INTRODUCTION This volume’s aim is to take the reader on a tour of some of the world’s most famous archaeological sites. In doing so, it will show how, through the patient detective work of generations of scholars and researchers, as well as the scientific advances in archaeology, we now know more about the past than ever before.
W
hy does archaeology intrigue and even fascinate people? Probably everyone has some kind of
interest in the past, even if only that of their own family— as shown by the current craze for having one’s DNA analyzed to explore one’s geographical origins or the percentage of Neanderthal! But countless people are also interested in the past of our species, of all humankind, and archaeology constitutes our only means of learning about early or vanished cultures, and answering really big questions such as the origins of farming, or of settled life, or of humankind itself. But—as the archaeologist Glyn Daniel often stressed— archaeology can also be tremendous fun. It features some of the most beautiful artworks and some of the most astounding structures ever created, and often in dramatic or exotic locations that include deserts, jungles, mountains, and islands. Moreover, the emotions aroused by unearthing something that has not seen the light of day for centuries, or even millennia, are hard to describe, whether one is a professional excavator or a metal-detecting enthusiast. through childhood visits to the ruined medieval castles and abbeys of my native Yorkshire, the Roman ruins of northern England, and the megalithic monuments of The fourth-century
Introduction
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INTRODUCTION This volume’s aim is to take the reader on a tour of some of the world’s most famous archaeological sites. In doing so, it will show how, through the patient detective work of generations of scholars and researchers, as well as the scientific advances in archaeology, we now know more about the past than ever before.
W
hy does archaeology intrigue and even fascinate people? Probably everyone has some kind of
interest in the past, even if only that of their own family— as shown by the current craze for having one’s DNA analyzed to explore one’s geographical origins or the percentage of Neanderthal! But countless people are also interested in the past of our species, of all humankind, and archaeology constitutes our only means of learning about early or vanished cultures, and answering really big questions such as the origins of farming, or of settled life, or of humankind itself. But—as the archaeologist Glyn Daniel often stressed— archaeology can also be tremendous fun. It features some of the most beautiful artworks and some of the most astounding structures ever created, and often in dramatic or exotic locations that include deserts, jungles, mountains, and islands. Moreover, the emotions aroused by unearthing something that has not seen the light of day for centuries, or even millennia, are hard to describe, whether one is a professional excavator or a metal-detecting enthusiast. through childhood visits to the ruined medieval castles and abbeys of my native Yorkshire, the Roman ruins of northern England, and the megalithic monuments of The fourth-century
Introduction
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THE GREAT HOUSES OF CHACO CANYON TYPE: HABITATIONS AND RELIGIOUS SITES LOCATION: NEW MEXICO, USA .
.
ARCHITECTURAL STYLE: STONE, WOOD, ADOBE PLASTER
CONSTRUCTION BEGUN: 800 c.e.
It is hard for the casual visitor to imagine that, in the high desert of northern New Mexico, with its cold winters and blazing hot summers, there arose one of the greatest indigenous cultures of North America. For more than three hundred years, beginning in the 800s c.e., Ancestral Puebloans occupied this wide canyon and developed a culture of great social complexity and community organization, based on the cultivation of plants such as maize and beans and on long-distance trade.
The most prominent sites in the canyon are called Great Houses. These are huge multistory stone buildings
Chacoan pottery was some of the most beautiful produced by prehistoric
consisting of habitation rooms, storage rooms, and ceremonial underground structures called kivas. Pueblo
Casa
semicircular pattern around a central plaza. Extant walls at
was of great symbolic and ceremonial importance to
the rear of the pueblo stand two to three stories high. So-
of Pueblo Bonito from
thirty-two kivas, and three great kivas, are arranged in a
called great kivas were also built, such as Casa Rinconada. This great kiva stands above ground, unlike others whose roofs were at ground level. Because of the land’s aridity, nothing would have been possible without the construction of complex irrigation systems that both captured and channeled the rainfall
potter’s wheel was unknown in North America at the time,
for many years assumed that Chaco was an important
so Chacoan pottery was made of long “sausages” of clay
trading center. Many archaeologists now believe that
that were coiled into the desired shape.
the canyon was perhaps not continuously occupied, but
There is significant evidence for the importance of astronomical observations to the Chacoans, such
communities temporarily came together for ceremonial,
series of constructed roads linking the canyon to other
as the alignment of the walls of Pueblo Bonito. One
religious, and trading purposes. Perhaps it even served as a
Chacoan sites throughout the region, especially to the
of the most enigmatic pieces of evidence is found on
resource distribution center when times were tough.
north and west. The Chacoans traded throughout the
nearby Fajada Butte. Researchers found upright slabs of
wider American Southwest, perhaps as far as modern-
sandstone that cast daggers of light onto two spiral rock
new and existing Ancestral Puebloan centers to the north
day Mexico, and items such as copper bells and macaw
carvings. At summer solstice, the light splits the middle
and west, including Mesa Verde, became more prominent.
of the spiral. Archaeologists have for decades debated the reasons the beautiful black-on-white pottery they produced. The
20
The Great Houses of Chaco Canyon
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for the existence of the Chaco Canyon complex. It was
By the 1200s, Chaco’s importance had declined and
Today, access to the park, south of Farmington, New Mexico, comprises both paved and dirt roads. Within the park itself is a very informative and helpful visitor center.
The Great Houses of Chaco Canyon
21
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THE GREAT HOUSES OF CHACO CANYON TYPE: HABITATIONS AND RELIGIOUS SITES LOCATION: NEW MEXICO, USA .
.
ARCHITECTURAL STYLE: STONE, WOOD, ADOBE PLASTER
CONSTRUCTION BEGUN: 800 c.e.
It is hard for the casual visitor to imagine that, in the high desert of northern New Mexico, with its cold winters and blazing hot summers, there arose one of the greatest indigenous cultures of North America. For more than three hundred years, beginning in the 800s c.e., Ancestral Puebloans occupied this wide canyon and developed a culture of great social complexity and community organization, based on the cultivation of plants such as maize and beans and on long-distance trade.
The most prominent sites in the canyon are called Great Houses. These are huge multistory stone buildings
Chacoan pottery was some of the most beautiful produced by prehistoric
consisting of habitation rooms, storage rooms, and ceremonial underground structures called kivas. Pueblo
Casa
semicircular pattern around a central plaza. Extant walls at
was of great symbolic and ceremonial importance to
the rear of the pueblo stand two to three stories high. So-
of Pueblo Bonito from
thirty-two kivas, and three great kivas, are arranged in a
called great kivas were also built, such as Casa Rinconada. This great kiva stands above ground, unlike others whose roofs were at ground level. Because of the land’s aridity, nothing would have been possible without the construction of complex irrigation systems that both captured and channeled the rainfall
potter’s wheel was unknown in North America at the time,
for many years assumed that Chaco was an important
so Chacoan pottery was made of long “sausages” of clay
trading center. Many archaeologists now believe that
that were coiled into the desired shape.
the canyon was perhaps not continuously occupied, but
There is significant evidence for the importance of astronomical observations to the Chacoans, such
communities temporarily came together for ceremonial,
series of constructed roads linking the canyon to other
as the alignment of the walls of Pueblo Bonito. One
religious, and trading purposes. Perhaps it even served as a
Chacoan sites throughout the region, especially to the
of the most enigmatic pieces of evidence is found on
resource distribution center when times were tough.
north and west. The Chacoans traded throughout the
nearby Fajada Butte. Researchers found upright slabs of
wider American Southwest, perhaps as far as modern-
sandstone that cast daggers of light onto two spiral rock
new and existing Ancestral Puebloan centers to the north
day Mexico, and items such as copper bells and macaw
carvings. At summer solstice, the light splits the middle
and west, including Mesa Verde, became more prominent.
of the spiral. Archaeologists have for decades debated the reasons the beautiful black-on-white pottery they produced. The
20
The Great Houses of Chaco Canyon
340032_INT_001-320_IncredibleArchaeology_UKUS.indd 20-21
for the existence of the Chaco Canyon complex. It was
By the 1200s, Chaco’s importance had declined and
Today, access to the park, south of Farmington, New Mexico, comprises both paved and dirt roads. Within the park itself is a very informative and helpful visitor center.
The Great Houses of Chaco Canyon
21
28/07/2020 17:57
2 MIDDLE AND SOUTH AMERICA Middle and South America together constitute one of the world’s richest regions archaeologically, with an astounding variety of sites, and they include some of the most famous which are on everyone’s must-see list, such as Teotihuacan, Chichén Itzá, Tikal, Copán, Machu Picchu, and the Nazca lines. Some of them impress by their location, others by the sheer scale of their constructions, whether in stone or mud brick. But architecture—cities, pyramids, ballcourts, plazas—is not the only attraction, since there are also sumptuous tombs, fabulous pottery, carved stelae, and breathtaking mural decorations.
Maya pyramids at Tikal, Guatemala.
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2 MIDDLE AND SOUTH AMERICA Middle and South America together constitute one of the world’s richest regions archaeologically, with an astounding variety of sites, and they include some of the most famous which are on everyone’s must-see list, such as Teotihuacan, Chichén Itzá, Tikal, Copán, Machu Picchu, and the Nazca lines. Some of them impress by their location, others by the sheer scale of their constructions, whether in stone or mud brick. But architecture—cities, pyramids, ballcourts, plazas—is not the only attraction, since there are also sumptuous tombs, fabulous pottery, carved stelae, and breathtaking mural decorations.
Maya pyramids at Tikal, Guatemala.
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TIKAL CITY OF THE MAYA TYPE: CITY
.
ARCHITECTURAL STYLE: TEMPLES, PALACES, AND BALLCOURTS
LOCATION: PETÉN, GUATEMALA
.
CONSTRUCTION BEGUN: SEVENTH CENTURY b . c . e .
With its temples rising above the forest canopy, Tikal occupies an important watershed in the lush jungles of Guatemala’s lowland Petén Province. One of the best-studied sites in the Maya area, the city was first occupied around 800 b.c.e. on what was a key trade route connecting the Usumacinta River drainage with the Caribbean Sea. The site’s 988-acre (400-ha) core, which includes its principal monumental architecture, is now the cornerstone of the Tikal National Park, a World Heritage property.
c.e.
c.e. and initiated
c.e.
Opposite Tikal’s North Acropolis is formed from pyramids with temples that commemorate the tombs of early kings. Right Found in Tikal’s Great Plaza, Stela 9 (475
Tikal: City of the Maya
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TIKAL CITY OF THE MAYA TYPE: CITY
.
ARCHITECTURAL STYLE: TEMPLES, PALACES, AND BALLCOURTS
LOCATION: PETÉN, GUATEMALA
.
CONSTRUCTION BEGUN: SEVENTH CENTURY b . c . e .
With its temples rising above the forest canopy, Tikal occupies an important watershed in the lush jungles of Guatemala’s lowland Petén Province. One of the best-studied sites in the Maya area, the city was first occupied around 800 b.c.e. on what was a key trade route connecting the Usumacinta River drainage with the Caribbean Sea. The site’s 988-acre (400-ha) core, which includes its principal monumental architecture, is now the cornerstone of the Tikal National Park, a World Heritage property.
c.e.
c.e. and initiated
c.e.
Opposite Tikal’s North Acropolis is formed from pyramids with temples that commemorate the tombs of early kings. Right Found in Tikal’s Great Plaza, Stela 9 (475
Tikal: City of the Maya
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45
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Toltec–Maya Expression
Right The Casa de las built in the ninth century baroque Puuc style that sector of Chichén Itzá. Below The Castillo, built at the center of the Great Plaza, has two substructures; dedicated to K’uk’ulkan, the Feathered Serpent. In the background, the west facade of the Temple of the Warriors can be seen.
tzompantli
58
Chichén Itzá: Toltec-Maya Center
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Chichén Itzá: Toltec-Maya Center
59
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Toltec–Maya Expression
Right The Casa de las built in the ninth century baroque Puuc style that sector of Chichén Itzá. Below The Castillo, built at the center of the Great Plaza, has two substructures; dedicated to K’uk’ulkan, the Feathered Serpent. In the background, the west facade of the Temple of the Warriors can be seen.
tzompantli
58
Chichén Itzá: Toltec-Maya Center
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Chichén Itzá: Toltec-Maya Center
59
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THE INCA CITADEL OF MACHU PICCHU TYPE: CEREMONIAL AND RESIDENTIAL CENTER
.
ARCHITECTURAL STYLE: IMPERIAL INCA
LOCATION: CUZCO, SOUTHERN PERUVIAN HIGHLANDS
.
CONSTRUCTION BEGUN: FIFTEENTH CENTURY c . e .
Set within the high Andean landscape, the citadel of Machu Picchu is one of the greatest wonders of civilization. It epitomizes the skills of its builders, the Incas, in harmonizing the natural rugged landscape with their sophisticated stone-based architecture.
A Rugged Landscape
National Geographic
Temple of the Sun in Machu Picchu. In Inca architecture, the curved walls are related to religious functions. Opposite Panoramic view of Machu Picchu. In the background rises the Huayna Picchu mountain.
66
The Inca Citadel of Machu Picchu
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THE INCA CITADEL OF MACHU PICCHU TYPE: CEREMONIAL AND RESIDENTIAL CENTER
.
ARCHITECTURAL STYLE: IMPERIAL INCA
LOCATION: CUZCO, SOUTHERN PERUVIAN HIGHLANDS
.
CONSTRUCTION BEGUN: FIFTEENTH CENTURY c . e .
Set within the high Andean landscape, the citadel of Machu Picchu is one of the greatest wonders of civilization. It epitomizes the skills of its builders, the Incas, in harmonizing the natural rugged landscape with their sophisticated stone-based architecture.
A Rugged Landscape
National Geographic
Temple of the Sun in Machu Picchu. In Inca architecture, the curved walls are related to religious functions. Opposite Panoramic view of Machu Picchu. In the background rises the Huayna Picchu mountain.
66
The Inca Citadel of Machu Picchu
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NOVGOROD THE GREAT TYPE: MEDIEVAL CITY
.
ARCHITECTURAL STYLE: OLD-RUSSIAN ARCHITECTURE
LOCATION: NOVGOROD OBLAST, NORTHWEST RUSSIA CONSTRUCTION BEGUN: TURN OF THE NINTH AND TENTH CENTURIES c . e . Novgorod (which means New Town in Russian) is one of the country’s oldest cities, known as a cradle of Russian statehood and famed for its thousand-year history and incredibly rich archaeology. It has for centuries been the largest trade hub of Eastern Europe, with links to Scandinavia and Germany, as well as to the Black Sea and Muslim centers of the East. It happily escaped the Mongol invasion that reduced the other large cities of Russia to ashes. The modern city, which stands on top of many cultural layers of the medieval town, bears the name of Veliky Novgorod (Novgorod the Great). It lies on the Volkhov River, 3.7 miles (6 km) from Lake Ilmen, 340 miles (550 km) northwest of Moscow and 90 miles (145 km) southeast of St. Petersburg. Since 1992 the historic monuments of Novgorod and its surroundings have been on the UNESCO World Heritage List.
protecting them from further destruction. Also, because city took place in the early nineteenth century, but serious excavations in Novgorod began in the 1920s and 1930s
foundations beneath their houses, cellars, and utility pits,
and continue to this day. The systematic research carried
so later layers have not disturbed earlier ones. medieval city with buildings, streets, and an infrastructure
even Europe, in terms of the scale of the work, the number
system, as well as an extensive collection of artifacts—
of discovered artifacts, and scholarly achievements. Nevertheless, only about two percent of the ancient city
are tools and manufacturing implements, household
has been studied so far.
utensils, means of transportation, tableware and food
From an archaeological point of view Novgorod
remains, shoes and clothing, warriors’ weapons and games and children’s toys, coins and stamps, birchbark
such as wood, leather, bone, birchbark, fabrics, and
manuscripts, fragments of frescoes, architectural details of
grain. Occupation layers up to 23–25 ft (7–8 m) thick
houses and remains of furniture, residues of raw materials
preserved stacks of wooden pavements and house walls.
and of various crafts, and more.
In fact 800-year-old logs are so hard that they could be re-used for construction and trucks could easily drive over the ancient pavements. A thin layer of corrosion
168
Opposite 1045–50
, the oldest surviving stone church in Russia.
Novgorod the Great
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NOVGOROD THE GREAT TYPE: MEDIEVAL CITY
.
ARCHITECTURAL STYLE: OLD-RUSSIAN ARCHITECTURE
LOCATION: NOVGOROD OBLAST, NORTHWEST RUSSIA CONSTRUCTION BEGUN: TURN OF THE NINTH AND TENTH CENTURIES c . e . Novgorod (which means New Town in Russian) is one of the country’s oldest cities, known as a cradle of Russian statehood and famed for its thousand-year history and incredibly rich archaeology. It has for centuries been the largest trade hub of Eastern Europe, with links to Scandinavia and Germany, as well as to the Black Sea and Muslim centers of the East. It happily escaped the Mongol invasion that reduced the other large cities of Russia to ashes. The modern city, which stands on top of many cultural layers of the medieval town, bears the name of Veliky Novgorod (Novgorod the Great). It lies on the Volkhov River, 3.7 miles (6 km) from Lake Ilmen, 340 miles (550 km) northwest of Moscow and 90 miles (145 km) southeast of St. Petersburg. Since 1992 the historic monuments of Novgorod and its surroundings have been on the UNESCO World Heritage List.
protecting them from further destruction. Also, because city took place in the early nineteenth century, but serious excavations in Novgorod began in the 1920s and 1930s
foundations beneath their houses, cellars, and utility pits,
and continue to this day. The systematic research carried
so later layers have not disturbed earlier ones. medieval city with buildings, streets, and an infrastructure
even Europe, in terms of the scale of the work, the number
system, as well as an extensive collection of artifacts—
of discovered artifacts, and scholarly achievements. Nevertheless, only about two percent of the ancient city
are tools and manufacturing implements, household
has been studied so far.
utensils, means of transportation, tableware and food
From an archaeological point of view Novgorod
remains, shoes and clothing, warriors’ weapons and games and children’s toys, coins and stamps, birchbark
such as wood, leather, bone, birchbark, fabrics, and
manuscripts, fragments of frescoes, architectural details of
grain. Occupation layers up to 23–25 ft (7–8 m) thick
houses and remains of furniture, residues of raw materials
preserved stacks of wooden pavements and house walls.
and of various crafts, and more.
In fact 800-year-old logs are so hard that they could be re-used for construction and trucks could easily drive over the ancient pavements. A thin layer of corrosion
168
Opposite 1045–50
, the oldest surviving stone church in Russia.
Novgorod the Great
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28/07/2020 18:23
GYEONGJU MUSEUM WITHOUT WALLS TYPE: ROYAL CITY WITH TOMBS, TEMPLES AND PALACE (57 b . c . e .–935
. .) .
c e
.
ARCHITECTURAL STYLE: SILLA KINGDOM
LOCATION: GYEONGJU CITY, GYEONGSANGBUK PROVINCE, SOUTH KOREA
CONSTRUCTION BEGUN: SIXTH CENTURY b . c . e . Gyeongju is a city in the far southeastern corner of South Korea’s Gyeongsanbuk province, on the coast of the Sea of Japan. Low mountains and small rivers are characteristic for the picturesque landscape. Visitors to this vibrant place leave with a impression of the living culture and history of the ancient Silla kingdom. The city and neighboring areas have more tombs, temples, pagodas, Buddhist rock carvings, and palaces with gardens than any other area in South Korea.
cultural center of the Silla kingdom. It developed into a
Most impressive is the Tumuli Park in the center
Horse (Cheonmachong), dating from around the end of c.e.
underwent excavation
in 1973. It is named for the winged horse painted on
Opposite The Anapji park area is illuminated in the evenings, with occasional public concerts and theater performances.
for international cultural exchange during the Silla period.
Above Impressive ancient Korean architecture awaits visitors around every corner.
Gyeongju: Museum without Walls
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297
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GYEONGJU MUSEUM WITHOUT WALLS TYPE: ROYAL CITY WITH TOMBS, TEMPLES AND PALACE (57 b . c . e .–935
. .) .
c e
.
ARCHITECTURAL STYLE: SILLA KINGDOM
LOCATION: GYEONGJU CITY, GYEONGSANGBUK PROVINCE, SOUTH KOREA
CONSTRUCTION BEGUN: SIXTH CENTURY b . c . e . Gyeongju is a city in the far southeastern corner of South Korea’s Gyeongsanbuk province, on the coast of the Sea of Japan. Low mountains and small rivers are characteristic for the picturesque landscape. Visitors to this vibrant place leave with a impression of the living culture and history of the ancient Silla kingdom. The city and neighboring areas have more tombs, temples, pagodas, Buddhist rock carvings, and palaces with gardens than any other area in South Korea.
cultural center of the Silla kingdom. It developed into a
Most impressive is the Tumuli Park in the center
Horse (Cheonmachong), dating from around the end of c.e.
underwent excavation
in 1973. It is named for the winged horse painted on
Opposite The Anapji park area is illuminated in the evenings, with occasional public concerts and theater performances.
for international cultural exchange during the Silla period.
Above Impressive ancient Korean architecture awaits visitors around every corner.
Gyeongju: Museum without Walls
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297
28/07/2020 18:54