Educational Psychology 7th
Edition
John W. Santrock
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Educational Psychology
SEVENTH EDITION
page i
John W. Santrock
University ofTexas at Dallas
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Published by McGraw Hill LLC, 1325 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10121.
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LWI 24 23 22 21 20
ISBN 978-1-260-57130-1
MHID 1-260-57130-0
Cover Image: PaulBradbur/age footstock
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All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page.
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mheducation.com/highered
For the educators in my family: Mywife, Mary Jo, a teacher; my father, John F . Santrock, Jr., a teacher, principal, andsuperintendentof schools; my mother, RuthSmith Santrock, an administrative assistant; mygrandmother, Della Karnes Santrock, who taught allgrades in a one-room school; andmygrandfather, John F . Santrock, Sr., aprincipal.
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About the Author
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John Santrock with his grandchildren Luke, Alex, and Jordan Courtesy of Dr. John Santrock
John Santrock received his Ph.D. from the University of Minnesota. He taught at the University of Charleston and the
University of Georgia before joining the Program in Psychology at the University of Texas at Dallas, where he currently teaches a number of undergraduate courses and was recently given the University’s Effective Teaching Award. In 2010, he created the UT-Dallas Santrock undergraduate scholarship, an annual award that is given to outstanding undergraduate students majoring in developmental psychology to enable them to attend research conventions.
John has been a member of the editorial boards of Child Development and DevelopmentalPsychology. His research on father custody is widely cited and used in expert witness testimony to promote flexibility and alternative considerations in custody disputes. John also has authored these exceptional McGraw-Hill texts: Children (13th edition), Adolescence (16th edition), ATopicalApproachto Life-Span Development (8th edition), and Essentials ofLife-Span Development (5th edition).
For many years, John was involved in tennis as a player, teaching professional, and coach of professional tennis players. At the University of Miami (FL), the tennis team on which he played still holds the NCAA Division I record for most consecutive wins (137) in any sport. John’s wife, Mary Jo, has a master’s degree in special education and has worked as a teacher and a Realtor. He has two daughters—Tracy, who worked for a number of years as a technology marketing specialist, and Jennifer, who has been a medical sales specialist. However, recently both have followed in their mother’s footsteps and are now Realtors. He has one granddaughter, Jordan, age 24, who works for the accounting firm Ernst & Young, and two grandsons, Alex, age 11, and Luke, age 10. In the last two decades, John also has spent time painting expressionist art.
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CHAPTER 1 Educational Psychology: A Tool for Effective Teaching 1 CHAPTER 2 Cognitive and Language Development 28 CHAPTER 3 Social Contexts and Socioemotional Development 70 CHAPTER 4 Individual Variations 113 CHAPTER 5 Sociocultural Diversity 144 CHAPTER 6 Learners Who Are Exceptional 184 CHAPTER 7 Behavioral and Social Cognitive Approaches 219 CHAPTER 8 The Information-Processing Approach 255 CHAPTER 9 Complex Cognitive Processes 295 CHAPTER 10 Social Constructivist Approaches 334 CHAPTER 11 Learning and Cognition in the Content Areas 356 CHAPTER 12 Planning, Instruction, and Technology 392 CHAPTER 13 Motivation, Teaching, and Learning 427
Breif Contents
CHAPTER 14 Managing the Classroom 467 CHAPTER 15 Standardized Tests and Teaching 503 CHAPTER 16 Classroom Assessment and Grading 536
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xx CHAPTER 1 Educational Psychology: A Tool for Effective Teaching 1 Jamie Grill/Getty Images Exploring Educational Psychology 2 Historical Background 2 Teaching: Art and Science 4 Effective Teaching 6
Preface
Professional Knowledge and Skills 6 Commitment, Motivation, and Caring 11 SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 The Best and Worst Characteristics of MyTeachers 13 Research In Educational Psychology 15 Why Research Is Important 15 Research Methods 16 Program Evaluation Research, Action Research, and the Teacher-As-Researcher 21 Quantitative And Qualitative Research 22 CONNECTING WITH THE CLASSROOM: CRACK THE CASE The Classroom Decision 24 Connecting withLearning: ReachYour Learning Goals 25 Key Terms 27 Portfolio Activities 27 CHAPTER 2 Cognitive and Language Development 28
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Ariel Skelley/Blend Images LLC An Overview of Child Development 29 Exploring What Development Is 29 Processes and Periods 29 Developmental Issues 31 Development and Education 33 Cognitive Development 35 The Brain 35 Piaget’s Theory 40 Vygotsky’s Theory 50 SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 Applying Piaget and Vygotsky in My Classroom 54 Language Development 58 What Is Language? 58 Biological and Environmental Influences 59 How Language Develops 59 CONNECTING WITH THE CLASSROOM: CRACK THE CASE The BookReport 66 Connecting withLearning: ReachYour Learning Goals 66 Key Terms 69 Portfolio Activities 69 CHAPTER 3
Social Contexts and Socioemotional Development 70 Omgimages/iStockphoto/Getty Images Contemporary Theories 71 Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory 71 Erikson’s Life-Span Development Theory 73 Social Contexts of Development 77 Families 77 Peers 82 Schools 85 Socioemotional Development 92 The Self and Identity 92 SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 Where Are You Now? Exploring Your Identity 96 Moral Development 97 Emotional Development 104 CONNECTING WITH THE CLASSROOM: CRACK THE CASE The Fight 108
Connecting withLearning: ReachYour Learning Goals 109 Key Terms 111 Portfolio Activities 112 CHAPTER 4 Individual Variations 113 Science Photo Library/Alamy Stock Photo Intelligence 114 What Is Intelligence? 114 Intelligence Tests 115 Theories of Multiple Intelligences 117 SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 Evaluating Myself on Gardner’s Eight Types ofIntelligence 122 The Neuroscience of Intelligence 124 Controversies And Issues In Intelligence 125 Learning and Thinking Styles 132 Impulsive/Reflective Styles 132 Deep/Surface Styles 133
page viii Optimistic/Pessimistic Styles 134 Criticisms of Learning and Thinking Styles 134 Personality and Temperament 136 Personality 136 Temperament 137 CONNECTING WITH THE CLASSROOM: CRACK THE CASE Workshops 140 Connecting withLearning: ReachYour Learning Goals 141 Key Terms 143 Portfolio Activities 143 CHAPTER 5 Sociocultural Diversity 144 Ariel Skelley/Blend Images/Getty Images Culture and Ethnicity 145
Culture 146 Socioeconomic Status 147 Ethnicity 151 Second-Language Learning and Bilingual Education 154 Multicultural Education 158 Empowering Students 160 Culturally Relevant Teaching 161 Issues-Centered Education 162 Improving Relationships Among Children from Different Ethnic Groups 162 Gender 168 Exploring Gender Views 168 Gender Stereotyping, Similarities, and Differences 169 Gender Controversy 172 Gender-Role Classification 172 Gender in Context 173 SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 What Gender-Role Orientation Will I PresenttoMyStudents? 174 Eliminating Gender Bias 175 CONNECTING WITH THE CLASSROOM: CRACK THE CASE These Boys 180 Connecting withLearning: ReachYour Learning Goals 180 Key Terms 182 Portfolio Activities 183 CHAPTER 6 Learners Who Are Exceptional 184
Faithhoca/Getty Images Children with Disabilities 185 Learning Disabilities 186 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 189 Intellectual Disability 193 Physical Disorders 196 Sensory Disorders 196 Speech and Language Disorders 197 Autism Spectrum Disorders 198 Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 199 SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 Evaluating My Experiences with People Who Have Various Disabilities andDisorders 201 Educational Issues Involving Children with Disabilities 204 Legal Aspects 204 Technology 207
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Children Who Are Gifted 208 Characteristics 208 Nature/Nurture And Domain-Specific Giftedness 209 Educating Children Who Are Gifted 210 CONNECTING WITH THE CLASSROOM: CRACK THE CASE Now What? 214 Connecting withLearning: ReachYour Learning Goals 215 Key Terms 218 Portfolio Activities 218 CHAPTER 7 Behavioral and Social Cognitive Approaches 219 Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock What Is Learning? 220 What Learning Is and Is Not 220 Approaches to Learning 221
page x Behavioral Approaches to Learning 222 Classical Conditioning 223 Operant Conditioning 225 Applied Behavior Analysis in Education 228 What Is Applied Behavior Analysis? 228 Increasing Desirable Behaviors 228 Decreasing Undesirable Behaviors 231 Evaluating Operant Conditioning And Applied Behavior Analysis 235 Social Cognitive Approaches to Learning 237 Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory 237 Observational Learning 238 SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 Models and Mentors in My Life and My Students’Lives 241 Cognitive-Behavioral Approaches and Self-Regulation 242 SELF-ASSESSMENT 2 Self-Monitoring 246 Evaluating the Social Cognitive Approaches 249 CONNECTING WITH THE CLASSROOM: CRACK THE CASE Consequences 250 Connecting withLearning: ReachYour Learning Goals 251 Key Terms 253 Portfolio Activities 254 CHAPTER 8 The Information-Processing Approach 255
Skelley/Blend Images LLC The Nature of the Information-Processing Approach 256 The Information-Processing Approach 256 Cognitive Resources: Capacity and Speed of Processing Information 257 Mechanisms Of Change 258 Attention 259 What Is Attention? 259 Developmental Changes 260 Memory 264 What Is Memory? 264 Encoding 264 Storage 267 Retrieval And Forgetting 272 Expertise 277 Expertise And Learning 277 SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 How Effective AreMyMemory andStudy Strategies? 282
Ariel
Acquiring Expertise 283 Expertise and Teaching 283 Metacognition 285 Developmental Changes 285 The Good Information-Processing Model 287 Strategies and Metacognitive Regulation 288 CONNECTING WITH THE CLASSROOM: CRACK THE CASE The Test 291 Connecting withLearning: ReachYour Learning Goals 291 Key Terms 293 Portfolio Activities 294 CHAPTER 9 Complex Cognitive Processes 295 Rachel Frank/Fancy/Corbis/Glow Images Conceptual Understanding 296 What Are Concepts? 296
page xi Promoting Concept Formation 297 Thinking 302 What Is Thinking? 302 Executive Function 302 Reasoning 304 Critical Thinking 305 Decision Making 310 Creative Thinking 313 SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 How Good Am I at Thinking Creatively? 314 Problem Solving 319 Steps in Problem Solving 319 Obstacles to Solving Problems 321 Developmental Changes 321 Problem-Based Learning and Project-Based Learning 322 SELF-ASSESSMENT 2 How Effective Are My Thinking and Problem-Solving Strategies? 324 Transfer 326 What Is Transfer 326 Types of Transfer 326 CONNECTING WITH THE CLASSROOM: CRACK THE CASE The Statistics Test 330 Connecting withLearning: ReachYour Learning Goals 331 Key Terms 333
Portfolio Activities 333 CHAPTER 10 Social Constructivist Approaches 334 Kali Nine LLC/iStock/Getty Images Social Constructivist Approaches to Teaching 335 Social Constructivism in the Broader Constructivist Context 335 Situated Cognition 337 Teachers and Peers as Joint Contributors to Students’ Learning 338 Scaffolding 338 Cognitive Apprenticeship 338 Tutoring 338 Cooperative Learning 342 Structuring Small-Group Work 348 Composing The Group 348
Team-Building Skills 349 Structuring Small-Group Interaction 349 SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 Evaluating My Social Constructivist Experiences 351 CONNECTING WITH THE CLASSROOM: CRACK THE CASE The SocialConstructivistClassroom 353 Connecting withLearning: ReachYour Learning Goals 353 Key Terms 355 Portfolio Activities 355 CHAPTER 11 Learning and Cognition in the Content Areas 356 Hill Street Studios/Blend Images/Getty Images Expert Knowledge and Pedagogical Content Knowledge 357 Reading 358
page xii A Developmental Model of Reading 359 Approaches to Reading 360 Cognitive Approaches 361 Social Constructivist Approaches 362 Writing 365 Developmental Changes 366 Cognitive Approaches 367 Social Constructivist Approaches 368 SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 Evaluating My Reading and Writing Experiences 370 Mathematics 372 Developmental Changes 373 Controversy in Math Education 374 Cognitive Processes 374 Some Constructivist Principles 375 Technology and Math Instruction 376 Science 379 Science Education 379 Constructivist Teaching Strategies 380 Social Studies 382 What Is Social Studies? 382 Constructivist Approaches 384 Technology Resources 385 CONNECTING WITH THE CLASSROOM: CRACK THE CASE The ConstructivistMathCurriculum 387
Connecting withLearning: ReachYour Learning Goals 388 Key Terms 391 Portfolio Activities 391 CHAPTER 12 Planning, Instruction, and Technology 392 LWA/Dann Tardif/Blend Images/Corbis Planning 393 Instructional Planning 393 Time Frames and Planning 394 Teacher-Centered Lesson Planning and Instruction 397 Teacher-Centered Lesson Planning 397 Direct Instruction 399 Teacher-Centered Instructional Strategies 401 Evaluating Teacher-Centered Instruction 406
page xiii Learner-Centered Lesson Planning and Instruction 407 Learner-Centered Principles 407 Some Learner-Centered Instructional Strategies 408 Evaluating Learner-Centered Strategies 410 Technology and Education 414 The Technology Revolution and the Internet 414 Standards for Technology-Literate Students 416 Teaching, Learning, and Technology 417 SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 Evaluating My Technology Skills and Attitudes 421 CONNECTING WITH THE CLASSROOM: CRACK THE CASE The Big Debate 423 Connecting withLearning: ReachYour Learning Goals 424 Key Terms 426 Portfolio Activities 426 CHAPTER 13 Motivation, Teaching, and Learning 427
Wavebreakmedia/Shutterstock Exploring Motivation 428 What Is Motivation? 429 Perspectives on Motivation 429 Achievement Processes 432 Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation 432 Attribution 437 Mastery Motivation And Mindset 438 Self-Efficacy 441 Goal Setting, Planning, And Self-Monitoring 442 Expectations 443 Delay of Gratification 444 Values and Purpose 445 Motivation, Relationships, and Sociocultural Contexts 449 Social Motives 449 Social Relationships 449 Sociocultural Contexts 452 Exploring Achievement Difficulties 454
Students Who Are Low Achieving and Have Low Expectations for Success 454 Students Who Protect Their Self-Worth By Avoiding Failure 455 Students Who Procrastinate 456 Students Who are Perfectionists 457 Students With High Anxiety 457 Students Who are Uninterested or Alienated 458 SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 EvaluatingMyMotivation 461 CONNECTING WITH THE CLASSROOM: CRACK THE CASE The Reading Incentive Program 462 Connecting withLearning: ReachYour Learning Goals 462 Key Terms 466 Portfolio Activities 466 CHAPTER 14 Managing the Classroom 467 Ariel Skelley/Blend Images LLC
Why Classrooms Need to be Managed Effectively 468 Management Issues in Elementary and Secondary School Classrooms 469 The Crowded, Complex, and Potentially Chaotic Classroom 470 Getting off to the Right Start 471 Emphasizing Instruction and a Positive Classroom Climate 472 Management Goals and Strategies 474 Designing the Physical Environment of the Classroom 476 Principles of Classroom Arrangement 476 Arrangement Style 477 Creating a Positive Environment for Learning 479 General Strategies 480 Creating, Teaching, and Maintaining Rules and Procedures 480 Getting Students to Cooperate 483 Classroom Management and Diversity 484 Being a Good Communicator 486 Speaking Skills 486 Listening Skills 488 Nonverbal Communication 489 SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 Evaluating My Communication Skills 490
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Dealing with Problem Behaviors 492 Management Strategies 492 Dealing with Aggression 495 CONNECTING WITH THE CLASSROOM: CRACK THE CASE The Chatty Student 499 Connecting withLearning: ReachYour Learning Goals 500 Key Terms 502 Portfolio Activities 502 CHAPTER 15 Standardized Tests and Teaching 503 Ocean/Comstock Images/Corbis The Nature of Standardized Tests 504 Standardized Tests and Their Purposes 504 Criteria for Evaluating Standardized Tests 505 Aptitude and Achievement Tests 509 Comparing Aptitude and Achievement Tests 509
page xv Types of Standardized Achievement Tests 510 High-Stakes State Standards-Based Tests 510 Standardized Tests of Teacher Candidates 517
Teacher’s Roles 520 Preparing Students to Take Standardized Tests 520 Understanding And Interpreting Test Results 521 SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 EvaluatingMy Knowledge ofandSkills in Computing Measures ofCentralTendency andVariability 525 Using Standardized Test Scores to Plan and Improve Instruction 527 Issues in Standardized Tests 529 Standardized Tests, Alternative Assessments, and High-Stakes Testing 530 Diversity And Standardized Testing 530 CONNECTING WITH THE CLASSROOM: CRACK THE CASE The StandardizedTest Pressure 531 Connecting withLearning: ReachYour Learning Goals 532 Key Terms 535 Portfolio Activities 535 CHAPTER 16 Classroom Assessment and Grading 536
The
FatCamera/E+/Getty Images The Classroom as an Assessment Context 537 Assessment as an Integral Part of Teaching 537 Making Assessment Compatible with Contemporary Views of Learning and Motivation 540 Creating Clear, Appropriate Learning Targets 541 Establishing High-Quality Assessments 542 Current Trends 544 Traditional Tests 547 Selected-Response Items 547 Constructed-Response Items 549 Alternative Assessments 552 Trends in Alternative Assessment 552 Performance Assessment 553 Portfolio Assessment 558 SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 Planning My Classroom Assessment Practices 562 Grading and Reporting Performance 563
The Purposes of Grading 563
The Components of a Grading System 564
Reporting Students’ Progress and Grades to Parents 566
Some Issues in Grading 566
CONNECTING WITH THE CLASSROOM: CRACK THE CASE
The Case ofthe Project 569
Glossary
570
572
Activities 572
Connecting withLearning: ReachYour Learning Goals
Key Terms
Portfolio
G-1
Practice Answer Key P-1
Praxis™
InTASC I-1
References R-1
I-1
Name Index
Subject Index I-10