Buildings as an Assembly of 3D Printed Components

BUILDINGS AS AN ASSEMBLY OF 3D PRINTED COMPONENTS STEPHEN LAUER SPRING - SUMMER 2016

Buildings as an Assembly of 3D Printed Components

by Stephen Lauer (Degrees Earned) B.S., Southern Illinois University, 2015

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Masters of Architecture.

Department of Architecture in the Graduate School Southern Illinois University Carbondale August 2016

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER

PAGE

ABSTRACT…….……..…..……….....………....…....…...i LIST OF FIGURES…….………..….…..……...…....…...iii

CHAPTERS CHAPTER 1 – Introduction………………………...…….1 CHAPTER 2 – Case Studies…………………….………..6 CHAPTER 3 – Types of 3D Printers……….……………16 CHAPTER 4 – A System of Systems……….…………..24 CHAPTER 5 – Structural Design………..….…….……..29 CHAPTER 6 – Building Design….……....…..….….…...48 CHAPTER 7 – Building Details…..…..….….......…..…..77 CHAPTER 8 – Conclusion.….………......….…..….…...97 REFERENCES or BIBLIOGRAPHY……..……..……..99 LIST of FIGURES REFERENCES……….….………..101 APPENDICES Appendix A…….……..…..……….....………....….......102 Appendix B…….……..…..……….....………....….......103 Appendix C…….……..…..……….....………....….......104 Appendix D…….……..…..……….....………....….......105 VITA…….……..…..……….....………....…..................106

ABSTRACT In the last decade, 3D printing has become an integral part of many industries. One of those industries is the construction industry in which companies are beginning utilize methods to print and build complete structures using 3D printers. These companies are using different techniques in order to print structures, such as printing off-site and then shipping the printed parts in sections to the site or bringing a large scale printer to the construction site to print the structure in place. According to National Building Specification (NBS) website, either of these options is advantageous over the customary construction process.1 One advantage NBS mentions is that printers allow for faster and more accurate construction, this means that errors rarely arise from construction but instead from the digital model being incorrect or failure in the material or equipment. Printed construction also reduces labor costs because of the minimal amount of human effort required to complete the construction. The NBS states another advantage is reduced waste generated during the construction process as each component is printed individually. A final advantage that the NBS states is a reduced carbon footprint which is due to less 1

Husseini, A. (2014, November 1). 3D printing and the construction industry. Retrieved October 15, 2015, from http://www.thenbs.com/topics/constructionproducts/articles/3dprinting-and-the-construction-industry.asp

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machinery being needed and, depending on the type of material used, less carbon produced through the manufacturing process.2 The adaptation of 3D printing will change how buildings are constructed and the speed at which they are constructed. According to the developer of Contour Crafting, Behrokh Khoshnevis, our conventional construction practices are inefficient and outdated.3 Contour Crafting is the additive process of printing in construction that automatically builds structures, components, modules, etc.4 Khoshnevis also claims that they are slow, labor intensive, and very dangerous; by switching to 3D printed buildings, the construction process will progress at a much quicker pace, require less labor, and eliminate some danger on construction sites.5 These methods alleviate the problems by first having all the pieces either fabricated on site by a printer or fabricated offsite and then shipped at once to increase the 2

Husseini, A. (2014, November 1). 3D printing and the construction industry. Retrieved October 15, 2015, from http://www.thenbs.com/topics/constructionproducts/articles/3dprinting-and-the-construction-industry.asp 3 Contour Crafting: Automated Construction: Behrokh Khoshnevis at TEDxOjai. (n.d.). Retrieved August 30, 2015, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JdbJP8Gxqog 4 Contour Crafting - CC. (n.d.). Retrieved July 07, 2016, from http://www.contourcrafting.org/ 5 Contour Crafting: Automated Construction: Behrokh Khoshnevis at TEDxOjai. (n.d.). Retrieved August 30, 2015, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JdbJP8Gxqog

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speed the building is erected. Offsite fabrication will speed up the process because the components can be printed ahead of schedule or in a factory by multiple printers. Printed buildings require fewer laborers to build the structure because the printed pieces would need to be assembled as compared to customary construction in which studs are erected, sheathed, and finally finishes are added. Printed buildings have the ability to have their finishes printed onto them, which eliminates the time it takes to add these finishes in customary construction methods.

This thesis proposes a series of modules that will be 3D printed and assembled as a single family residence. By taking advantage of this new technology and applying it to the construction industry, a new method of construction arises. Using printers to build modules, components, tools, connectors, etc can change how the industry functions and move it to a whole new era.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION This thesis proposes a series of modules that will be 3D printed and assembled as a single family residence. The practice of 3D printing buildings is growing and expanding throughout the world. Printing buildings is a relatively new method of construction and is showing good results up to this point. By switching to this new and developing construction type, it will help in fixing many issues that have arisen throughout the years with our current methods such as, budgeting, speed, sustainability, and other issues.

Prefabricating structures or components of structures helps with all of these different problems and will change the construction and architectural fields.

Current construction methods have been in use for decades and are outdated in today’s world. Shifting to printing as a primary means of fabrication will speed up construction for a number of reasons. First, it will lower the number of laborers needed to construct a house. Currently 3D printed buildings are printed in their entirety on site and laborers are only needed to install the interior finishes, if nonprintable finishes are desired, as well as any furniture and appliances. Minimizing the time laborers are needed not only lowers cost of labor, but also lowers the cost of 1

materials because printed walls do not have multiple layers, such as exterior finish, sheathing, studs, insulation, and interior finish. Song et. al. states that 3D printed buildings with interlocking parts also give a building cost-effective maintenance because new parts and pieces can be printed and shipped with relative ease.6 The Rocky Mountain Institute did research and produced the chart, Figure 1.00, which shows that the repair and maintenance of nearly all commercial and government buildings is between $1.50 and $2.25 per square foot.7 Figure 1.00 shows that companies and governments have a large amount of money tied up in the maintenance of their buildings.

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Song, P., Fu, Z., Liu, L., & Fu, C. W. (2015). Printing 3D objects with interlocking parts. Computer Aided Geometric Design.

7 Category expenses by building type for commercial sector . (2015).

Retrieved December 13, 2015, from http://www.rmi.org/RFGraphcommercial_building_category_expenses.

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Figure 1.00 – Rocky Mountain Institute repair and maintenance costs

Currently, the only method utilized to print buildings is additive printing; other methods of printing on a small scale are discussed later on in Chapter 3. Additive printing is when a printer lays one layer of material at a time as it extrudes material to print the building. This method will still require laborers to come in and install the final interior finishes, if something other than what is printable is desired, but many features, such as counters, sinks, systems, etc., could potentially be incorporated in the design and be integrated within the printing process. On site printing is very similar to modular or other prefabrication construction methods as it includes an assembly process on site instead of building from the ground up as in normal methods. The time saved by assembling prefabricated pieces allows clients to 3

move into their building and start seeing a return on their investment sooner. Workers only require a minimal amount of tools and equipment to finish out the structures.

A major issue of current construction methods is the health risks brought on by climbing ladders or scaffolding.

Printing buildings allows for a crew to come in and either set prefabricated components in place or set up a printer to print the building onsite, the latter of which requires just a few people to make sure the printer is operating correctly. By minimizing labor, it will greatly lower the health and safety risks of the construction workers and will also allow construction companies to have lower health insurance policies as workers will not be in as dangerous of situations.

Design methods when using 3D printers as the construction process allow for rapid prototyping of small scale buildings of which the client can approve or disapprove. Once the client approves the design then the architect goes on to do all the drawings and plans for it to be built. By using technology to design buildings, it allows architects to come up with many different iterations of the same project to find the best design for the client.8 In terms of printing buildings, using a computer to design and then 8

Carpo, M. (2011). The alphabet and the algorithm. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.

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print many prototypes allows for the architect and client to see what iterations are preferred. By switching to prefabricated pieces or structures designers re-use details for drawings thus making design and prototyping much more streamlined and efficient. Rapid prototyping allows for the quick testing of ideas without requiring laborers to erect a structure and then go back and fix something that does not work well. Rapid prototyping can also benefit budgeting concerns in that it can alleviate construction costs by solving issues in the prototyping phases. Design ideas can be tested on small scales and in multiple iterations until the correct design is chosen which may allow for fewer issues on site when assembling printed components. Especially when considering 3D printed construction, a building just needs to be modeled and then taken to a printer and have the “play� button pressed.

Tools and equipment parts can even be printed using 3D printers which would also greatly benefit construction companies in having to buy less tools and parts but instead 3D print them themselves. Architects will see less time spent on drawings and each project’s construction phase if buildings are erected quicker and with less hassle. Current limitations to solving these problems are that the only 3D printers large enough to print full buildings or components to prefabricate buildings are additive printers. Each of these 5

methods must be then scaled up to be able to be used on the large scale and see if it is a viable option for construction.

Newer methods, such as continuous liquid interface printing (CLIP), that are not on the large scale are also much faster at printing and produce much stronger prints. CLIP printers use a UV light to project the model on the underside of the bed of resin which slowly hardens the resin into the model.9 The newer methods will be the best way to push the construction industry forward once they are built at an industrial scale and not just the small scale at which they all started.

Printing building components or modules is a new way to design and construct structures. Printers allow for new forms to be created and have the possibility to change the construction industry for the better. Using printers, a whole new system of assembly and connections can be created to better our current methods. By using printers, it will require a new way of designing that takes the abilities of 3D printers into consideration. Redefining what things are and how they function or work together is all a part of the process of creating a new method of design and construction. The goal of this thesis is to design a single family residence that would be 3D printed and assembled. Moving forward, many iterations of wall structure, forms, details, opening 9

Carbon. (n.d.). Retrieved July 06, 2016, from http://carbon3d.com/clipprocess

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mechanisms, doors, and many other systems were designed.

A single family residence was chosen to be designed as it is a basic structure that requires many of the major systems in all buildings.

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CHAPTER 2 CASE STUDIES A number of buildings have been designed and built via many different prefabrication methods. Each of these buildings uses methods that were used in the design process for this thesis. Not all of these buildings have been 3D printed, but their prefabrication and construction methods still have a large impact on how a set of components can be designed and assembled.

THE CANAL HOUSE The Canal House, currently being designed and built in Amsterdam by DUS Architects, is completely 3D printed.

They have designed the house to be printed in thirteen separate pieces and then assembled. Figure 2.00 was provided by DUS Architects and breaks down the design into its basic components. Each piece is a room of the house and when put together it becomes a fully functional house. The house has the following rooms in it: entry space (1), toilet (2), study (3), living room (4), dining room (5), kitchen (6), office (7), meeting (8), bedroom (9), mini kitchen (10), guest bedroom (11), bathroom (12), and a small “garden� room

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(13).10 This tall and slender design is programmed and designed this way because the buildings are a part of a larger master plan to include multiple residences along the canal to house as many people as possible. Each space is also much smaller than the typical American dwelling and also fits a lot of program into a relatively small amount of space.

Currently, the canal house is a research design project; DUS is using each programmed space to test out new methods and materials. They currently do not have an inhabited house but instead are using each new prototype as a “museum� of their work to show off their techniques. The issue with printing a building in this way (printing each room as a piece) is that it restricts the sizes of each room and thus limiting the overall size of the building but it does work very well for smaller homes and structures. The Canal House has inspired this thesis by taking modular design and rethinking how it can be done using 3D printers. Creating modules using printers allows for a wide possibility of outcomes and allows for smaller prototypes to be created throughout the design process.

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Backer, T. (2015, September 23). DUS Architects Canal House [Email interview].

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Figure 2.00 – DUS Architects Design Components Breakdown

OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LIBRARY The next case study researched was the Oak Ridge National Library designed by Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill (SOM) in Chicago, Illinois. The Additive Manufacturing Integrated Energy (AMIE) demonstration “project changes the way we think about generating, storing, and using electrical power. AMIE uses an integrated energy system that shares energy between a building and a vehicle. And, utilizing advanced manufacturing and rapid innovation, it

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only took one year from concept to launch�.11 The AMIE project that SOM is working on is a 3D printed building that harnesses power for the building and a 3D printed car. SOM raises a point that buildings that are printed can be printed anywhere without the need to use indigenous resources for the construction. Another factor in printing buildings SOM had to decide what the size of the printer bed would be in order to print the overall building. Printer bed sizes can play a factor into how a building is designed and how many pieces that will be needed to assemble it. The direction that the pieces are printed is something else that needs to be considered because the material behaves differently in different axes.

Printing large portions of a building is something that could be considered for this project but the issue with printing portions is that it can be difficult to ship larger pieces to the site. By printing as interlocking components it allows for pieces to possibly be stacked and packaged, allowing for more pieces to be shipped at once. On the other hand, large portions require fewer pieces to be printed and potentially less work to be done on site. Both the Oak Ridge National Library and the Canal House printed the structures 11

Delivering Innovation. (n.d.). Retrieved December 14, 2015, from http://web.ornl.gov/sci/eere/amie/

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differently, the Canal House printed components while the Oak Ridge National Library printed parts which assembled to build the structure. Each method here has its advantages and disadvantages thus both methods will need to be considered and tested. Figure 2.01 shows the pieces that were individually printed and used to assemble the building.

Figure 2.01 – Oak Ridge National Library Structural Rib System

THE LOBLOLLY HOUSE The Loblolly House is another building that was prefabricated and has many elements that are useful in looking at how a building goes together. KieranTimberlake developed a new system of construction using six elements, scaffold, cartridges, blocks, fixtures, furnishings, and 12

equipment.12 Using only six elements makes the building a repetitive process of assembly and simplifies the manufacturing process. The idea of designing a 3D printable building around a set amount of elements and connections is an advantage because then only a few pieces need to be designed. The set of elements must also use similar connections, thus the joints are repetitive and simple to understand. Figure 2.02 shows each of the six elements used in the Loblolly system. A similar methodology could be employed in the fabrication of a 3D printed structure. For example, the cartridges (the floors) would be plausible as solid printed structure. By making each floor piece an interlocking component, they could work together to create a structural floor system. By analyzing each of the Loblolly House’s elements in this way, a series of components could be designed to be printable and assembled but instead of using bolts to join it, the printed design would use interlocking connections.

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American Institute of Architects. (2012). Loblolly House. http://www.aia.org/aiaucmp/groups/aia/documents/pdf/aiab081572.pdf

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Figure 2.02 – The Loblolly House elements

THE PIERSON MODULAR The Pierson Modular was a project in the Pierson College Upper Court at Yale University, also designed by KieranTimberlake. The design was an addition to an existing dormitory building from the 1930s and had to match the existing brick façade as part of Yale University’s building policies. KieranTimberlake proposed a prefabricated modular system that is assembled from steel framed modules into individual dormitories. Once assembled, the modules stacked

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on each other to create the addition to the building.13 Figure 2.03 shows how each unit would look as a steel frame and once all the units were assembled and stacked the construction crew completed the façade to match the existing structure. This modular construction design as a series of stacked units works very well as each unit only needs “X” amount of space to meet the program. The individual units can be fabricated and shipped then connected using bolts or other basic means of connection. Designing individual rooms as a unit works very well when these units are isolated programs, but when the units need to function together – as they would need to in a house –the transition between the units becomes important. The transition needs to either be hidden in the joinery detail or exposed as some design element that is highlighting the unit design and connection method.

The Pierson Module used a series of units that connected together to become a building and this thesis is proposing a similar idea of a series of modules connected together to become a single family residence. The idea of interlocking parts from this building also could be used as the connection method between units eliminating the need for other connection methods and using the units themselves to 13

Smith, R. (2010). Prefab architecture a guide to modular design and construction. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons.

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work together to structure the building. Interlocking parts would be a good design option to be used for printed assemblies as it minimizes the amount of bolts needed.

Figure 2.03 – The Pierson Module with framing, floor panels, and wall panels.

RESOLUTION: 4 ARCHITECTURE FORMS Resolution: 4 Architecture is a firm that has been doing extensive research and design around prefabrication methods. In their research and in their design work, they have come up with what they call the “Modern Modular”.14 Their modular designs start off by breaking the spaces down into communal modules, private modules, and accessory modules. The communal modules would be the living room, kitchen, dining room, etc, which are in the social spaces of the residence. The private spaces would be the bedrooms, personal bathrooms, and offices. Finally, the accessory 14

RESOLUTION: 4 ARCHITECTURE. (n.d.). Retrieved December 17, 2015, from http://re4a.com/the-modern-modular/

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modules are the stairs, storage, mechanical, and transition spaces of the homes which are used as both private and public spaces. By separating each of these different modules into their specific group, it begins to narrow down the spaces that can be used in conjunction with one another. Resolution: 4 Architecture also designed a set of forms based around the space modules. These forms, shown in Figure 2.04, allow the designer to see how the spaces look once they are combined into one form. The forms also show where certain types of transition modules are needed such as stairs to upper floors.

This process of choosing modules and then selecting a form can also be done in reverse by picking a form first and then selecting the individual modules that can fit into the form.

The process of choosing forms or modules can really make the design process become a series of iterations to see which option best suits the problem at hand.

Figure 2.04 – Resolution: 4 Architecture building forms

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WINSUN GLOBAL One of the leading firms in the world right now in 3D printing architecture is WinSun Global. They currently have been focusing on housing projects such as homes and apartment buildings. Their current methods use all recycled materials from construction wastes as well as other industry waste.15 By using waste product, they have a nearly endless supply of material due to current construction methods. The primary material used by WinSun Global is concrete with little no to no aggregate, primarily due to its availability. The 3D printer uses a traditional additive printing method which is when one layer of material is added at a time to produce the finished model. This method works extremely well with concrete due the thicker viscosity of it which allows the walls or floors to setup quick enough to hold the shape, without the use of forms and still allows for some finishing processes if needed. The other advantage of concrete is the strength of concrete is very high and allows for a large amount of load to be placed on it and still retain its properties. A disadvantage of concrete is its weight, which requires additional machinery and laborers to install the components. WinSun Global gets 15

盈创-3D打印 建筑未来. (n.d.). Retrieved December 17, 2015, from http://www.yhbm.com/index.php?m=content&c=index&a=lists &catid=67

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around needing to assemble these pieces in some of their designs by printing the structure as one piece and then shipping it to its location or simply printing on site with their large printer. WinSun Global has done a significant amount of research and testing resulting in a special concrete material that is roughly 50 percent lighter than average construction material.16 One of their current projects is to print a series of office buildings, shown in Figure 2.05, in Dubai.17 The printer will not only print the entire shell and structure of these buildings, but also will print all interior finishes along with the furniture to be used. WinSun Global is taking their printer to the site to print these buildings. By printing the modules on site it will reduce labor costs by roughly 50-80% and the construction waste will be 30-60% less than normal construction projects.

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盈创-3D打印 建筑未来. (n.d.). Retrieved December 17, 2015, from http://www.yhbm.com/index.php?m=content&c=index&a=lists &catid=67 17 World's First 3D Printed Office Building, Complete With 3D Printed Furniture & Interior To Be Built in Dubai. (2015). Retrieved July 16, 2016, from https://3dprint.com/77550/dubai-3d-printedoffice/

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Figure 2.05 – Dubai 3D Printed Offices

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CHAPTER 3 TYPES OF 3D PRINTERS There are a large variety of 3D printers that are in use at many different scales. Most -printers utilize an additive manufacturing process, which is the process of creating an object by adding layers of material to get a desired product.

Each type of printer uses a different method of producing a resulting 3D object. The following types of 3D printing are all available for use in small scale work: stereolithography (SLA), digital light processing (DLP), fused deposition modeling (FDM), selective laser sintering (SLS), selective laser melting (SLM), and laminated object manufacturing (LOM). 18 Each of these types of printing has advantages that could make them a viable option for large scale printing.

Each of the type’s methods of printing begins at the same point and follow the same steps throughout: a 3D computer model is generated and then is sent through a slicing program to create a layering code and is finally sent to the printer itself.

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Types of 3D printers or 3D printing technologies overview. (n.d.).

Retrieved January 27, 2016, from http://3dprintingfromscratch.com/common/types-of-3d-printers-or-3dprinting-technologies-overview/

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STEREOLITHOGRAPHY (SLA) PRINTERS Stereolithography (SLA) is one of the oldest methods of 3D printing and is still in use today. After the computer model is generated and sent to the printer, stereolithography printers use a laser to draw an outline of the current layer on the top of a vat of liquid resin, shown in Figure 3.00. Then a ultra-violet light passes over the top and solidifies the resin to create a solid object. By decreasing layer thickness, a model’s quality and resolution will improve by allowing more layers to make up the object and achieving more detail with each layer. Once the model is complete, it is placed in a chemical bath where the rafts and supports – parts of a printed model where large openings or overhangs require support pieces to be created to allow the printer to complete the print – are dissolved and the model is cleaned up. The rafts are created in the beginning to help anchor the model to the bed of the printer while the supports are used and created throughout the print. Finally, the model is placed in an ultraviolet oven to finish the curing process and harden the resin.19 SLA printing may be the oldest form of printing but is not transitioning to large scale printing as quickly as other forms due to issues scaling the vat of resin, the chemical 19

Types of 3D printers or 3D printing technologies overview. (n.d.).

Retrieved January 27, 2016, from http://3dprintingfromscratch.com/common/types-of-3d-printers-or-3dprinting-technologies-overview/

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bath, and the ultra-violet oven to finish the hardening process. The largest SLA printer can print objects that are roughly seven feet long as one solid piece. Currently, this printer is used in printing car parts, furniture, castings, sculptures, fashion pieces, and many other objects. 20 Although this is one of the oldest methods available it is not very practical for printing buildings.

Figure 3.00 – Stereolithography Printer Diagram 20

Mammoth Stereolithography. (n.d.). Retrieved January 28, 2016, from http://manufacturing.materialise.com/mammoth-stereolithography

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DIGITAL LIGHT PROCESSING (DLP) PRINTERS Digital Light Processing (DLP) is a type of 3D printing that is very similar to SLA printing but has a few differences that set it apart. DLP printing uses a light source to outline the object being printed in a vat of resin, similar to SLA, but instead of lasers, DLP printers use arc lamps and a series of prisms that split the colors of the light and redirect them through a projector at the resin. The light setup and a liquid crystal display panel that is applied to the model after each layer is generated allows the model to harden much faster.21 By hardening the resin faster it allows for the print to go much quicker. By printing materials at a quicker pace it allows for less resin to be needed as it uses less material to build a model in comparison to SLA printing and it decreases costs by using less material and taking less time to print. DLP printers are mainly used in printing objects that require a high level of detail and need to be produced relatively quickly. As for using DLP for large scale printing, it has similar issues to SLA as in needing large resin vats and a projection lens that can cover a large area. This aspect makes the DLP printers a non-viable option for printing buildings.

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Types of 3D printers or 3D printing technologies overview. (n.d.).

Retrieved January 27, 2016, from http://3dprintingfromscratch.com/common/types-of-3d-printers-or-3dprinting-technologies-overview/

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FUSED DEPOSITION MODELING (FDM) PRINTERS Fused deposition modeling (FDM) or fused filament fabrication (FFF) printers are widely used in printing today.

An FDM printer can use many different types of materials and prints on a layer by layer basis. Instead of using a vat of resin (like SLA or DLP), a FDM printer uses a spool of material that is fed through a heating element in order to melt the material down to extrude it and build an object. An FDM printer starts by printing the model at the bottom and working its way up to the top printing each layer as it goes. The computer generated code tells the printer what to do by moving the extruder tip around while extruding material to complete the build. Some printers move the extruder tip in the X and Y axes and the build plate in the Z axis, shown in Figure 3.01, while others move the extruder in the X and Z axes and the build plate in the Y. A third type is tripod printers which are where the extruder moves in all three axes and the build plate is stationary. The printer builds the object on a build platform that can also be heated in order to help the adhesion of the material to the platform. The need for a heated platform depends on the type of material being printed and size of the finished object. Initial materials for this type of printing were strictly a thermoplastic and over the years new materials have been developed that are all a plastic 25

composite but have properties of other materials such as wood. Currently, this printing method is used in a wide variety of industries including automotive, food production, and medical just to name a few. This method is used so widely because of its ability to produce very detailed parts or tools as well as its ability to print cavities in objects, a strategy not able to be achieved with SLA or DLP printers.

The main issue with this method of printing is it takes longer to complete models than SLA, but it can print a wider variety of objects and materials.

The FDM printing method of printing is currently being used by architects to construct buildings. DUS Architects in Amsterdam is using this method to construct their Canal House using their large scale printer, the “Kamermaker�.22 WinSun Global in China is also using this method of printing, but they are using it without the heating element. WinSun Global uses one of the largest printers in the world at a size of 21.6 feet tall by 32.8 feet wide by 492.1 feet long.23 As this method has been translated to large scale printing and is currently used in the field, it is a tried and true

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Backer, T. (2015, September 23). DUS Architects Canal House [Email interview].

23 Exclusive: WinSun China builds world's first 3D printed villa and tallest 3D printed apartment building. (n.d.). Retrieved January 29, 2016, from http://www.3ders.org/articles/20150118-winsun-builds-world-first3d-printed-villa-and-tallest-3d-printed-building-in-china.html

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method of printing buildings and advances in technology should prove to make this method even better in the future.

Figure 3.01 – Fused Deposition Modeling Printer Diagram

SELECTIVE LASER SINTERING (SLS) PRINTERS Selective laser sintering (SLS) printing uses a laser to melt a powder to form the objects similar to how SLA printers use a resin. SLS printers are nearly identical to SLA printers in their process except instead of using the resin they use powder that is pushed onto a build plate by a roller (Figure 3.02). The laser draws the layer of the object into the powder and after the laser finishes each layer, a roller pushes another layer of powder on top and the process repeats. The advantage of SLS printers is that they require no support material to be used as each layer is hardened as the laser 27

outlines it and the leftover powder creates a support structure itself and helps hold the object in place.24 SLS printers are currently found more in manufacturing settings than anywhere else due to the cost of the equipment and size restrictions. Due to the need for the powder this becomes a method that is mainly for smaller objects and not for large scale printing thus making SLS printing a not viable option for printing buildings.

Figure 3.02 – Selective Laser Sintering Printer Diagram

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Types of 3D printers or 3D printing technologies overview. (n.d.).

Retrieved January 27, 2016, from http://3dprintingfromscratch.com/common/types-of-3d-printers-or-3dprinting-technologies-overview/

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SELECTIVE LASER MELTING (SLM) PRINTERS Selective laser melting (SLM) printing is a method of printing that is nearly identical to SLS printing except one major difference that warrants it as its own method. SLM printers have the same powder delivery system as SLS printers except instead of using a plastic based powder SLM uses a metallic powder. The process is the same as SLS in that a laser outlines the object in the metallic powder and melts the metals together to create the layering to build the object. The reason this method is used is to have the ability to print objects using stainless steel, titanium, chrome, and aluminum. By printing metals it increases what products can be made and used by different industries. One industry in particular that has used this method is the aerospace industry to create lightweight parts and to create parts that take a long time to machine or are possibly only able to be made through 3D printing.25 This method of printing is very useful when small parts made out of a metallic material are needed but being able to translate this to a large scale is highly unlikely and the cost of the material to print buildings would be very high.

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Types of 3D printers or 3D printing technologies overview. (n.d.).

Retrieved January 27, 2016, from http://3dprintingfromscratch.com/common/types-of-3d-printers-or-3dprinting-technologies-overview/

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Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) printing uses a laminated paper, plastic, or metallic laminates that fuse together after applying heat and pressure to it. LOM printing is somewhat similar to other methods that use a laser to outline the object into a material. During the printing process a roll of material is rolled across a platform while a laser outlines the layer and then a roller presses it to the platform and previous layers to fuse them together. Once it is cut and pressed the machine pulls the used layer off and adds a new layer of full material to the platform on top of the previous layer. The layering in LOM printing is roughly 1/16th of an inch thick which allows for printing to go at a quicker pace but limits the resolution and quality.26 This method of printing can only be scaled to a certain size due to the need for rolled materials making this method very improbably for printing buildings and other large scale objects. If this method was able to be scaled and use different material then it might be a viable option that is possibly quicker than others due to the thickness of the layers. With current technologies, this method is not a viable option for printing buildings.

After researching and getting an understanding of each of these methods of 3D printing, it shows that fused 26

Types of 3D printers or 3D printing technologies overview. (n.d.).

Retrieved January 27, 2016, from http://3dprintingfromscratch.com/common/types-of-3d-printers-or-3dprinting-technologies-overview/

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deposition modeling or fused filament fabrication is the best option for large scale printing. This decision comes as it is currently the only option that has the ability to print large scale and each of the other methods is limited by either material or a need to hold material a specific way. Printing using the FDM method allows for other innovations similar to WinSun Global’s by printing materials that do not require heating and just use it as a tool to build components.

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CHAPTER 4 A SYSTEM OF SYSTEMS The definition of a system according to MerriamWebster dictionary is “a regularly interacting or interdependent group of items forming a unified whole�.27 Buildings are made up of a series of systems that all must work together in order to the building to function. Each of these systems in a building are made up of possibly more systems making the entire building a system of systems.

The first system in a single family residence is the structural system, shown in Figure 4.00. This system consists of everything in a building that allows it to stand up. In terms of current construction methods for typical residential structures, a structural system consists of trusses or rafters for the roof structure, studs for the walls, joists for the floor, and foundation walls and footings to support the overall structure.

The structure of the residence is the first element of the system of systems that allows for the building to become a shelter for us to inhabit. These systems are sometimes hidden behind finishes but it is an important part of the building. A 3D printed building requires a structural system, but it is something much different than studs, trusses, and joists.

27

Definition of System. (n.d.). Retrieved February 01, 2016, from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/system

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Figure 4.00 – Single Family Residence Structural System Diagram

Enclosure systems build on top of the structural system to create spaces inside and completely separate the interior from the exterior. A conventional wall structure is shown in Figure 4.01. The structural studs serve as the core of the wall, covered by a series of layers on each side. Each of the layers on the exterior side is used for a specific purpose. The sheathing is used as a substrate to anchor the exterior finish. The weather barrier eliminates air movement throughout the structure and certain types prevent against water infiltrating the wall system. Following the weather barrier is the exterior finish, which can be a variety of 33

materials and textures, each having its own advantages and disadvantages. The interior of the conventional wall system is composed of insulation between the studs and an interior finish. The image shows the interior finish as gypsum wall board. Converting the conventional wall system to a 3D printed system can create a range of options as most of these components could be printed into the base wall system.

Enclosure systems are why buildings look the way they do instead of being able to see all the structural systems and mechanical systems. The finishes come in a variety of types, textures, materials, and sizes. A few examples of these systems are vinyl siding, aluminum siding, and masonry finishes.

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Figure 4.01 – Single Family Residence Enclosure Systems Diagram

Conventional construction is additive. Additive construction means that the structure is erected then the components are added in series to complete the building. In order to understand the finish system of a printed building, it becomes a matter of how conventional systems may need to interact with a printed system. The setback of printing the finish is the limited amount of materials available as only a few materials have been used in large scale printing. The materials that are used by small scale printers are composite materials which could easily be translated to the large scale 35

printers and print a wider variety to create finishes for buildings.

Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems are what allow buildings to be conditioned, use electricity, and have running water indoors. Each of these systems is added to a building at different times in the construction process depending on how each interacts with the rest of the structure. Each of these systems also requires skilled labor for installation. Mechanical systems and duct work are placed above ceilings and therefore must be installed before a ceiling can be placed into the spaces. Mechanical systems also require shafts in order to run duct work between different floors. Electrical conduit is used to run wiring throughout the building along with the data cables for internet and telephone. Conduit does not take up much space in terms of needing to leave space or shafts for it as it can be ran through walls, floors, and ceilings making this system not as intrusive or dependant on the overall process. Plumbing for water closets, lavatories, and bathtubs all require piping to be run to each of them for a water supply or waste.

Each system described must all work together in order to make a functioning building to provide shelter for people.

The construction process makes it so that each system is constructed one by one but in the end it all comes together as one system.

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Each of these systems is a necessity in a single family residence and therefore must be translated to a 3D printed system. The structural system is easily translatable as columns, walls, floors, etc are printed with relative ease. The enclosure system can mostly be printed whether it is a series of panels or modules with insulation and conduit to be added later. Certain finishes will also be able to be printed depending on the material that is desired by the client and whether it can be printed. As for the mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems, the mechanical can be printed in as it is just a series of sealed spaces that house conditioned air.

The electrical currently could be installed as the printer is working or later after the building is printed. Currently the technology does not exist to print the entire electrical system in a structure. A material that is conductive and durable enough to withstand electrical current would have to be used.

The plumbing could be a mix of both printed and non-printed as objects as the sinks and bathtub could be printed, but the piping and toilet would not be printed due to bacteria growth.

These systems each have their own issues that should be addressed when designing a printable building.

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CHAPTER 5 STRUCTURAL DESIGN The goal of this thesis is to design a house that can be 3D printed as a set of modules and put together using interlocking components. The structure will need to be broken down into an initial set of components, such as walls, floors, ceilings, etc. Each component will have to be tested to see how it interacts with the surrounding components and what is needed for it to fit together and stay together. Once each component is initially understood, a method for how these components will go together will be created and designed. The design process will require many different iterations of each component, how the components can be connected, and how plausible each method is. The plausibility of each component will have to consider the printing process, construction process, and the repair/maintenance/replacement process. In the end, a new set of components will be designed and the method for erecting the building will have emerged from the design. The design process for a kit of 3D printed parts has a wide range of options based on the capabilities of the printer.

The initial design process step was to decide what a feasible bed size for the large scale 3D printer would be and to begin by looking at single room structures. A printer size 38

of 15 feet wide by 15 feet long by 15 feet tall as the printable volume was chosen to begin studying single room structures.

The printer size was chosen based on the creating a module or room that is big enough that is occupy-able by humans.

The first exploration completed, shown in Figure 5.00, was a simple box that filled the printable volume. This first design was beginning to explore the different types of wall structures that would allow for the walls not to be completely filled solid but still give rigidity to them. Another design idea with this was to incorporate the mechanical ducts into the wall structure. The wall section (Figure 5.01) shows how a portion of the wall is dedicated to air flow through the walls. The design has solid corners in order to allow for the connection between each corner to be a solid joint which increases the strength. The solid midpoint gives additional strength in the middle in both the vertical and horizontal axes. A printed model, Figure 5.02, of this wall section showed that the design was strong in compression but was able to be bent in the vertical direction, Figure 5.03.

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Figure 5.00 – Initial Structure Design

Figure 5.01 – Initial Wall Structure Design – The concept for this design was to take and incorporate the duct work into the wall structure. This eliminates the need for additional labor to install the duct work.

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Figure 5.02 – Initial Wall Structure Printed Model – This model demonstrated that the truss pattern is relatively strong in each axis.

Figure 5.03 – Flexed Truss Wall Structure

The second wall structure design, Figure 5.04, was designed to have fewer surface area connections between the interior and exterior finishes in order to lower the amount of thermal transfer. This wall structure also allows for more insulation to be added to the walls as there is less structure and more void. The printing of this iteration was a failure as the structural element did not print at all. The solution to this issue would be to increase the width of the structure which in turn eliminates the purpose of this design iteration. The sides were the only parts that printed leaving the entire middle as a void.

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Figure 5.04 – Second Wall Structure Design – The design idea behind this was to lower the amount of surface area that connects to the exterior and interior surfaces while still providing some support.

The next design idea was to take and create a structure that played into the strengths of the printers. The overall bed size for this iteration did not change from the 15’x15’x15’ making this design close to the same dimensions as the first. In this iteration, a curved face was created and then extruded to become the walls, floor, and roof for the building, shown on the right in Figure 5.04. For this design, the ends of the structure, shown in Figure 5.05, could be printed separately from the body or it all could be printed as one piece. This design also included openings for windows on three sides of the building and a doorway on the other.

The way this design, Figure 5.08, was printed was vertically so that the gap that would be spanned by the printer was less surface area than the roof.

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Figure 5.05 – Curvilinear Building Components

Figure 5.06 – Curvilinear Building Design

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Figure 5.07 – Curvilinear Design Printed Model

Figure 5.08 – Printing Vertically

One of the iterations was a completely solid filled form (Figure 5.09 and Figure 5.10) that could be compared to 44

the design iterations both for time, weight, and material used (discussed at the end of the chapter). The solid filled model took nearly the longest time to print at 229 minutes and is easily the strongest out of all the iterations. This design became a control to compare the other designs to. The goal, as is true in most structural design, is to remove material, and, in turn, weight, while maintaining structural strength.

The solid infill option is clearly the heaviest, 56 grams, out of the options. The amount of material that is used to print the shape completely solid is considerably more than the iterations with voids and it used a total of 17.86 meters of material. The solid fill design allows for a good comparison between the different designs and shows how much different a completely solid object is compared to one with different wall structure.

Figure 5.09 – Solid Infill Design

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Figure 5.10 – Solid Infill Printed Model

After the second iteration of the structural designs was finished, the process leaned toward combining the first two designs by taking the first design’s wall structure and combining it with the second’s shape. Each of the following wall types were printed in roughly ½” sections allowing for quicker prototyping. This led to designing multiple iterations of wall structures using the curvilinear shape. The first wall structure iteration (Figure 5.11 and Figure 5.13) kept the truss pattern from the first structure design. The design worked out very well in the flat parts of the shape but in the corners the void spaces became very obscure and irregular (Figure 5.12).

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One advantage of this was that the corners had smaller voids and more solid space thus making the corners stronger. Each of the printed models were printed with them laying down, which allows the printer to make fewer mistakes as there are no large gaps that need to be bridged. Also printing in this direction allows for no support material to be needed making much less waste material. The truss design took 35% less time (Figure 5.20) to print than the solid infill and used only 44% of the material (Figure 5.21). These percentages show that the truss design is much more efficient than the solid infill, but it was not the best option.

Figure 5.11 – Truss Design Diagram

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Figure 5.12 – Truss Corner Irregularities

Figure 5.13 – Truss Design Printed Model

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The second iteration of the curvilinear prototype referred back to the second iteration of the initial design and became the semi-ellipse wall structure (Figure 5.14 and Figure 5.15). Instead of making the interior structure as thin and continuous as the first attempt, the second version created voids that could be used as insulation pockets or duct work. This iteration worked well with the design to incorporate the void spaces as duct work as the voids that face the interior side of the building will vent into the spaces.

The connection between wall sections on this piece would work by creating a component that fits into the void space to link them. The printed model of this design was successful and is the strongest of the designs with voids printed in them.

The corners on this design are very strong but a small flaw would possibly be that the pocket size could cause slight deflection as the finished edge is thin. A thicker slab would alleviate this possible issue for future iterations. This iteration was the quickest to print out of all the iterations only taking 62% of the time that the solid infill did making this the best option in terms of speed.

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Figure 5.14 – Semi-Ellipse Design Diagram

Figure 5.15 – Semi-Ellipse Design Printed Model

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The next design took the semi-ellipse design and flipped it (Figure 5.16 and Figure 5.18) around on itself to attempt to create a stronger structure. This idea of strengthening the structure by flipping the pattern is based on the fact that by making the void spaces much smaller it has more spots where the structure can take heavier loads. In order for this option to work with the mechanical system plans the specific void spaces would have to line up (Figure 5.17) in order for the duct work to be a continuous and sealed system. The voids will also have to be lined up for the plumbing system but since the electrical is small and can go just about anywhere it can work with the current configuration. In comparison to the semi-ellipse design it seems to be slightly stronger at the small scale at which they are printed. As for the time it took to print the flipped design was 44% faster than the solid infill and 2% slower than the semi-ellipse. The material used by this design in comparison to semi-ellipse was nearly the same using 56% less material than the solid infill making these two iterations great options to proceed with.

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Figure 5.16 – Semi-Ellipse Flipped Design

Figure 5.17 – Overlapping (left) and Aligned (right) Voids

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Figure 5.18 – Semi-Ellipse Flipped Printed Model

The next iteration is a combination of two previous designs, the truss and the curvilinear designs (Figure 5.19 and Figure 5.20). The truss pattern is used throughout the horizontal and vertical portions of the section while circles are exploited in the curves. The idea here was that circles allow for a void space but still allow for more material to keep the corners rigid and allows the truss pattern to be uniform throughout the straight edges. Along the faces of the model, when pressure is applied to the truss pattern areas the surfaces buckle slightly at the voids where as the circles prevent this buckling from occurring. The obscured truss pattern in the corners is one factor that may have added to the weakness of the all truss design. By pairing these two designs 53

together into one design allows for the structure to use the strengths of circles in the corners to compliment the rounded corners and the trusses in the flatter portions. The combination design took only 24% less time to print than the solid design and 14% longer to print than the semi-ellipse making this design a contender to be used but still not the best option in terms of printing speed and time. This design used only 10% more material than the semi-ellipse which still keeps it as an option. The deciding factor for whether this is an option to be used, is the strength of the design which was not tested during this thesis.

Figure 5.19 – Combination Design Diagram

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Figure 5.20 – Combination Design Printed Model

The next design idea was to take the hexagonal pattern (Figure 5.21 and Figure 5.22) that is used by some 3D printers as an infill pattern, which is when a printer has a fills the area between two faces with a set pattern in order to use less material, and use it to fill the void space in the wall. The design created a thicker surface than the previous designs and offered much less void space, but the voids can still be used as duct work. The small joints between the hexagons allow for less thermal transfer than some of the previous designs but also provide a weaker connection. Most of the structure in this design comes from the exterior and interior surfaces.

One aspect of this design that could work very well would be 55

to combine multiple hexagons into one open void to create a larger void for air flow or other service systems. This small shape can be rearranged into different patterns to fit areas for mechanical, plumbing, electrical, or insulation and then adjust the pattern to fit those required elements.

Figure 5.21 – Hexagonal Design Diagram

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Figure 5.22 – Hexagonal Design Printed Design

After looking at basic functionality of each of the designs, a comparison of surface area of the design, time needed to print the section, how much material is needed, and overall weight of the section. The surface area comparison (Figure 5.23) shows that the solid infill has the highest surface area of all the designs while the semi-ellipse and semi-ellipse flipped have the lowest surface area. The advantage of lower surface area means more void space which allows for a more functional section and more insulation. A functional section is one that allows for the void space to be used as a mechanical, plumbing, or conduit chase.

By lowering the surface area of the sections it reduces the print time required to make each section. The print time for each design is shown in Figure 5.24. This comparison shows 57

that the hexagonal design takes the longest time to print due to the small hexagonal pattern needing to be outlined each layer. Once again the semi-ellipse and semi-ellipse flipped designs are the best option due to the quickest print time. The truss pattern has one of the lower print times while still has the second most surface area. The lower print time while increasing surface area means that the printer must be able to move in certain directions faster and accomplish tasks faster when working in these directions. The next graph, Figure 5.25, shows the amount of material used to print each design.

The solid infill design nearly doubles the rest of the designs as it is printed completely solid thus not being very economical or efficient. The truss, semi-ellipse, and semiellipse flipped designs uses the lowest amount of material at 44% of the material that the solid used. The best option here would be to pick the option with the lowest amount of material needed to print the design. The weight comparison, Figure 5.26, shows that each of the designs excluding the solid infill design are all nearly the same weight ranging in 40%. The lighter options here are the truss, semi-ellipse, and semi-ellipse flipped designs at 45% of the solid infill weight making these the best options according to weight as the lighter the section is the chance of needing a crane decreases.

The best design option according to the print time, weight, and the amount of material used would be the semi-ellipse 58

flipped design. The semi-ellipse flipped design is the best option after looking at all the data and it uses the second least amount of material (45% of the solid), 38% faster than the solid infill, and ties for the lightest section at 55% lighter than the solid.

Surface Area 20.00 15.00 10.00 5.00

Square Feet

0.00

Figure 5.23 – Surface Area Comparison

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Print Time 250 200 150 100 50 0

248

229 148

142

175

146

Minutes

Figure 5.24 – Print Time Comparison

Material Used 20

17.86

15 10

7.77

8.05

9.71

10.97 7.81

5

Meters

0

Figure 5.25 – Material Used

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Weight 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

56

25

25

31

35 25 Grams

Figure 5.26 – Weight

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CHAPTER 6 BUILDING DESIGN The form of printed architecture can take a wide variety of shapes due to the abilities of 3D printers. Printed designs can be as simple as a box or as complex as Buckminsterfulleresque models, which were otherwise impossible to construct before the advent of 3D printers. The next step in this thesis was to take the wall structure designs created and discussed in the previous chapter and apply them to a building and see how well the initial ideas work at the scale of the building.

INITIAL FORMS The initial design idea was to take a typical shotgun style house and re-conceive it as something that is printable.

The second goal of the design was to pursue options that would be difficult to construct using typical construction methods because by proving it works with difficult structures it allows for us to design and build structures quicker and easier. The initial designs were roughly a 1,200 square foot house with two bedrooms, kitchen, bathroom, living room, and a storage/mechanical closet. By designing this system around a single family residence it allows for more issues to be addressed in a shorter period of time. The plan of option 62

one, shown in Figure 6.00, had a hallway along one side of the structure just like a shotgun style house. The second option was a pill shape that had the same division between public and private, but a different arrangement of space. In this design, Figure 6.01, the entrance is in the middle of the residence with the kitchen and living area on the left half and the bedrooms on the right. Separating the bedrooms from the kitchen and living room allows the bedrooms to be more private as none of the public areas interfere with them.

Figure 6.00 – Initial Printed Shotgun Plan

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Figure 6.01 – Initial Pill Design

The next step was to start looking at how these plans worked in 3d and how the different pieces worked together.

The initial idea was to have each design printed in a series of modules that would then be assembled on site to construct the building. The modules worked very well with the shotgun design, shown in Figure 6.02. The modules were determined by breaking down the plan to make it where a solid wall could be the base of each module. The curved walls in the pill design (Figure 6.04) began to cause issues, as the curved ends would be much more difficult to print. Figure 6.05 shows the breakdown of the planned modules for the pill design. The two middle modules would print fairly easily, similar to those from the shotgun style residence (Figure 6.03). The issue in this option is that the end modules have rounded ends and a domed roof. In order to print this shape, 64

the construction would require a large amount of temporary support on the interior during the printing process to hold the roof up or to create a surface on which to print the rounded end. Other iterations looked at printing the pill option as a single module instead of doing a series of modules but once again this produced the same issue of printing a domed roof without support materials. These initial studies culminated in the decision to move forward with the shotgun style over the pill design. These initial designs were extremely productive in learning what does and does not work with printed architecture.

Figure 6.02 – Shotgun Design

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Figure 6.03 – Original Shotgun Modules

Figure 6.04 – Pill Design

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Figure 6.05 – Pill Design Modules

PRINTER TO SITE After going through the design process once and figuring out what works and what does not, the decision was made to design a series of modules. Determining the process of how the modules would be printed became important to the design of the overall building. Figure 6.06 shows the process of assembling a printed building as proposed by this thesis. Each module would be printed independently from one another by printing the modules on their ends, or in elevation, as to minimize the difficulty of the prints and material used. Printing this way eliminates the need for substantial amounts of support material and by eliminating the support material it makes the print much simpler and 67

easier to complete. The next step in the process is to load the modules onto a trailer and ship them to the project location.

Once on site, the modules would be set into place using equipment ultimately selected based on the overall weight of the modules. Finally, once each piece is set into place and attached together the building would be complete and ready to be inhabited.

Figure 6.06 – From Printer to Site

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DESIGN ITERATIONS The initial designs proved that the shotgun design worked much better than the pill design. The next step was to take the overall design and begin to look at how this shape could be manipulated. Most pertinent to this investigation was the study of how the modules could adapt to different climate regions. A design chart was created (Figure 6.07) to begin to look at these factors and how each of the different design iterations can influence each other iterations. The top left design on the chart is the base shotgun design. As the chart moves to the left, the modules shift back and forth to create pockets and outdoor spaces that are usable by the owner. Moving down the chart, the modules begin to separate, creating spaces between for outdoor hallways and access points. These strategies are integrated to come up with a series of designs that incorporate both movement and separation. The progression through the chart leads to more drastic design strategies as the lower right iteration has each of the modules shifted with an outdoor space between each module. The outdoor separation works better for warm climates as it allows for exterior hallways which create airflow between the units and allows the users to be outdoors.

Other design aspects that engage this climate being explored through this exercise were porches and overhangs to create shading and weather protection. Porches, in particular, create 69

enclosed areas with perforated openings, becoming shading devices as well as regulating airflow. The design options where the modules are all connected would be more ideal for cool and temperate climates as the users can use the indoor spaces during the colder times of the year and the exterior spaces during warmer months. From this exercise, two design options, highlighted on Figure 6.07 by the dashed red lines, were chosen to move forward into a design development phase.

Figure 6.07 – Design Chart

The first design chosen is very similar to the initial shotgun design with added porches and an entry way in the middle of the structure. The floor plan from the initial design was utilized, but modifications were made to provide a more 70

functional layout, shown in Figure 6.08, while keeping the public and private areas separate. This design has a total of five modules (Figure 6.09). The left half is divided into two modules, one for the kitchen and one for the living and dining rooms. The enclosed porch is its own module and would be considered as an add-on which would be selected by the client. The living room module, when printed, would be an empty shell as furniture would not have to be printed in place, but could be, making this module the simplest one to be fabricated. The kitchen module is a lot more detailed with cabinetry and countertops. The doors and drawers of the casework would be printed separately and then attached during assembly. The bathroom is in the kitchen module and will have the bathtub and vanity printed in and the toilet will have to be added later on. The third module is the entry, which also includes the hallway and a mechanical/storage closet. This module is a basic shell, including only walls, floors, and a doorway to the closet. Printing the doorways on their side does create an issue as the printer has to bridge the opening once it reaches the top side (Figure 6.10). A solution to this would be to use a support piece once the print is to this step to allow the material to span shorter gaps in order to eliminate sagging. The last two modules encompass the two bedrooms. The fourth module is the first bedroom. Most of this module is a simple print, but there are points where walls 71

have to span open gaps (Figure 6.10), such as on the closet walls and doorways. The fifth module is the second bedroom.

The doorways in the last two modules will also require supports to be added in to prevent sagging. The doorways will have the attachment system for the doors printed into the walls, which is discussed in the next chapter.

Figure 6.08 – Shotgun Floor Plan

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Figure 6.09 – Shotgun Modules

Figure 6.10 – Spanning Openings with Printers – The white space in the diagram above is a void space where the printer would have to span across to complete the top of the door frame. These span areas are where sagging can occur and cause issues for the finished product.

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Figure 6.11 – Aerial Perspective

Figure 6.12 – Exterior Perspective

The second chosen design consists of a series of modules shifted to create outdoor pockets and patio areas.

This design, shown in Figure 6.13, uses four modules to 74

make up the overall structure. The breakdown of each of the modules is shown in Figure 6.14. The entry module houses the living area along with a storage closet. The kitchen and dining room module is to the right of the living room. The kitchen is treated the same in this design as in the last with the cabinetry and counters printed into the module.

Appliances would be installed later. The third module includes the first bedroom along with the mechanical room.

The final module is the second bedroom and the bathroom which, once again, will have the bathtub printed in place. The potential errors in printing these modules are nearly identical to the issues in the first design of spanning gaps and sagging.

Similar means of using supports to help prevent the sagging will be used when printing these modules as well.

In order to connect these walls together, a joining wall is needed between each of the modules. This joining wall is shown in Figure 6.15 and uses the same connector system, which is discussed in the next section of this chapter, but instead of being printed into the modules it will be a secondary piece that is used as a coupler to attach the modules and joining walls. The need for this arises out of the fact that the modules are shifted thus not allowing the wall structure to line up to connect them in a similar manner to the first design. The joining wall will have the same voids in

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order to use the couplers, discussed in the next section, to link them together.

Figure 6.13 – Offset Design Floor Plan

Figure 6.14 – Offset Modules 76

Figure 6.15 – Assembly with Joining Walls

Figure 6.16 – Aerial Perspective

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Figure 6.17 – Exterior Perspective

MODULE CONNECTORS The modules of both designs need to connect together and be secure; to accomplish this, a connector was designed (Figure 6.18). The connector will be used in different ways depending on the design. For the shotgun design, each end will be integrated into the design and printed as a solid piece, shown in Figure 6.19. The offset design (Figure 6.20) will have the female end integrated into the design while the male end will be installed during assembly and have the “teeth” to lock into place on both ends. This connector also allows for the option to be able to disassemble the structure by pushing the “teeth” out of the holes and pulling the structure apart. By pulling the structure apart, it will allow for maintenance on the mechanical,

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electrical, and plumbing systems or allow for additions to be added to the structure at a later date.

Figure 6.18 – Module Connectors

Figure 6.19 – Shotgun Style Connector Locations

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Figure 6.20 – Offset Design Connection Scheme

FOUNDATIONS Every building needs a way to stay anchored firmly to the ground. The foundation system for this thesis proposes that the foundation walls, shown in Figure 6.21, be printed out of concrete. The second piece shown in Figure 6.21 is the part that will be printed as a part of the modules and then will be slid into the foundation walls. This system also prevents the terrain from being an issue as the foundation walls can be adjusted to create a level plane for the building to rest on.

The foundation for the shotgun style residence only has two walls per module and is shown in Figure 6.22. The foundation system shown in Figure 6.23 has the walls printed and offset from the adjacent walls. This strategy makes a lot 80

more sense here instead of having long foundation walls which require the modules to slide long distances inside of the foundation wall tracks. By offsetting these walls, shown in Figure 6.24, it allows for the modules to only have to slide the distance of the individual module. The foundation design for the offset residence has a total of three walls per module (Figure 6.25). The foundation layout of the offset building design, shown in Figure 6.26, shows how the foundation walls are offset just enough to allow for the modules to be placed inside of the adjacent walls and then slid into place.

Figure 6.21 – Foundation System

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Figure 6.22 – Shotgun Module Foundations

Figure 6.23 – Shotgun Residence Foundation Layout

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Figure 6.24 – Shotgun Residence Section

Figure 6.25 – Offset Module Foundations

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Figure 6.26 – Offset Residence Foundation Layout

Figure 6.27 – Offset Residence Section

ACCESS PANELS All buildings have maintenance and remodeling that occurs throughout the life of the building. In order to cover both maintenance and remodeling needs, access panels (Figure 6.28) were designed to be used throughout the structure. The panels are placed along the exterior walls and are easily removed. In order to remove a panel the two 84

latches on the bottom must be turned and then the panel will tilt and drop out of place allowing for access behind it. Once the panels are removed the systems can be worked on or add additional electrical fixtures. Also since the panels are uniform new panels can be printed with the correct locations for any openings or features that are desired. The access panels will also be used as coverings for the storage spaces above the bedrooms, bathrooms, and closets.

Figure 6.28 – Access Panels

MECHANICAL The mechanical system, shown in Figure 6.29, will function using the voids printed into the walls to transport conditioned air throughout the building. The main shafts located in the floor will supply air to the individual modules.

From these main supply runs, vertical shafts carry air to the supply shafts located in the ceilings, which, in turn, distribute the conditioned air to the spaces.

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Figure 6.29 – Shotgun Residence HVAC Layout

The mechanical system of the offset design (Figure 6.30) is a little different due to the shifted modules but still functions similarly. The modules were shifted so that the floor shafts were aligned across all of the modules to allow the main mechanical shaft to run uninterrupted from one end to the other. The mechanical layout, shown in Figure 6.30, is much different in this design as each module has an independent distribution system supplied by the main supply shaft in the floor. The connecting walls in this design have a void aligned with the floor shafts so that the main supply duct will be able to connect through these walls.

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Figure 6.30 – Offset Residence HVAC Layout

PLUMBING The plumbing needs for a single family residence reside mainly in the kitchen and bathroom(s). Plumbing in a printed house still requires traditional piping to be installed since FDM printers have layering in the prints. The layering will cause bacteria to get stuck in the layers and taint the water supply. The shotgun style house has all the major plumbing (Figure 6.31) placed in an exterior wall that has both the kitchen and bathroom located on it. The main water supply and waste water return are located in the center of the house. The water supply is then run through the floor and connected to the sinks, toilet, and bathtub. The offset house design (Figure 6.32) has the supply and return located near the center of the house as well but has the kitchen and bathroom on opposite ends of the house. The supply to

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kitchen and bathroom will again run through the voids in the floor and supply the sinks, toilet, and bathtub.

Figure 6.31 – Shotgun Residence Plumbing System

Figure 6.32 – Offset Residence Plumbing System

ELECTRICAL The electrical system for a 3D printed house will be the same as every other structure in that an electrician will 88

have to run wiring throughout the house. The wiring would be able to be run through the void spaces in the walls and maintained using the access panels. In order to connect each of the individual modules’ wiring together a coupler system will be used (Figure 6.33) but not designed by this thesis.

Figure 6.33 – Module Electrical Connections

WATERPROOFING/JOINT SEALING The modules of the building must be sealed as to prevent water leaks, air infiltration, and the loss of conditioned air. In order to seal the modules, a neoprene gasket, shown in Figure 6.34, will be installed between the modules as to create a watertight seal. Another design feature in the modules is an overlapping joint, shown Figure 6.35 which will help seal the neoprene gasket.

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Figure 6.34 – Module Waterproofing

Figure 6.35 – Close Up of the Overlapping Seam

TEXTURING The texturing of facades on 3D printed buildings can provide a large variety of design and textural options.

Printing allows for clients to potentially design their own façade and add it to the interior or exterior of the modules prior to printing. The textures could also serve a purpose such as solar shading, solar panels, ventilation, water collection, etc. The textures shown below are just two of the many different options that can be designed and used as facades.

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Figure 6.36 is a very aggressive texture that gives the building a very unusual look. The second design, Figure 6.37, could be used as a water collection system with the scallops and capture the rainwater and send it to a well for gray water usage. The water collection system would only work on the roof portion of the texture. Overall the texture of the façade could potentially be integrated into the structure and make it an efficient building.

Figure 6.36 – Peaked Texture

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Figure 6.37 – Scalloped Texture

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CHAPTER 7 BUILDING DETAILS The details of a building are very important because they play a role in how the building functions, is built, and is maintained. By using 3D printers to create these details, they can be extremely accurate without the chance of human error during manufacturing. Any printed detail requires tolerances to be designed in as the printed details in this chapter have proven. Printers can create details or joints that would otherwise be impossible or extremely difficult with conventional construction means. These details can be intricately designed using computers to model and prototype them to make sure they work and to quickly and easily adjust any issues.

OPENING MECHANISMS Openings are a required feature of structures as people must be able to enter and exit the structure and to allow for ventilation. Doors are the primary means of egress for buildings and allow for the building to be closed off from the environment. The different types of doors include hinged (single action and double action), sliding, folding, pocket, overhead, and revolving. Each of these types are used for different applications with some types being better than 93

others in certain situations. The first four types are the prominent types for residential structures and were the ones investigated for adaptation into a printed structure.

The first type investigated was the pocket door which is a sliding door that slides into a pocket in the wall. The design of a pocket door, shown in Figure 7.00, is relatively easy as all that is needed is a wall with a pocket inside which can be easily 3D printed. The hard part, and what makes this door not a feasible option, is that the door has to be located inside this pocket, essentially having to be printed in-place in the pocket itself. Printing the door in place means that the door would have to be printed as a free floating object in the pocket. 3D printers do not have this capability but can print water soluble material as a support material to print the door on. The issue with doing the dissolvable material is that it does not create a seal and could not be used as an exterior door. Printers need to have a surface to place the extruded material on, otherwise it just extrudes on nothing thus not allowing objects to form properly if at all.

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Figure 7.00 – Printed Pocket Door Design

Figure 7.01 – Printed Pocket Door Design

The next design was a door that functions the same as hinges but is instead a pivot door, which uses pins on the top and bottom to keep the door in place. This works by printing the opening into the wall with holes for the pins to slide into, as shown in Figure 7.02, and then the door would be added on later. The door in this option would have to have a 95

rounded corner, shown in Figure 7.04, in order for it to rotate on the pins without hitting the wall. During the printing of this option, a critical issue arose. The pins have to be solid in order to be strong enough to hold to door up and the door has to have holes for the pins to set down into. The pinned connections make it so that the door cannot be placed in the holes on the wall as the pins cannot compress and slide into the holes in the opening (Figure 7.05). If the wall was printed in two pieces where the top and bottom are separate pieces and connected once the door is in place, then this option would work, but as the wall is one solid piece this is not an option.

Figure 7.02 – Printed Door on Pins Design

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Figure 7.03 – Printed Door on Pins Design

Figure 7.04 – Rounded Corner on Door

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Figure 7.05 – The pins prevent the door from sliding into place.

The next option that was designed was a version of a sliding door similar to a pocket door, but one that moves along the surface of the wall instead of inside of it. This sliding door requires the person to push it into the space first and then slide it off to one side. Figure 7.06 shows how the door sits in a track on the back side of the wall on both the top and bottom keeping the door in line at all times. By having the door offset from the opening and having it slide into the frame, it creates a solid seal on the outside to help prevent air infiltration. It would also need to be printed as a separate piece otherwise it has the same issue as the pocket door of needing to be printed as a floating element. The door would then be set into the track and a trim piece on the top would be utilized to lock it into place and would allow for the 98

door to be replaced. This design would work well with interior doors where they do not need to be locked or shut at all times, such as closets.

Figure 7.06 – Printed Sliding Door Design

Figure 7.07 – Printed Sliding Door Design

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CONNECTORS/CONNECTIONS After looking at the different door options that may or may not be printable, the investigation turned to examining how a door could be attached to the structure using a connector instead of fully integrating it into the module. In conventional construction most openings use hinges to allow the door or window to open and close. Conventional hinges would be able to be printed as an integrated part of the door and wall with a pin to connect them but that is what is already used and a more integrated approach could be designed to work with the printed system. Instead, the study looked at flexible filaments available for 3D printers, which could allow for a variety of design opportunities.

The first design idea utilizing the flex material was the development of a connection that has the basic functionality of a hinge, flexing in the middle to allow the door to open. Figure 7.08 shows how the initial design looked with open ends so that it can be slid onto the wall and door as a quick installation. The initial design had no top or bottom faces as the thought was it would hinder the flexibility. This thought proved true in the second version of this design where the top and bottom face buckled and bubbled when flexed which would not work when it is in a confined space. The design of the flex point in this iteration 100

is offset so that each side flexes freely and does not hinder the opposite side. Figure 7.12 is the other initial iteration which has a large linear design as the flex point and after printing and testing it did not function very well. The second design iteration of Figure 7.08 and 7.12, with top and bottom faces, barely functioned at all as the faces really restricted movement making it nearly unusable. Overall these initial designs were informative, but they were extremely weak and would not withstand much stress or movement.

Figure 7.08 – Offset Flex Hinge

Figure 7.09 – Offset Flex Hinge Isometric

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Figure 7.10 – Printed Offset Flex Hinge

Figure 7.11 – Printed Offset Flex Hinge Flexed

Figure 7.12 – Linear Flex Hinge

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Figure 7.13 – Linear Flex Hinge Isometric

Figure 7.14 – Printed Linear Flex Hinge

Figure 7.15 – Printed Linear Flex Hinge Flexed

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The next iterations of the initial designs were the same overall shape but began to incorporate interior structure to help keep the sides from twisting and retain the hinges integrity. The design of iteration 1 (Figure 7.06) was decided as the better choice to move forward into future designs.

Figure 7.16 shows the one of the new design options containing vertical supports that are made out of the same flexible material. A diagonal support system was created for the other supported option as shown in Figure 7.18. Neither of these designs was actually printed as the design process quickly moved forward into more legitimate iterations.

Figure 7.16 – Printed Offset Flex Hinge with Vertical Support

Figure 7.17 – Printed Offset Flex Hinge with Vertical Support Isometric

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Figure 7.18 – Printed Offset Flex Hinge with Diagonal Support

Figure 7.19 – Printed Offset Flex Hinge with Diagonal Support Isometric

The designs with support in the flex points function better than others but once scaled up they show that the design is rather large and would not work very well at full scale. The size of the flex point pushed the system to begin looking at how it could be redesigned with size and functionality in mind. The first idea to eliminate the excess bulk was to revise the connection points between the hinge and both the door and the wall. The redesigned joint is shown in Figure 7.20 with a slotted connection in both the door and wall to accept the flexible connecting element. The middle of the flex piece consisted of the same shape used in earlier 105

iterations, just attached in a way that takes up much less space. The hollow center goes back to the original design as there was too much material in the flex point. By having too much material the flexible piece lost a little functionality as it is a tight space and began to pull on the support pieces. After printing this out and looking at how it scales up, the physical model shows that the flexible piece is still taking up too much space and is a weak point in the connection. Despite the issues, however, the new joint strategy maintained a sealed connection.

Figure 7.20 – Flex Hinge 2.0

Figure 7.21 – Flex Hinge 2.0 Isometric

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Figure 7.22 – Printed Flex Hinge 2.0

Figure 7.23 – Printed Flex Hinge 2.0 Flexed

The next iteration of the flex connector sought to make the connection as small as possible in order to maximize the opening. This design, shown in Figure 7.24, takes the idea of creating two opposing sides that do not hinder the other in movement but instead help by spreading apart to expand with the door. When creating something that will have a lot of use, the joint needs to be a strong and 107

sturdy piece which is where the diagonal supports came into play. The diagonal supports seemed to work well, allowing the pieces to expand and pull without too much resistance while also helping develop resiliency, allowing the shape return to its original configuration after use. The two tabs on either side also serve a secondary purpose of being a door stop and cushion the door before it hits the wall. When observing how the full scale model functions it is worthy to note that the interior void space must expand to allow the door to flex and open in a certain direction. The flex point is important to note because it could be a possible weak point in the connector making it something that may need to be addressed in future designs. Another observation in the full scale model is that the jamb and door pieces weigh significantly less than the connector portion showing in important different between the two materials: flex and PLA.

Figure 7.24 – Flex Hinge Diagram

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Figure 7.25 – Flex Hinge Isometric

7.26 – Printed Small Flex Hinge

Figure 7.27 – Printed Small Flex Hinge Flexed

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Figure 7.28 – Printed Full Scale Flex Hinge

Figure 7.29 – Full Scale Hinge Flexed

The ball and socket connector, Figure 7.30 and 7.31, was the next design option that was created. The male connector snaps into the female creating a very tight connection, which helps create a weather seal around the joint. One major advantage of this type of connector over the 110

flex connectors is that it has the ability to stay in any position that is desired whereas the flex connectors always returns to its original shape when released. The idea of a male and female connector works for a variety of other connections too. The other connector shown in Figure 7.32 is the interlocking snap on connection. A major issue with this type of connector though is that if the tolerances are incorrect it can cause the female connection to deform and stay permanently deformed. The deformation can partially be contributed to the malleability of the plastic material and if it was something more rigid that is less malleable then it would have less chance to deform. The other issue behind the deformation is the tolerances when printing. Either the male or female connector needs to have a slight tolerance designed in to allow for any imperfections in the print. This phenomenon is shown in Figure 7.33. The deformation is one major disadvantage of the plastic and is caused by being under a stress for an extended period of time.

Figure 7.30 – Ball and Socket Hinge

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Figure 7.31 – Ball and Socket Isometric

Figure 7.32 – Printed Ball and Socket Hinge

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Figure 7.33 – Deformation of Female Connector

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CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSION The two designs that were chosen required a great deal of thought in order to incorporate each of the different systems into a printed building. The wall structure was designed with this in mind and required spaces big enough to run the systems through them. The structure also needed to be strong enough to actually function as a structure and withstand the weather and the loads created by it. One thing that should have been tested but unfortunately was not was the strength of each of the wall structures. Testing the structure would have proved which was strongest and then a much more informed decision could have been made to which option was the best.

Although each of the mechanical systems were designed for its specific building function in the same way in both designs, each system required unique modifications to successfully incorporate into the different strategies. By incorporating systems into the printing process, the construction process is accelerated, which is one of the advantages of printing. Future development of these designs would require more development of the mechanical and plumbing systems to show much greater detail as to how they work and function. The foundations of the two designs were

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also a challenge, especially with regards to figuring out how to anchor the buildings to the earth.

Understanding which printable materials work together and produce a strong connection takes research and testing. The design diagram, shown in chapter 6, shows only a few of the many options that could be created with printers.

Printers have the ability to create nearly any shape making the options for design almost limitless.

The different hinges, connectors, and door types that were designed and discussed in Chapter 7 just scratched the surface at what could be created when using printers in the construction industry. The discussion of different door types led to the design of the various hinges and connectors. The current limitations of printers require other methods and designs to the utilized until the technology advances and these methods can be used. Even though the door types may not be able to be utilized currently, their ideas still have relevance in creating better hinges and joints. The initial designs were a great place to start even though they did not end up getting used in the designs but instead showed what did and did not work. The main point that was learned from the initial designs was that the flex point needed to allow for bending without morphing the rest of the joint. Another important aspect that was learned from the early iterations was that the flex points of the joints cannot have the faces 115

printed over. The fully printed faces hinder the flexing and cause deformation of the flex points. The next iterations proved that support material helps keep the shape of the joint and keeps it rigid. The support structure pattern was not experimented with much and could potentially affect how the joint functions. By changing the pattern, a stiffer or softer joint may be able to be created and used in different situations. After looking at what size the initial hinges would be when printed at full scale, a realization occurred that they needed to be much more compact. The next iterations took the size issue into account and scaled the joints down and created integrated connectors into the wall and door as to minimize the size of the hinge. A major advantage of making the hinges more compact is that it allowed for them to become much stiffer and durable compared to the larger initial designs. The final design for the flex hinge took parts from nearly all the previous designs in order to create the best option to that point. The final design had support material to keep it rigid while minimizing deformation, the flex point was compact as to keep the area for the hinge minimal, and it used the integrated connections to create an air tight seal on that side of the door.

The final design for the ball and socket joint works great and with more design and development it would eventually turn into a joint that could be more applicable than 116

the flex joints. The ball and socket could be design to be a 3D joint, meaning that it would be able to orbit around the pivot point instead of just moving in one or two directions. The orbiting joint would be able to be used for even more applications than the pivoting ball and socket.

Overall the ability to print architecture is a real world application that is actually being utilized and is something that will continue to advance with time. New technologies are being researched and improved upon that will make printing buildings a more common practice. Designing to print buildings can be a much different task than designing for conventional construction and has the ability to change how we design and build. Each section of this project could have been done as an entire project with much greater detail than this covered but by covering each it shows how printing functioning buildings is a plausible feat.

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REFERENCES Backer, T. (2015, September 23). DUS Architects Canal House [E-mail interview].

Carbon. (n.d.). Retrieved July 06, 2016, from http://carbon3d.com/clip-process Carpo, M. (2011). The alphabet and the algorithm.

Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.

Category expenses by building type for commercial sector.

(2015). Retrieved December 13, 2015, from http://www.rmi.org/RFGraphcommercial_building_category_expenses.

Contour Crafting - CC. (n.d.). Retrieved July 07, 2016, from http://www.contourcrafting.org/ Contour Crafting: Automated Construction: Behrokh Khoshnevis at TEDxOjai. (n.d.). Retrieved August 30, 2015, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JdbJP8Gxqog Definition of System. (n.d.). Retrieved February 01, 2016, from http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/system Delivering Innovation. (n.d.). Retrieved December 14, 2015, from http://web.ornl.gov/sci/eere/amie/ Exclusive: WinSun China builds world's first 3D printed villa and tallest 3D printed apartment building. (n.d.).

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Retrieved January 29, 2016, from http://www.3ders.org/articles/20150118-winsunbuilds-world-first-3d-printed-villa-and-tallest-3dprinted-building-in-china.html Husseini, A. (2014, November 1). 3D printing and the construction industry. Retrieved October 15, 2015, from http://www.thenbs.com/topics/constructionproducts/a rticles/3d-printing-and-the-construction-industry.asp O'Connor, P. (2015, October 6). SOM's 3D Printed Buildings [E-mail interview].

Orcutt, M. (2015). 3-D Printing Breaks the Glass Barrier.

Retrieved June 29, 2016, from https://www.technologyreview.com/s/540926/3-dprinting-breaks-the-glass-barrier/ RESOLUTION: 4 ARCHITECTURE. (n.d.). Retrieved December 17, 2015, from http://re4a.com/themodern-modular/ Somerville, C. T. (1999). Residential construction costs and the supply of new housing: endogeneity and bias in construction cost indexes. The Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics, 18(1), 43-62.

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Smith, R. (2010). Prefab architecture a guide to modular design and construction. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons.

Song, P., Fu, Z., Liu, L., & Fu, C. W. (2015). Printing 3D objects with interlocking parts. Computer Aided Geometric Design.

World’s First 3D Printed Office Building, Complete With 3D Printed Furniture & Interior To Be Built in Dubai.

(2015, June 30). Retrieved December 17, 2015, from http://3dprint.com/77550/dubai-3d-printed-office/ 盈创-3D打印 建筑未来. (n.d.). Retrieved December 17, 2015, from http://www.yhbm.com/index.php?m=content&c=inde x&a=lists&catid=67 World's First 3D Printed Office Building, Complete With 3D Printed Furniture & Interior To Be Built in Dubai.

(2015). Retrieved July 16, 2016, from https://3dprint.com/77550/dubai-3d-printed-office/

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FIGURE REFERENCES Figure 1.00: Category expenses by building type for commercial sector. (2015). Retrieved December 13, 2015, from http://www.rmi.org/RFGraphcommercial_building_category_expenses.

Figure 2.00: Created by DUS Architects: Backer, T. (2015, September 23). DUS Architects Canal House [E-mail interview].

Figure 2.01: O'Connor, P. (2015, October 6). SOM's 3D Printed Buildings [E-mail interview].

Figure 2.02: American Institute of Architects. (2012).

Loblolly House. http://www.aia.org/aiaucmp/groups/aia/documents/pd f/aiab081572.pdf Figure 2.03: Smith, R. (2010). Prefab architecture a guide to modular design and construction. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons.

Figure 2.04: RESOLUTION: 4 ARCHITECTURE. (n.d.).

Retrieved December 17, 2015, from http://re4a.com/the-modern-modular/ Figure 2.05: World's First 3D Printed Office Building, Complete With 3D Printed Furniture & Interior To Be

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Built in Dubai. (2015). Retrieved July 16, 2016, from https://3dprint.com/77550/dubai-3d-printed-office/ Figures 3.00 through 7.33 were created by the author

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APPENDIX A

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APPENDIX B

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APPENDIX C

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APPENDIX D

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VITA Graduate School Southern Illinois University

Stephen Lauer

slauer12@yahoo.com

Southern Illinois University Carbondale Bachelor of Science, Architecture, May 2015

Southern Illinois University Carbondale Master of Architecture, August 2016

Thesis Title: Buildings as an Assembly of 3D Printed Components

Major Professor: Chad Schwartz

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