 5. Teres major 6. Subscapularis

10. k 11. d 12. f

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

Teres minor Brachialis Pronator teres Brachioradialis Flexor carpi radialis Palmaris longus

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

Biceps brachii Triceps brachii Latissimus dorsi Pectoralis major Serratus anterior Biceps brachii Trapezius Deltoid Triceps brachii Brachioradialis

Critical Thinking Application Answers PART C (FIG. 21.5) 1. Trapezius 2. Deltoid 3. Pectoralis major 4. Rectus abdominis 5. Sternocleidomastoid 6. Biceps brachii 7. Serratus anterior 8. External oblique 9. Deltoid 10. Trapezius 11. Infraspinatus 26

LABORATORY EXERCISE 22 MUSCLES OF THE DEEP BACK, ABDOMINAL WALL, AND PELVIC OUTLET Figure Labels FIG. 22.1 1. Longissimus (intermediate group) 2. Spinalis (medial group)

3.

Iliocostalis (lateral group)

FIG. 22.2 1. External oblique 2. Internal oblique

3.

4.

Transversus abdominis Rectus abdominis

FIG. 22.3 1. Bulbospongiosus 2. Ischiocavernosus 3. Superficial transversus perinei

4.

5.

6.

Levator ani Gluteus maximus External anal sphincter

FIG. 22.4 1. Ischiocavernosus 2. Bulbospongiosus 3. Superficial transversus perinei

4.

5.

6.

Levator ani Gluteus maximus External anal sphinchter

Critical Thinking Application Answers An appendectomy incision would involve the external oblique, internal oblique, and transversus abdominis muscles from superficial to deep.

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. Linea alba 2. Rectus abdominis 3. Transversus abdominis

4.

PART B 1. Pelvic diaphragm 2. Anal canal and vagina 3. Support the pelvic viscera and provide sphincterlike action in the anal canal and vagina (aid the levator ani) 4. Bulbospongiosus 5. Constrict the vagina

27

5.

6.

Tense the abdominal wall and compress the contents of the abdominal cavity Tense the abdominal wall and flex the vertebral column Erector spinae group

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Ischial tuberosity Levator ani Support the pelvic viscera Ischial spine Sphincter urethrae

LABORATORY EXERCISE 23 MUSCLES OF THE HIP AND LOWER LIMB Figure Labels FIG. 23.1 1. Tensor fasciae latae 2. Sartorius 3. Rectus femoris 4. Vastus lateralis 5. Vastus medialis

6.

7.

8.

9.

Psoas major Iliacus Adductor longus Gracilis

4.

5.

6.

Tensor fasciae latae Rectus femoris Vastus lateralis

FIG. 23.3 1. Adductor magnus 2. Gracilis 3. Gluteus medius 4. Gluteus maximus

5.

6.

7.

Biceps femoris Semitendinosus Semimembranosus

FIG. 23.4 1. Fibularis (peroneus) longus 2. Tibialis anterior

3.

Extensor digitorum longus

FIG. 23.5 1. Gastrocnemius 2. Soleus 3. Fibularis (peroneus) longus

4.

5.

6.

Tibialis anterior Extensor digitorum longus Fibularis (peroneus) brevis

FIG. 23.6 1. Gastrocnemius

2.

Soleus

PART A 1. e 2. b 3. f 4. h 5. c

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

d j a g i

PART B 1. Gluteus medius and gluteus minimus 2. Adductor magnus 3. Sartorius 4. Gastrocnemius 5. Tensor fasciae latae

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Vastus lateralis Semitendinosus Vastus medialis Flexor digitorum longus Tibialis anterior

5.

6.

7.

8.

Vastus medialis Tibialis anterior Gastrocnemius Soleus

FIG. 23.2 1. Gluteus medius 2. Gluteus maximus 3. Biceps femoris

Laboratory Report Answers

Critical Thinking Application Answers PART C (FIG. 23.7) 1. Rectus femoris 2. Vastus medialis 3. Vastus lateralis 4. Sartorius

28

LABORATORY EXERCISE 24 CAT DISSECTION: MUSCULATURE

Instructional Suggestions 1.

You may want to provide the students with preserved cats that have been preskinned. Such cats are available from various biological supply companies. The use of preskinned cats will save about an hour of class time and avoid the unpleasantness that some students associate with the skinning procedure.

2.

You may want to reduce the amount of time spent in dissecting the cat muscles by having the students dissect only selected areas of the cat. For example, you might have them complete Procedure D (muscles of the thorax), Procedure E (muscles of the abdominal wall), Procedure F (muscles of the shoulder and back), and Procedure H (muscles of the hip and hind limb), omitting the other sections.

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. Sternocleidomastoid 2. Masseter

3.

Sternohyoid, mylohyoid

PART B 1. Pectoantebrachialis 2. Xiphihumeralis 3. Pectoralis major 4. Pectoralis minor

5.

6.

7.

8.

External oblique Internal oblique Transversus abdominis Rectus abdominis

PART C 1. Clavotrapezius 2. Acromiotrapezius 3. Spinotrapezius 4. Clavodeltoid (clavobrachialis) 5. Acromiodeltoid

6.

7.

8.

9.

10

Spinodeltoid Supraspinatus Infraspinatus Infraspinatus Teres major

PART D 1. Biceps brachii 2. Brachialis

3.

4.

Epitrochlearis Triceps brachii

PART E (FIG. 24.24) 1. Pectoralis major 2. Biceps brachii 3. External oblique 4. Rectus abdominis 5. Sartorius 6. Rectus femoris 7. Vastus medialis 8. Tibialis anterior

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

Infraspinatus Teres major Triceps brachii Latissimus dorsi Gluteus medius Gluteus maximus Biceps femoris Gastrocnemius

29

LABORATORY EXERCISE 25 NERVOUS TISSUE AND NERVES Figure Labels FIG. 25.1 1. Nucleus 2. Nucleolus 3. Nodes of Ranvier 4. Schwann cell FIG. 25.2 1. Schwann cell nucleus 2. Myelin (of Schwann cell)

5.

6.

7.

Dendrites Cell body Axon (nerve fiber)

3.

4.

Axon (nerve fiber) Neurilemma (of Schwann cell)

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. g 2. c

3.

4.

h f

5.

6.

e d

7.

8.

a b

PART B 1. d 2. f

3.

4.

h g

5.

6.

e a

7.

8.

c b

PART C 1. (sketch) 2. (sketch) 3. (sketch) PART D 1. (sketch) 2. (sketch)

30

LABORATORY EXERCISE 26 MENINGES AND SPINAL CORD Figure Labels FIG. 26.1 1. Subarachnoid space 2. White matter 3. Dorsal root of spinal nerve 4. Ventral root of spinal nerve

5.

6.

7.

Body of vertebra Epidural space Gray matter

FIG. 26.2 1. Posterior horn 2. Lateral funiculus 3. Anterior horn 4. Posterior funiculus 5. Posterior median sulcus

6.

7.

8.

9.

Central canal Gray commissure Anterior median fissure Anterior funiculus

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. b 2. c

3.

4.

d f

5.

6.

g a

PART B 1. Spinal nerves 2. Cervical enlargement 3. Lumbar enlargement 4. Posterior median sulcus 5. Horns

PART C 1. b 2. e 3. a PART D (FIG. 26.4) 1. Dorsal root of spinal nerve 2. White matter 3. Ventral root of spinal nerve 4. Posterior median sulcus

31

7.

e

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Anterior Gray commissure Central canal Funiculi Nerve tracts Meninges

4.

5.

d c

5.

6.

7.

8.

Gray matter Dorsal root ganglion Anterior median fissure Central canal

LABORATORY EXERCISE 27 REFLEX ARC AND REFLEXES Figure Labels FIG. 27.1 5 3 4

1 2

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. Nerve pathways 2. Central nervous system (spinal cord) 3. Reflexes 4. Muscles 5. Sensory 6. Quadriceps femoris

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

PART B 1. Table: Response Observed Extension of leg at the knee joint Plantar flexion of the foot Flexion of forearm at the elbow joint or slight biceps twitch Extension of forearm at the elbow joint or slight triceps twitch Plantar flexion of the foot and flexion of toes

Effector Involved Quadriceps femoris Gastrocnemius and soleus Biceps brachii Triceps brachii Gastrocnemius, soleus, and flexor digitorium longus

2.

Quadriceps femoris Upright posture Skin Flexor Flexion Babinski

The quadriceps femoris is stretched, stimulating stretch receptors (muscle spindles) within the muscle. As a result, impulses pass along sensory neurons into the spinal cord and synapse with a motor neuron. Motor impulses travel out of the cord on nerve fibers that lead to the quadriceps femoris. Muscle fibers contract, and the leg is extended at the knee joint.

Critical Thinking Application Answers All of these reflexes are rapid, subconscious responses to physical stimuli.

32

LABORATORY EXERCISE 28 BRAIN AND CRANIAL NERVES Figure Labels FIG. 28.1 12 1 8

10 4 3

6 11 5

7 9 2

FIG. 28.2 1. Frontal lobe 2. Temporal lobe

3.

4.

Parietal lobe Occipital lobe

FIG. 28.3 1. Motor area for voluntary muscle control 2. Motor speech area (Broca’s area) 3. Auditory area

4.

5.

6.

Cutaneous sensory area General interpretative area Visual area

FIG. 28.4 1. (I) Olfactory nerve 2. (II) Optic nerve 3. (III) Oculomotor nerve 4. (IV) Trochlear nerve 5. (V) Trigeminal nerve 6. (VI) Abducens nerve

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

(VII) Facial nerve (VIII) Vestibulocochlear nerve (IX) Glossopharyngeal nerve (X) Vagus nerve (XI) Accessory nerve (XII) Hypoglossal nerve

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

i l h e g b

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. j 2. f 3. k 4. d 5. c 6. a PART B Table: Location Anterior to primary motor cortex (frontal lobe) Medulla oblongata Between cerebellum and brainstem Midbrain Midbrain Frontal lobe superior to Broca’s area Diencephalon Diencephalon floor and associated inner cerebrum Medulla oblongata Brainstem Diencephalon Medulla oblongata PART C (FIG. 28.5) 1. Corpus callosum 2. Thalamus 3. Hypothalamus 4. Diencephalon 5. Midbrain

Major Functions Coordinates speech Regulates heartbeat Relays impulses to and from cerebellum Provides motor pathways between cerebrum and lower parts Contains visual and auditory reflex centers Controls voluntary movements of eyes and eyelids Regulates body temperature and many visceral activities Controls emotional feelings Regulates rate and depth of breathing Activates state of wakefulness Relays sensory impulses to cerebral cortex Controls diameter of blood vessels and blood pressure

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Pons Medulla oblongata Brainstem Cerebrum Cerebellum

33

PART D 1. Vestibulocochlear (VIII) 2. Facial (VII), glossopharyngeal (IX) 3. Optic (II) 4. Olfactory (I) 5. Vestibulocochlear (VIII) 6. Trigeminal (V) 7. Trigeminal (V) 8. Oculomotor (III)

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

Oculomotor (III) Oculomotor (III) Oculomotor (III), trochlear (IV), abducens (VI) Facial (VII), glossopharyngeal (IX) Accessory (XI) Vagus (X), accessory (XI), hypoglossal (XII) Glossopharyngeal (IX), vagus (X), accessory (XI), hypoglossal (XII)

34

LABORATORY EXERCISE 29 DISSECTION OF THE SHEEP BRAIN Instructional Suggestion Rather than have students dissect sheep brains, you might want to provide the class with samples of whole sheep brains and sectioned brains for examination. This should extend the use of the available specimens.

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. The human cerebral hemispheres are relatively 5. larger than those of the sheep.

2. There are more convolutions and sulci in the 6. human cerebrum.

3. The human cerebrum with its larger size and 7. greater number of convolutions is more complex and thus able to carry on more complex functions.

4. The human cerebellum is divided in the midline (vermis) into two hemispheres, whereas the sheep cerebellum is not divided.

The olfactory bulbs of the sheep brain are larger than those of the human brain.

The olfactory, optic, and trigeminal nerves seem to be most highly developed in the sheep brain.

The senses of smell and sight and the sensory functions associated with the trigeminal nerve are highly developed.

Critical Thinking Application Answers PART B 1-6. Answers will vary. The sheep brain and the human brain features are more similar than different. Therefore a complete list of similar features would be very long. Among similar features include two cerebral hemispheres, medulla oblongata, pineal gland, midbrain, thalamus, hypothalamus, pons, olfactory bulb, four ventricles, and others. (Note only 6 answers are needed.) Mammal brains have more similarities than differences.

35

LABORATORY EXERCISE 30 RECEPTORS AND GENERAL SENSES Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. Chemoreceptors 2. Pain 3. Thermoreceptors 4. Photoreceptors 5. Sensory adaptation 6. Touch

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Pressure 25ºC (77ºF) and 45ºC (113ºF) 10ºC (50ºF) and 20ºC (68ºF) Brain Referred pain

PART B 1. (experimental results) 2. (experimental results)

3.

Answers will vary.

2.

Answers will vary.

3.

Answers will vary.

PART C 1. (experimental results) PART D 1. (experimental results) 2. (experimental results)

36

LABORATORY EXERCISE 31 SMELL AND TASTE Figure Labels FIG. 31.1 6 5 3 7 FIG. 31.3 6 1 4

1 2 4

3 5 2

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. Bipolar 2. Cilia 3. Water 4. Cribriform plate 5. Crista galli PART B 1. (experimental results) 2. (experimental results)

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Olfactory tracts Frontal Sensory adaptation Outside environment Odorless

3.

Answers will vary.

Critical Thinking Application Answers Answers will vary. Any variations in time for sensory adaptation could be a result of the concentration of the test substance, volatility of the test substance, or the number of receptors for the test substance.

PART C 1.

2.

3.

4.

Epithelial Taste pore Taste hairs (microvilli) Water

5.

6.

7.

8.

Receptor Acids Salts Bitter

PART D 1. (experimental results)

2 (a-d). Answers will vary.

37

LABORATORY EXERCISE 32 EAR AND HEARING Figure Labels FIG. 32.1 1. Auricle 2. Malleus 3. Incus 4. Semicircular canals 5. Stapes 6. Cochlea FIG. 32.2 4 6

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

5 3

1 2

FIG 32.3 1. Tectorial membrane 2. Hair cells (receptor cells)

3.

4.

Vestibulocochlear nerve Oval window Tympanic membrane (eardrum) Auditory (Eustachian) tube External acoustic meatus

Branch of cochlear nerve Basilar membrane

Critical Thinking Application Answers The largest ear structure is the auricle which is able to trap and funnel a minute sound wave into the middle and inner ear structures. This will allow a concentration of the vibrations making the sound detection more likely to occur.

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. d 2. k 3. j

4.

5.

6.

PART B (FIG. 32.8) 1. Cochlear duct 2. Tectorial membrane 3. Hair cells (receptor cells) PART C 1. (experimental results) 2. (experimental results)

h c b

7.

8.

9.

l i e

4.

5.

Basilar membrane Scala tympani

3.

4.

(experimental results) Answers will vary.

38

10. f 11. a 12. g

LABORATORY EXERCISE 33 EQUILIBRIUM

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. Utricle 2. Temporal 3. Macula 4. Calcium carbonate 5. Vestibulocochlear (vestibular branch)

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Ampulla Crista ampullaris Cupula Inertia Cerebellum

PART B 1. a. The eyes, inner ears, and proprioceptors provide information needed to maintain equilibrium when the eyes are open. b. The inner ears and proprioceptors provide such information when the eyes are closed.

2. a. (experimental results) b. Probably yes; this demonstrates the importance of visual information in maintaining equilibrium. c. With the eyes closed, such a person would receive very little sensor information needed to maintain equilibrium.

3. a. (experimental results) b. Answers will vary.

Critical Thinking Application Answers Vision, touch, and proprioception would all supplement equilibrium.

39

LABORATORY EXERCISE 34 EYE STRUCTURE Figure Labels FIG. 34.1 1. Lacrimal gland 2. Superior and inferior canaliculi

3.

4.

Lacrimal sac Nasolacrimal duct

FIG. 34.2 1. Superior oblique 2. Superior rectus 3. Medial rectus

4.

5.

6.

Lateral rectus Inferior rectus Inferior oblique

FIG. 34.3 1. Pupil 2. Iris 3. Ciliary body 4. Suspensory ligaments 5. Lens 6. Cornea 7. Aqueous humor 8. Anterior cavity

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

Retina Choroid coat Sclera Vitreous humor Fovea centralis Optic nerve Optic disc Posterior cavity

Critical Thinking Application Answers The delicate retina is only located next to the choroid coat by the pressure maintained by the vitreous humor. Any alteration of this pressure could allow the retina to detach as was easily observed during the dissection. No connective tissue was observed between the inner and middle tunics of the eye.

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. b 2. j 3. e 4. d 5. g 6. l 7. h 8. f 9. a PART B 1. The outer tunic/layer (sclera) is toughest.

2. Dense (fibrous) connective tissue.

3. The pupil of the dissected eye probably was elliptical in shape, and the human pupil is round.

4. Aqueous humor occurs between the cornea and the lens.

PART C (FIG. 34.10) 1. Aqueous humor 2. Lens 3. Cornea 4. Iris 5. Conjunctiva 6. Retina/inner tunic

10.

11.

12.

13.

i k c Cornea, aqueous humor, pupil of iris, lens, vitreous humor, retina 14. More rods than cones; rods stimulated by dim light; cones enable perception of color [other answers could be acceptable.]

5.

7.

The dark pigment absorbs excess light and keeps the eye dark dark inside.

The lens is biconvex, flexible, and transparent. It may be firm and opaque in a preserved eye.

The vitreous humor is a transparent, jellylike fluid.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Vitreous humor Optic disc Optic nerve Choroid coat/middle tunic Sclera/outer tunic

6.

40

LABORATORY EXERCISE 35 VISUAL TESTS AND DEMONSTRATIONS

Critical Thinking Application Answers When using both eyes for observations, if the image of a small object falls on the optic disc of one eye, the object is still seen by the other eye. This can be confirmed because the blind-spot demonstration will not work with both eyes open.

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. (experimental results) 2. (experimental results) 3. (experimental results) 4. (experimental results) 5. a. A person with 20/70 vision can see from 20 feet what the normal eye sees from 70 feet. This person has less than normal vision. b. A person with 20/10 vision can see fro 20 feet what the normal eye sees from 10 feet. This person has better than normal vision. c. Astigmatism results in blurred vision because some parts of the image on the retina are in focus, while other parts are not in focus. d. The elastic quality of the lens tends to decrease with age. e. The retina is lacking cones that are sensitive to red or green wave lengths (an X-linked/sex-linked trait).

PART B 1. (experimental results) 2. The optic disc lacks receptors (rods and cones) and thus creates a blind spot in the retina.

3. The photopupillary reflex involves the construction of the pupil in response to exposure to bright light.

4. The photopupillary reflex occurs in both eyes even when one eye is shielded from the light; however, the shielded eye may not show as much change as the exposed one.

5. When an eye is focused on a close object, the pupil constricts.

6. When the eyes are focused on a close object, they converge toward the midline.

41

LABORATORY EXERCISE 36 ENDOCRINE HISTOLOGY AND DIABETIC PHYSIOLOGY Instructional Suggestions 1. The responses and recovery to insulin shock work faster if the fish selected is very small (total length about 1”). The species of fish selected does not seem significant so try a fish species that is readily available.

2. HumulinR administered in 200 units usually will suffice to induce insulin shock within about 5 minutes. If the responses are too slow, try an increase to 400 units. Consult with your local pharmacist or veterinarian to purchase insulin.

3. If the recovery from insulin shock is too prolonged using a 10% glucose solution, try a 20% glucose solution.

Figure Labels FIG. 36.1 1. Hypothalamus 2. Pituitary gland 3. Parathyroid glands 4. Testis (male) 5. Pineal gland

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Thyroid gland Thymus Adrenal gland Pancreas Ovary (female)

Laboratory Report Answers PART A (sketches) PART B Table: Characteristic Onset age Onset of symptoms Percentage of diabetics Natural insulin levels Beta cells of pancreatic islets Pancreatic islet cell antibodies Risk factors of having the disease Typical treatments

Type 1 Diabetes Early age or adult Rapid 10-15% Below normal Destroyed Present Heredity Insulin administration

Untreated blood sugar levels

Hyperglycemia

Type 2 Diabetes Usually over 40 Slow 85-90% Normal or increased Not Destroyed Absent Heredity, obesity, lack of exercise Avoid foods that stimulate insulin production, weight control, exercise, medications Hyperglycemia

PART C 1. (experimental results) 2. (experimental results) The amount of time until insulin shock occurs varies with the type of insulin used and the size of the fish selected for the experiment. Rapid or irregular swimming, gill cover, and mouth movements usually are noted within about 5-10 minutes.

3. (experimental results) Recovery from insulin shock usually occurs within about 5-10 minutes.

Critical Thinking Application Answers The main hormone regulating blood sugar is insulin. A normal person’s insulin level will adjust the blood sugar homeostasis level according to changes in daily diets and exercise levels. A person with type 1 diabetes needs to attempt to have similar daily diets and exercise to correlate with the designated daily insulin administered.

42

LABORATORY EXERCISE 37 BLOOD CELLS Warning Because of the possibility of blood-borne infections being transmitted from one student to another if blood slides are prepared in the classroom, it is suggested that commercially prepared blood slides be used in this exercise. The instructor, however, may wish to demonstrate the procedure for preparing such a slide. Mammal blood other than human or contaminant-free human blood is suggested as a substitute for collected blood.

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. Erythrocytes 2. Biconcave 3. Transporting and exchanging gases (O2 and CO2) 4. Hemoglobin 5. Oxyhemoglobin 6. Nucleus 7. Leukocytes 8. Granulocytes 9. Agranulocytes

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

Neutrophil Neutrophils Eosinophils Basopils Monocytes Lymphocytes Collagen Serotonin Hemocytoblasts (hematopoietic stem cells)

2.

Answers will vary.

PART B (sketches) PART C 1. (experimental results)

Critical Thinking Application Answers A total white blood cell count provides the number of white blood cells in a given volume of blood; a differential white blood cell count gives the relative percentages of types of white blood cells in a blood sample.

43

LABORATORY EXERCISE 38 BLOOD TESTING—A DEMONSTRATION Warning Because of the possibility of blood-borne infections being transmitted from one student to another during blood-testing procedures, it is suggested that the following demonstrations be performed by the instructor. Mammal blood other than human or contaminant-free human blood is suggested as a substitute for collected blood.

Laboratory Report Answers PART A (demonstration results) PART B 1. Answers will vary.

3.

2. Various forms of anemia and severe hemorrhage will produce a decreased red blood cell percentage.

PART C 1. Answers will vary.

3.

2. Iron-deficiency anemia, lack of certain amino acids or vitamin B12, pregnancy, severe hemorrhage, excessive menstrual flow, or excessive fluid intake may cause a decreased hemoglobin content.

PART D 1. Answers will vary.

3.

2. Anemia, leukemia, and severe hemorrhage may cause a decreased red blood cell count.

PART E 1. Answers will vary.

3.

2. Aplastic anemia and adverse drug reactions may cause a decreased white blood cell count.

Polycythemia, due to dehydration, shock, or excessive production of red blood cells, will produce an increased percentage of red blood cells.

Polycythemia, obstructive pulmonary diseases, congestive heart failure, and living at high altitudes may cause an increased hemoglobin content.

Severe dehydration, diarrhea, exercise, living at high altitudes, rise in temperature, or polycythemia may cause an increased red blood cell count.

Acute infections, leukemia, infectious mononucleosis, and menstruation may cause an increased white blood cell count.

Critical Thinking Application Answers RBC percentage (hematocrit), hemoglobin, and RBC count are all blood tests that could indicate anemia.

44

LABORATORY EXERCISE 39 BLOOD TYPING Warning Because of the possibility of blood-borne infections being transmitted from one student to another if blood-testing is preformed in the classroom, it is suggested that commercially prepared blood-typing kits, containing virus-free human blood, be used for ABO blood typing. The instructor may wish to demonstrate Rh blood typing. Simulated blood-typing kits are suggested as a substitute for collected blood.

Critical Thinking Application Answers The anti-A serum would contain anti-A antibodies if clumping was observed for a person with type A blood. The anti-B serum would contain anti-B antibodies if clumping was observed for a person with type B blood.

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. Red blood cell membranes 2. Four 3. A 4. B 5. Anti-B

6.

7.

8.

9.

Anti-A AB O Two to eight months

PART B 1. (experimental results)

2-5. Answers will vary.

PART C 1. Rhesus monkey 2. Antigen D 3. Rh-negative

4.

5.

6.

PART D 1. (demonstration results)

2-5. Answers will vary.

Rh-negative Clump (agglutinate) Rh-positive

45

LABORATORY EXERCISE 40 HEART STRUCTURE Instructional Suggestions 1. You may want to have the students use colored 3. pencils to color the features of the heart and blood vessels in figure 40.3. This activity should help them observe the illustrations more carefully and locate the 4. various features shown from different views in the figures. They can check their work by referring to the corresponding figures in the textbook, which are presented in full color.

2. Instead of using preserved sheep hearts, you might want to provide fresh pig hearts for dissection.

To reduce the cost of specimens used, you might provide predissected, preserved sheep hearts for observation and save the specimens for use with other classes.

Fresh beef hearts are sometimes available from meat-packing houses. You might want to demonstrate the dissection of this large heart. Try to make sure that the atria and large blood vessels are left attached for this purpose.

Figure Labels FIG. 40.1 1. Aorta 2. Superior vena cava 3. Right atrium 4. Right coronary artery 5. Right ventricle 6. Inferior vena cava FIG. 40.2 1. Aorta 2. Left pulmonary artery 3. Left pulmonary veins 4. Left atrium 5. Left ventricle FIG. 40.3 1. Aorta 2. Superior vena cava 3. Aortic valve 4. Right atrium 5. Tricuspid valve 6. Chordae tendineae 7. Inferior vena cava 8. Left pulmonary artery 9. Pulmonary trunk

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Pulmonary trunk (artery) Left atrium Left coronary artery Great cardiac vein Left ventricle

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Apex Superior vena cava Right atrium Inferior vena cava Right ventricle

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

Left pulmonary veins Left atrium Pulmonary valve Mitral (bicuspid) valve Papillary muscle Interventricular septum Left ventricle Right ventricle

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

e g i b c a

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Interventricular septum Left atrium Mitral (biscupid) valve Left ventricle Apex

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. h 2. l 3. j 4. f 5. k 6. d PART B (FIG. 40.6) 1. Superior vena cava 2. Aorta 3. Right atrium 4. Aortic valve 5. Tricuspid valve 6. Right ventricle

46

PART C 1. The tricuspid valve is composed of three relatively 4. large cusps that contain chordae tendineae; the pulmonary valve is made up of three smaller pocketlike cusps that lack chordae tendineae.

2. The cusps of the tricuspid valve move upward into a horizontal position and close the opening between the 5. right atrium and the right ventricle.

3. The chordae tendineae and papillary muscles prevent the cusps of the tricuspid and mitral (bicuspid) valves from swinging into the atria when the ventricles contract.

The thicker wall of the aorta allows it to withstand the higher pressure of the blood pumped out from the left ventricle. The thinner wall of the pulmonary trunk (artery) is related to the lower pressure of the blood that leaves the right ventricle.

Vena cava, right atrium, tricuspid valve, right ventricle, pulmonary valve, pulmonary trunk, pulmonary artery, capillary of the lungs, pulmonary vein, left atrium, mitral (bicuspid) valve, left ventricle, aortic valve, aorta.

Critical Thinking Application Answers The thicker wall of the left ventricle allows it to contract with greater force and create the high pressure needed to move blood to all parts of the body (systemic circuit) except the lungs. The thinner wall of the right ventricle creates the lower pressure needed to move blood a relatively short distance to the lungs (pulmonary circuit).

47

LABORATORY EXERCISE 41 CARDIAC CYCLE Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. 70 2. Systole 3. Diastole 4. Closed 5. Open

6.

7.

6.

7.

8.

Ventricles Vibrations A-V valves Pulmonary and aortic valves (semilunar valves) Murmur

PART B 1. (experimental results)

2.

(experimental results)

PART C 1. Cardiac muscle 2. S-A (sinoatrial; sinu-atrial) 3. A-V (atrioventricular) 4. A-V bundle (bundle of His) 5. Purkinje fibers 6. Electrocardiogram 7. Polarized 8. Atria PART D 1. (labeled ECG recordings) 2. Answers will vary.

3. Normal is 0.12-0.20 sec.

4. The P-Q (P-R) interval indicates the time it takes for the atria to depolarize and the cardiac impulse to reach the A-V node.

9. Ventricles 10. Ventricles 11. Atrial repolarization occurs at the same time that the ventricular fibers depolarize. The QRS complex indicating ventricular depolarization obscures any recording of the atrial repolarization.

12. Tachycardia; bradycardia

5.

6.

Because each QRS wave in the pattern indicates a ventricular contraction, the heart rate can be determined by counting the QRS waves that occur in a minute. (experimental results)

Critical Thinking Application Answer 36

48

LABORATORY EXERCISE 42 BLOOD VESSELS Instructional Suggestions If live frogs are not available for the microscopic observation of blood vessels, you might want to provide small goldfish. The head of a fish can be wrapped loosely in wet cotton to keep its gills moist, and the fish can be placed on a glass plate on the stage of a microscope. If its tail is spread out beneath the microscope slide, the blood vessels can be observed with low- and highpower magnification. However, if the fish is not returned to water within a few minutes, it will likely die.

Figure Labels FIG. 42.1 1. Tunica interna 2. Tunica media FIG. 42.2 1 4

3.

Tunica externa

3 2

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. Endothelium 2. Tunica media (middle layer) 3. Tunica externa (outer layer) 4. Vasoconstriction 5. Vasodilation 6. Capillaries 7. Blood-brain barrier 8. Greater PART B 1. (sketch) 2. (sketch)

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

Precapillary sphincters Diffusion Lipid Pores Hydrostatic Osmotic Valves Veins

3.

The tunica interna and tunica externa are similar in the artery and vein. The tunica media of the artery contains relatively greater amounts of smooth muscle and elastic tissue than that of the vein.

Critical Thinking Application Answers Because arteries are under higher pressure than veins, the thicker arterial walls help to maintain the strength and elasticity necessary against their walls.

PART C 1. The blood in an arteriole moves with a pulsating 3. rapid flow, whereas that in a venule moves with a steady slower flow.

4.

2. A capillary could be identified by its small diameter and the presence of blood cells moving in single file.

Blood moves fastest in arterioles, somewhat slower in venules, and slowest in capillaries.

If noted, the flow from an arteriole into a capillary will change from continuous flow to an interrupted flow and may cease flow for brief periods of time. This irregular flow into the capillary is a result of changes caused by the precapillary sphincter.

49

LABORATORY EXERCISE 43 PULSE RATE AND BLOOD PRESSURE Instructional Suggestions The following suggestions should be considered when trying to obtain an accurate blood pressure: 1.

2.

3.

The room environment should have a moderate temperature and be quiet (no talking).

The client needs to be relaxed and comfortable. A temporary increase in blood pressure could exist from smoking, pain, anxiety, or a full urinary bladder.

Palpate the pulse first so that you are certain to pump the cuff high enough to not miss the first tapping sound. It also assures that you do not pump the cuff so high that we alter the blood pressure when releasing air.

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. Arterial 2. Systolic 3. Diastolic 4. Heart 5. Pressure

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Sphygmomanometer Millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) Systolic Pulse pressure Brachial

PART B 1. (test results)

2.

Answers will vary.

PART C 1. (test results) 2. (test results)

3.

4.

Answers will vary.

Answers will vary.

Critical Thinking Application Answer A palpated pulse would be characteristic of the systolic pressure as the arterial wall is expanding at that moment under the higher pressure.

50

LABORATORY EXERCISE 44 ARTERIES AND VEINS Figure Labels FIG. 44.1 1. Superior vena cava 2. Pulmonary trunk 3. Inferior vena cava

4.

5.

6.

Pulmonary veins Pulmonary artery Aorta

Critical Thinking Application Answers The left ventricle wall is thicker which provides a more powerful contraction to force the blood through the longer distance of the systemic circuit.

FIG. 44.2 1. Superficial temporal artery 2. Internal carotid artery 3. External carotid artery 4. Vertebral artery

5.

6.

7.

8.

Subclavian artery Facial artery Common carotid artery Brachiocephalic artery

FIG. 44.3 1. Subclavian artery 2. Axillary artery 3. Deep brachial artery

4.

5.

6.

Brachial artery Radial artery Ulnar artery

FIG. 44.4 1. Celiac artery 2. Hepatic artery 3. Renal artery 4. Splenic artery

5.

6.

7.

8.

Left gastric artery Superior mesenteric artery Inferior mesenteric artery Common Iliac arteries

FIG. 44.5 1. Right common iliac artery 2. External iliac artery 3. Deep femoral artery 4. Popliteal artery 5. Abdominal aorta

6.

7.

8.

9.

Internal iliac artery Femoral artery Anterior tibial artery Dorsalis pedis artery

FIG. 44.6 1. External jugular vein 2. Subclavian vein 3. Internal jugular vein

4.

5.

Vertebral vein Brachiocephalic vein

5.

6.

7.

8.

Brachiocephalic veins Subclavian vein Superior vena cava Azygos vein

FIG. 44.8 1. Subclavian vein 2. Right brachiocephalic vein 3. Axillary vein 4. Cephalic vein 5. Basilic vein

6.

7.

8.

9.

Brachial vein Median cubital vein (antecubital vein) Radial vein Ulnar vein

FIG. 44.9 1. Hepatic portal vein 2. Superior mesenteric vein 3. Gastric vein (right)

4.

5.

Splenic vein Inferior mesenteric vein

FIG. 44.7 1. Internal jugular vein 2. Axillary vein 3. Cephalic vein 4. External jugular vein

51

FIG. 44.10 1. Common iliac vein 2. External iliac vein 3. Interior vena cava 4. Internal iliac vein

5.

6.

7.

8.

Femoral vein Great saphenous vein Popliteal vein Anterior tibial vein

PART A 1. d 2. j 3. b 4. a 5. g 6. c

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

k h e f l i

PART B 1. Right subclavian artery 2. Aortic arch 3. Superior mesenteric artery 4. Inferior mesenteric artery 5. Right common carotic artery

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Vertebral artery Facial artery Brachial artery External iliac artery Left and right pulmonary arteries

PART C 1. a 2. b 3. d 4. e

5.

6.

7.

8.

h c g f

PART D 1. Right brachiocephalic vein 2. Popliteal vein 3. Common iliac vein 4. Basilic vein 5. Anterior tibial vein

6.

7.

8.

9.

Femoral vein Hepatic portal vein Pulmonary veins Renal vein

PART E (FIG. 44.11) 1. Common carotid artery 2. Brachiocephalic vein 3. Superior vena cava 4. Femoral vein 5. Great saphenous vein 6. Internal jugular vein 7. External jugular vein 8. Subclavian artery

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

Subclavian vein Pulmonary vein Inferior vena cava Aorta Common iliac vein Common iliac artery Femoral artery

Laboratory Report Answers

52

LABORATORY EXERCISE 45 CAT DISSECTION: CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. The parietal pericardium forms a relatively thick, tough sac that encloses the heart. It is attached to the large blood vessels at the base of the heart and to the diaphragm.

2. The walls of the atria are much thinner than those of the ventricles. The wall of the left ventricle is much thicker than that of the right ventricle.

3. Wall thickness is related to the force of its contraction and the amount of pressure it imparts to the blood inside a heart chamber. The left ventricle has the thickest wall, contracts with the greatest force, and creates the greatest amount of blood pressure in the heart chambers. The left ventricle is the pump for the systemic circuit.

4. In the human, the right common carotid artery branches from the brachiocephalic artery, whereas the left common carotid artery comes directly from the aortic arch. In the cat, both common carotid arteries branch from the brachiocephalic artery.

5. In the human, the aorta divides to form the two common iliac arteries, which in turn give rise to external and internal iliac arteries. In the cat, the aorta divides to form the external iliac arteries, and the internal iliac arteries branch from the aorta independently.

PART B 1. In the human, the brachiocephalic vein is formed by the union of the internal jugular and the subclavian vein on each side. In the cat, the brachiocephalic vein is formed by the union of the external jugular and the subclavian vein on each side.

2 In the human, the internal jugular vein is somewhat larger than the external jugular vein. In the cat, the external jugular vein is larger.

3 Answers will vary.

53

LABORATORY EXERCISE 46 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM Figure Labels FIG. 46.1 6 3 2 4

8 1 5 7

FIG. 46.2 1 2 4

6 3 5

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. Lymphatic capillaries 2. Squamous epithelial 3. Lymph 4. Veins 5. Valves

6.

7.

8.

9.

Lymph nodes Intestinal Jugular Thoracic (left lymphatic) duct

PART B 1. Lymphocytes 2. Hilum 3. Nodules 4. Lymph sinuses 5. Afferent

6.

7.

8.

9.

Tonsils Peyer’s patches Scalp, face, nasal cavity, and pharynx Inguinal

PART C 1. Mediastinum 2. Puberty 3. Adipose and connective tissues 4. Bone marrow 5. Thymosins 6. Spleen

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Hilum Blood White pulp Red pulp Macrophages

PART D (sketches)

54

LABORATORY EXERCISE 47 DIGESTIVE ORGANS Figure Labels FIG. 47.1 1. Lip 2. Hard palate 3. Soft palate 4. Uvula

5.

6.

7.

Palatine tonsil Tongue Vestibule

FIG. 47.2 1. Parotid gland 2. Masseter muscle 3. Tongue

4.

5.

Sublingual gland Submandibular gland

FIG. 47.3 1. Enamel 2. Dentin 3. Root

4.

5.

6.

Crown Gingiva Root canal

FIG. 47.5 1. Pharyngeal tonsils (adenoids) 2. Opening of auditory tube (Eustachian tube) 3. Nasopharynx 4. Palatine tonsils

5.

6.

7.

8.

Oropharynx Lingual tonsils Epiglottis Laryngopharynx

FIG. 47.7 1. Esophagus 2. Rugae 3. Pyloric sphincter 4. Duodenum 5. Lower esophageal sphincter (cardiac sphincter)

6.

7.

8.

9.

Fundic region Cardiac region Body region Pyloric region

FIG. 47.8 4 2 5 6

1 3 7

FIG. 47.10 1. Cystic duct 2. Gallbladder 3. Duodenum 4. Hepatic duct (common)

5.

6.

7.

FIG. 47.11 10 1 3 7 2

Common bile duct Pancreatic duct Hepatopancreatic sphincter (sphincter of Oddi)

6 9 8 5 4

Critical Thinking Application Answers The small intestine, which is much longer than the large intestine and contains villi, provides more surface area for absorption than the large intestine.

55

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. c 2. j 3. f

4.

5.

6.

g h k

PART B 1. Nasopharynx 2. Oropharynx 3. Laryngopharynx 4. Mucus PART C 1. Cardiac, fundic, body, and pyloric regions 2. Pyloric sphincter 3. Chief cells 4. Parietal cells 5. Pepsin 6. Intrinsic factor PART D 1. d 2. b 3. e

4.

5.

6.

a f i

7.

8.

9.

i d l

10. e 11. a 12. b

5.

6.

Esophageal hiatus The esophagus provides a passageway for food from the pharynx to the stomach .

7.

8.

9.

Gastrin Chyme The stomach receives food from the esophagus, mixes it with gastric juice, initiates the digestion of protein, does limited amount of absorption, and moves food (chyme) into the small intestine.

7.

8.

9.

c h g

PART E (sketch) PART F 1. Duodenum, jejunum, ileum 5.

2. A mesentery supports and suspends organs. It 6. contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves 7. that supply the organs.

3. Lacteal 4. Peptidases, sucrase, maltase, lactase, intestinal lipase, 8. enterokinase (only 5 of 6 needed to answer the question)

Ileocecal sphincter (valve) Vermiform appendix The small intestine receives secretions from the pancreas and liver, completes digestion of nutrients, absorbs the products of digestion, and transports the residues to the large intestine.

The large intestine absorbs water and electrolytes, and forms and stores feces.

56

LABORATORY EXERCISE 48 CAT DISSECTION: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. The major salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, and sublingual) in the human and the cat occupy similar locations.

2. The jaw of the cat has six incisors, two canines, eight premolars, and two molars; the jaw of the human child has four incisors, two canines, four premolars, and six molars.

3. The cat’s canine teeth are adapted for stabbing and holding prey whereas its rear molars are adapted for cutting meat.

4. The uvula is missing in the cat.

5. The transverse ridges help to hold food.

6. Many of the papillae on the cat’s tongue have spiny projections that help the cat to clean its fur. These are lacking on the human tongue.

PART B 1. The peritoneum is the membrane that lines the abdominal cavity and covers the abdominal organs. Double-layered folds in this membrane form the mesentery that supports the abdominal organs.

2. The inner lining of the stomach is folded to form many ridges called rugae.

3. The cat’s liver has five lobes; the human liver has four.

4. The cat’s pancreas is relatively smaller than that of the human and it is double-lobed. One lobe lies along the duodenum, and the other extends behind the stomach toward the spleen.

5. The appendix is missing in the cat.

57

LABORATORY EXERCISE 49 ACTION OF A DIGESTIVE ENZYME Instructional Suggestion For this experiment to work, it is very important to obtain amylase that is free of sugar. Some of the amylase sold by laboratory suppliers in 2005 contained sugar, as can be determined by the control in tube 1 of this experiment. Ward’s Natural Science does handle amylase (alpha amylase from Bacillus subtilis; catalog #944W4602) that is free of sugar, and several other companies plan to add this product to their catalogs. If in doubt, call the supply company and consult with a person in technical support.

Keep any of the unused amylase frozen.

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. Expected experimental results: Tube Starch Sugar 1

0

0

2

+

0

3

(varies)

+

2.

a. Testing the amylase solution for the presence of starch and sugar demonstrates the negative results of the tests. b. Tube 2 demonstrates that starch will not change to sugar when warmed to 37ºC (98.6ºF). c. The change of starch to sugar is a result of the action of the amylase in tube 3.

PART B 1. Expected experimental results: Tube Starch Sugar 4

+

(varies)

5

(varies)

+

6

+

0

2.

a. Amylase is slow to act or inactive in low temperature and high temperature. Its optimum temperature is near 37ºC (98.6ºF). b. The tubes in which digestion failed to occur could be placed in the 37ºC (98.6ºF) water bath. If digestion occurred at this temperature, the enzyme was not destroyed by the previous treatment.

Critical Thinking Application Answer The test would show a positive result for sugar. The experiment would not be valid as it would not show a change from starch to sugar when sugar is already present. (Note: some amylase sold is contaminated with sugar.)

58

LABORATORY EXERCISE 50 RESPIRATORY ORGANS Figure Labels FIG. 50.1 1. Nostril (external naris) 2. Oral cavity 3. Epiglottis 4. Larynx 5. Bronchus (right primary) 6. Right lung

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Frontal sinus Nasal cavity Pharynx Trachea Left lung

FIG. 50.2 1. Frontal sinus 2. Nostril (external naris) 3. Auditory (Eustachian) tube opening 4. Uvula 5. Palatine tonsil 6. Epiglottis 7. Trachea

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

Superior nasal concha Middle nasal concha Inferior nasal concha Sphenoidal sinus Nasopharynx Oropharynx Laryngopharynx

FIG. 50.3 1. Epiglottis (epiglottic cartilage) 2. Thyroid cartilage 3. Cricoid cartilage

4.

5.

6.

Epiglottis (epiglottic cartilage) Thyroid cartilage Cricoid cartilage

FIG. 50.4 1. Epiglottis 2. Glottis

3.

4.

False vocal cord (vestibular fold) True vocal cord (vocal fold)

7.

8.

9.

j f g

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. h 2. b 3. i

4.

5.

6.

a e d

10. c

PART B (sketches) PART C 1. The sticky mucus is secreted into the upper and 3. lower respiratory tract, which will trap particles of dust and microorganisms.

2. The cilia create a current of mucus toward the pharynx.

The mucus contains entrapped particles that are usually swallowed.

If the smooth muscle of the bronchial tree relaxes, the air passages dilate, which allows a greater volume of air movement.

Critical Thinking Application Answers The simple squamous epithelial cells allow for rapid diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and the alveolar air.

59

LABORATORY EXERCISE 51 CAT DISSECTION: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Laboratory Report Answers 1. The auditory tube allows air to pass between the cavity of the middle ear and the outside environment. As a result, air pressure normally remains equal on both sides of the eardrum.

2. The glottis is the opening of the superior (anterior in cats) end of the larynx. The epiglottis is a flap-like structure that shunts food and liquid away from the glottis during swallowing.

3. The tracheal rings are incomplete as they are in the human.

4. The structure of the primary bronchi and the trachea are similar.

5. The cat has three main lobes in each lung (anterior, middle, and posterior). The posterior lobe on the right side has an accessory lobe associated with it, making a total of four lobes on the right lung. The human has three lobes in the right lung and two in the left.

6. The diaphragm is attached to the lower rim of the thorax and to a central tendon.

7. The heart, esophagus, trachea, and thymus gland are found in the mediastinum. These are the same major structures found in the human mediastinum.

60

LABORATORY EXERCISE 52 BREATHING AND RESPIRATORY VOLUME AND CAPACITIES

Critical Thinking Application Answers Aging results in some natural loss of elasticity of the lungs as well as the muscles (diaphragm and intercostal muscles) used in breathing. This can be measured by a vital capacity test.

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. Ventilation 2. Atmospheric 3. 760 4. Atmospheric pressure 5. Phrenic 6. Increases 7. External intercostal PART B 1. a 2. g

3.

4.

e f

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

Visceral pleura Surfactant Elastic recoil Less Internal intercostal Abdominal wall

5.

6.

d h

PART C 1. (experimental results).

2. a. Answers will vary. b. Answers will vary. c. A measurement of residual volume is needed.

3. Answers will vary.

61

7.

8.

c b

LABORATORY EXERCISE 53 CONTROL OF BREATHING Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. Pons, medulla oblongata 2. Dorsal 3. Ventral 4. Hydrogen 5. Increases 6. Carbon dioxide

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

Bicarbonate ions Reduced Carotid Increases Vagus Increased

PART B 1. (experimental results) 2. a. Hyperventilation lowers blood carbon dioxide levels, and the breathing center is stimulated to a lesser degree. b. Air that is rebreathed has a higher concentration of carbon dioxide, and thus the breathing center is stimulated to a greater degree. c. Breath holding causes the blood carbon dioxide concentration to increase, stimulating the breathing center to a greater degree. d. Exercise causes an increase in the breathing rate. This is due in part to the joint reflex and in part to an increasing concentration of blood carbon dioxide.

3. a. It is difficult for a person to breathe normally while thinking about it. b. Depth of breath can be measured by breathing into an instrument that measures air volumes.

Critical Thinking Application Answer A person who has hyperventilated may lose consciousness under water because of changes in the blood carbon dioxide and oxygen levels causing respiratory alkalosis. This is accompanied by arteriole vasoconstriction to the brain, which deprives the brain tissue of oxygen. Hyperventilation has a minimal influence on oxygen carrying capacity on the hemoglobin which is normally nearly saturated (about 97.5%) in lung capillaries. However, hyperventilation can decrease the carbon dioxide enough during breath-holding that depleted oxygen to the brain could cause unconsciousness. This loss of consciousness could occur before the urge to take the next breath takes place.

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LABORATORY EXERCISE 54 KIDNEY STRUCTURE Figure Labels FIG. 54.1 1. Kidney 2. Ureter

3.

4.

Urinary bladder Urethra

FIG. 54.2 1. Minor calyx 2. Major calyx 3. Renal pelvis 4. Renal papilla 5. Ureter

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Renal pyramid Renal column Renal capsule Renal medulla Renal cortex

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Interlobular vein Afferent arteriole Distal convoluted tubule Peritubular capillary Collecting duct

6.

7.

8.

9.

c d g b

FIG. 54.4 1. Glomerular capsule 2. Proximal convoluted tubule 3. Glomerulus 4. Efferent arteriole 5. Descending limb of the nephron loop 6. Ascending limb of the nephron loop Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. e 2. a 3. h 4. f 5. i

PART B 1. A renal corpuscle is the cluster of capillaries (glomerulus) and the saclike structure (glomerular capsule) that surrounds it; a renal tubule is the coiled tube that leads away from the glomerular capsule and empties into a collecting duct.

2. 3 5 2 4 1 6 3. 1 3 2 4 5 4. Blood enters the glomerulus through the afferent arteriole and leaves through the efferent arteriole. Because the afferent vessel has a somewhat greater diameter than the efferent one, blood pressure is increased in the glomerulus.

5. The juxtaglomerular apparatus is a structure composed of epithelial cells within the distal convoluted tubule and smooth muscle cells within the walls of arterioles near the glomerulus that regulates the flow of blood through certain renal blood vessels.

PART C (sketch) PART D (sketch)

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LABORATORY EXERCISE 55 URINALYSIS Instructional Suggestion Because most students’ urine will produce negative results for glucose, protein, ketones, bilirubin, and hemoglobin, you may want to provide samples of “artificial urine” (distilled water that contains weak concentrations of some of these substances). By performing the urinalysis test on such samples, students will be able to obtain some positive results. Normal and abnormal simulated urine specimens are suggested as a substitute for collected urine.

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. (test results) 2. Answers will vary.

Critical Thinking Application Answers If urine is not refrigerated, substances within it will begin to change as a result of bacterial action, and the composition of the urine will be altered.

PART B 1. (sketch) 2. Answers will vary.

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LABORATORY EXERCISE 56 CAT DISSECTION: URINARY SYSTEM Laboratory Report Answers 1. In the human, the kidneys are located between the levels of the twelfth thoracic and the third lumbar vertebrae; in the cat, the kidneys are found at the level of the third to the fifth lumbar vertebrae. In the human, the left kidney is usually higher than the right one; in the cat, the right kidney is usually somewhat anterior to the left one. In both cases, the kidneys are retroperitoneal.

2. In the human, the adrenal glands are located on the superior ends of the kidneys; in the cat, the adrenal glands are located anteriorly and medially to the kidneys.

3. In the cat, the kidneys, ureters, and urinary bladder are retroperitoneal.

4. The wall of the urinary bladder is relatively thick, tough, and somewhat elastic. Its inner surface is irregular.

5. In the human kidney, there are about twelve renal pyramids that communicate with the renal pelvis by calyces. Each calyx bears one or more papillae. In the cat kidney, there is a single pyramid and one papilla.

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LABORATORY EXERCISE 57 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Figure Labels FIG. 57.1 1. Ductus deferens (vas deferens) 2. Urethra 3. Penis 4. Glans penis 5. Prepuce 6. Testis

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Scrotum Seminal vesicle Prostate gland Bulbourethral gland Epididymis

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

Acrosome Epididymis Fructose Alkaline Bulbourethral Alkaline Scrotum Glans penis Emission Ejaculation

FIG 57.2 6 1 4 3 7 5 2 Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. Spermatic cord 2. Testosterone 3. Gubernaculum 4. Inguinal canal 5. Lobules 6. Epididymis 7. Spermatogenic 8. Meiosis (spermatogenesis) 9. Spermatids 10. 23

PART B 1. (sketch) 2. (sketch) 3. (sketch) 4. a. Sustentacular cells support, nourish, and regulate the spermatogenic cells. b. Spermatogenic cells give rise to sperm cells by meiosis (spermatogenesis). c. Interstitial cells produce and secrete male sex hormones. d. The epididymis stores sperm cells while they mature and propels them into the ductus deferens. e. The corpora cavernosa and corpus spongiosum form three columns of erectile tissue that contain vascular spaces (sinuses) that become engorged with blood during an erection. They also form most of the body of the penis.

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LABORATORY EXERCISE 58 FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Figure Labels FIG. 58.1 1. Suspensory ligament of ovary 2. Uterine tube 3. Ovarian ligament 4. Round ligament of uterus

5.

6.

7.

8.

Fimbriae of uterine tube Broad ligament Left ovary Uterus

FIG. 58.2 1. Uterine tube 2. Ovary 3. Uterus 4. Clitoris 5. Labium minus

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Labium majus Vaginal orifice Fimbriae Cervix Vagina

FIG. 58.3 1. Clitoris 2. External urethral orifice (meatus) 3. Vaginal orifice/vestibule 4. Mons pubis

5.

6.

7.

8.

Labium majus Labium minus Perineum Anus

FIG. 58.4 5 10 9 4 3

8 1 2 7 6

FIG. 58.5 1. Areola 2. Nipple 3. Lacriferous duct 4. Alveolar glands (mammary glands) 5. Adipose tissue Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. Pelvic 2. Broad 3. Ovarian follicles 4. Oogenesis 5. Follicular 6. First polar body 7. FSH 8. Ovulation 9. Fallopian tubes or oviducts 10. Infundibulum

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

Round Cervix Endometrium Smooth muscle Hymen Vulva Mons pubis Clitoris Vestibular glands Sacral

PART B 1. (sketch) 2. (sketch) 3. (sketch) 4. (sketch) 5. a. A mature follicle swells and ruptures under the influence of certain hormones. As this happens, the secondary oocyte (egg cell) and follicular fluid escape from the ovary. b. The cilia that line the uterine tube beat toward the uterus and help draw the secondary oocyte into the infundibulum of the tube and continue to move it toward the uterus. c. The uterine lining thickens and then it becomes glandular and vascular. If fertilization does not occur, the lining disintegrates and sloughs away, creating the menstrual flow.

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LABORATORY EXERCISE 59 CAT DISSECTION: REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. The cat uterine tubes are small, coiled tubes near the ovaries that travel relatively short distances to join the uterine horns.

The human uterine tubes are much larger and longer, traveling from the region of the ovaries to the uterine body.

2. The human uterus contains a single chamber in which the offspring develop. The cat uterus is Y-shaped with branches, forming right and left uterine horns.

3. The uterine horns of the cat provide room for many offspring to develop at one time.

4. In the cat, the vagina and urethra open into a common urogenital sinus; in the human each of these organs has a separate opening to the outside.

PART B 1. The glans of the cat has small spines on its surface, whereas that of the human does not.

2. In the cat, the prostate gland is relatively small and is located some distance from the urinary bladder (it does not surround the urethra). In the human, the prostate gland is relatively larger and surrounds the urethra near the base of the bladder.

3. The seminal vesicles are lacking in the cat.

4. The prepuce of the cat encloses the entire penis for protection. In the human, the prepuce or foreskin is vestigial and only covers the glans of the penis. A circumcision is commonly performed on humans to remove the prepuce for sanitation and other reasons.

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LABORATORY EXERCISE 60 FERTILIZATION AND EARLY DEVELOPMENT Instructional Suggestions Sea urchin egg and sperm suspensions can be obtained from ripe sea urchins. The “Sea Urchin Embryology Kit” from Carolina Biological Supply Company is one source of these materials.

Figure Labels FIG. 60.1 1. Ovulation 2. Zygote

3.

4.

Morula (late) Blastocyst

FIG. 60.2 1. Yolk sac 2. Mesoderm 3. Endoderm 4. Chorion

5.

6.

7.

Amnion Chorionic villi Connecting stalk

FIG. 60.3 1. Umbilical cord 2. Amniotic fluid

3.

Amniochorionic membrane

Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. Oocyte (egg cell) 2 Acrosome 3. Zygote

4.

5.

6.

Mitosis Cleavage Cilia

7.

8.

9.

Three Blastocyst Embryo

10. Fetus

4.

5.

6.

a j i

7.

8.

9.

e b c

10. d

PART B (sketches) PART C (sketches) PART D 1. h 2. f 3. g

PART E 1. Placental membrane 2. Amnion 3. Umbilical arteries 4. Amniochorionic membrane 5. Yolk sac 6. Yolk sac 7. Allantois 8. Eighth 9. Embryonic 10. Amniotic

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LABORATORY EXERCISE 61 GENETICS Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. (experimental results) 2. (experimental results); Answers will vary.

PART B 1. Probability: 10/20 heads; 10/20 tails (experimental results) 2. Probability: 8/24 number below 3 (experimental results) 3. Probability: 8/32 of two heads; 16/32 of a heads and a tails; 8/32 of two tails (experimental results) 4. Probability: 8/32 of two odd numbers; 16/32 of an odd and an even number; 8/32 of two even numbers (experimental results) 5. O = odd numbers E = even numbers

O E 6.

O OO OE

E OE EE

a. Yes The results are closer to expected probabilities as trial numbers increase. b. No Each toss of a coin is an independent event. c. ½ or 50% Each fertilization is a separate independent event. d. 1/16 Each fertilization has the probability of ½ for a girl. Therefore, the chances are ½ · ½ · ½ · ½ = 1/16

PART C 1. a. Rr x rr b and c.

2.

3.

r

R Rr

r rr

r

Rr

rr

d. Genotypes: 50% Rr; 50% rr (1:1 genotypic ratio) Phenotypes: 50% tongue rollers; 50% nonrollers (1:1 phenotypic ratio) a. Ff x Ff b and c.

F f F FF Ff f Ff ff d. Genotypes: 25% FF; 50% Ff; 25% ff (1:2:1 genotypic ratio) Phenotypes: 75% freckles; 25% no freckles (3:1 phenotypic ratio) a. IBi x IAIA b and c.

IB i A A B I I I IA i IA IAIB IAi d. Genotypes: 50% IAIB; 50% IAi (1:1 genotypic ratio) Phenotypes: 50% AB; 50% A (1:1 phenotypic ratio)

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4.

5.

a. 1Ai x IBi b and c. i IA B A B B I I I I i i IAi ii d. Genotypes: 25% IAIB; 25% IAi, 25% IBi, 25% ii (1:1:1:1 genotypic ratio) Phenotypes: 25% AB; 25% A; 25% B; 25% O (1:1:1:1 genotypic ratio) a. XHXh x XHY b and c.

XH Xh H H H X X X XHXh H Y X Y XhY d. Genotypes: 25% XHXH; 25% XHXh; 25% XHY; 25% XhY (1:1:1:1 genotypic ratio) Phenotypes: 50% normal females; 25% normal males; 25% males with hemophilia (2:1:1 phenotypic ratio). Note that all females will have normal blood clotting.

Critical Thinking Application Answers 1. WwEe x WwEe 2-3.

WE We wE we WE WWEE WWEe WwEE WwEe We WWEe WWee WwEe Wwee wE WwEE WwEe wwEE wwEe we WwEe Wwee wwEe wwee 4.

Genotypes 1 WWEE; 2 WWEe; 2 WwEE; 4 WwEe; 1 WWee; 2 Wwee; 1 wwEE; 2 wwEe; 1 wwee (1:2:2:4:1:2:1:2:1 genotypic ratio) Phenotypes: 9 widow’s peak, free earlobe; 3 widow’s peak, attached earlobe; 3 straight hairline, free earlobe; 1 straight hairline, attached earlobe (9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio)

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LABORATORY EXERCISE 62 SKELETAL MUSCLE CONTRACTION Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. h 2. a 3. c 4. i 5. b

6.

7.

8.

9.

f g d e

PART B 1. Answers will vary.

2. Answers will vary.

Critical Thinking Application Answers Probably not; differences in electrolyte concentrations and various other factors would probably result in slightly different values.

PART C 1. (Attached myogram) 2. (Labels for myogram)

3.

Answers will vary.

PART D 1. (Attached myogram) 2. (Labels for myogram) 3. Answers will vary.

4. Answers will vary.

5. Answers will vary.

6. Answers will vary.

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LABORATORY EXERCISE 63 NERVE IMPULSE STIMULATION Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. Potassium 2. Sodium 3. Potassium 4. Resting potential 5. Depolarized 6. Summation 7. Repolarized

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

Repolarization Refractory period All-or-none Lipid Schwann cells Saltatory Faster

PART B 1. Answers will vary.

2. Answers will vary.

3. Answers will vary.

4. Answers will vary.

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LABORATORY EXERCISE 64 FACTORS AFFECTING THE CARDIAC CYCLE Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. Pump the blood to the lungs and body cells 2. S-A node 3. Vagus 4. Acetylcholine 5. Accelerator 6. Norepinephrine (noradrenalin) PART B 1. The atria contract as a unit followed by the contraction of the ventricle (single in frogs) 2. (experimental results) 3. (experimental results)

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Medulla oblongata Blood pressure (stretch) Sympathetic (accelerator) Increase Potassium (K+)

4.

The S-A node activity at room temperature is slower than the human resting heart rate. Colder temperatures slow the rate; warmer temperatures increase the rate.

PART C 1. The force (amplitude) of the contractions normally 2. increases as calcium ions help initiate muscle contractions. There is danger of prolonged contraction.

Normally the rate and force of contractions decrease by altering the usual polarized state of cardiac muscle cells. Excessive potassium ions may result in cardiac arrest.

Critical Thinking Application Answer This will allow the ionization to occur providing K+ and Ca++ when in a solution of water.

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APPENDIX 1: MATERIALS NEEDED This is a composite list of materials needed for the entire lab manual. The amount or number of each item will depend upon the laboratory size and the number of students working as a group. The laboratory manual lists the materials needed at the beginning of each lab, as some of these materials might not be needed if certain labs, demonstrations, or learning extensions are not attempted. Items indicated with an (*) are either demonstration, learning extension, or alternative materials.

Prepared Microscope Slides Three colored threads Mitosis (whitefish blastula) Human chromosomes from leukocytes in mitosis* Simple squamous epithelium (lung) Simple cuboidal epithelium (kidney) Simple columnar epithelium (small intestine) Pseudostratified (ciliated) columnar epithelium (trachea) Stratified squamous epithelium (esophagus) Transitional epithelium (urinary bladder) Loose (areolar) connective tissue Dense connective tissue Adipose tissue Elastic connective tissue Hyaline cartilage Elastic cartilage Fibrocartilage Bone tissue Blood smear (Wright’s stain) Skeletal muscle tissue (cross section and longitudinal section) Smooth muscle tissue Cardiac muscle tissue Nervous tissue (spinal cord smear and cerebellum) Human scalp or axilla Heavily pigmented human skin* Thick skin (plantar or palmar) Tattoo* Dorsal root ganglion (section) Neuroglial cells (astrocytes) Peripheral nerve (cross section and longitudinal section) Spinal cord cross section with spinal nerve roots Cochlea (section)* Tactile (Meissner’s) corpuscle* Lamellated (Pacinian) corpuscle* Olfactory epithelium* Taste buds*

Semicircular canal (cross section through ampulla)* Mammalian eye (sagittal section) Pituitary gland Thyroid gland Parathyroid gland Adrenal gland Pancreas (normal) Pancreas of diabetic* Pathological blood, such as eosinophilia, leukocytosis, leukopenia, and lymphocytosis* Artery cross section Vein cross section Lymph node section Human thymus section Human spleen section Parotid gland (salivary gland) Esophagus Stomach (fundus) Small intestine (jejunum) Large intestine Trachea (cross section) Lung, human (normal) Lung tissue (smoker)* Lung tissue (emphysema)* Kidney section Testis section Epididymis, cross section Penis, cross section Ovary section with maturing follicles Uterine tube, cross section Uterine wall section Uterine wall, early proliferative phase* Uterine wall, secretory phase* Uterine wall, early menstrual phase* Sea urchin embryos (early and late cleavage)

Apparatus/Supplies/Equipment Safety equipment (first aid kit, disposable latex and vinyl gloves, safety glasses, laboratory coats, and disinfectant solution) Compound light microscopes Micrometer scale on microscope* Oil immersion objective on compound microscope* Stereomicroscopes (dissecting microscopes) Lens paper Microscope slides Depression microscope slides Coverslips Transparent plastic millimeter ruler Medicine dropper Dissecting needle (needle probe) Toothpicks (flat) Single-edged razor blade* Petri dish Forceps Thistle tube Molasses (or Karo dark corn syrup)

Bone shears Glass rod Glass plate Bunsen burner Marking pen (washable) Forceps (fine points) Blunt metal probes Watch that ticks Tuning fork (128 or 256 cps) Sterile cotton Meterstick Audiometer* Ophtalmoscope* Snellen eye chart 3” x 5” cards Astigmatism chart Pen flashlight Ichikawa’s color plates or other colorblindness test Small fish net

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Dialysis tubing of 1 5/16-inch diameter or greater Ring stand and clamp Beakers (assorted sizes) Rubber bands Corn syrup (Karo)* Laboratory balance* Spoon* Test tubes Marking pen Test-tube rack Graduated cylinder (10 mL) Glass funnel Filter paper Hand magnifier Radiographs of skeletal structures and joints* Kymograph recording system Electronic stimulator (or inductorium) Physiograph Myograph and stand Heavy thread Rubber percussion hammer Anatomical charts of various systems Dissection instruments (scalpel, probe, scissors, and forceps) Dissecting trays Long knife Identification tags Large plastic bags Lead selector switch Paper towels Frog board Dissecting pins Thread Masking tape Ice Hot plate Clock with second hand or timer Sphygmomanometer Pulse pickup transducer or plethysmogram* Physiological recording appartus* Test-tube clamps Wax marker Porcelain test plate Pipets (1 mL and 10 mL) Pipet rubber bulbs Spirometer, handheld (dry portable) Disposable mouthpieces for the spirometer Paper bags, small Flasks* PTC paper

Laboratory thermometer Cotton swabs (sterile; disposable) Paper cups (small) Swivel chair Bright light Sterile disposable blood lancets* Slide staining rack and tray* Heparinized microhematocrit capillary tube* Sealing clay (or Critocaps)* Microhematocrit centrifuge* Microhematocrit reader* Hemoglobinometer* Hemolysis applicator* Hemocytometer* Unopette system (Becton Dickinson) for counting red blood cells* (see Appendix 2 for a supplier of Unopette systems) Unopette system (Becton Dickenson) for counting white blood cells* (see Appendix 2 for a supplier of Unopette systems) Hand counter (tally)* ABO blood-typing kit Anti-D serum* Slide warming box (Rh blood-typing box or view box)* Electrocardiograph (or other instrument for recording an ECG) Stethoscope Cot or table Electrode cream (paste) Plate electrodes and cables Glass tubing* Rubber tubing* Rubber stoppers, two-hole* Pneumograph* Disposable urine-collecting container Urinometer cylinder Urinometer hydrometer pH test paper Reagent strips (individual or combination) to test for the presence of glucose, protein, ketones, bilirubin, and hemoglobin/occult blood in the urine Centrifuge Centrifuge tubes Normal and abnormal simulated urine specimens* Paper cups Vaseline* Pennies (or other coins) Dice Syringe for U-100 insulin

Models/Skeletons Dissectible human torso model with musculature Animal cell Animal mitosis Human long bone, sectioned longitudinally Articulated human skeleton Disarticulated human skull (Beauchene) Human skull, sagittal section Fetal skull* Disarticulated human skeleton Vertebrae (cervical, thoracic, and lumbar examples) Male and female pelves* Synovial joints (shoulder, elbow, hip, and knee) Skeletal muscle fiber model Muscular model of the upper limb Muscular model of the lower limb

Neuron Spinal cord Dissectible human brain Dissectible ear Dissectible eye Dissectible human heart Teeth, sectioned Tooth model, sectioned Larynx model Thoracic organs model Kidney model Model of male reproductive system Model of female reproductive system Lung function model* Models of human embryos 76

Muscular models of male and female pelves

Cat skeleton*

Preserved Materials Spinal cord with meninges intact* Human brain Sheep brains Beef or sheep eyes Sheep or other mammalian hearts

Pig or sheep kidneys Animal lung with trachea* Cats Mammalian embryos*

Living Specimens/Fresh Material Amoeba culture* Paramecium culture* Plant materials such as leaves, soft stems, fruits, and vegetables* Uncoagulated animal blood Fresh chicken bones (radius and ulna from wings)* Fresh chicken eggs* Fish (small goldfish, guppy, or other)

Fresh animal bones, sectioned longitudinally and transversely Fresh round beefsteak* Fresh animal joint (knee joint preferred)* Frog Sea urchin egg and sperm suspensions (these can be obtained by using Sea Urchin Embryology Kits sold

by Carolina Biological Supply Company)

Chemicals, Reagents, and Biologicals (This includes any ingredients needed to mix solutions described in Appendix 1 of the laboratory manual.)

Distilled water Clear carbonated soft drink Methylene blue (dilute) Bacterial amylase powder (store in a freezer) Iodine-potassium-iodide (IKI) stain (see Appendix 2 for a supplier of amylase that is free Potassium permanganate crystals of sugar) 0.9% NaCl (aqueous solution) Glucose 3% NaCl (aqueous solution) Sodium chloride Powdered charcoal (or ground pepper) Cornstarch 1% glucose solution Potassium iodide 10% glucose solution Iodine 1% starch solution 95% ethyl alcohol 10% starch solution Potassium hydroxide 1% HCl solution Sodium bicarbonate 1% NaCl solution Potassium chloride 2% Novocain solution (procaine hydrochloride)* Calcium chloride Benedict’s solution Stopper bottles of cinnamon, sage, garlic powder, oil of Baking soda clove, oil of wintergreen, and perfume Biuret reagent 5% sucrose solution Vinegar* 5% NaCl solution Wright’s stain* 1% acetic acid or lemon juice 70% alcohol 0.5% quinine sulfate solution or 0.1% Epsom salt solution Frog Ringer’s solution Epinephrine, 1:10,000 solution 0.5% amylase solution (must be free of sugar) Acetylcholine, 1:10,000 solution 0.5% starch solution Caffeine, 0.2% solution Sedi-stain Calcium hydroxide solution (limewater)* Insulin (regular U-100) (HumulinR in 10 mL vial—store in refrigerator)

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APPENDIX 2: LABORATORY SUPPLIERS This list is not complete, but it does contain well-established names recognized by most anatomy and physiology instructors.

Additional suppliers often advertise in scientific journals or have booths at scientific association meetings. Some of these companies also have regional offices.

Bio Corporation 3911 Nevada Street Alexandria, MN 56308 www.biologyproducts.com Carolina Biological Supply Company 2700 York Road Burlington, NC 27215 www.carolina.com Connecticut Valley Biological Supply Co. 82 Valley Road; P.O. Box 326 Southampton, MA 01073 www.ctvalleybio.com Cynmar Corporation 21709 Route 4 North P.O. Box 530 Carlinville, IL 62626 www.cynmar.com Fisher Scientific U.S. Headquarters 2000 Park Lane Pittsburgh, PA 15275 www.fisheredu.com (Fisher Scientific is a supplier of Becton Dickenson Uopette blood counting systems. For cases of 200, the RBC Unopette system catalog number is 13-680-23; the WBC Unopette system catalog number is 13-680-1.)

Flinn Scientific P.O. Box 219 Batavia, IL 60510 www.flinnsci.com Frey Scientific 100 Paragon Pkwy.

Mansfield, OH 44903 www.freyscientific.com Nasco, Inc. 901 Janesville Ave. Fort Atkinson, WI 53538 www.enasco.com Nebraska Scientific 3823 Leavenworth St. Omaha, NE 68105 www.nebraskascientific.com Phipps and Bird/Intelitool P.O. Box 7475 Richmond, VA 23221 www.phippsbird.com Sargent-Welch Scientific Company P.O. Box 4130 Buffalo, NY 14217 www.sargentwelch.com

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Science Kit and Boreal Laboratories 777 East Park Drive P.O. Box 5003 Tonawanda, NY 14150 www.sciencekit.com The Scope Schoppe 113 Read St., P.O. Box 1208 Elburn, IL 60119 www.scopeshoppe.com Ward’s Natural Science 5100 West Henrietta Road P.O. Box 92912 Rochester, NY 14692 www.wardsci.com (Ward’s Natural Science is a supplier of the enzyme amylase that is free of sugar. The catalog number is 944W4602.)

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APPENDIX 3

Student Safety Rules Agreement I have read all of the “Laboratory Safety Guidelines” inside the front cover of the laboratory manual. I agree to follow these guidelines, and any additional safety guidelines included in the individual labs, to insure my own personal safety as well as the safety of all persons in the laboratory. I will inform my instructor of any safety violations and any health conditions changes that might impact the safety of anyone in the laboratory. I have read, understood, and agree to the safety rules.

Signature

Date

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APPENDIX 4

Student Informed Consent Form My participation in a particular lab that has any safety or privacy concerns is voluntary; I may choose not to participate in that specific lab, and be required to do an alternative project. The potential risks have been included in the laboratory manual and/or explained to me by my instructor. My individual personal data will be confidential although a summary of class results may be included in a review of the laboratory exercise. I have no known health condition that would prohibit me from participating in this laboratory exercise.

Signature

Date

81