Transit Oriented Development (TOD)- Dissertation

TRANSIT ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT

Dissertation

RESEARCH METHODS AND SEMINAR AR- 772

Submitted by Srabasti Lahiri 1802295093 7th Semester- Bachelor of Architecture

PILOO MODY COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE- ABIT GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS January, 2022

Chapter 1 “A developed country is not a place, where the poor have cars. It’s where the rich use public transport.” – Gustavo Petro, Mayor of Bogotá, Colombia

1.1 Introduction After decades of underinvestment in public transport, rapid economic growth, urban migration and urbanization, in general, most metropolitan cities, around the world are aiming to re-focus on improving the quality of public transport and urban lifestyle to fight increased congestion, traffic jams, pollution, and load on infrastructure. Transit Oriented Development arrives here as an exciting, vibrant, sustainable solution to combat social, economic, climatic and health impacts of communities, and the huge number of user groups benefitting from a range of public transport running through these cities. Also termed as TOD, it aims to create compact, walkable, pedestrian-oriented, mixed-use communities, centred around high quality metro, train or other public transport systems, making it possible to lead a lower stress induced life, amidst uber-populous cities around the globe, without complete dependence on a private mode of transportation for mobility and survival. It simultaneously acts as a major solution to the serious and growing problems of climate change and global energy security by creating dense, walkable communities that greatly reduce the need for driving and energy consumption. This type of design incorporation in the living arrangement can reduce driving by up to 85%. Introducing urban public transportation facilities into a region often creates a significant opportunity to accelerate the process of development through affecting on the property values. Better access, more mobility options, and lower transportation costs are important factors that also increase the land values of such regions, especially in blighted and poor neighbourhoods.

According to the population demand, Mass Rapid Transit Systems are being developed rapidly in growing cities and thus, a comparative field study on the impacts of these on property values can represent not only the various impacts of station points, establishing on different urban textures, but also its consequences on reducing the spatial segregation in these cities. A transportation system can make various impacts on surrounding areas- these impacts sometimes appear around stations, sometimes around transit corridors and in some cases as a combination of both. MRTS and BRTS (Bus Rapid Transit Systems) are some of the most widely used and efficient modes of public transportation, in terms of energy

consumption, space occupancy and numbers transported. Which is why, during the recent decades, development of metro networks in urban regions has significantly affected spatial flows and urban mobility, as well as spatial development of urban areas, while improving availability of employment nucleuses, retail districts and essential facilities for

citizens. Transit corridors around the world have impacted greatly the overall

development of the space surrounding them. The intensity of the development, however, does not depend solely on the MRTS and BRTS corridors, but on a lot of other parameters like, availability of development-worthy land, population density, existing intermodal connection, distance to and from the Central Business District (CBD), etc.

1.2 Background Study 1.2.1 Defining Types of Transportation Depending on the needs of their community, departments of transportation and private providers can organize modes of transportation into a transit system. Urban transportation consists of a family of modes, which range from walking and bicycles to urban freeways, metro and regional rail systems. Transit can be defined commonly to describe public transportation systems and services. Available for the general public, it is distinct from cabs and hired bus services, which do not allow being shared by strangers, without prior arrangements. It mainly refers to suburban rail, metro/subway rail, light rail, tram and bus rapid transit system. Though the word transit is most commonly used in western countries, it is gradually gaining prominence in Asian countries to describe mass transportation systems.

The basic classification of these modes, based on the type of their operation and use, can be done in three categories: a. Private transportation consists of privately owned vehicles operated by owners for their personal use, usually on public streets. Most common modes are pedestrian, bicycle and private car. b. Paratransit or for-hire transportation is transportation provided by operators and available to parties which hire them for individual or multiple trips. Taxi, dial-a-bus and jitney are the most common modes. c. Urban transit, mass transit or public transportation includes systems that are available for use by all persons who pay the established fare. These modes, which

operate on fixed routes and with fixed schedules, include bus, light rail transit, mass rapid transit, metro, regional rail and several other systems.

1.2.2 Defining Types of Transit Systems The most widely developing transit systems around all major cities over the world are BRTS (Bus Rapid Transit Systems) and MRTS (Mass Rapid Transit Systems).

1) Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS)- Buses represent the most widely used transit technology. Virtually every city in the world that has transit service operates buses. Large cities with rail transit also operate extensive bus networks, usually on lines with lower passenger volumes or as feeders to rail lines. Bus service is easy to introduce or modifybasic service requires only purchase of vehicles, garage and maintenance facilities, and organization of service. Stops along the lines can be simple. Therefore, buses represent the most economical transit mode for lightly travelled lines. This flexibility of bus routes is an advantage for any necessary changes, but it is a disadvantage for major bus lines: they lack permanence, efficiency in carrying heavy passenger volumes, and image of permanent, physically fixed routes desired by passengers.

2) Light Rail Transit (LRT)- LRT is generally at-grade rail-based mass transit system which is generally segregated from the main carriageway.

3) Tramways- These are at-grade rail based system that are not segregated and often move in mixed traffic conditions.

4) Mass Rapid Transit Systems (MRTS) or Metro Rail- Metro rail is a fully segregated rail based mass transit system, which could be at grade, elevated or underground. Due to its physical segregation and system technology, metro rail can have high capacity of 40,000–80,000 passengers per hour per direction. Metro systems also include monorails, which, however, has lower capacities and higher maintenance cost.

5) Regional Rapid Transit Systems (RRTS)-Regional rail caters to passenger services within a larger urban agglomerate or metropolitan area connecting the outskirts to the centre of the city. The services have greater number of halts at smaller distances compared to long distance railways, but fewer halts and higher speeds compared to metro rail. Regional rails are common in large metropolitan cities and help in decongesting the city centre by providing safe, and speedy access to the city centre for commuters residing in less congested suburbs.

Theoretically, transit-oriented development (TOD) can enhance accessibility by providing a relatively high level of transport connections and high-density, mixed-use, cycling- and pedestrian-friendly land use around transit stations. Empirically, there is a noted positive relationship between the transport component of TOD and accessibility, but the evidence is more mixed with respect to components other than transport (e.g., high urban density and diversity, or proximity of land uses to the transport node).

1.3 Research Significance Transit-oriented development (TOD) is a planning and design strategy that consists of promoting urban development that is compact, mixed-use, pedestrian-bicycle-friendly, and closely-integrated with mass transit by clustering jobs, housing, services, and amenities around public transport stations.Based on the premise that economic growth, urban transport, and land use can be managed more efficiently if planned together, TOD has been successfully applied at a city scale in cities around the world including Stockholm, Copenhagen, Curitiba, Mexico City, Hong Kong SAR and Tokyo.Promoting higher densities and concentration of jobs within relatively small areas, TOD creates agglomeration effects proven to boost a city’s competitiveness. Studies have shown that doubling job density, for instance, increases economic productivity by 5 to 10%. This concentration creates vibrant communities with high-quality public areas and shorter commuting distances—making cities more inhabitable.

Compact urban development and high-quality public transit also mutually reinforce each other: mass transit can support the large passenger flows that come with high density development, while the concentration of jobs and housing around stations helps make public transport financially viable. That said, TOD principles cannot be applied uniformly across an entire city or transit network, since densities of jobs and people vary widely across the urban space. This dissertation will investigate how the integration of a transit point with a mixed use development can lead to emergent synergies. Derivation of area programs, based on prevailing TOD norms, as well as contextual studies and community surveys will attempt to identify the needs of the people of the city by instilling a sense of belongingness and ownership in them.

1.4 Research Questions 1. What are the design criterion for TOD both at macro and micro levels?

2. What are the opportunities and challenges for transit-oriented development?

3. What lessons will the comparative case studies have to offer for development on a national level in context of India?

1.5 Research Aim The research aims toenvision and establish TOD as a three-fold development consideration.  Enable Transformation: to assist in the transformation of cities from private vehicle dependent to public transport oriented development  Accessible Public Transport: to promote the usage of public transport by making it accessible, encourage sustainable mobility by pushing people to walk or cycle, and at the same time, curb pollution levels of the city  Compact Walkable Communities: to create vibrant, affordable communities, which are compact, accessible and walkable To affirm the benefits of the incorporation of Transit Oriented Development in regular, dayto-day city life, case studies of Mexico City, Bogota, Curitiba and Tokyo will further assert how and why such development is essential, specially, in highly populous South East Asian countries and more importantly, in India.

1.6 Research Objectives  To promote the use of public transport by developing high density zones in the influence area, which would increase the share of transit and walk trips made by the users/ residents to meet their daily needs and also result in the reduction of pollution and congestion.  To provide all the basic facilities of work/ job, shopping, entertainment and public recreational amenities in the influence zone with mixed land-use development, that would ultimately reduce the need for travel.  To reduce carbon footprint by radically shifting towards environmentally friendly travel options for the line haul, as well as for access and egress trips.  To ensure the development of a safe society, with special attention given towards the safety and security of women, children, senior citizens and the differently abled, by making necessary amendments to the building bylaws.

 To achieve reduction in the private vehicle ownership, traffic and associated parking demands.

1.7 Methodology

1.8 Scopes and Limitations 1.8.1 Scopes To research Transit Oriented Development in-depth of countries that have already adopted it, is to find scopes of implementation for Asian and European contexts, where TODs will be far more beneficial due to the huge population rates, sustainability factors, job increment and development of vibrant communities.

1.8.2 Limitations Widespread urban scale research design needs to be adopted in order to study the pattern of Transit Oriented Development of cities. Physical surveys, in such cases, are a cumbersome task and requires the researcher to rely mostly on secondary data than primary data collection methods.

Chapter 2 2.Literature Study 2.1 Introduction Under favourable conditions, TOD is expected to enhance accessibility by providing a relatively high level of transport connections and a relatively high-density, mixed-use, cycling- and pedestrian-friendly land use around transit stations(Bertolini & Spit, 1998).

While this claim is theoretically well grounded, it does raise the two empirical questions investigated in this paperHow is each component of TOD related to accessibility, and, what is the relative importance of each component for enhancing accessibility?

2.2 What is TOD? Integrating transport and land use planning can promote the use of public transport (and active modes of transport) and make an important contribution to the sustainability of cities.

Adjusting and developing the urban built environment to better support sustainable transport is one of the key challenges for urban planning today. It is clear that the integration of land use planning and transport planning has been key to the success of cities that have increased the use of public transport , walking and cycling and reduced car transportation. These are outcomes of strategic efforts to apply the concept of Transit Oriented Development as a planning and development principle for densifying built environments around public transportation nodes and along public transit corridors. Parallel to the growing popularity of planning for urban growth around public transportation systems, research on TOD concepts and similar planning and development concepts have proliferated. In the TOD literature, European cities, such as Stockholm and Copenhagen are often mentioned as an inspiration for the development of TOD. These cities are often held in high regard among TOD researchers for their proven ability to achieve a close integration between land-use and rail-based public transport.

2.3 History of TOD With the recent rise of light rail train and other new transit proposals, the idea of transit oriented development can make a resurgence. Developed in the early 1990’s by Peter Calthorpe, the concept of TOD encourages the development of full and vibrant communities designed to be centred on transit facilities. Specifically, the concept encouraged organizing growth to be compact and transit-supportive, mixing a variety of commercial and residential real estate within walking distance of a transit stop, and promoting open space and a sense of community.

In the Twin Cities, the Twin Cities Rapid Transit (TCRT) was created in 1891 and was championed by Thomas Lowry. Transit options at this time updated rapidly, starting with the horse cars and then quickly switching to the cable cars. From there, most cities moved to electric streetcars as the main mode for transit, and Lowry capitalized on this option. At its height, the TCRT streetcar system had 524 miles of track within and around the Twin Cities and had over 200 million riders per year in 1920’s. For Lowry, the transit system was a way to encourage development on his extensive real estate holdings in St. Louis Park and Columbia Heights. Calthorpe and his associates later termed this as development-oriented transit, or the creation of transit lines in certain areas to encourage real estate development.

Figure 1- Map showing Twin City Rapid Transit System connectivity (Source: Reddit)

The proliferation of the automobile in the 1920’s, and even more so Post-WWII, made the streetcar largely obsolete. By 1954, streetcars had been completely replaced by buses in the

Twin Cities. They also made streetcar suburbs difficult for people to live in and also own cars because the developments were not designed to include parking or garages. This quickly made for highly congested cities and roads, and a call for mass-transit use was made to promote “economic efficiency and livability” in urban areas. One of the earliest and most successful examples of TOD is Curitiba, Brazil. It was organized into transport corridors very early on in its history and over the years, it has integrated its zoning laws and transportation planning to place high-density development adjacent to high-capacity transportation systems, particularly, its BRT corridors. Many cities, like, Mexico City, Canada, Toronto, Chicago, Hong Kong and Paris later on followed into the footsteps of creating a strong circuit of transit-oriented development to make urbanism sustainable for upcoming generations, while a lot of countries with extremely congested cities are yet to adopt the principles of TOD and take cues from the aforementioned case studies to create better living environments.

2.4 Characteristics of TOD Transit Oriented Development is a means to create integrated urban spaces designed to bring people, activities, buildings, with easy walking and cycling connections between them, and a near-excellent public transport system entwined with the rest of the city. Cities across the world are racing to cope with rapid and often uncontrolled urbanization.

Residents of the suburban outskirts of most gigantic cities, spend as much as 2.5 hours commuting each way and 30 percent of their monthly income on transport. And these challenges will undoubtedly be exacerbated by the 1.5 billion people expected to move into cities by 2030. But this trend is surmountable. Shifting urban design to focus on the needs of people—not cars—can expand access to opportunities, jobs, education, and healthcare for urban residents.

The basic principles of TOD, here arises and can be classified as: i.

Walk- High quality, unobstructed pedestrian footpaths, providing basic mobility for all.

Furniture, landscaping elements, and active building edges transform walkways into vibrant public spaces.

ii.

Cycle- Street design ensures safety for cyclists, by reducing carriageway speeds or creating separate cycling tracks. A complete network, with adequate shading elements, smooth surfaces and secure cycle parking zones are essential.

Figure 2- Paseo de la Reforma, Mexico City has vibrantly planned pedestrian and cycling zones near transit points (Source: Google Images)

iii.

Connect- A dense network of walking and cycling routes, resulting in short, varied and direct connections, that improve access to goods, services, workplaces, and public transport systems.

iv.

Public Transport- Frequent, fast, reliable and high-capacity rapid transit reduces dependence on private motor vehicles.

v.

Shift- Adequate parking fees and a reduction in the overall supply of parking create incentives for the use of public transport, walking, and cycling.

vi.

Densify- Intensification of residential and commercial uses around high capacity rapid transit stations helps ensure that all residents and workers have access to high quality public transport.

vii.

Mix- A diverse mix of residential and non-residential/commercial land uses reduces the need to travel and assures activation of public spaces at all hours.

viii.

Compact- Redevelopment of existing urban fabric helps guarantee that residents can live close to jobs, schools, services and other destinations, resulting in reduced travel times and emissions. With shorter distances, compact cities require less extensive and costly infrastructure (though higher standards of planning and designing are required), and they preserve rural landform development by prioritizing densification and redevelopment of previously developed land.

Figure 3- Zhongshan Road, Guangzhou, China has an excellent BRT corridor furthering compact urban development (Source: Google Images)

2.5 TOD and Mixed Use Developments Well planned, people-centric transit oriented development across cities can provide an array of benefits, ranging from lifestyle to environmental to economic, includingFor citizens: i.

Reduction in drive times and hence increased productivity

ii.

Opportunity to gain back commute times and focus on quality of life (i.e., live, work, and play)

iii.

Expanded mobility choices at lower costs, freeing up disposable income

iv.

Walkable communities that accommodate healthier and active lifestyles

For communities: i.

Long-term sustainable development of neighbourhoods

ii.

Reduction in automobile air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions

iii.

Improved property valuations in the community catchment areas

For cities: i.

Increased ridership and fare revenue

ii.

Increased urban intensity and hence land value capture

iii.

Improved economic opportunity and access

Over time TOD has come to acquire the meaning of planned development around any type of transit and not necessarily station points. It is essentially any development, macro or micro that is focussed around a transit node, and facilitates complete ease of access to the transit facility, thereby inducing people to consider walking and use public modes of transportation rather than preferring private transportation facilities. It provides convenient and affordable accessibility to maximum possible number of people at the lowest possible total costscreating a truly efficient and equitable community. TOD strives to

Increase ‘location efficiency’ so people can walk, cycle and use public transport



Boost public transportation ridership and reduces use of private vehicles



Provide a rich mix of housing, jobs, shopping, and recreational choices



Provide value for the public and private sectors, and for both new and existing residents



Afford an accessible and safe living environment for children, adults, and those of advanced age and limited mobility



Create a sense of community and place

It follows the simple rule of the 3 Ds of Design: 

Density- for adequate population density for transit ridership



Diversity- mixed-use, mixed income groups that use transit



Design- safe, comfortable and active (24 x 7) environment, created by promoting walkability and access to transit

The 3 Ds define the density, mix of connectivity and uses, required within walking distance of transit stations to encourage transit use and a bustling 24-hour environment around the transit stations.

Figure 4- Graphic showing Goals of TOD in creating vibrant mixed-use developments (Source: Author)

According to Calthorpe, (Calthorpe, 1993) TODs are: Mixed-use communit[ies] within an average of 2000-foot walking distance of a transit stop and a core commercial area. TODs mix residential, retail, office, open space, and public uses in a walkable environment, making it convenient for residents and employees to travel by transit, bicycle, foot or car(Calthorpe, 1993, p. 56).

In addition, the transportation hub should be located at the heart of the neighbourhood, within a 400 metre, or 10 minute walk from residents. This central location reflects the importance of transit in the community, and in the region as a whole.

Figure 5- Transit Oriented Development as explained by Calthorpe (Brinklow, 2010) (Source: CEPT University)

Agglomeration benefits of transit could be a countervailing force that would support transit’s role in a way, in which technology cannot. First, by allowing more people to access a particular piece of land, and second, by reducing the space required for transport infrastructure, transit could enable denser cities and greater interaction between individuals that generates spill-overs and real economic growth. Besides being a concept for creating more sustainable living urban environments, TOD is also seen as a spatial planning strategy for promoting economic development, at two geographic scales, according to the literature.

At the regional scale, the economic potential of TOD is expressed in national and regional spatial development policies promoting the formation of polycentric, and public transportoriented, city-regions. By concentrating jobs and economic activities around public transport nodes, which are linked to form integrated urban systems, TOD is seen as a crucial building block for shaping high performing urban agglomeration economies(Hall and Pain, 2006).

At the local scale, the economic development potential of TOD is reflected in policies advocating the development of station areas to create attractive urban neighbourhoods, as places to live, work, consume, as well as invest in. Such policies have generated many initiatives for station area developments across Europe, especially those with inter-urban high-speed links, which are regarded as important for both local and regional economic development. In a world of increasing spatial mobility, transportation nodes become strategic locations since these are “the places where the still much valued ‘face to face’ exchanges of the knowledge economy and ‘shoulder to shoulder’ experiences of the leisure economy” takes place(Bertolini et al., 2012, p. 34). Thus, while car-oriented suburbanisation was central to 20th Century industrial economy, TOD is seen as an urban development concept more suited to post-industrial, service-based economies.

•

The Brazilian city of Curitiba, for example, was the first to successfully implement a BRTS corridor to foster Transit Oriented Development around the stations. In 1965, the city adopted a new masterplan that promoted high density residential and industrial development along the BRT corridors by changing the zoning and land use policies.

•

The initial investment in Hong KongSAR’s Mass Rapid Transit System was limited to a 20 kilometre stretch, constructed in 1972. Through its development control legal framework, transit-first policies and a shareholding in the MRTC, the government of Hong Kong has successfully created an environment that provides financial flexibility

and development control, which ensures public interest related to transit oriented development in the city.

•

Density in Guangzhou,Chinais focussed around the BRT corridor and the system has been matched to commute-hour transit demand. With nearly 800,000 passenger trips daily, it is the world’s second largest BRT system, after TransMilenio in Bogotá, Colombia.

2.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of TOD The current and future scopes for Transit Oriented Development in cities are plenty and is one of thekey reasons why such developments are so in the scene, with it being a topic that is so extensivelywritten about and endorsed by planners and designers worldwide.

Improved Service: 

Improved walking, cycling, and transit service, benefits existing users of this mode



Reduced automobile traffic speeds and volumes, improves safety and liveability



Improved street conditions increase local property values

Increased Use of Alternate Modes: 

User cost savings



User enjoyment



Economic development benefits from increased access to education and employment



Increased public fitness and health

Reduced Automobile Travel: 

Reduced traffic and parking congestion



Road and parking cost savings



Consumer cost savings



Air and noise pollution reduction



Energy conservation

More Compact Development: 

Improved accessibility, particularly for non-drivers



Reduced land consumption, heritage and open space preservation opportunities, and public



service cost savings



Reduced sprawl costs

Although the negative impacts of TOD are far less spoken of, but are nevertheless, still valid.

TODhas the potential to increase property values. However, the problem with that iswherever there are ahigh number of renters in a particular area, landlords are often likely to charge more, and therefore thepeople must move, in a process, which is known as gentrification. This is in opposition to one of thepillars of sustainability, which is social equity. Surprisingly, rises in property values due to TransitOriented Development has been seen in most case studies around the world in all major cities, whichcounters many of the aforementioned benefits of TOD. Other negative consequences can be posedwhen planners and developers often neglect nearby pedestrian access. So, while an area can be termedas a Transit Oriented Development, it might not actually be walkable, unless investments in otherforms of infrastructure are secure. In fact, the construction of a transit station and nearby developmentcan make it even less walkable, and hence the overall development of the area will become stagnant.There is a common misconception that development will follow, wherever transit points or stationsare constructed, but this might end up being false, if planners do not take more time to develop smallscalestrategies, such as with pedestrian accessibility, architectural design, and safety.

2.7Spatial Components of TOD 2.7.1 Station Area “Station areas are unique places where high-speed and intercity passenger rail can connect seamlessly with intermodal options like public transit. The infill development around the station can boost economic growth and community vitality.”(FRA Administrator Joseph Szabo) The development of the station area plan begins with developing a vision, setting goals and objectives, followed by the three primary work areas — station location; transportation connectivity; urban design and infill development. A vision defines a desired future state and

is a long-term view. A vision of a high-speed and intercity passenger rail station, as a living, breathing part of the community can prompt the transformation of physical patterns of travel and development, and spur social and economic improvements. A vision can be emblematic of the direction a community wishes to move. It can generate a sense of purpose, creative thinking, energy, and passion. It can represent change.Rail stations will differ depending on their location — downtown, airport transfer, suburban, and small town. While every station area is unique and should reflect local context, culture and climate, some common principles apply to the creation of forms and public spaces regardless of location.

Figure 6- Image showing bicycle parking zones and tourist bus stops on adjacent street of Station Area, Union Station, DC (Source: railroads.gov)

2.7.2 Station Area Planning (SAP) A station area plan (SAP) is a conceptual land use plan of a defined area surrounding the rapid transit station, which is typically within a walkable range of 400-800 metres, following the principle of a five to ten minute walk. The key objective of the station area plan is to develop a land use plan implementing TOD principles and the community vision in a preferred scenario through public input. The land use plan holds statutory status as it is ultimately adopted as an Official Plan Amendment. Therefore, the station area plan provides direction and outlines design guidelines of a preferred scenario for station area development and informs decision-making acquisition, design and/or development of capital and growthrelated projects. The requirements of SAP, include design guidelines addressing: •

Compact, mixed-use development

•

Streets, Blocks and Intersections

•

Pedestrian Friendliness

•

Building Orientation and Frontages

•

Scale and Density

•

Open Spaces and Civic Uses

•

Transit Stations and Plazas

•

Parking Facilities

•

Architectural Variety

2.7.3 Principles of SAP 1. Location: Optimizing the station location.

2. Transportation: Maximizing station connections with other transportation modes.

3. Development:

- Shaping it through urban design; - Focusing on infill development around the station.

2.8 Design Considerations for TOD The desired outcomes of TOD and SAP are subject to factors beyond physical form.

Successful implementation calls for considerations that are policy and regulatory tools characteristic of long-term change, such as the following: •

Reduce parking standards to shift modal choice, incentivize transit use, and increase opportunities for intensification. Smart parking standards involve a management strategy that uses on and off street parking and minimizes requirements for all land uses, especially residential parking.

•

Devise a diverse housing strategy to achieve an inclusive housing composition that provides options for different typologies in light of increasing property values and decreasing housing affordability. Providing a range of housing facilities for a wide demographic reduces chances of displacement.

•

Enforce zoning that promotes mixed uses, commercial and compact development.

Diverse uses, such as light industrial use can promote the local economy.

•

Achieve pedestrian connectivity to encourage active transportation. Consider barriers to pedestrian connectivity created by physical features including infrastructure corridors and environmentally protected areas.

•

Prioritize civic space to instill a sense of belongingness, long-term objectives and outcomes. Expanding civic spaces meets the ‘play’ and ‘live’ elements of complete neighbourhoods.

•

Adhere to a proactive plan that addresses short-term and long-term objectives and outcomes. This addresses accountability and recognizes that TOD and SAP implementation is a continuous process, requiring revisits and revisions with changing paradigms.

2.9 Inferences

TOD’s enhanced abilities to maintain economic competitiveness and increased incentive for compact development has pushed forward the need for its incorporation around the globe.

Modern and efficient passenger transport networks can meet 21st century lifestyle expectations for quick access, convenience, and a small carbon footprint. In spite of the benefits of TOD, it is a far-fetched task to include such planning strategies on a large scale and equally cumbersome to conduct widespread surveys required to carry this idea forward.

It is extremely important to keep in mind the reason behind the adoption of Transit Oriented Developments of metropolitans- and, in the process of making it a sustainable solution for people of the upcoming generations, it shall also be affordable, accessible by all sections of the society, and inclusive in its design approach.

Chapter 3 3. Research Design 3.1 Research Methodology As far as this research is concerned, the research purpose and research questions reveal that this study is primarily exploratory. The study intends to research the applicability of derived TOD constructs, from around the world, in a new context, by making comparative studies of a few cases and draw parallels of the future of TOD incorporation for India.

Since here, the research problem, accompanying research questions and related research aims are multi-layered, multiple methodological approaches which encompass qualitative, as well as quantitative methods, we need to adopt a site-specific data generated through primary data collection in the form of case studies and further through secondary data collection in the form of internet research, surveys, interviews, etc.

3.2 Data Collection Methods Both primary and secondary data have been collected for this research. Stage I has been accomplished through secondary data, whereas, both primary and secondary data have been used for Stage II and Stage III. Instruments of Data Collection The following table lists the instruments of data collection used in this research corresponding to both primary data and secondary data.

Table 1- The Instruments of Data Collection

Type of Data

Instrument of Collection

Primary Data

Survey forms, Interviews, Observation, Photography

Secondary Data

Documentation in the form of illustrations and

drawings,

maps,

archival

data,

photographic documentation

3.2.1 Primary Data Collection Primary data was used for urban spaces with TOD infiltration and high density movement.

The following methods were used for primary data collection:

i.

Survey

A physical survey was used in this study to achieve a three-fold goal. The first was to crosscheck all premises physically, so that the smart maps and google earth maps can be triangulated. Since there were discrepancies in cartographic data, obtained from these two sources, a survey was undertaken for preparing full-proof data regarding Transit Oriented Development.

The second objective of the survey is to serve as a validation procedure for the confirmation of the secondary data.

The third objective was to deepen the background knowledge on the research topic and generate confirmatory references to the proposition of the study.

Locality Selection for Physical Survey A physical on-site survey was conducted in a locality called Tollygunge, of the Kolkata Metropolitan Area. This section of the city was chosen due to the large number of public transit options it has for the users and how it has led to a chaotic, poorly shaped transit hub, that has tremendous potential for future development if TOD planning principles are properly adopted. The Tollygunge transit hub is a major Metro Station point for the Southern Kolkata Metro Corridor, the iconic sesquicentennial tram depot of Kolkata still has an ongoing, functional tram system originating from the Tollygunge Tram Depot running up to Burrabazar Area- this mode of transport has been functional on and off over the years, and in spite of its sustainability benefits, is considered a waste of space, funds, and not very functional in terms of time, either. The Tram Transit System of Kolkata now runs mostly for the icon it has become for the city and in order to maintain its heritage and importance.

Tollygunge foresees four major auto rickshaw transit origin points that invite a huge number of traffic in this area apart from the Metro Station. The area also happens to be a centrally located, crucial bus transit stop for a number of bus routes that cross this zone during all times of the day- making Tollygunge a vibrant locality for the scope and research on TOD incorporation in India.

ii.

Photo documentation and Videography

Observations were recorded from site visits to the Tollygunge Area and data and observations were collected in the forms of photographs and videos from site.

iii.

Interviews

Conducted in 2 stages.  A semi-structured interview was conducted to understand the experiences of people affected by TOD and how incorporating principles of TOD will impact the lives of people. The questionnaires employed in the study, at the first stage, constituted openended questions aimed at unstructured data generation. To understand the experience and opinion, interviews are conducted in a face-to-face method.  In the second stage, structured interviews were conducted by the electronic survey via Google Forms, aimed to understand structured data generation.

Semi-structured Interview Questionnaire Background   

Education, qualification, training in planning/ urban development/ real estate/ transport planning Experience in planning transit projects Experience by organization type, project planning roles, years, etc.

Planning Views     

  

Have you seen land use impacts occur around transit investments? How? Why do you think land use impacts occur?

What types of land use impacts do you expect around transit investments?

How can planners predict land use impacts?

What are the characteristics of choosing a potential zone for Transit Oriented Development to impact lives, job opportunities, real estate development and pedestrian connectivity?

Have projects been tailored to promote the aforementioned types of development?

Whether or not you have planned any such projects. Have the results been what you/others expected?

How do you think incorporating principles of TOD will impact the overall plight of a city and its people? Based on what evidence?

Planning Experience    

How are the economic development criteria related to TOD? Has it played a role in any of your projects?

What does good land use planning entail?

What, according to you, are the design criterion needed to be incorporated to allow proper local land use planning?

Is there a role/responsibility that is currently not being fulfilled and is required to make TOD a reality in this country?

 

What do you consider/view as the key barrier(s) to implementing TOD in India?

What do you view as the biggest opportunity for implementing TOD both at a national level and in general?

Electronic Survey Questionnaire https://forms.gle/wbZMt6NK4gt7ZKuA6 This was the Google Form Survey that was circulated and responses were collected and further sorted in a graphical manner to understand the benefit of Transit Oriented Development, better and its effect on human lives on a daily basis.

As a result of the aforementioned methods of data collection, indicators of TOD were further categorized into five groups: •

Travel Behaviour- Parking and Traffic Flow

•

Travel Modes- Modes of transportation preferred

•

Economic- Public and Private Investments

•

Environmental- Air quality and energy use

•

Built environment- Design quality, pedestrian-friendliness, and land use

•

Social- Diversity, safety, and affordability

Sampling The respondents for this research were chosen by non-probability sampling (convenient and judgement sampling), only respondents who are knowledgeable about Transit Oriented Development were taken into account. The sample size for Stage I one-on-one interview is 10 and that of Stage II electronic media interview is 30. All the respondents are fairly knowledgeable on the chosen research topic.

3.2.2 Secondary Data Collection

In addition to the primary data collection methods, secondary methods of data collection were also implemented by the researcher to get a better view of cases around the world. Since a large scale, widespread survey is required to understand the functionalities and practicalities of TOD, which is an extremely demanding and burdensome task to be conducted, in this special case of the TOD research, the researcher has to frequently base their knowledge on acquired data from various sources in the forms of-

i. Published Papers/ Books/ Journals

Data collected from various published research papers, books and journals, featuring development stories of TOD, its design implementations, characteristics and matter that are to be taken into account while adopting it. The data, although not first-hand, are definitely from verified sources and will allow a comparative study of cases to understand and establish TOD at a national scale and its benefits on the society.

ii.Demographic Data/ Maps/ Charts/ Archival Data Graphical representation of data collected from surveys conducted by various sources in the form of Station Area Planning maps of cities that have successfully implemented TOD, graphs showing before and after implementation cases, etc. which in turn will give scope for further developing upon TOD principles and altering them as per local needs and requirements to make the model functionefficiently.

iii. Internet Case Studies Case studies that are physically not possible to be conducted can provide with equally important research material, and hence, the materials collected from the internet are taken into account, and referenced with further authors and their respective papers.

Chapter 4 4. Data Collection This chapter presents the primary and secondary data collection for this research.

4.1 Primary Data 4.1.1 Physical Survey- Case Study of Tollygunge Rapid Transit Corridor Survey Location: Tollygunge Transit Hub City: Kolkata The Tollygunge Transit Corridor is a major public transit hub with more than 5 types of public transit options originating from this area. The central Tollygunge intersection is a fourway crossing zone that is home to The Metro Railway Station- Mahanayak Uttam Kumar; 4 major auto-rickshaw routes- connecting Tollygunge with Behala, Kudghat, Garia, and Hazra Moore; The Tollygunge Tram Depot and the Tollygunge Bus Rapid Transit System connecting Tollygunge with Garia-Patuli region, Howrah, via Exide Moore, and Salt Lake; and Taxis/Cabs also originate in a huge number from here.

Figure 7(a,b,c,d)- Tollygunge Auto Routes to aforementioned connecting areas (Source: Author)

BRTS Corridor Public transportation in Kolkata is provided by both surface and underground railway transit, trams and bus transit systems. The bus transit system is in the form of buses and minibuses, operated by both government and private agencies, which include 71 CSTC (Calcutta State Transport Corporation), 30 CTC (Calcutta Tram Company), 144 private and 98 mini bus (private) routes in the city. In addition, there are also a few WBSTC (West Bengal Surface Transport Corporation) and SBSTC (South Bengal State Transport Corporation) bus routes.

(WBTC- Pathadisha Website) Most of the bus routes in Kolkata are oriented towards the CBD- BBD Bagh,as shown in Fig 8 and 9, below.

Figure 8- Map showing road networks across Kolkata (Source: WBTC- Pathadisha Website)

Figure 9- Map showing proposed BRT routes in Kolkata (Source: WBTC- Pathadisha Website)

Figure 10 (a,b,c,d) Images showing BRTS corridors crossing at the Tollygunge Transit Hub (Source: Author)

MRTS Corridor The Kolkata Metro is a mass rapid transit system serving the city of Kolkata in West Bengal, India. As of February 2021, it has two operational lines, a 31.36 km line from Dakhineshwar to Kavi Shubhash, and a 7.205 km line from Salt Lake Sector V to Phoolbagan, for a total of 39.565 km. Four other lines are in various phases of construction.

The system has a mix of underground, at-grade and elevated stations using both broadgauge and standard-gauge tracks.(KMDA, 2021) Line 1, or the North–South metro corridor, has a total length of 31.3 kilometres, serving 26 stations, of which 15 are underground, 9 are elevated and 2 at-grade. It uses the 5 ft 6 in (1,676 mm) broad gauge tracks. It was the first underground railway to be built in India, with the first trains running in October 1984 and the full stretch that had been initially planned completed and operational by February 1995. The southward extension of Line 1 to

an elevated corridor from Tollygunge to New Garia was constructed and opened in two phases- Mahanayak Uttam Kumar to Kavi Nazrul in 2009 and Kavi Nazrul to Kavi Subhash in 2010. Another extension constructed was the 2.59 km elevated corridor from Dum Dum to Noapara in 2013. The last 4.13 km extension from Noapara to Dakshineswar opened in 2021. (KMDA, 2021)

Figure 11- Image showing the entire Metro Corridor running across the city of Kolkata (Source: KMDA)

Mahanayak Uttam Kumar Metro Station is an at-grade station of the Kolkata Metro Line 1.

Side platform doors of the metros open on the Left hand side.

Table 2- Table explaining SAP of the Tollygunge Metro Station

G

P

Street Level

Exit/Entrance Fare control, station agent, metro card vending machines, crossovers

Southbound Platform 2 Northbound Platforms 1A,B

Netaji Rabindra Sarovar

Station Area The station has been named after Uttam Kumar, one of the most famous names of Indian Bengali Cinema.The Tollygunge Golf Club is on the west side of the station, the Royal Calcutta Golf Club lies less than a kilometre to the east andITC Sangeet Research Academy is a short distance south along Deshapran Sashmal Road at Netaji Subash Chandra Bose Road.

Figure 12(a,b)- Images showing Station Area of Mahanayak Uttam Kumar Metro Stoppage (Source: Author)

The Mahanayak Uttam Kumar Metro Station sits over a huge area with 4 major gateways into the Metro Station, and one subway that connects the Tollygunge Phaari crossing with the Metro Station Building. The entire frontier of the station is lined with miniature landscaped gardens and the whole stretch of the metro station corridor is filled with stalls or shops, selling various types of commodities like, fast food stalls, fruit vendors, textile stores, ATM Branches and even a branch of Indian Bank, all lined up along the Station Area Layout.

Figure 13(a,b)- Images showing Taxi Bays and Station Area (Source: Author)

Figure 14(a,b)- Images showing Station Area Layout of Mahanayak Uttam Kumar Metro Stop with Landscaped Gardens and stretches of Hawker Stalls (Source: Author)

After a short conversation with the members of the Hawkers’ Union at Tollygunge, it was noted that the stalls and shops started coming around the early 2000s, and the location was an obvious choice considering the prime position that it became post the construction of the Metro Station. A huge number of daily metro commuters get on and off at this stop, making it a vibrant location choice to develop a small business district zone. Earlier the stalls restricted to selling fast food items, refreshments, fruits, etc. Later on, shops came up selling items like clothes, books, gadgets. By 2005, there were ATMs of 3 banks and a small bank came up by the station, as well. The hub now houses repairing stores, beauty shops, parlours, sweet shops, and small cafes have also sprung up around the station.

Figure 15(a,b,c,d)- Images showing Hawkers, Stalls and Shops around the Metro Station Area (Source: Author)

Tram Line Corridor Tram route of 24/29 serves the Tollygunge Transit Hub region, originating from what is called The Tollygunge Tram Depot. Kolkata’s Tram Network is the oldest serving and existing network operating in India and Asia. Started in 1902, there are 7 operating lines across the city, 5 in suspension, and 28 currently closed, with a daily ridership of 15,000 passengers. (Calcutta Tramways Company, 2021) There used to be a total of 257 trams under the Calcutta Tramways Company (the operators of Kolkata Trams), with 35 trams currently still in operation. The Tollygunge Depot started operating in 1903, and is still currently operating as a tram and bus depot, serving routes 29, 32. It runs from Tollygunge to Ballygunge Station, via Deshapran Sashmal Road, Rashbehari Avenue, and Gariahat, covering a total of 5.50 kms. (KMDA, 2021)

Figure 16(a,b,c)- Tollygunge Tram Depot (Source: Author)

A detailed physical survey of the Tollygunge Region shows that with its compact, multifaceted transit options, has the potential to be a vibrant Transit Oriented Development based community, but still has a long way to go with the development of proper sidewalks, riddance of traffic during rush hours, and providing walking and cycling as an option to the

community. Most of the available transit options of the Tollygunge Area are quite cheap modes of transport and hence, are preferred by the masses, more than private vehicles, taxis or app cabs. Although, shared cab facilities have also come up over the years, and are a far more coveted transit option, compared to the private cabs/app cabs.

Figure 17- Graphic showing the illustrated Tollygunge Crossing Area with its various transit options (Source: Author)

4.1.2 Telephonic Interview Interview 1 Interviewee: Ar. Tahir Noronha Current Position: Researcher and Convenor at Charles Correa Foundation, Panaji, Goa Q. Brief me about your educational background, qualifications, or training in urban development/ planning.

- I am an architect by training, but over the last three and a half years I have been working on urban projects in CCF and especially CCF has this knowledge partnership with the municipal

corporation. So, I am a member of the City Project and Traffic Management Committee, as well. My knowledge regarding traffic management and transit planning mostly comes from urban projects that I have worked on, and by interacting with stakeholders. I don’t have a formal training in it.

Q. Is there a particular role/responsibility that is not currently being fulfilled? You can explain with respect to the current condition of Goa. - The state and the municipal corporation both lack the technical capacity to deal with any sort of transit related issue. They don’t have a single trained planner or even anybody who has a formal experience in transit. Thus, all transit related proposals come from consultants, who are hired on the basis of some minister or which secretaries win in the elections. The projects, which are really very few, are never done with an intention of solving the mobility issue. It’s always done as a requirement to cater to a larger project, and then when the consultant’s reports come in, there is nobody who has the technical capacity to even access if the report is correct or not.

Q. Do you believe that encouraging TOD in Goa might help with the economic development, job opportunities, or connectivity, in general?

- Yes, definitely, because Goa is grossly lacking in public transport, for example, we do have amongst all states of India, the highest per capita car ownership. What happens is presently transit is an afterthought. Roads are getting overburdened, we are promoting more and more private vehicles. The city of Panjim, for example, it’s a city of around 1lakh 5 thousand people, there are 28 public buses, that serves the population- that’s it. It is appallingly low and there is no other mode of transit in the city, except for private taxis and private vehicles.

There is a ferry port, that one serves a very limited slots and section of the population, and it only goes up and down the river- once you get off the ferry port, you again need a vehicle to go anywhere. So, to have a transit-centric proposal would definitely bring a lot of value to Goa, because Goa is largely dependent on tourism for its revenue, and in the absence of affordable mobility options, tourists are also opting to bring their vehicles, or even opting to rather visit another place.

Q. What do you believe can good land use planning entail?

- Much of the country, I believe, has moved on from land use planning to transportation-led value planning, and we are moving into environmental planning with transport services and

land use, or plugging into a larger environmental management plan because of the climate change disaster, etc. We, in Goa, had one progressive plan which was the regional plan for Goa led by Charles Correa, in 2009, but what happened there was, he blocked out the environmental assets, but then the state government came in and overlooked transit and went into the land use bit. What we do need for Goa, and we need it now, more than ever, for oneis to equip our government with people who understand transport systems, and two- to start thinking about our cities, through the lengths of not only transport, but rather problems that come hand-in-hand with transit oriented development.

Q. What do you consider to be the biggest barrier of implementing TOD in Goa, or even in the country?

- I can’t say for the rest of the country, but in Goa, it is political will and it is because the private taxis pick up a huge vote bank. There are so many of them, and they are all local voters, so minister has the guts to make a move that will slightly anger them. I have seen one of the bigger gunda ministers, who is the MLA of Baga, who is super influential (details were not permitted to be divulged), I have seen him sit quietly when the taxi union come for meetings. So, if some of the most rash and outspoken MLAs are silenced by the taxi lobbies, we can imagine how hard it can be to propose development in such a scenario. We need somebody to look beyond one’s voters and to start thinking about the mobility approach that may need to be slightly socialist in nature. That’s the only way to drive a change in Goa, at least. The government has to be ready to spend its own money and it may put some people out of their business in the short-term, but in the long-term it will open up so much more investments and opportunities by allowing many more tourists and locals to move around more easily. In the long-term, it is my opinion that this will be a much better return on investment.

Interview 2 Interviewee: Arup Kanti Ghosh Current Position: Senior Project Manager and Civil Engineer at Public Works Department, Kolkata, West Bengal Q. Brief me about your educational background, qualifications, or training in urban development/ planning.

- I am a civil engineer by training and education and have been working at the State Public Works Department for 26 years and am a Senior Project Manager, currently. I have collaborated on Transit Oriented Projects, proposed by the State Development Authority, a few times.

Q. Why do you think land use impacts occur? And, how can TOD impact it, according to you?

- Land use impacts occur constantly and at many scales, and can have specific and cumulative effects on air and water quality, watershed function, generation of waste, extent and quality of wildlife habitat, climate, and human health. It is the criteria based on which the type of construction and type of utilisation of a particular piece of land is decided.

Transportation planning decisions influence land use directly, by affecting the amount of land used for transport facilities, and indirectly, by affecting the location and design of development. For example, expanding urban highways increases pavement area, and encourages more dispersed, automobile-oriented development (sprawl), while walking, cycling and public transit improvements encourage compact, infill development (smart growth).

Q. What are the characteristics of choosing a potential zone for Transit Oriented Development?

- It can be on the basis of economic land value. Consisting of value of land devoted to transportation facilities, land use accessibility, transportation costs, property values, costs to provide public services, connectivity with the rest of the city, pedestrian or cycle-friendly environment, multi-modal interchange, etc.

It can be on the basis of social characteristics. Consisting of relative accessibility for different groups of people, impacts on equity and opportunity, community cohesion, cultural resources, housing affordability, etc.

It can be on the basis of environmental factors, like, availability of greenspace, hydrologic impacts, energy consumption, het island effects, pollution emissions, etc.

Q. How is the economic development criteria related to TOD, according to you?

- It will most importantly promote higher densities and the concentration of jobs within relatively small areas, TOD creates agglomeration effects proven to boost a city’s competitiveness.Compact urban development and high-quality public transit also mutually reinforce each other: mass transit can support the large passenger flows that come with high density development, while the concentration of jobs and housing around stations helps make public transport financially viable.

Q. Is there a particular role/responsibility that is not currently being fulfilled?

- Without an extensive knowledge base, TOD remains vulnerable to three reoccurring implementation challenges: coordinated planning, regulatory frameworks and project funding.An absence of supportive TOD policies in cities has prevented progress by creating isolated areas of development with little foresight for long-term growth. TOD projects require policies that permit high-density and mixed-use developments, often supported by formbased codes that respond quickly to changing economic patterns and space needs. Without local mechanisms in place for land redevelopment, TOD is restricted by national regulations and financial constraints.Because TOD is a capital-intensive venture, initial funding for largescale projects is difficult for many cities to secure.

Q. What does good land use planning entail?

- Planning has to be compact. With proper zoning for different purpose oriented facilities.

Proper separation in between industrial, commercial, educational and even separation of amenities like treatment plants, sewage all compacted into one particular zone. Everything has to be accessible within a walking distance, if not, at least cycling distance, or a radius of 3-4 kms. There has to be proper balance areas in between the zones- like parks or any sort of green spaces, shall be environment-friendly with water treatment facilities, access of electricity from grids, promotion of rain-water harvesting all agglomerated in one zone of good land use planning.

4.1.3 Electronic Survey From a Google Form survey that was conducted and further circulated among people whose daily lives have been impacted in some way or the other by Transit Oriented Development, the following data was collected.

How long does it take for you to reach your workplace/institute? (Time) 34 responses

Ridership Time

Below an Hour

1-2 Hours

Above 3 Hours

What is the average amount (money) that you spend on your daily commute on a regular basis?

31 responses

Ridership Cost

< Rs 100

Rs 100-200

Rs 300 and above

4.2 Secondary Data 4.2.1 Case Study: Curitiba, Brazil- Transforming City with Bus Transit

Facts and Figures Population/Land Area= 1750 million/435km2 Municipal Budget= USD 2.3 million

Figure 18- Map of Brazil showing Curitiba (Source: Google Images)

Curitiba 'is singled out among Third World cities because of the innovative, efficient and cost-effective ways in which it has addressed issues of urban transportation, land use and sustainability.' (Irazabal, 2005) In the mid-1960s, to keep pace with Curitiba’s surge in population, traffic congestion, and uncontrolled urban sprawl, the city shifted its urban planning strategy from a radial growth pattern to a linear model with Transit Oriented Development at its core. Through coupling land-use and transport planning, the city has substantially reduced its carbon footprint, while boosting the quality of urban life.

Background In the 1960s, the city of Curitiba turned the challenges of increased urbanization and private vehicle use into opportunities for integrated land-use and transport planning. By adopting a Transit Oriented Development (TOD) approach, the city, in cooperation with the Institute of Urban Planning and Research of Curitiba (IPPUC), created vibrant, high-density, mixed-use communities along mass public transport corridors through a series of strategic incremental steps. As a result, TOD enabled the city to reduce downtown traffic congestion and urban sprawl. The city’s forward-thinking efforts have made Curitiba a global model in lowcarbon urban development practices. TOD has improved quality of life and access to public space for the city’s residents and has helped make the streets of Curitiba pedestrian friendly. This people-oriented method of urban and transport planning is highly applicable for cities that are increasing in population and have limited financial capital to implement the necessary infrastructure reforms.

Curitiba in Context The City of Curitiba, the capital of the Brazilian state of Paraná, has a population of 1.8 million inhabitants living within an area of 430 km². The city is home to strong industry, commerce and service sectors, and boasts a higher per capita GDP and lower rates of unemployment than the majority of other Brazilian cities. Curitiba is also known as Brazil’s “ecological capital”; a title it earned following decades of prudent urban planning practices which were supported by strong political will. Yet every environmental triumph is born out of a challenge, and the challenges which produced Curitiba’s successes were complex.

Between 1955 and 1975, the city grew from 350,000 to 940,000 inhabitants (IBGE; IBGE, 2010). The continuous influx of inhabitants forced the city to prioritize a strategy for longtermsustainable growth.

Curitiba’s TOD Implementation Curitiba’s TOD is anchored in a phase-based approach to low-carbon urban development, emphasizing structured urban development and sound transport policy in order to guarantee compact, liveable communities, and to develop the infrastructure needed to support the growth of the system over time. i. Axis marks the spot: The cornerstone of Curitiba’s planning reformation in 1972 was predicated upon promoting density with the axes of the City (marked primarily in red, purple and orange, right). These corridors serve as the city’s main transport arteries. To realize this transformation, the City implemented zoning and land-use regulations to foster the creation of high density mixed-use neighbourhoods along the main public transport corridors.

Figure 19- Curitiba's axes, showing high density zones marked in red (Source: niua.org)

ii. Zoning for mixed-use, walkable neighbourhoods: the Plan zoned and set a requirement that a minimum of 50 percent of ground and second floors along transit corridors be devoted to shops, restaurants and commercial services in order to create lively, socially equitable and prosperous neighbourhoods. Additionally, the city mandated inclusive zoning for Special Social Interest Housing Sectors for low-income residents and a Jobs Route Zone, in order to boost economic activity. As a means of increasing walkability, the city zoned specific carfree areas of the city, such as downtown Curitiba, for pedestrian use. iii. Densifying density:Designating high density residential and commercial zones along the North-South and Northeast-West axes set a course for future development. In 1975, limited density in the peripheral residential zone led the city to promote residency along structural corridors. To optimize land use, the city mandated specific floor area ratios (FARs) for four out of its five corridors at 6:1 (later modified to 5:1), and 4:1 for medium-to-high density

areas surrounding the axis in close proximity to transit routes. Development also incentivized via density bonuses and transfer development rights which enabled building owners in areas with lower densities, such as historic zones to sell or transfer development rights to those in high-density zones.

The Transport System Curitiba’s transport system is based around the BRT concept (Bus Rapid Transit) and is the first place globally to plan their transport system around this concept. The concept includes a system of bus route networks, primarily on a design of corridors. The corridors lead out from the city centre and urban development occurred along these corridors (Macedo, 2013). The BRT meets the needs of the five main routes along the corridors, and then standard buses for in the city centre and the circular route and if passengers wish to travel between these corridors, or away from the corridors to more residential areas, they do so with mini buses.

This is known as a hierarchical system, by which the importance of the route or business decides what size vehicle the route has. (Mercier et. al, 2014)

Figure 20- Map showing Curitiba's BRT network (Source: Sustainable Cities)

Along with the hierarchical planning of the bus network, they also have priority roads for the buses and road plans, to make sure the network is efficient and on time (Macedo, 2013). The fundamental idea is central bus only lane, one face towards the city and one away. Then on either side of this bus lane is one way traffic for normal traffic. There are lanes for quicker

and slower traffic. The whole reason for this trinary road system is so that the traffic is efficient and should reduce traffic jams. This isn't normally the case, but the road system does keep the buses moving and this therefore keeps the transport system reliable. (Smith and Raemaekers, 1998)

Figure 21- Image showing Curitiba's compact and vibrant BRT system network (Source: Observe The City)

The single fare they pay, for through the network and can have unlimited transfers to other buses at the terminals,where other routes cross over. These transfers take place in a section of the terminal which the prepaid section. This means that transfer tickets are not required and can make the process of transferring quick and efficient. The single ticket fare they pay is equivalent to around 40 US cents(Goodman et. al, 2007). Bus stops or terminals are also aimed at saving time. There are raised off the ground and in line with the doors of the main BRT buses. They are cylinder shaped and you enter by walking up a set of stairs. They are also accessible by wheelchairs by specialised lifts (Taniguchi, 2001).

Figure 22- Different densities and traffic directions along Curitiba's structural axes (Source: ResearchGate)

Passengers pay open arrival to the terminal, and then walk through the turnstiles, another time saving method. Once the bus arrives, a ramp walkway meets the terminal and passengers the cross over onto the bus. An average time of 15 to 19 seconds a bus waits at the terminal for passengers to board (Goodman et. al, 2007). This low price and efficient system mean 85% of the population use the network (Baker, 2011).

Figure 23- Bus Terminals, Curitiba, Brazil (Source: Google Images)

Another aspect of the city which is praised, is the green space. It is said there is 52 square metres of green space per head of the population. There are 28 parks and small forested areas.

Most of it is on the edge of the city, and is maintained and protected as it is funded by federal money for flood control. In an effort to protect against flooding the city create small dams across the river, this creates lakes and parks, which can be used by the Curitiba population (Baker, 2011). Curitiba's transport is heralded as a success due to its planning from as early 1965, and its constant process of adapting to meet its needs and continue to make it efficient.

However, with increasing populations the next few years will highlight if the transport system can continue to cope, not only with people but also if it can continue to only charge one price range (Macedo, 2013).

Figure 24- Parkland on the edge of the city (Source: Google Images)

Figure 25- Bus Stops, Curitiba (Source: Issuu)

Land Use Planning Several land-use policies emerged in the city which helped to bring out the best of the “trinary road system”. These included: • The master plan allows only high-rise (10 to 20 story buildings) and mixed development along the BRT corridors. Also, large-scale shopping centres are only allowed in transit corridors.

• Land within two blocks of the bus-way has been zoned for mixed commercial-residential uses. Beyond these two blocks, zoned residential densities taper with distance from the busways. It brings together various land-uses in walkable areas within short distances from the transit station.

• The zoning prescribed by the structural axes has a combination of control and incentives.

This includes various bonuses to develop as planned; incentives to transfer development rights; firm control over location of large scale development (such as large shopping centres); provision of incentives to developers to increase residential density close to the transit corridors; and development of transit terminals with a wide range of facilities.

Parking Policies Parking policies have assisted in shaping travel demand, particularly to/from the central area in Curitiba. Some policies are

On-street parking is limited in location and duration



City’s central area is partially closed to vehicular traffic



Off-street parking is expensive



Within structural corridors, development must provide off-street parking

4.2.2 Case Study: Tokyo, Japan- Collaboration between Rail and Land Development

Facts and Figures Population/Land Area= 13.49 million/2191km2 Municipal Budget= ¥6 million

Figure 26- Map of Japan showing Tokyo (Source: Google Images)

Tokyo’s public transportation serves the purpose of connecting suburbs and the central city through its railway network. Urban areas around railway stations are generally pedestrian oriented and high density mixed-use area of retail, commercial and office uses. TOD in Tokyo is characterised by private transit operators building high density suburbs along their transit lines to boost ridership. In Tokyo, the government encouraged private sector to operate urban transit along with state-owned transit operators with no operational subsidies, but a free market for the transit and real estate sector.

Background Tokyo is the capital and most populous city of Japan. Its population is estimated to be 13.49 million, constituting a whopping 11% of Japan’s net population. At 2191 sq. km, the area of Tokyo is 0.6% of the total area of Japan and the city has a population density of 6158 people/sq. km. (Tokyo Metropolitan Governtment, 2016) Rail is a major mode of transportation in the city, with 48% of the trips carried out on trains.

The city has a substantial rail network that includes two loop lines in the central area. Most of central Tokyo is within walking distance from a station, 23% trips are walk trips and 14% are by bicycle, making the trains and subways indispensable to economic and human activity.

Tokyo’s rail system is considerably advanced with respect to railway density and development of the subway network. In Tokyo’s ward area, 9.18 million people a day use this

subway network to move around the city. Trains are operated on a precise, high density schedule, including trains operating on time at intervals of 2-3 minutes, during peak commuting hours. A daily 2.46 million of these people use Toei Subway (operated by TMG Bureau of Transportation). (Tokyo Metropolitan Governtment, 2016)

Figure 27- Tokyo Rail and Subway Network (Source: Issuu)

Post World War II Japan government privatised the Japan National Railway (JNR). JNR then operated every network except the monorail and city metro. Tokyo’s metropolitan government granted exclusive franchises to private railway conglomerates so as to transfer the financial burden to the private sector. This created a close collaboration of railway and real estate. Post privatisation the JNR was able to pay its debt and make profit. Following the success of this integration in railways, the metro within the city was also privatised.

The Japan Railway (JR) Group lies at the heart of Japan’s railway network, operating a large proportion of intercity rail service (including the Shinkansen - high-speed rail lines) and commuter rail service. JR East is the biggest operator of railway passenger lines in the city. It is also the largest passenger railway company in the world. Besides the Shinkansen and the Monorail, the most prominent line of JR East is the JR Yamanote Line, a circle line which connects Tokyo’s multiple city centres. It also operates JR East commuter lines that radiate from Tokyo to its suburbs. There are several other private railway networks that also operate in Tokyo. Among these are Keikyu with 5 lines, Keio with 6 lines, Keisei with 7 lines,

Odakyu with 3 lines, Seibu with 13 lines, Tobu with 12 lines, Tokyo with 8, for a total of 55 non-JR lines serving Tokyo Prefecture.

The Tokyo subway network has a total of 13 lines operated by two companies – the Tokyo Metro and Toei. In 2015, the combined subway network of the Tokyo and Toei metros comprised of 285 stations over a total system length of 304.1 km and carried a combined average of over 8 million passengers daily (Tokyo Metropolitan Bureau of Transportation).

Figure 28- Railway Hub, Tokyo (Source: niua.org)

Figure 29- Tokyo Rail System (Source: niua.org)

Collaboration between Rail and Real Estate Tokyo is transit-oriented in both regional and station area terms. TOD in Tokyo is characterised by private transit operators building high density suburbs along their transit

lines to boost ridership; and in Tokyo commuters from each station can access most daily services on foot. They used land consolidation techniques to assemble farmlands at cheap prices ahead of rail construction to finance neighbourhood infrastructure. Under this, the landowners formed cooperatives that consolidate land (often irregular shaped) and the developers returned a small (almost rectangular) but developed and fully serviced parcel to the land owners. Roads, drainage, sewerage, parks and other facilities were funded by selling the extra reserved land contributed by the cooperative members. This technique reduced the risk of acquiring land.

A major reason behind the success of Tokyo’s private rail lines is the diversification of the business beyond transportation into real estate holdings and retail outlets. This means both profitability for the company and better transportation for city residents. Government regulation of fares coupled with limited subsidies for railway operations pushed the private railways to innovate and diversify into a wide variety of related businesses. Due to long-term interest in the communities, they built along their rail lines, the private railways provided valuable social benefits through public transportation while still capturing the profits. High quality frequent rail service to dense, mixed-use, safe, pedestrian-friendly developments allowed Tokyo to achieve enviable rates of public transit usage and given its citizens the freedom to view automobile ownership as a lifestyle choice rather than a necessity.

Figure 30- Tokyo Rail Network Map (Source: JR East Group)

Currently, 8 private companies are operating the rail network in Tokyo. The integration of real estate has been expanded into construction and operation of department stores at terminal stations as well as putting in tourist attractions along the route.

Shibuya Station Shibuya Station is a terminal station served by four railway companies - JR, Tokyo Metro, and Keio in addition to Tokyo Corporation. The area around the station has office buildings, commercial facilities, schools, parks, and other facilities. These include facilities operated by the Tokyo Group, including tourist spot. Large-scale urban development projects, which are aimed at further increasing the attractiveness of the town, are planned to be implemented in the area around the station. They include the construction of high-rise buildings, including commercial and office buildings, and the construction of pathways and decks for optimising the convenience and comfort of people.

Figure 31- Shibuya Station (Source: Wikipedia)

Chapter 5 5. Data Analysis 5.1.1 Lessons Learnt- Curitiba 

Long term vision, strong leadership and flexibility in the plan has led to the success of TOD in Curitiba. By utilising the existing corridors for BRT and adopting measures to intensify development along these corridors, Curitiba established a public transit system at relatively low cost. Through the use of public transportation and land-use instruments, the local governments effectively directed population growth to establish compact dense settlements independent of private vehicles.



The decision to rely on buses was perceived as a more flexible and affordable public transport solution than rail transit for a medium-sized developing city of Curitiba.

Both the development of the city and the bus rapid transit system are the result of policies established over the last 30 years on land-use, parkway, transit management and operations, and community participation in the city. But, in recent years Curitiba’s BRT is facing issues due to road accidents, opposition to high fares and thereby decrease in ridership. URBS, the city agency in charge of managing the system, has failed to adapt to changes in usage patterns and evolving demographics.

Curitiba’s planning method concentrates on the formal city, not considering the “region”, leaving thousands of low-income residents with no choice but to establish illegal settlements in the absence of affordable housing. This also makes most of the planning interventions that Curitiba is known for – public parks and green spaces, pedestrian streets, preservation of the historic district – inaccessible to many of the suburban (and usually lower income) residents.



The highest density in Curitiba’s TOD zone is 294 persons/hectare or 93 DUs/hectare indicating to a household size of 3.1 members. The same density in India translates to 418 persons/hectare. Curitiba also illustrates the significance of a feeder system to support the main transit system. Clearly, many of the larger Indian cities already have the densities to sustain a TOD along existing transit corridors. But a strong last mile connectivity network is lacking in many parts of the country. (Mahadevia, Joshi & Datey, 2013)

5.1.2 Lessons Learnt- Tokyo 

Two things are critical for successful urban transit in Tokyo: First, seamless integration of service between different transit operators. Second, encouraging private firms to operate urban transit along with state-owned transit operators(Murtaza, 2013). Japan has a completely free transportation market. The private companies even receive low-interest construction loans, subject to price controls and rolling stock protection. The strategy of allowing rail operators to venture into real estate helped the operators to make profits in spite of price control and thereby provide the commuters with good quality mobility options at affordable rates.



The privatisation worked well for the Tokyo metropolis region but the regional cities are facing a declining demographic trend(Smith, 2011). Since late 1990’s, the land ownership pattern has changed and the changing demographic pattern shows fall in birth rate and an aging population. This has reduced the demand for new construction.

To share the risk of the real estate market, the private rail developers now partner with the third parties for large scale development. They are also entitled to receive significant subsidies of the capital cost for rail development. These subsides further reduce the risk involved in large scale investment and helps the developers to enter the Rail market.



In the parts of railway shared by government and private operators in partnership, they share tracks, transit stations, fares, and fare collection systems. A hassle-free transition from one system to another makes the functioning smooth in Tokyo.



Availability of a free market for the rail sector encouraged the private players to enter into the system. Even though subsidies are prevalent for construction, most private operators in Japan do not receive any operating subsidy from the government, while price controls are exercised by the government. Land development along the rail corridor and transit stations for residential and recreational use has helped keep private transit operators profitable and free of government subsidies for operation.

5.2 Deductions Rapid economic growth and urbanization have led to problem of congestion, traffic jams, load on infrastructure, pollution, etc. The type and size of building blocks and the type and width of streets vary in different parts of cities. The limited road capacity and the increase in automobiles and population have resulted in delays and contamination. A sustainable strategy

is required to maintain the economic growth and alleviate the problems arising due to the growth.

The studies so far concluded that at least some, or all of the TOD components- Design, Density and Diversity exists in and around transit stations. A mix of uses, mix of income, and a 24hour environment are created by a mix of uses, a network of streets, and population density in the areas around some transit stations. Therefore, the density and diversity components are already existing because the transit systems are being introduced in cities with fairly high population densities.

The TOD analysis in the Indian context concluded that although the population densities around the newly introduced transit systems, maybe adequate for transit ridership, accessibility to transit and multi-modal connectivity is lacking. The strategies do not address immediate and short-term solutions for generating transit ridership and moving people away from private vehicles towards the use of public transportation.

From the extensive case studies from around the world, we can conclude that TOD not only encourages use of non-motorized transportation, by integrating land use but also provides a balanced approach to accommodating growth. It creates compact, sustainable urban form and enhances local development, promoting further sustainable infrastructure. Locations with access to transit can enjoy increases in land values in comparison to locations, away from transit stops. By creating active spaces that are busy through the day and evening – TOD helps in increasing safety for pedestrians, transit users, and many others. TOD in the States has focussed on catalysing development along transit-oriented corridors. The strategies have been incorporated on an ongoing basis and specific targets have been introduced for enhancing development, transit accessibility, and ridership.

Since rapid transit is a new phenomenon in Indian cities, strategies for densification of development, along transit corridors, encouraging compact development and enhancing transit accessibility and ridership are just being introduced.

Chapter 6 6. Key Findings and Answer to Research Questions 6.1 Key Findings and Research Takeaways

Benefits Challenges   

Complexity and Sequencing Coordination and Trust Funding and Finance

   

Service and Job Accessibility Efficient Use of Infrastructure Traffic Relief Household and Local Business Income

Local Energy Benefits Promoting dense, mixed-use neighbourhoods also leads to more balanced energy demand profiles throughout the day compared with single-use residential or commercial districts. It is therefore also beneficial for local clean energy initiatives, as well as district heating and cooling networks.

The uniqueness of the application of these approaches to TOD lies in the flexibility and incremental possibilities to apply them to the various typologies of TOD; the node/station, the corridor, the city and subsequently the region. This is evident from the implementations of TOD at various scales globally.

Figure 32- Takeaways from TOD Components (Source: Author)

The principles supported by these TOD constructs are: 

Presence of high-quality transit system (Metro, Suburban Rail, Bus Rapid Transit) serving an inner city or a peri-urban area for TOD realization. A TOD implementation around a highway corridor without any public transit might adhere to principles of TOD or New Urbanism but is neither a TOD implementation nor a sustainable land-usetransportation implementation.



High density of jobs and households within a small development and subsequent scaling of this to a city and region can help in reducing the urban footprint and slowing down some of the undesired consequences of sprawl. A higher provision of public green spaces and higher quality of building aesthetics and urban design is required to match the high densities.



Emphasis on non-motorized modes (bicycle and pedestrian) of transportation to generate higher transit ridership. Higher the quality of these facilities, higher are the chances that people living in TODs will use public transit. These modes are also important if jobs and housing are supported within the same development.



Development control and planning regulations need to be aligned to enhancing the experience of pedestrian and public spaces. Hence parking reform management, street design, building facade regulations, green cover regulations need to be looked at, in any TOD implementation.



Resource efficiency and inclusion are cross-cutting emerging themes that underlie any dense TODs. This prioritizes public transport over private transport, incentives the mix of jobs and affordable housing and emphasizes the uses of sustainable materials and practices for neighborhood development.



Land assembly and private sector partnership for raising resources needed are essential for implementing a TOD, especially in existing dense, inner core areas of Indian cities.

Therefore, these cannot be ignored while developing the framework.

Similar components occur in different constructs across the multiple adoptions, possibly because of the interconnectedness between the constructs. The focus, then, rightly so, is on addressing the principles of those components, rather than placing them within the construct.

6.2 Answer to Research Questions Q: What are the design criterion for TOD both at macro and micro levels?

A: The integration of transport and urban development by TOD method is however a complex challenge to accomplish. The different scales of TOD implementation are: 1. Macro Level 2. Micro Level To understand more about the scale, each of the level can be divided into following action scales: Macro Level 1. Urban Scale A sustainable urban area has a strong relation- ship with its urban footprint and is also linked to the existing city structure and services. At this scale, integral links are focused

which are - physical, political, economical, environmental, and social. Apparently between the urban area and the remaining of the city or metropolitan area. (Sarmiento et. al) Predominantly residential district with good access to regional and sub-regional centres. Density vary from moderate to high with ac- cess to employment and commercial use.

2. Suburban Scale Each neighborhood within a sustainable urban area must recognize its relationship with other regions, and specially, with their suburban areas. The way in which they interconnect, through the creation of economic, social, environmental and mobility networks, creates a function in a complementary way at a larger scale. It is a significant center of economic and cultural activity with regional scale destination. Most of the transport modes are used to access this area. Mostly it takes 5-15 minutes from periphery of the city to reach here. Density vary from moderate to high with the mix of residential, commercial, employment and cultural uses.

Micro Level 1. Neighborhood Scale The neighbourhoods are generally defined as the area in the circle of 600-metre radius covered basically by pedestrian and cyclists (which corresponds to a 10-minute walk). To develop the intervention area, the public transit station must be considered as the origin point of the pedestrian and cycling radius (Sarmiento et. al) It can also be sometimes Transit town centre. With high density around it and access to all means of transport like regional trains and buses with local transportation.

2. Road Scale/ Mixed Use Corridor An urban area where different aspects of daily life interconnect is called street. All streets must accommodate multiple usage and activities in addition to mobility network, which are: spaces for cultural exchanges, political, social, recreational, and asset-related.

Furthermore, it is an access point to public and private transit, and the primary access point to city/ urban area information (Sarmiento et. al). Local focus of economic and community activity happens on street without any distinct centre. The transport systems

used are Light railways, BRT system or local buses. The density along this corridor is high serving housing and commercial demands.

3. Site Level This is the case when redevelopment is needed on site level or it is the case when land is available near transit station and it can be used as a part of land use and transit development. The major focus in this is to develop connection with existing transit functions.

Design Guidelines for Community Engagement Every TOD project will influence a wide variety of people. New projects will need to consider the surrounding communities. In order to maintain good relations throughout a project’s lifespan, it is good to consider the following approaches: 

Start at the community level- Ask what the needs of current residents are and how a new project might serve them. First, go to neighbourhood association meetings and see if the community has already defined items for their neighbourhood like street lamps, bicycle parking, or other design standards.



Get a hold of the plan- Find the most recent comprehensive plan for the city, the neighbourhood association, or the corridor.



Identify neighbourhood needs- If a neighbourhood lacks greenspace, consider offering this in a new project. If the neighbourhood lacks day-care centres, consider building out a project with a ground floor which might encourage more businesses for childcare services.



Design with collaboration in mind- Chances are, there will be more than just one new TOD project in a district. Try to avoid including everything in a project. If a neighbouring business already has a coffee shop, first work with them rather than against them.

Design Criteria 1 The front door is a building’s first interaction with the public realm. Whether a building is residential, commercial, civic, or a combination of each, the front door placement will

influence a building in terms of safety and functionality. Front doors activate the ground floor and allows people to move in and out of a building.

Design Criteria 2 Vibrant urban areas necessarily have lots of public activity in close proximity to private space and buildings. A clear delineation and appropriate buffering helps the two coexist and benefit from each other. Thoughtful layering of public and private space will help balance freedom of movement and activity with order and safety.

Design Criteria 3 Residential urban environments should contain a combination of uniform and unique building characteristics. Buildings are uniform with structured rules such as setbacks, building height, materiality, street lamps, and street trees. Unique characteristics include windows, paint, accent materials, front doors, entrances, and facade options. Too much uniformity creates a sterile environment with little personality, yet too much uniqueness is random and can create chaos. A balance of both uniform and unique characteristics create the best urban environments, sometimes referred to as “an organized chaos”.

Design Criteria 4 Buildings footprints should be laid out with high consideration for a complimentary greenspace. Avoid placing greenspace and parks as an afterthought because the functionality and success of these spaces rely heavily on how well they are integrated within the project site. TOD acquired land will be highly valuable, so begin to think of ways to program the spaces inside for events, concerts, and festivals, and other monetary functions which can help to offset maintenance costs. When not in use for events, the spaces should be designed to give urban residents chances to enjoy outdoor space focused on quiet and comfort.

Design Criteria 5 Initially, every building has the potential for outdoor space on the roof. Many buildings avoid this due to costs and difficulty in watershed, yet rooftop decks prove to be highly successful spaces for restaurants, lounges, gardens, and pools. Consider implementing rooftop spaces into future projects when possible and follow the patterns of already successful rooftop

spaces. Consider creative ways to help fund these spaces, such as rentable garden space, public pool access, ticketed events, and restaurants.

Design Criteria 6 The facade is the face of a building, primarily the face that overlooks the largest right-of-way.

Historical midwestern facades were usually more narrow in nature and offered substantial variation in design along a short walk.

Design Criteria 7 Streetwalls refer to the physical wall created by the building’s frontages when they follow consistent setbacks along a city block. Streetwalls are important in creating walkable urban spaces which maximize TOD potential. Factors such as street trees, building height, road width, curb cuts, and surface lots will determine the success or failure of a streetwall.

Design Criteria 8 Trees can help to compliment a lacking streetwall, or substitute for one when building density is not achievable. In lower density residential areas, or in urban areas where one side of the street sits on water, or unbuildable land, street trees can achieve a similar effect to the streetwall.

Figure 33- Section showing placement of trees along streetwalls (Source: Author)

Design Criteria 9 Signage refers to any marketing, branding, and conveying of information to a business, neighbourhood, or district. Signs should follow standards of materiality, height, and style

(blade, wall, awning, etc.). A great sign creates a distinctive brand for a building. Design signs for the appropriate scale of transit.

Design Criteria 10 Public art helps to define a neighbourhood identity. Public art gives people a sense of place and attachment to a community. Public art comes in all shapes, sizes, and styles, ranging from a small painting to full scale interactive installations. Be sure to include some component of public art into future projects to engage the people to interact with the space.

Design Criteria 11 Streetscapes are all of the pedestrian amenities which exist along the sidewalks. Great urban spaces usually offer a higher amount of streetscape features, including street lamps, bike parking, outdoor seating, wayfinding, signage, awnings, planters, and waste bins just to name a few. Consider the following components around TOD station locations and how the selection of streetscape amenities could improve them.

Figure 34- Components of a Streetscape (Source: DRAFT Guidelines)

Design Criteria 12 Immediate station area buildings are those which will be directly by a BRT station. Many building uses are good for TOD, but immediate station areas should be even more specific, offering quick, high volume business services. These businesses should service the day to day needs of BRT commuters.

Design Criteria 13 Structured parking (also called parking garages) is preferred when parking is necessary in TOD. Structured parking allows for the most efficient use of limited space and should be integrated into a development to minimize its visibility in the streetwall. When structured parking must front the street, it should be wrapped with active uses or appropriately screened in a way that engages with and adds value to the public realm.

Design Criteria 14 Though efforts should be made to limit surface parking within TOD station areas, some lower density areas may require this arrangement. Surface parking should not conflict with pedestrian flow or transit circulation. No new surface parking should be allowed between the front of a building and the street.

Design Criteria 15 A curb cut exists any time the pedestrian sidewalk is intersected by an auto-oriented path and the paved path changes in height. This severely alters a continuous streetwall and increases the likelihood of collisions between automobiles and pedestrians. Reducing curb cuts improves the aesthetic, pedestrian friendliness of a site, and promotes safety by keeping pedestrian and automobile interactions to a minimum.

Q. What are the opportunities and challenges for transit-oriented development?

Opportunities Our cities are constantly changing and growing and a well-planned urban transport infrastructure is essential for a proper city functioning and its sustainable economic growth. It affects all the aspects of the urban life and ensures that our cities remain a quality place to live, work, invest and visit. Transit Oriented Development (TOD) is one of the winning solutions how to improve the urban infrastructure in a meaningful way.

By focusing development around transit facilities cities can significantly improve accessibility, ridership patterns and maximize the land value around the transit developments.

Other benefits include:



Improved access to jobs and economic opportunities for the low-income citizens



Potential for sustainable property value creation



Affordable housing



Reduced driving and car usage leading to lowered transport congestion and air pollution (43% less emissions than conventional suburban development)



Healthy and active lifestyle due to the development of walkable communities

In other words, Transit Oriented Development can be a solution to a variety of urban problems. From residential and commercial land use at high densities near transit stations to the improved access to jobs and other urban activities, as well as potentially linking unemployed to the job opportunities.

The success of any Transit Oriented Development depends on the effective use of implementation mechanisms for land-use planning, land value capture and travel demand management. By shaping the components of a TOD, these enablers link it with the larger city planning processes and goals. For example, the goal of creating active walkable streets would require an appropriate land-use mechanism which pushes for mixed use. Similarly, the goal of achieving the required building intensity and scale would require regulatory measures such as floor area ratios, minimum lot area per unit height. The goal of creating transit integration would require the linking of train corridors and stations as part of the larger TOD project. As seen in the global practices, enabling mechanisms are of three types - Land-Use Planning Mechanisms, Process Mechanisms and Financial Mechanisms.

Land-Use Planning & Design Mechanisms include land-use master plan, overlay plans, influence zone plans, comprehensive mobility plan and other planning and visioning documents which outline a city or region’s plan for growth in the future. The significance of these documents is three-fold. First, they present a city’s vision for long-term growth and development, second, they outline the land-use and mobility structure of the city and third, they are legally binding in nature and they regulate development. Through a land-use document, a city can establish a statutory framework for the implementation of a development project. This also means that the projects are developed, allowing room for necessary adjustments across the city.

Land-Use Planning and Design Mechanisms are important tools in the process of developing a TOD as they provide the statutory framework necessary for various changes in land-use,

densities and design of the TOD. Appropriate land-use and design mechanisms may even act as a prerequisite for the process mechanisms.

Process Mechanisms are mostly command and control tools and economic instruments which mobilize projects of all sizes and shapes. These mechanisms include land assembly, transfer of development and establishment of partnerships between local government and transit agencies along with the private sector. Land assembly is one among the most complex of processes and a critical step in the densification of a neighbourhood. For the most part, land assembly in India has been conducted through two methods - land acquisition (based on the principle of Eminent Domain) and land pooling and readjustment. Eminent Domain refers to the power of the state or public planning authorities and development agencies to acquire land (with appropriate compensation) for the purpose of public use.

Land Acquisition can enable rapid availability of adequate amount of land for development, provided most of the owners agree for sale. It provides almost a clean slate for the new master plan for the assembled land as the value of the land appreciates; it provides the opportunity to the development authority to accrue the benefits.

Financial Mechanisms are of two kinds: the first involves mobilisation of financial resources (which includes capture of land value) and the second involves use of financial tools to enhance quality of life within a TOD through behavioural change. Traditionally, financial resources come from either the central or state government sponsored schemes, through land monetisation driven EPC or PPP or through land value capture. EPC and PPP are driven through debt servicing or partnership equity. Land is also a major financial resource which can fund development. Its value can be captured in two ways- monetisation through sale or land and/or air rights or by capture of financial value accrued by the improvement of transit, quality of life and comfort. Any improvement to a transit system leads to a direct increase in the value of the land due to improved accessibility, infrastructure, service delivery and quality of life.

Challenges 1. Community Barriers: Community related barriers to TOD in urban densification settings are twofold. First, existing residents are often unreceptive to increases in urban density, and second, prospective residents often do not aspire to live within activity centres.

2. Development Feasibility Barriers: The development of TOD-driven activity centres faces many other barriers, in addition to a relative lack of community buy-in. Train station surroundings often have heritage building stock, are typically complex ‘knots’ of intersecting road and rail infrastructure and have fragmented land ownership. The complex array of vested interests attached to these factors is a major constraint in activity centre planning. Activity centre sites often do not have adequate service infrastructure and the costs of upgrades can affect the feasibility of a development. The relative uncertainty around developer contributions and ‘who will pay’ is a major impediment to TOD infill development.

3. Governance Barriers: TOD-driven activity centre development requires the participation of many actors and occurs in a fragmented regulatory environment, adding complexity, time, uncertainty, risk and cost to projects. Challenges arise from the political structures that realises infill development. The state government sets infill targets for local government areas, yet local governments carry much of the responsibility for infill development decisions. The result is often a lack of land-use transport integration- isolated public transport hubs, that are beyond walking distance from low-density residential areas.

4. Emerging Barriers: With the arrival of self-driven cars, it is possible that the line separating public and private transportation will erode as users summon and share vehicles of varied sizes for different kinds of trips. With many other advancements in technology, people will be allowed more freedom to choose exactly what kind of environment they would prefer to live in. This, in all likelihood would be lowdensity sub-urban settings.

Another type- ‘Trackless Trams’, referred to as ‘Autonomous Rail Transit’ (ART)- also potentially reduces the need for TOD-driven activity centre development. ART vehicles are based on technology, developed in Europe and China, by taking technology from high speed rail and utilizing it in a bus. This technology is still far away from reaching most other Asian countries and is long away from being adopted by them.

Q. What lessons will the comparative case studies have to offer for development on a national level in context of India?

Over 377 million people live in about 8000 urban centres in India. As per Census of India 2011, there are 3 cities with population greater than 10 million and 53 cities with population greater than 1 million. Top 10 cities having 8% of the total urban population live in just 0.1% of the total land and 53 million plus cities have 13.3% of urban population in 0.2% of the land area in India. Even though average densities are low in most of the Indian cities, their core areas have sufficient densities which can generate a demand for public transit system, which may vary from bus-based systems to heavy rail depending on the density. In areas in the cities where the densities are low, re-densification together with improvements in urban space (NMT and pedestrian infrastructure, housing and urban design) becomes an important tool. TOD therefore is a tool to optimise densities to improve quality of life. (Public Works Department, India) Scenario in Indian Cities Most older cities of India do not regulate land-use zoning or even if they do so, it is only the degree of commercial use permissible based on the access street width. With the variety of existing streets widths that formulate the networked system of streets in Indian cities, informal sector activities are seen to congregate around transit nodes; along wider arterial streets and near destinations. In a TOD, zoning is necessary for bringing out the desired urban pattern and form. But rather than a rigid master (land-use) plan that is restrictive, it is required to make strategic plans for mix-use that are responsive to market needs while also ensuring environmental sustainability and social equity.

As most Indian cities either do not have formal zoning plans or cannot regulate their notified zoning, quantifying the exact mix of existing uses is impossible. It is but known that street vendors - only a part of the informal sector that does not account for those involved in smallscale and home industries and flatted factories - is estimated to be around 250,000 in Mumbai, 150,000 in Kolkata and 80,000 in other smaller Tier 1 cities like Ahmedabad and Patna (Bhowmik, 2005).

Formal zoning in Indian cities in most cases segregates land-uses with little flexibility in the master plan. Mix-use in TOD need not be always be formalised, but the absence of estimates

of informal mix-use affects the calculations of infrastructure requirement; capacity of transportation modes and footfall in the area which further causes congestion, pollution and exclusion. It also affects financial sustainability because little revenue is directly captured from un-notified mix-uses. While this is the case in cities where a mix of uses is practiced without zoning and formalisation for the same, complications of not having sufficient use diversity is felt where segregated land uses promulgated by single use master plans has been enforced. Such issues have been felt in Delhi after a sealing drive was carried by the Delhi Municipal Corporation in 2006. Following a directive from the Delhi High Court ordering the sealing of establishments using residential premises for commercial purposes, the notified zoning of the Master Plan was enforced. This has had severe effects on increasing trip lengths that one needs to undertake in Delhi not just for jobs but also for daily shopping needs.

Figure 35- Images showing congestion in Indian streets (Source: flickr)

Although at present, most of the Indian cities have diverse uses due to non-regulation or lack of a zoning plan, in time, planning mechanisms would gradually be established to both notify and regulate zoning. Also, there is much more need to plan for a “good mix” with supporting infrastructure at locations accessible using transit modes, by walking and by non-motorised transport in TODs. In the interest of maintaining livability of cities with small trip lengths especially for everyday destinations, the thinking behind policy documents would need to consider how to include diversity - both formal and informal - in TODs to avoid the negative connotations of single-use zoning when they are enforced by the city planning and development authorities. It is necessary to understand interactions of diversity with other components such as density, design, non-motorised transport infrastructure, parking and public transportation improvements, to identify its most relevant indicators. As Smart Cities of India look forward to engage in TODs, it is imperative to build on existing policies, practices and research and develop context-specific guidelines for mix-use, compact areas

that promote diversity in all sense, which include diversity of land-use, activity, income groups, and lifestyles.

Indian cities have vibrant streets with diverse land uses that can be experienced only through walk; but parking and vehicular movement cause congestion in these streets.

Indian Mobility Scenario The socioeconomic composition of Indian cities indicates a latent demand for mobility; low median household incomes and a young average age of an Indian urban resident makes the need for mobility important, especially for access to jobs (American Public Transportation Association).

The Indian mobility demand has been hitherto been met by over-reliance on personal vehicles. The Indian cities have doubled the total number of personal vehicles (cars and twowheelers) in a span of a decade, compared to the previous five decades post-independence (46 million in 1951-2001, 52 million in 2001-2009). As seen in the first chapter, this has come at the cost of declining public transport shares, especially in cities having a population of more than 0.8 million. Despite the declining shares of public transport, the existing modal share of private vehicles (cars and two-wheelers) for mobility ranges from 5% to 36% in the top 53 Indian cities. Thus reliance on public and non-motorized (walking and bicycling) modes of transportation for mobility far outweighs other choices in Indian cities. Moreover, the dominance of short and medium distance trips (0-10 km) in all trips made by private vehicles indicate the possibility of moving these trips to sustainable low carbon alternatives of public and non-motorized transport. The strategic approach to wean away urban residents from private transport as their mobility option in Indian cities would rely on solving two main issues: 1. Availability of NMT and pedestrian network for shorter trips.

2. For longer tripsa. Ease of access to the public transportation service (first and last mile connectivity), again related to NMT and pedestrian networks and feeder services in core city areas and additionally park and ride in suburban areas b. Quality of public transportation modes (fleet size, frequency, ease of ticketing etc.)

c. Barriers to the speed of public transportation (congestion on the road and parking management) Solving these issues in overall mobility planning has helped cities worldwide in reversing automobile ownership and shifting the commuting patterns in favour of sustainable public transportation. Following the guidelines under National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP) and with the support of previous missions (JnNURM) and current missions (for example, National Smart City Mission) Indian cities too have started gradually towards investing in public transportation, especially Metro and Bus Rapid Transit.

Density as an Enabler for Public Transportation in Indian Cities High density is one of the enabling factors for providing accessibility and agglomeration benefits of transportation investments in a TOD. These minimum densities range from 4 dwelling units per acre (or 15 persons per acre) to 15 dwelling units per acre (or 50 persons per acre) depending on the mode of transit (Victoria Transport Policy Institute, 2015) The average built up densities in the top 100 largest cities in 2010 (though declining from 1990s) is 25000 people/sq. km or 100 persons/acre (Indian Institute of Human Settlements, 2011), suggesting that these Indian cities can still produce efficiencies of scale for citywide public transportation networks rather than limiting to specific corridor, neighbourhood or station TOD projects. City-wide improvements to transit infrastructure will lay the groundwork (refer to case studies on Ahmedabad, Mumbai, Delhi etc) for larger gains to be captured through TOD. Indian cities primarily use bus systems even though metro systems have been implemented in 7 cities under JNNURM. These bus systems are generally operated by the State Transport Undertakings (Wilbur Smith Associates, 2008). Cities that do not have either metro or bus systems rely on mini-buses or IPT. Despite the over-reliance on bus services for commuting, the bus fleet operated by the STUs has continued to decrease except for Bangalore (Wilbur Smith Associates, 2008). Mumbai’s best especially has a significant gap in the bus fleet strength for its population as compared to Delhi, Kolkata and Bangalore. Delhi, suffers from buses with non-modern urban specifications; 22% of its fleet is non-low-floor and more than 10 years old and need to be phased out (Delhi Transport Coorporation, 2014).

Table 3- Bus Fleet Strength in various Indian Cities

CITY

POPULATION (2011, in

BUS FLEET STRENGTH

million) Mumbai

20.7

3430

Kolkata

14.3

4256

New Delhi

13.8

6906

Bangalore

8.6

4185

Given the gaps in bus infrastructure in main cities, it is natural that all small and mediumsized cities (except Madurai) lack the minimum number of buses as per the Central Institute of Road Transport specifications (40 buses per one lakh population) (Wilbur Smith Associates, 2008). An immediate enhancement in bus fleet across the cities is needed.

To address this situation, the Central Government sanctioned in 2013-14, under JnNURM, an additional procurement of 10,000 buses and ancillary infrastructure (Ministry of Urban Development, 2013) at a total cost of Rs. 6300 crores of which Rs. 4450 crores (70%) was funded by the centre through additional central assistance (ACA). Despite this significant proposed investments, only about Rs. 933 crores (20%) have been released by the government for the procurement of 7779 buses. No states or municipal bodies except for the state of Karnataka and Navi Mumbai Municipal Corporation planned or commissioned ancillary bus infrastructure projects. This demonstrates a low emphasis by the states on planning and implementation of bus infrastructure (bus stops, bus depots, bus operation centres) and needs to be emphasized in the future funding for bus infrastructure.

Congestion Indian cities continue to experience increased congestion. Cities with a population more than 8 million have an average trip length of 10.4 km, an average speed of 17 kmph (as against the stated speed of 30 kmph) and a congestion index of about 0.33 (Wilbur Smith Associates, 2008). The average speed is projected to reduce to half (9 kmph) by 2021 and one-third (6 kmph) by 2031 (Wilbur Smith Associates, 2008). With no city in India practicing dedicated roadway allocation to bus transport apart from BRT network, bus users in India (especially feeder and local buses) experience worsening travel times and travel costs for their commutes.

Table 4- Comparative Study between TOD strategies in foreign countries and India

EUROPE AND THE STATES

INDIA

Walkability and access to transit is safe, Although there are existing street networks, convenient and comfortable due to walkable walkability and access to transit is not safe, street network in the vicinity of the stations convenient, and comfortable, and multimodal and multimodal connectivity.

connectivity

is

lacking

and

needs

improvement.

24X7 environment created by placemaking 24X7 experience created by existing diverse components like parks, seating areas, and a uses, but placemaking components like pleasurable walking experience.

parks, seating areas, and a pleasurable walking experience is lacking.

Land use density varies but is adequate to Land use density varies but maybe adequate generate transit ridership.

to generate transit ridership.

Transit ridership is adequate and continues to Lack be enhanced with greater connectivity.

of

accessibility

to

transit

and

multimodal connectivity may be detrimental to the potential of generating ridership.

Even though some of the stations have Most of the stations have mixed uses and the predominantly residential uses, the transit transit network provides connectivity to network provides connectivity to commercial commercial and employment areas. and employment areas, and ensures ridership.

Although all the transit station areas do not Most of the stations have mixed income have mixed income uses, they are accessible groups and are accessible to mixed income to mixed income groups.

groups.

Most of the transit systems were introduced Most of the transit systems were introduced as a solution to the road congestion caused by as a solution to the road congestion caused by growth of population and automobiles and growth of population and automobiles in the limited land availability.

recent years and limited road capacity.

Transit oriented policies have been developed Transit oriented policies are fairly new and and enhanced for a number of years to were developed after the introduction of the constantly improve transit ridership.

metro/transit-oriented strategies and/or are

just being introduced.

Maximizing opportunities for channeling Intensification of development along transit new development to transit-rich areas has corridors and the introduction of an overall been a major strategy.

TOD Influence Zone for dense development along

transit

corridors

are

just

being

introduced.

Public

Transport oriented approach by Adequate accessibility and connectivity for

integrating land use and transport planning safe and sustainable transportation systems for compact and efficient urban development and strategies for appropriate land uses and has been a major strategy.

land

use

densification

are

just

being

introduced.

Planning and investing in infrastructure Investment ahead of time for future population growth infrastructure has been a major strategy.

mixed

use

in

critical

projects and

transportation,

and

high-density,

compact

development

concepts are just being introduced.

Planning for maximum commute time is a Policies major strategy.

for compact

development

and

multimodal connectivity to reduce commute times are just being introduced.

Policies for enhancing the existing safe, Traffic and pedestrian safety management convenient and comfortable accessibility to and parking management strategies are just transit stations has been a major strategy.

being introduced.

Chapter 7 7. Research Recommendations and Future Scope of Research 7.1 Research Recommendations 7.1.1 Research Gaps Over time, relational definitions are preferred to universal ones. Most conceptualizations of TOD originate from US and European contexts, and thus need to be adapted when applied to other parts of the world, where dense development is more the norm. How this adaptation may be delivered, and how TOD is currently defined by different actors and in different spatial, country and institutional contexts, is not well understood.

Definitions 

There is a lack of studies that look into how TOD may be defined and applied in low-density and rural contexts. For instance, there is no research on TOD in smaller towns, suburbs, and rural areas.



Coupled to the point above, it is not clear whether the development industry has a shared definition of TOD nor how aware the industry as a whole, is aware of the concept.

TOD content and Site-level Design 

Site-level design specifications for TOD are mainly informed by US preferences (because a great deal of TOD based design is done in the US) conclude that it is unlikely that ‘made in the USA’ TOD guidelines can be applied in their entirety to other contexts, due to their cultural differences.



Also, at a practical level, it is not clear whether TOD always includes measures to restrain car use and car ownership in developments- although the available research shows that whether these measures are included, car use is lower.



The vast majority of the literature makes an almost unwritten assumption that TOD has to be served by rail or MRTS or LRT. There is little available literature on BRT and bus.

Processes 

Research has not looked specifically at how particular planning processes have a greater likelihood of producing particular outcomes.



The ‘processual dimensions’ underlying TOD projects at the local scale, and the obstacles and levers to TOD implementation, particularly with regard to governance at the local level, have not been researched in detail in the European context.



How different actors’ perceptions and expectations of the outcomes of TOD influence their participation in TOD planning processes is little researched in the literature.

Institutional Issues 

There is a need to better understand informal institutional success factors, and the implications of the interactions between formal and informal institutions for the TOD implementation process.



The literature implies that new formal and/or informal institutions can aid the TOD implementation process but the processes that lead to the formation of such institutions have not been researched.



The implications of the interactions between formal and informal institutions for the TOD implementation process have not been researched in detail.

Public Transport as a trigger for new Development 

Over recent years, there are a number of cases indicating that public transport planning is becoming property-led; more research on this trend is needed.



Qualitative studies on the role of Light Rail in triggering property development are required.



What residents and prospective residents think of TOD is not well researched in this context.

7.2 Future Scope of Research Clearly, this review of the literature has revealed a large number of research gaps, not all of which can be addressed by the research project, of which, it is a part, due to resource limitations and the original scope of the project, which focusses on early stages in the planning process. As a result of the literature review, identifying a lack of TOD related research relating to lower density and more peripheral areas, it has been decided to make this, as well as, TOD planning processes, a focus of the project, since such areas are particularly relevant to the Asian or Indian context. The research will proceed to explore these issues in relation to a number of emerging case studies in the Indian subcontinent and also, abroad, and using a document review and interview-based surveys.

It is clear from the detailed aforementioned study, that TOD concept cannot only be achieved by creating a area with higher densities with mixed land use or by pedestrianizing them alone. Regions including all these characteristics with appropriate access to a good transit system still require integration of land use and transit system.

Public reserves in facilities such as for TOD are made often without knowing present circumstances and probable results of the proposals. A deficiency of inclusive tools to evaluate TOD can be identified, whereas, there are many indicators to measure TOD but in no case indicators are used to quantify TOD jointly, but the case studies were mainly qualitative discussions by the researcher.

The intention was to provide a systematic analysis of the scientific literature that addresses the importance of the concept of Transit Oriented Development which is degrading day by day. There is significant confirmation that enthusiasm for transit oriented development is on the ascent in the United States. Transit Oriented-Development moves the concentration from diffuse, car sited development to denser, blended utilizes neighbourhoods revolved around travel station. TOD can have a heap of social, natural and financial advantages for individuals and groups, from lessened expenses of living, better access to employments, and financial development, to more beneficial ways of life and, through diminished car utilize that defines the rationale of TOD in India.

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Submitted by: Srabasti Lahiri.