9789144124896

ACADEMIC STUDIES IN SWEDEN Effective Study Skills and Habits

MARINA BERGMAN

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Art. No 39887 ISBN 978-91-44-12489-6 First edition 1:1 © The author and Studentlitteratur 2019 studentlitteratur.se Studentlitteratur AB, Lund Book design: Jesper Sjöstrand/Metamorf Design Cover design: Jens Martin/Signalera Cover illustration: Shutterstock Printed by Eurographic Group, 2019

Contents

Introduction 5 Contents 6 Recommended reading 7 Create your own book 7 Exercise 8

1 Thinking new thoughts 9 Create good habits 10 Ask questions 15 Take smart notes 16 Capture your thoughts in a mind map 17 Think before you forget 20 Knowing vs recognising 21 Exercises 22

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2 Academic knowledge 25 Knowledge and understanding 25 Competences and skills 26 Judgement and approach 27 Critical thinking 29 Correlation, cause and effect 32 Creativity and problem-solving 33 Time management 40 Exercises 46

3 Your learning 47 Examinations 49 How to avoid cheating and plagiarism 50 How you read – has an impact 52 Develop your writing 58 Refer to sources 60 Refer with sharpness 62 Document your competence 67 Exercises 69

4 Social skills 73 MBTI – what type are you? 73 Write a group contract 79 Exercises 82

5 Motivation and perseverance 87

Final words 99 List of exercises 101 References 103 Index 105

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Contents

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Just do it! 89 Focus on one thing at a time 92 Eat, exercise and sleep 93 Set clear goals 93 Understand the pros and cons of rewards 94 Grow a learning mindset 96 Exercise 98

Chapter 1

Thinking new thoughts “How will I cope?”

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I a m con vinced that you will. You are here because you want to learn

new things, not because you already know everything. To help you, you have a lump weighing about 1.4 kilograms, with a consistency that resembles porridge. That may not sound too impressive, but the human brain is the most complex construction in the universe that we know about – and it is still a bit of a mystery.1 With its 100 billion brain cells, which in turn are in contact with thousands of other brain cells, it beats any computer in the world with its complexity.2 You are your brain. It is your best friend when you are about to learn something new, but you need to know how it works and take care of it to make this happen. Your brain changes every day. Every thought you think, everything you do, creates new connections and structures and re-shapes the brain.

If we think the same thoughts or do the same things over and over, the connection becomes stronger.3 Eventually, the connections between all the brain cells involved take place without any effort on our part, and we do not even notice that we are thinking or doing something.4 1 Winston (2016).

2 Hjärnguiden: www.hjarnguiden.se.

3 Hansen (2016).

4 Wejlid & Åkerman (2011).

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Even though it is so small, the brain consumes 20 per cent of all the energy we consume. The brain also loves physical activity, which improves your concentration, creativity, memory and stress resistance. In fact, regular physical activity makes you think faster.5 In order to learn something, you need to put in some effort – like thinking hard. However, since your brain is programmed not to do anything that is not necessary, it is not easy to make an effort. The brain can be a bit grumpy and needs to be triggered and challenged to get started. In a sense, we should be glad that the brain is always trying to save energy for what really needs to be done, such as running fast if a lion attacks you. In fact, the brain still works as if we were on the savanna.6, 7 If the brain is to be lured into doing something, it needs to feel that it is worth the effort, and for this, your attitude and your ability to see a profit/ gain from what you are doing or learning are of great importance.8

The brain always seeks patterns. If we think the same thought repeatedly, or do the same thing over and over, the brain comes to the conclusion: Ah, I must remember this! and creates an automated process for this – a habit – to save time and energy. We do it without thinking much about what we do.

Habits, such as brushing our teeth, cooking and driving, make our lives a lot easier, as we can do all these things without much effort.

I teach my students study techniques, that is, how to plan, focus and do mind mapping (different kinds of skills). But really making a plan and following it strictly, is more of a habit, as well as taking notes and studying regularly. In my way of thinking, many things can be seen as habits: how we think, how we spend our time, what we eat, how we read, how we study and so on.

5 Hansen (2016).

6 Ingvar & Eldh (2014).

7 Hansen (2016).

8 Ingvar & Eldh (2014).

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Create good habits

I ask my students to list habits that affect their studies, both in a good and a bad way. They come up with the following:

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• • • • • • • • • • •

I eat regularly I do physical exercise I study every day I plan my time I make mind maps from my lecture notes right after a lecture I always procrastinate, never start in time with an assessment I am unfocused, look at my mobile/computer all the time I spend too much time playing computer games I sleep too little I eat unhealthily I think negatively about my ability – that I will never learn

As you can see, the first habits are normally good for us, while the ones at the end are probably not as good for us and our studying. The tricky thing about habits is that the brain does not know if it is a positive habit or a bad habit. Everything we do repeatedly eventually becomes an automated process, a habit.

Procrastination is a behaviour we all have, to some extent. Some of us even claim that we deliberately choose to procrastinate because we perform at our best when time is running out and we feel like we have someone chasing us. Some people procrastinate to such an extent that it has become a habit that makes life harder and more difficult than it needs to be. But why do we do this when we know we should not?

A basic function of the brain is the ability to regulate emotions.9 For example, if we feel uncomfortable dealing with something, such as starting to read an article or solving a maths problem, the brain wants to find the fastest way to get rid of the negative feeling. For this purpose, it can be remarkably creative and tell us that we promptly need to vacuum, sort laundry, find out how many German restaurants there are in India or why not send ten text messages to friends and ask them what they are up to. The brain does everything to convince us that we do not have to get started on 9 Holone 4/2013.

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our studies right away. As we relax, relieved of the burden to act, we get a dopamine kick and the uneasiness disappears and we feel better at once.

The brain is rather gullible – or would that be us?10 Experimental psychology and brain research have together created a field of research called cognitive neuroscience. It is a major research area, and the knowledge about the brain and its capacity is increasing rapidly. An important discovery is that the brain is plastic, which means it is formable and rebuilt according to how it is used. This means we can change habits and create new habits.11 Do not let your brain control you – learn how you control your brain!

How do you change a habit, or create a new one?

1. Awareness. The first thing you need to do is to become aware of the habit, the behaviour you want to change.12 As an example, we look at the habit of procrastinating. The goal is to replace it with the habit of getting started on your studying, according to your study plans.

• • • • • •

You feel good since you do not have to make an effort right now.

You think it is boring to study by yourself and need a study friend.

You are tired and need to consider your sleep habits.

You are hungry and need to recharge your energy.

You need to go for a walk to focus.

You like the instant satisfaction you get from watching television shows, playing games or getting thirty-three likes for your latest Snapchat image ...

10 Rozental & Wennersten (2014).

11 Nilsonne (2016).

12 Gospic (2014).

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2. Why? You also need to be aware of why you have created the (bad) habit.

It is important that you understand why you act the way you do no matter the kind of habit. The brain always tries to save energy. If we look at the habit of procrastinating there may be several reasons:

3. Profit/gain. You also need to see a profit/gain from the new habit. If we do not perceive the gain as sufficient in relation to the effort, we simply do not learn a new habit. What we see as a gain is individual, but it is important that you have a clear vision of what it is for you. It must be worth the effort to create a new habit.13 Here are a few examples of what would be a clear gain in getting started on your studies directly, instead of procrastinating:

• • • • •

It will give me an even study pace.

It will give me time to learn more.

I will not be stressed out at the end of the course.

I will have time for other things – family, friends and hobbies.

I will feel more satisfied with myself.

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4. Have a plan. Perhaps the most important thing when creating a new habit is to have a plan for what to do when your entire body protests and screams at you to do as before and stick to the old habit, like lying down on the sofa or watching en episode of your favourite series.14 It is only in the moment we can change something, so you need to have an elaborate plan for what to do when your brain tries to change your mind; for example, telling you that you can postpone your studies until tomorrow.

Here are some examples of thoughts to have at hand, so you get started on your studying instead of continuing to procrastinate.

• • • • •

No, I will go and sit down right now!

No, I am going for a walk to get focused and then get started!

No, I will have a snack to get energy and then get started!

No, I will call a classmate, so we can study together!

No, I’m just going to get on with it!

Each time we succeed in opposing the old habit, it becomes easier because the new habit’s connections in the brain become stronger and stronger and will replace the old ones. We are creating a new habit.15 13 Ingvar & Eldh (2014).

14 Gospic (2014).

15 Gospic (2014).

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16 Lally et al. (2010).

17 Visser, Schoonenboom & Korthagen (2017).

18 Holone 4/2013.

19 Klingberg (2016).

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5. Do it often. To create a new habit, the behaviour must be repeated several times. Precisely how many times you must do something to make it a habit is individual.

In one study, researchers followed people who attempted to create new food or exercise habits. On average, it took 66 days for them to create a habit, but there was a big difference in the group. The fastest person took 18 days to create the new habit, and the person who needed the longest time took 254 days.16 In another study, a group of first-year university students attended a training programme for six weeks. One of the subjects was self-knowledge, that is understanding their own needs and rewards, and clarifying their own core qualities and skills. When the six weeks had passed, the students’ procrastination behaviour had decreased, compared to a control group who did not attend the training programme.17 Research shows that succeeding in changing a habit requires both determination and endurance, and also a belief that you can change your habits.18, 19 Sometimes we become eager and want to change a lot of habits at once, to become a new, “better” version of ourselves. Me 2.0. But that is not always a good idea. If we try to make too many changes at the same time, it will be unnecessarily hard for us, and we may end up failing all of them.

My advice is to be kind to yourself and take one habit at a time. Let it take the time it needs to become deeply rooted. Then start working on the next habit, and then the next. When your new habits are firmly established, they will be a great asset to you and your studies, so do not give up. I know you can do it!

Ask questions A few years ago, there was a television series about a man called Dr. House.

He is a fairly selfish, cynical man, but also a very skilled doctor who rarely gives up, however hopeless it may seem. Together with his medical team, he solves difficult medical cases in his own special way: He always asks questions. For every little thing he is curious about, he thinks loudly, reflects, talks to himself. He is active in his thinking and says things like:

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• • • • • • •

What do I know about this?

What do I think this means?

What can I relate to this?

How is this connected to something I already know?

What is wrong?

Why does this reaction happen?

What will be the consequences?

He and his team are constantly advancing in their search for knowledge and understanding by asking questions about the things they are dealing with. Questions that they themselves also answer. Or rather, make guesses about because they do not know the answers yet. They make a guess about their patient’s condition and test this guess against something they have done in the past. The answers they give lead to new questions and new answers. After a while, their ideas and thoughts may turn out not to be correct, but that does not matter. At this point, they pick up a different thread and ask new questions. The important thing is the approach; that they constantly progress in their search for knowledge and understanding by asking questions. They have a reflective and exploratory approach to what they are trying to understand, and they test what they are facing against things they already know or believe they know.

Make sure you develop the skill/habit of asking questions about your material – to have a reflective and exploratory approach when you study.

We will look into this in more depth in Chapter 3.

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Taking notes at lectures and seminars is a habit many of us have, and it is a very good one too. My experience is, though, that some students write down literally everything the teacher says or writes on the white board. Their focus is to write down each and every word, syllable for syllable. However, when you focus on writing down all the words, it becomes difficult to listen to what the teacher says and even more difficult to reflect upon what is being said. It also becomes difficult to ask questions to yourself and even more difficult to respond to your own thoughts.

The brain can only focus on one thing at a time. Yes, that is true. When we try to take notes as we listen, the brain shifts focus back and forth, constantly, not knowing what to do. As a result, we do not have a clear focus on either of these things, which can make us rather confused.20 Of course, it is a good thing to take notes, and if your teacher asks you to write everything down – do it. What I am trying to say is, do not let your note-taking take all your focus. Dare to trust that you understand more than you think, because you do. Try to write down keywords, instead of whole sentences, or draw an image. The notes are for you, and only you need to understand them. There is no competition in who writes the most.

Often there is literature or other sources you can go back to if you need to find an exact wording.

The idea of your notes is that they should be a support for your learning, help you remember things or help you find something – after a lecture or other activity. Taking notes should not take so much focus that you cannot listen and reflect on what is said and done.

Remember that the essence of your notes is that they should be used almost directly after you have written them. It you wait too long, they will not be of much help to you.

Many people write notes in a notebook and here’s a method I suggest you try.

Make notes only on the left page. Leave the right side blank for now.

When the lecture is over, review your notes and make your own summary

20 Nordengen (2017).

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Take smart notes

on the right side, the blank sheet. In this way, you get a chance to summarise the content and put it in the order and context of your own choice.

It is about sorting, concretising and summarising. By doing this, you are making the knowledge your own. You can clarify by drawing an image, drawing arrows – simply making it understandable to you.

If you would rather write your notes on a computer, that is OK too! The important thing is that you process your notes soon after a lecture, when you still remember the content.

Some people look at their notes after a few weeks and spend days trying to understand what they had written. That is a waste of time.

Some never look at their notes. If you are one of them – stop and reflect on why you even take notes. If you do not really know, you can try not to take notes at all during any lectures for a week and instead decide to listen, reflect and try to concretise what is said (think of Dr. House), and see if it helps you more than taking notes. After the lecture, or later the same day, you can make a summary of what you remember.

Remember, notes are like bread – they are best enjoyed freshly baked.

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Capture your thoughts in a mind map Our trains of thought are quite chaotic and sometimes puzzling. What we think or say hooks into something that already exists in our memory and picks it up, which leads to new associations, new thoughts and new memories. Thoughts jump and go here and there and sometimes make a big jump to something completely different from what we were just thinking.

A mind map is a visual way of sorting thoughts and information, and it reflects the way the brain thinks and remembers facts. That is why mind maps look the way they do.21 A mind map starts with a word or image in the middle, from which a network of branches is formed where the details become more and more specific the farther you move away from the middle. The important thing about mind maps is that each word is linked to the next word in the chain.

When you make a mind map, you are structuring and organising your 21 Lucas (2007).

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material. You create order and manage all the details. At the same time, you have a holistic perspective and know exactly where all the details belong.

When you learn something new, you can easily place it on your mind map, where it is supposed to be.22 You can use mind maps during a lecture, when you summarise course literature, as a basis for a presentation, brainstorming, planning and much more. You can use mind maps for almost anything. They fit most of the time.

Some people flinch and look a bit scared when I mention mind maps.

They see beautiful, artistic mind maps in front of them and think: That is not for me, I cannot draw! Others think that mind maps are messy, hard to understand when writing a little here and there. Of course, mind maps do not suit all people, but you are here to think new thoughts, create new habits, and if you have never tried working with mind maps, it might be worth testing. My experience is that many students like mind maps when they learn how to make them. They see mind mapping as a perfect tool to sort and structure facts and information in a clear way.

One thing you need to know is that you build your mind map in several steps. The first step is to collect all the information you have about the subject you are going to make a mind map of, like keywords from a lecture.

22 Simonson (2011).

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Figure 1.1 Example of how a mind map might look.

In the next step, you process the raw material and gather the information into some big branches (main areas), preferably no more than ten. Then you write down the more detailed facts on smaller branches that stretch farther out on the map. Be sure to make a mind map that you like to look at so you want to use it for studying.

You can find several apps online that make mind maps. They are easy to use and quite fun to work with. Look around and find something you like to test. Here are a few steps to get you started:

• Start in the middle with an image or a word.

• Draw a few big branches with the main divisions of the subject and • • • •

let the mind map grow from there into smaller branches.

Use keywords, images and symbols.

Try to have only one word or one picture on each branch.

Use different colours.

Develop your own style.

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The key to remembering what we want to remember is to consciously create connections in the brain.

An example of people who are very skilled at remembering by merging things together is competitors in memory art around the world. Perhaps the most impressive achievement was made by a Chinese named Chao Lu. He holds the current record for memorising pi-decimals and has managed to reproduce 67,890 of them. That is almost an unimaginable number. It took him a whole year to memorise them and 24 hours to reproduce them.23 But what is even more fascinating is that he did not memorise a single number. To remember all these numbers, he worked with advanced memory techniques, which are all based on linking things to each other by creating images.

I meet many students who strongly believe they have a poor memory.

But I do not think this is true; rather, they need to know how our memory works to be able to use it in the best possible way.

23 Hattie & Yates (2013).

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Remembering things with the help of images and stories is not a new phenomenon; it is something that humans have done for thousands of years. By creating stories that stuck with those who listened, parents and grandparents ensured that their children and others would remember the knowledge for the future, and in turn, pass it on to the next generation.24

Think before you forget Hermann Ebbinghaus was a German psychologist who, at the end of the 19th century, studied how memories disappear over time.25 Figure 1.2 illustrates his “forgetting curve” and it shows that after a couple of days you remember only a fraction of what you read or heard at a lecture some days earlier. After a few more days, you are down to remembering almost nothing.

Memory

Review

2

3

4

5

6 Days

The tricky part of forgetting something is that we do not know when it happens. It is not as if a thought pops up on your way to the gym one day telling you that “Oh no, now I’ve forgotten what hermeneutics means” or “Oh no, now I’ve forgoten how to solve quadratic equations by completing the square”. When you forget something, lose knowledge, it happens in 24 Ingvar & Eldh (2014).

25 Klingberg (2011).

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1

Figure 1.2 The forgetting curve by Hermann Ebbinghaus.

Source: Klingberg (2011).

silence without notice, and it happens very quickly. If you wait for a week without studying or reviewing your lecture notes, you more or less need to start all over and learn everything again. That is a waste of time.

Research shows that the more you study and reflect upon your learning, the less steep the forgetting curve becomes, which means that you need to study less each time to reach a high memory level.26 Once you have learned what you are supposed to know and understand, you can easily retrieve it from your long-term memory whenever you want. But the ability to do that requires discipline and studying, studying and more studying – there is no other way.

Make it a routine, a habit to review what you just learned or read.

When you study like this, you save time; but above all, you will learn much faster and you will retain your new-found knowledge even after your exams are over.

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Knowing vs recognising On the subject of memory, there is one thing you need to be aware of. If you read or watch a video clip over and over you might think: I know this now!

If you go to a lecture and the teacher begins to say the same thing he/she said the last time, you would think: I know this already! You might even get bored and wish you were not there wasting your time. But it is not certain that you know everything the teacher is saying or that you can do all the exercises in the book – rather, you recognise what you are reading, seeing in a video clip or hearing the teacher say.

You need to be aware that your brain might play a trick on you, especially if you are a little bored. As I said before, the brain is always trying to save energy, so it is important that you understand the difference between recognising and knowing/understanding. Test yourself to see if you really understand by explaining and describing what you think you know. If you can explain it to someone in a way that both you and that person understand, maybe you do know. If not, you are more likely tricking yourself into thinking that you know, when in fact you are really only recognising.

26 Klingberg (2011).

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EXERCISES

1A: My new study habits Write down all the habits you have that are somehow linked to your studies.

Positive habits may be that you exercise regularly, sleep properly or always put away your mobile when you want to focus. Less positive habits may be that you do not eat well, think of something else when reading and so on.

There are many habits that affect your studies in different ways.

When you have finished your list, look at it for a while.

• What habits do you want to keep?

• What habits do you want to give up?

• And above all – what new habits would you like to develop?

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The next step is to make a mind map with the habits you would like to keep and the new habits you want to develop.

Try to include no more than ten habits on your mind map. If you have more it becomes difficult to get a good overview. Make your mind map appeal to you by making it personal. Use colours, humour and images.

When you have finished, put your mind map on the fridge or on a wardrobe door where you can see it several times every day. Then you remind your brain to stick to the new habits. But remember to develop only one new habit at a time.

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1B: My time To succeed in our studies, we need to spend time studying – often more than we would like because there are so many other fun activities that attract us. This exercise is about helping you become aware of what you do with your time. During one week, write down how much time you spend on different things. Below are examples of things we spend time on.

Table 1.1 My time.

Shopping

Computer games

Cleaning

Pinterest

WhatsApp

Friends

Snapchat

Partying

Sleep

Text messages

Facebook

Cooking

Spotify – music apps Netflix – streaming apps

Reddit/Flashback

Skype/Facetime

Studying

Exercise

Work

Transportation

Messenger

Television

Family/Relatives

Fishing

Podcasts

LinkedIn

Hobbies

Sports

Reading

Instagram

Youtube

News

Pets

Children

Wikipedia

Other things …

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It might be interesting to see how many minutes you spend a day during a whole week doing different activities. Many of these activities can also be seen as habits.

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Foto: Anna Göran

Marina Bergman has a bachelor’s degree in psychology and pedagogy and has been introducing new students to academic studies at Mälardalen University since 2002.

ACADEMIC STUDIES IN SWEDEN Effective Study Skills and Habits Are you a student embarking on an exciting educational journey, eager to develop your academic, social and personal skills? Then this book is for you. It describes what you are expected to learn, but also offers practical tools and a bank of research to give you the best conditions to learn.

Examples of questions the book addresses: • How do I create good study habits?

• How do I develop my reading skills?

• How do I develop my time management skills?

• How do I develop my collaboration skills?

• How do I develop my analytical skills?

• How do I influence my motivation?

• How do I develop my growth mindset?

The book is filled with questions, answers and practical exercises.

It is primarily written for first-year students and international students at Swedish universities.

Art.nr 39887

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