Sisse Siggaard Jensen: Ways of Virtual World-Making - Actors and Avatars

W AYS OF V IRTUAL W ORLD - MAKING SISSE SIGGAARD JENSEN

THIS ADVANCED DOCTORAL DISSERTATION WAS DEFENDED 2012 IN DEFENSE OF THE DOCTORATE DEGREE DR .PHIL .

DENNE DOKTORAFHANDLING BLEV FORSVARET I 2012 SOM FORUDSÆTNING FOR ERHVERVELSE AF DOKTORGRADEN DR .PHIL .

ROSKILDE UNIVERSITY, DENMARK 2012 DEPT. OF COMMUNICATION, BUSINESS AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES

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The dissertation Ways of Virtual World-Making is one among many results from the research projet “Sense-making Strategies and User-Driven Innovation in Virtual Worlds� (worlds.ruc.dk) supported by the Danish Strategic Research Council.

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“(...) And now you, who are the father of letters, have been led by your affection to ascribe to them a power the opposite of that which they really possess. For this invention will produce forgetfulness in the minds of those who learn to use it, because they will not practice their memory. You have invented a drug not of memory, but of reminding; and you offer your pupils the external appearance of wisdom, not true wisdom, for they will read many things without instruction and will therefore seem to know many things, when they are for the most ignorant and hard to get along with, since they are not wise, but only appear wise.”

Plato, 360 B.C., Phaedrus dialogue “The first recorded debate about the oldest form of information technology (…) takes place in Plato’s Phaedrus. Toward the end of this dialogue, Plato reflects on and writes about the relatively new technology of writing. Writing, Plato has Socrates say, constitutes a threat to real knowledge and effective communication, for this reason, should not be taken seriously. In fact, whoever is worthy of the title philosopher, Socrates argues, “has the power to show by his own speech that the written words are of little worth.””

David Gunkel, 2007, Thinking otherwise

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface ............................................................................................. 6 Prologue ......................................................................................... 10 1. Introduction................................................................................ 15 2. Virtual world-making.................................................................. 36 3. Engaging with research ............................................................... 50 4. Producing the data ..................................................................... 84 5. Co-construction ........................................................................ 148 6. Mediators ................................................................................. 196 7. Relationships ............................................................................ 235 8. Expressions of self..................................................................... 287 9. Navigating ................................................................................ 313 10. Synthesis of the analysis ......................................................... 334 11. Avatars and engagement......................................................... 352 12. Conclusion ............................................................................. 403 Summary of contributions............................................................. 412 Dansk resumĂŠ............................................................................... 416 English Summary .......................................................................... 435 References .................................................................................... 446 Index ............................................................................................ 493

APPENDICES

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PREFACE Fortunately the consequences of our decisions are unknown.

Although experience can help us anticipate some likely outcomes, no two courses of events are identical. In 2002, when I set out to study virtual worlds I had no idea that my studies would continue until the present and beyond. Yet even if I had known this when I started, I would probably have made the same decisions. I have spent almost a decade involved in this study, which has been inspired by great fun and hard work involving extraordinary experiences, good friends, the opportunity to meet interesting people and work with great colleagues, and not least be sustained by continuous learning.

It all started in the French city of Lyon 2002 when the first virtual world workshop was arranged in collaboration with two of my colleagues: Research Assistant Sanne Fejfer Olsen and Project Manager Nina Tange – also known as Tonga and Smiley in the 3D Agora-world of Active Worlds. The Lyon workshop was the start of a Special Interest Research Group about knowledge sharing in the 3D Agora-world as part of the EU research project EQUEL, which was led by Professor Vivian Hodgson from Lancaster University. Over two years, we conducted experimental sessions and prototyped design in the 3D world in collaboration with colleagues from Sweden, England and Scotland. In the course of our collaboration Sanne and her companion Tonga taught me important lessons about the strong feelings and sense of attachment that can develop with one’s avatar. For some reason her avatar figure Tonga – an ancient Egyptian Pharaoh – was suddenly unavailable in-world. In those days in Active Worlds, the avatars were not customisable so she had to pick and choose a new avatar with a quite different look. This changed her experience with the world. The figure Tonga

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represented her connectedness to the 3D Agora-world and the absence of her figure Tonga distanced her from the world.

It was also an eye-opener when Ralph Schroeder in 2002 published the anthology “The Social Life of Avatars”. This contained several contributions to avatar studies and the analysis presented in the article ‘Living Digitally’ on the world of EverQuest written by T. L. Taylor inspired my further studies. At the time I did not know that T. L. Taylor was to become a colleague at the Danish IT-University.

Thus, Sanne together with Tonga and T.L. with her EverQuest studies became important sources of inspiration.

Since 1992, video analysis has been my preferred method of research. This method has obvious advantages for avatar studies and conducting this type of analysis has encouraged a continuous process of experimentation. Different analytical systems have been used with different degrees of success, as the facilities of systems appear to be too limiting to the processes of working the video data.

However, one day in 2006, my colleague Frank Wagner came to the office brimming with enthusiasm about a hypertext and xml-based open source system developed to support the analysis of digital video: Advene: Annotate Digital Video, and Exchange on the Net. Frank suggested that we contact the developer Olivier Aubert at LIBRIS – Laboratory of University Claude Bernard Lyon 1, which we did. The system was, however, a ‘pre’-beta version to be continuously developed. Deciding to get involved was a hard decision but we wanted to contribute to the development of a video analytical system and tool. The analytical purposes of my studies diverged from the ideas that guided the system design, which is why frequent communication with Olivier and Frank was part of the research for almost two years as we were trying out, suggesting, altering, testing, crashing and serving as a test-bed for the development project. The Advene system has been an important tool in support of my research.

In the 3D Agora-world my companion avatar was named Chenet.

Moving into Second Life in late 2006, I decided to keep this name.

My feelings to Chenet were similar to Sanne’s relationship with Tonga. Although I had no problems changing the figure, the name

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had to stay the same. Since then, the companion avatar Chenet Shan has followed me in ethnographic and experimental studies of virtual worlds. In late 2007, the research project ‘Sense-making Strategies and User-driven Innovation’ received a large research grant from The Danish Strategic Research Council. Therefore, by January 1st 2008 an interdisciplinary and international team of researchers from different disciplines such as design, communication, computer science, innovation and organisation studies set out to study sense-making and innovation in virtual worlds. This dissertation is one of many results of this research.

I have enjoyed the intense collaboration in the project and it has convinced me of the strengths of interdisciplinary research and of working together as a team. I wish to thank my colleagues in the team: Associate Professor, Ph.D. Louise Phillips, Post.doc, Ph.D. CarrieLynn Reinhard, Assistant Professor, Ph.D. Ursula Plesner, Associate Professor, Ph.D. Maja Horst, Ph.D. student Dina Friis Toft, Assistant Professor, Ph.D. Lisbeth Frølunde and Ph.D. student Ates Gürsimsek for their comments, critique and collaboration. In addition, I am grateful for the help of the project’s research assistants Christopher Olson and Odül Gürsimsek, our student assistant Annika, and the IT specialist Frank Wagner who has been affiliated with the research project. I have enjoyed working with Frank Wagner for many years.

On the international scene, our collaboration with the Nordic Virtual World Network embraces members from universities, business schools and companies in each of the Nordic countries. This network has been very inspiring. In particular, I wish to thank Associate Professor, Ph.D. Robin Teigland, who has reviewed results from the project and commented on some of my work. The international workshop, which was arranged by the research project in June 2010, gave rise to an occasion to bring together researchers from the international virtual world research communities. A first draft of this dissertation was distributed and I wish to thank everyone who contributed their comments and critique. In particular, I would like to thank Professor Edward Castronova who joined us to make public

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speeches and participate in media interviews about the economies of virtual worlds.

Without the support of Project Manager, Ph.D. Dixi Louise Strand, I would not have been able to finish my work with this dissertation. In a quiet way yet with a firm hand she has kept the project on track in the days when I was fully absorbed with my data.

It is only possible to run larger research projects with financial support. The 3D Agora-world research was supported by the Action 2 e-Learning EQUEL EU-project; further development of video analysis was made possible by the research project Knowledge and Management in IT firms as part of the Danish LOK-programme; a research project on Actors and Avatars was supported by The Danish Research Council for the Humanities and the large research project on sense-making and user-driven innovation in virtual worlds running from 2008 to 2012 is supported by The Danish Strategic Research Council, KINO committee.

Since I started this research in 2002, my dear daughter Dea and my son-in-law Thomas have had three children: Nina, Noah and Axel.

They are all the wonders of my world and life and contribute joy, fun, wonderful music, inspiring discussions and critique. I am especially grateful for the welcome breaks from the intensive work they have provided, and the reminders that it is still fun to play with modelling clay, very tall towers can still be built out of Lego bricks, Sleeping Beauty is still sleeping and that Little Red Riding Hood survived even though she did not listen to her mother, and of course: Pippi Langstrømpe is still the strongest girl in the world.

My quiet, patient, wise and tolerant husband Søren has been my companion for more than four decades. I am so lucky to always have his loving support and to have him by my side.

Rødovre, 2011

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PROLOGUE In 2002, a group of European researchers 1 set out to study virtual worlds. We engaged with the 3D universe of Active Worlds Education (AWEDU) to build a 3D world aimed at framing experiments with new forms of networked learning. From 2002 to 2004, the 3D Agora-world served as the framework for our exploratory networked sessions. As a group, we explored navigation, interaction, communication and knowledge sharing while engaging.

Between the networked sessions, we met at onsite workshops to experience a series of experiments.2 The introductory, as well as the closing, onsite workshops stand out as they revealed engagement guided by strong emotions.

Engaging with 3D virtual worlds for the first time, as could be expected, our group of academics and researchers discussed many questions of an intellectual nature. Critical reflections were made and questions were asked about the purpose of introducing 3D tools in learning. The added value it could contribute was contested when compared to existing online text-based tools for collaboration in networked learning.

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Members of the Agora SIG were affiliated with Learning Lab Denmark; Centre for Knowledge and Design in New Media, Communication Studies, Roskilde University; Centre for Studies in Advanced Learning Technology, Educational Research, Lancaster University; Centre for Higher Education Development, Coventry University; Teaching and Learning Service, Glasgow University; Dept. of Learning, Informatics, Management and Ethics, Karolinska Instituttet; and, School of Education, Sheffield University.

2 In a series of 14 sessions, 4 physical workshops were held in the research team of the 3D Agora-world, 1 workshop was a test of design with young researchers outside of the research team, and 8 experiments were accomplished in the 3D Agora-world, Jensen 2004, Olsen et al. 2004.

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Although some of the researchers were hesitant, the group pursued the idea to try out and test a 3D world during an onsite workshop in Lyon 2002. Gradually, the critical voices toned down as the members of the workshop engaged with the 3D Agora-world asking for each other’s advice and help and, not least, because fun, laughter, humour and surprise took over. The staging of the workshop was similar to the gaming set-up of many net-cafÊs only now it was a team of researchers who commented on each other onsite while also interacting in-world.

Afterwards, academic reflections superseded the hands-on engaging to conclude the experiential and exploratory Lyon workshop. In this, most of the participants concluded that it was fun to engage with the virtual world but of no use to the educational purposes of higher education. The feeling of fun and enjoyment that emerged during the hands-on sessions were not considered of value to education.

However, when the group enjoyed a warm summer evening in the town, we had fun observing inhabitants of the city of Lyon through the lenses of the virtual world. Dressed up girls, quirky youngsters and serious businessmen were all studied with a view to transforming their appearance for a virtual world and to create in-world avatars.

The surrounding city environment was exposed to such transformative images of the mind along with comments, ideas, associations and playfulness.

Clearly, feelings and associations from engaging with the 3D Agoraworld had influenced and inspired members of the opening workshop of the research project.

During the closing onsite workshop session of the project in 2003, once again the sensitivity and the emotional engagement was revealed when an unpleasant situation evolved whereby a member of the team felt harassed by one of the avatars of the group. The harassment appeared at first innocuous but the objection was heartfelt. There was no doubt that feelings of enjoyment and fun were paired with those of vulnerability and volatility; and most importantly, that engaging with the 3D Agora-world, potentially,

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provided a strong medium that involved the actors’ feelings as well as their reflections.

Other lessons learned during the two years with 12 sessions of experiments were concerned with communication, collaboration, knowledge sharing and experimental design. It proved difficult for the members of the research team to communicate and coordinate their attention when entering the 3D Agora-world as avatars. When meetings were arranged, the avatars joined in at different times due to difficulties experienced with navigating the environment and also due to technical problems.3 In meetings, it was difficult to coordinate the attention of avatars communicating using chat because this mode of communication confined complex dialogues in a team of eight researchers even if they all had extensive experience in the field of networked learning.

The general idea of the experiments was to explore the 3D Agoraworld’s potential for knowledge sharing in a mutual process where the team used 3D building blocks to develop the digital framing of the team activities. It proved difficult, however, to jointly build and design the 3D Agora, partly due to the problems of communication and coordination already mentioned, and partly because of the design of the Active Worlds’ 3D objects with which to build.4 In the evaluation of the in-world experiments, some of the problems mentioned by the members of the team showed that it was much harder than anticipated to operate the 3D Agora-world. For some researchers unpleasant feelings of being novices evolved, as did a sense of being neglected by the others when experiencing technical

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During the in-world experiments, the research team experienced many technical problems running the 3D Agora-world; problems which I will go no further into other than to note that technical problems were continuous factors that influenced the performance. It was a factor which generated a sense of being isolated ‘outside of the team’ for those actors who experienced technical problems.

4 Compared to the present state-of-the-art of virtual world-making design, in AWEDU, the design was difficult to master; it required coding skills and the number of objects possible at the same place was even more limited than in today’s Second Life.

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problems. The multitasking competences needed to operate, navigate, communicate, coordinate and build were hard to learn, handle and develop.

As part of the experiments, two different prototype designs were made: one was an entrance to the 3D Agora-world and the other was a framing for meeting sessions utilising 3D objects of visualisation.

The aim of these prototypes was to explore the potential of spaces using different kinds of images and spaces than those we know from the physical world. Therefore, the design of the entrance was made from a twisted cube. This left the avatar no place to stand, at least not in a familiar way, see Figure 1 (left). The frame of a meeting place was designed in the shape of a central stage surrounded by digital artefacts, symbols and colours that could be selected in order to designate and visualise the content of a comment or speak, see Figure 1 (right). In both cases, a sense of awkwardness evolved and it generated discussions about the design as either a replication of or explorative and different from the well-known physical world and forms of interaction. The conclusion of this discussion was that, at least from the point of view of education, there needed to be a balance between the unfamiliar and the recognisable or the design of virtual worlds would be more likely to result in confusion rather than a desire to explore further.

F IGURE 1. The twisted cube. Prototype design of the entrance to the 3D Agoraworld (left). The purple stage of the meeting place in the 3D Agora-world surrounded by digital artefacts chosen to designate the subject of speech (right).

In this very brief summary of the initial study of virtual worlds, I have not discussed the potential for learning and fun as experienced during the sessions and workshops of the research. It was, however,

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as much a part of the experiments as the problems experienced.5 In the intersection of problems and potential my decision was made to pursue some of these experiences in new research experiments. The early experience of the potential of emotional engaging, and some of the many lessons learned, convinced me to continue my research aimed at understanding the different modes of engagement with virtual worlds. During my research, I was continually reminded of the potential for reflective and exploratory engaging and, not least, the potential for fun and enjoyment while engaging.

Therefore, to pursue these early experiments, the 3D Agora-world studies were followed-up by new research projects leading me to the present study of the worlds of EverQuest and Second Life.

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The potentials and problems have been dealt with in Jensen, 2007.

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1. INTRODUCTION CHOICE OF WORLDS When I set out to study virtual worlds in 2002, I had no idea that it would occupy my time, work and mind for almost a decade. At times, the journey has been difficult, yet most of the time fascinating, full of energy and experiences not least due to the actors of the cases with whom I have worked. They have taught me a lot about their lives in virtual worlds and provided invaluable assistance to my research.

In selecting worlds to study I was influenced by the work of my fellow researchers in their studies of the massively multi-user online role-playing game of EverQuest. 6 Despite the amount of research already published I decided to study actors’ engagements with this world: first, EverQuest was chosen at an early stage of study in 2005, because it was one of the first large online role-playing games introduced to the market, which meant communities of committed gamers had already evolved. To enter these communities and to follow some of their actors and gamers over time helped me select cases for further study. Second, the aim of study is to follow the actors in micro-moment studies of sense-making rather than to study the game itself. Third, other researchers have contributed knowledge about quite different aspects of the world of EverQuest, which my study could then supplement. The early study of virtual worlds from 2002 to 2004 was centred on the 3D Agora-world in Active Worlds.

This social world is built of user-generated content and aimed at social relationships, in a similar way to Second Life. By choosing to

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See e.g. Castronova 2001, 2005, Delwiche 2006, Griffiths et al. 2004a, 2004b, Taylor 2002, 2006; Yee, 2006b.

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study EverQuest, I could study engagement with a different kind of online world.

Alongside the studies of EverQuest my interest increasingly turned to the world of Second Life. In Denmark in the autumn of 2006 to the beginning of 2007, there was a public breakthrough in the awareness of Second Life. The press coverage—often media hype followed by anti-hype—had encouraged entrepreneurs, big businesses and public institutions to enter the world. It was almost unavoidable for me not to do the same. I had to follow this development and entered Second Life in late 2006,7 with a view to studying that world.

OVERALL QUESTION One of the first lessons learned in my study of virtual worlds was that the stereotypes of the actors, the gamers of the advanced role-playing games or the residents of the social worlds like Second Life or Active Worlds, are precisely that—stereotypes. The gamers and residents are not predominantly young and socially isolated men, nor are residents friendless adults who are addicted to the games as public discussions would lead us to believe. Instead during my research I met youngsters, married couples and grandparents, often well educated, in work, and with a predominance of women in a social world like Second Life. 8 It is difficult to find exact information about the number of the inworld gamers and residents in social worlds, but with reference to the studies done so far, it is reasonable to say that living a life in an online world attracts a broad range of age groups, professions and educational backgrounds from both sexes. The actors enter the worlds with a diversity of motivations including the desire to build social relationships, create and design digital environments and

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The early history of Second Life and the Linden Lab firm is dealt with by Au 2008 and Malaby 2009.

8 Fetscherin & Latteman 2007, Griffiths et al. 2003, Schroeder 2002, Steinkuehler 2006, Whang & Chang 2004, Williams et al.2008, Yee 2006.

Analyses of early MMORPGs such as EverQuest and Lineage have inspired not only the content of my studies, but also the selection of my cases.

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artefacts, experience and have fun, run a business, conquer other worlds and form new kingdoms, organise music events, fight dangers and threats, and lead and manage other actors.9 As the diversities of these engagements emerged through my initial studies, a simple question gradually became a recurring motif and question: In what ways do actors make sense of engaging with virtual worlds? This is the overall question, which I will set out to answer.

To do so, I have met actors with their avatars and followed them to see what they are doing and to learn about why it makes sense to engage the way they do. With my video camera, I have sat next to the actors and video recorded them while discussing their online activities in the virtual worlds.10 The video interviews took place in several steps while actors engaged with their chosen worlds. Later on while studying the thousands of micro-moments of my video recordings, images and experiences from the virtual worlds became the images of my mind as well as the data of my study.

FROM PERIPHERY TO MAINSTREAM In his book “Exodus to Virtual Worlds,” Edward Castronova (2007) describes the historical and cultural developments that characterise the first decade of the 21st century, during which the large massively multi-user online role-playing games 11 and social virtual worlds 12 have developed and moved from the periphery to the centre of popular social and digital online media. 13 By the end of the first

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See the Daedalus project.

In chapter 3 I will deal with this method in more detail.

11 MMORPG – Massively Multi-User Online Role-Playing Games, a term coined by Richard Garriot in 1997. This term covers worlds like e.g.

EverQuest, Lineage, Dark Age of Camelot, Star Wars Galaxies and World of Warcraft.

12 Some of the worlds are Active Worlds, There, Habbo Hotel, Second Life.

13 Questions about how to understand online communication, social relationships, self representation and virtual identity has been dealt with by researchers on computer-mediated communication, online communities, cybercultures, Internet studies, and new and social media, see e.g. Baym 10

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decade of the 21st century, millions of players and ‘inhabitants’14 are expected to be actively engaged with a range of various activities in an almost countless number of different virtual worlds. 'Exodus', 'tsunami' and ‘explosion-like' are just some of the many strong metaphors that have been used to describe the development of virtual worlds and to emphasise their scale and significance.

In 2002 when I entered the research field, this development was in its early phase. Worlds like EverQuest and Lineage had taken their first steps from multi-user online role-playing games towards what was to become massively multi-user online role-playing games. They had evolved from small almost sectarian inner circles of densely connected MUD communities – Multi-User Dungeons – with 510,000 players15 to hundreds of thousands of players in the first years of the 21st century. And these two worlds were not alone. Other games were also in a process of explosive-like development. Some games and social worlds could now count their participants and players in hundreds of thousands and millions.

The comet of this development was World of Warcraft, 16 which marked the mass breakthrough for role-playing games. Among the social worlds, Second Life can also count its subscribers in millions.17 It is, however, also a historical development with a pre-history dating back before the beginning of the 21st century.

2000, 2002, Bolter & Grusin 1999, Carey 2005, Harraway 1991, 2000/, Howard & Jones 2004, Jones 1995, 1997, Katz & Rice 2002, Konijn et al.2009, Lundby 2008, Nayar 2008, Rice 2002, Wallace 1998. Recently De Freitas & Griffiths 2008 have dealt with the convergence of gaming and other media forms.

14 www.kzero.co.uk/universe Retrieved 2010-12-12 www.mmogchart.com/charts Retrieved 2010-12-12 15 FurryMUD is an example of one of the early MUD communities.

16 In the early days of the MMORPGs, the game Ultima Online marked a major breakthrough even if the players were counted only in hundreds of thousands. For the time, however, this was an astonishing amount of players and the amount was reached very quickly after the launch of the game.

17 www.kzero.co.uk/universe. Retrieved 2010-12-12.

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A BRIEF HISTORY EARLY MUDS18 The MUDs19 were developed and deployed back in the late 1970s according to the timeline of virtual worlds, which Koster 20 has published on his website.21 From the start, MUDs were closely linked to notions of virtual reality and with that the vision to "project [oneself] into a virtual space."22 In his paper about the development from MUDs to virtual worlds, Mitchell (1995) distinguishes between the ‘imagined’ and ‘sensory’ based immersion 23 into virtual reality.

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The historical development from the early MUD/MOOs is dealt with in detail by Bartle 1996, 2004, 2010 – the originator of MUDs. In a detailed historical overview of the development, Bartle suggests a chronology of five ages: 1978-1985: the early MUDs; 1985-1989: a period of experimentation, protocols, coding matters and gameplay tropes are consolidated; 19891995: at the parting of ways between the gaming and the de-gaming development as exemplified by TinyMUD; 1995-1997: a period of commercial breakthrough alongside services like CompuServe, AOL, Prodigy and graphical and chat-oriented worlds like Habitat; 1997-present: the breakthrough of 3D massively multi-user online role-playing games as well as user-generated social worlds.

19 MUDs – Multi-User Dungeons: “MUDs combine elements of role-playing games, hack and slash, player versus player, interactive fiction, and online chat. Players can read or view descriptions of rooms, objects, other players, non-player characters, and actions performed in the virtual world. Players typically interact with each other and the world by typing commands that resemble a natural language.” Wikipedia, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MUD Retrieved 2010-12-08 web.archive.org/web/20071029080148/www.brandeis.edu/pubs/jove/HTM L/v1/bartle. Retrieved 2010-12-10 www.guardian.co.uk/technology/gamesblog/2007/jul/17/idcloseworld Retrieved 2010-12-10 20 The lead designer of Ultima Online 1997, and Star Wars galaxies 2003.

21 www.raphkoster.com/gaming/mudtimeline. Retrieved 2010-12-08.

22 Mitchell 1995, p. 1.

23 The ideas of a virtual reality based on sensory engagement, sensorimotor coordination and motor engagement has been dealt with since the boom in the early 1990s, see Biocca & Levy 1995, Biocca 1997, Rheingold 1991, Wiederhold et al. 2000. During the first decade of the 21st century this line of research has been focussed on social interaction and presence in sensory based immersion; important contributors are Bailenson et al. 2001, 2002, 2004, Bailenson & Beall 2006, Beall et al. 2003, Blascovich 2002, Garau 2006, Garau et al. 2001, Loomis et al. 2003, Nowak & Biocca 2003, Sallnäs

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On the one hand, the many sensory-based technological experiments such as the development of head-mounted displays24 sped up in the late 1980s with a cultural parallel in fiction and in many science fiction stories, among others inspired by film worlds. At the same time, the imagination-based adventure-MUDs also rapidly developed with small and experimental MUDs emerging, often organised around the system developers. One of the prominent developers was Richard Bartle who along with Roy Trubshaw, developed the system MUD1 as early as 1978; the acronym MUD originated from this system. 25 MUD1 and MUD2 started the development, which can be followed until the mass breakthrough in the first decade of the 21st century. An underground of MUDs rapidly emerged during the 1980s and exploited the opportunities afforded by the increasingly powerful computer technologies. Servers became more financially accessible and sufficiently user friendly for a wider range of developers, for instance at universities. Also services like CompuServe and America Online, AOL, had important parts to play in this historical development. Thus, early experiments were made with the use of online communication aimed at creating and building communities and in this development the experience from early Bulletin Board Systems helped foster such experimentation.

Relatively early in the development of MUDs, a distinction was made between the combat-oriented adventure MUDs and the social MUDs. 26 The launching of TinyMUD in 1989, and with that the

2002. Results from the large Danish research project on virtual reality is in continuation of this, see Qvortrup 2001, Qvortrup 2002.

24 The first head-mounted display is developed by Ivan Sutherland in the late 1960s.

25 The first version of MUD1 is later followed up by MUD2, see www.mud2.com Retrieved 2010-12-09. Bartle’s texts about MUD2 from 1985 and “Interactive Multi-Player Computer Games” from 1990 are early contributions to the understanding of the MUD systems and the design of communities.

26 From the very beginning, this distinction is debated among inner circle communities, who at that time experienced very close attachment between system developers and the MUD communities; a close relationship, which led to many discussions about how best to develop and design the new computer-mediated texts and communities.

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MUs, 27 marked a movement away from the combat MUDs towards online communities aimed at building mutual relationships between the participants. Thus, the historical development in the 1980s brought a distinction between the imagination-based and the sensory-based MUDs and also an important distinction between games and social worlds.

GRAPHICAL MUDS Graphical combat games like DOOM, which was designed with full 3D graphics, set new standards in the early 1990s. It attracted a wider audience than the hardcore inner circles of the early MUD days and it represented a development in which the imagination and sensory-based forms of immersion were more tightly intertwined.

Processes of interplay between the technological development of faster processors and better graphics together with knowledge about the development of graphical user interfaces, and the cultural development of increasingly sophisticated MUD games and MUs, enhanced the development in the 1990s. With regard to the social worlds, Habitat was launched in 1985/86 28 (continued as Worlds Away) and LambdaMOO 29 in 1990/91; they marked significant developments of the graphical worlds even if they were not yet developed using 3D graphics. In 1992, the designer of Habitat contributed some of the first reflections on the social dimensions of the world. He distinguished between five types of behaviours: Passives, Actives, Motivators, Caretakers and Greek Gods. According to the author, these behavioural types followed a Path of Ascension30 with players starting off as passives to finally reach the state of Greek Gods. These early reflections on the social behaviours and the

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Over time, in general, the term MUD refers to virtual worlds also the graphical MUDs whereas the MUs mainly refer to the text-based versions.

The development of TinyMUD is dealt with by Aspnes 1989.

28 The early Habitat (1985) was developed by Randall Farmer (and Chip Morningstar), and they coined the term ’avatar’ to refer to the graphical expression of the figures and characters of the virtual worlds. See their reflections on the Habitat experience Morningstar & Farmer 1990.

29 This MUD was developed by Pavel Curtis at Xerox Parc.

30 Bartle 2004, p. 149. The idea of a path was followed up by Bartle in his outline of the dynamics of development tracks.

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motivations to follow this path relied on observations, which also impacted Bartle’s taxonomy of player types.

In particular, the LambdaMOO gave rise to discussions about social relationships in virtual worlds when Julian Dibble published the story “A Rape in Cyberspace” 31 about his personal experiences in LambdaMOO. This story started the discussion of what virtual worlds can mean for "cloaked identities."32

MAJOR RESEARCH CONTRIBUTIONS IDENTITY After nearly 15 years of experience with the development of textbased and graphical MUDs, MUs, MOOs, a basis had been formed for exploring and researching not only technological but also the sociological and psychological aspects of engaging with the MUDs. In particular, Sherry Turkle's (1995) analysis of identities in a MUD “Life on the Screen” was a landmark in this development. Also, in his classic analysis of virtual worlds “Designing Virtual Worlds” Richard Bartle reflected on his personal experience and the comprehensive knowledge gained from the early development of MUDs as he pointed out that identity is the most important issue to be dealt with for game designers. In a chapter entitled “The Celebration of Identity,” Bartle summarised his experience and observations in a brief statement: Virtual worlds enable you to find out who you are by letting you be who you want to be.33 This celebration of identity as the most important aspect of virtual worlds will be further discussed in chapter 11: Avatars and engagement.

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www.juliandibbell.com/texts/bungle_vv. Retrieved 2010-12-09. The early experiences with LambdaMOO is dealt with by Schiano 1999.

32 In his analysis of identity and cyberspace, David Trend uses this term.

33 Bartle 2004, p. 161.

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TYPOLOGIES The social aspects that relate to game theory are also dealt with when Bartle (1997) summarised some of his early experiences with MUDs to generate a model of different player styles. In particular, Bartle’s typology of player styles has influenced the understanding of the various motivations that drive players and participants in virtual worlds. 34 In 1985, a lively discussion evolved on one of the early MUD's bulletin boards; a discussion about what players liked about playing a MUD and how they would like to see the MUD develop.

This discussion initiated Bartle's reflections as he took a first step towards developing a taxonomy of player styles based on what he denoted an interest graph. 35 This graph consists of two axes. A vertical axis shows the importance a player ascribes to the other players of the game versus the very world that is created in and with a given MUD. The second axis, the horizontal, shows the relationship between action and (social) interaction, showing the importance which a player ascribes to acting in and with the story versus socialising and chatting with other players. With a scale of interest on each axis and of a combination of the two axes, a model of four different types of players was generated: Achievers, Explorers, Socialisers and Killers. This typology was also part of a Test of Gamer Psychology 36 developed by Bartle. The typology has been further developed to include a model with 8 types: opportunistic, planner, scientist, hacker, networker, friend, politician and griefer. 37Bartle’s

34

In this sense, Bartle’s typology also refers to those participants and communities, who take part in MUDs for the purposes of social relationships and chat.

35 Bartle 1997, p. 6.

36 www.gamerdna.com/quizzes/bartle-test-of-gamer-psychology. Retrieved 2010-10-15.

37 Bartle 2004, pp. 165-173. This model is built on Bartle’s analysis of the wizzes of the MUD2 discussions in 1989 and 1990 (players trusted with administrator powers). This analysis was left out of the initial analysis, which led to the four player types and the Bartle Test. When the original analysis is combined with the analysis of the wizzes then it leads to the 8 type model. On his blog, Bartle, in 2008, refers to two types of personality tests: Myers-Briggs and the Belbin teamtest as he seeks to relate his typology to these tests.

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interest in describing different models of player styles originated from questions about how to balance different player types in the development and design of a MUD/ virtual world; in particular the dynamics between the different types of his model.

MOTIVATIONS Simultaneously, in 2003 Nick Yee started his research in the Daedalus Project, 38 to explore the psychological aspects of engagement with regard to the motivations that make players want to participate. This research built on Bartle’s early experiences with MUDs and utilised his typology as a basis for identifying factors needed to conduct a factor analysis. 39 Five such factors were identified which were then used as a means of measurement for comprehensive empirical material. 40 The five factors are: relationship, 41 manipulation, 42 immersion, 43 escapism 44 and achievement. 45 Since they are factors of a factor analysis, in this sense, they cannot be compared with Bartle’s typology but through the analysis the factors can be weighed and measured to compose user profiles. Yee’s research into motivations was followed up by an article in 2008 that looked at different types of players and the

38

The Daedalus project – a comprehensive project on the psychology of mmorpgs organised around Nick Yee’s research www.nickyee.com/daedalus/arch_issue. Retrieved 2010-12-10.

39 Yee 2006b, p. 195.

40 Ibid, p. 192.

41 The desire of users to interact with other users, form meaningful relationships, supportive in nature, include a certain degree of disclosure of real-life problems and issues.

42 How inclined users are to objectify other users and manipulate them for personal gains and satisfaction; deceiving, scamming, taunting, and dominating others.

43 Enjoy being in a fantasy world as well as being ”someone else”; storytelling, avatar creation, expand and tie in with the story and lore of the world.

44 How much a user is using the virtual world to temporarily avoid, forget about and escape real-life stress and problems.

45 The desire to become powerful in the context of the virtual environment through the achievement of goals and accumulation of items that confer power.

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amount of time they play with reference to further empirical analysis.46

CULTURE Moreover, with T.L. Taylor’s (2006) ethnographic study “Play Between Worlds” in and of EverQuest, 47 the factor analytical and psychologically oriented research was extended and supplemented with in-depth studies that involved the cultural aspects of the players’ activities and involvement. 48 Thus a significant step was taken towards research-based analyses of culture, communication, collaboration and the fun of the large mass role-playing games.49

ECONOMY Besides the psychological and culturally-oriented studies, it should also be mentioned that in 2001 Edward Castronova published an economic analysis of EverQuest. According to Castranova, 50 the analysis was published for fun as a working paper but it resonated internationally and the overwhelming interest convinced him that it was a research topic of general interest that needed to be addressed.

Castronova’s further economic analysis of the new internal game economies of EverQuest was published in 2005 with the book

46

Williams et al. 2008. In this article Bartle and Yee’s typologies have been supplemented by qualitative data from survey studies, which lead to a ten factor second order typology with a hierarchical structure. Three factors: Achievement, Social and Immersion are seen as second order factors.

Achievement relates to: 1) advancement, 2) analysing game mechanics, 3) competition; Social relates to: 1) chatting and casual interactions, 2) supportive relationships, and 3) teamwork; Immersion relates to: 1) geographical exploration, 2) role-playing, 3) avatar customisation, and 4) escapism.

47 Taylor 2006.

48 In 1999 & 2002, T. L. Taylors publishes articles about her experience living digitally in EverQuest, Taylor 1999, Taylor 2002 in Schroeder.

49 In recent research on World of Warcraft, Taylor revises some of the points made in her earlier research about the development of game culture. She emphasises that we need more partial case studies before we settle on “any major lessons this genre brings us,” Taylor 2010, p. 197.

50 Edward Castronova attended the International Virtual Worlds Workshop in Magleås, Denmark 2010, where he told the story of his early paper.

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“Synthetic Worlds”.51 In this book he showed that these developing economies had volume and impact, which over time will affect the international economy.

ANTHROPOLOGY With regard to the social world of Second Life, launched in 2003, there is not as much thorough research as there is for massively multi-user online role-playing games. As recently as in 2008, the first major qualitative research study was published in the book “Coming of Age in Second Life”, which documented Tom Boellstorff’s anthropological studies since 2004. This study is based on a research method similar to Taylor’s as Boelstorff had lived a life in Second Life as part of his chosen research methodology. His study aimed at a general description and analysis of the culture and life of the world of Second Life. It was an all-round study of the world’s affordances and activities rather than in-depth studies of some chosen places and projects.52

VIRTUAL LABORATORY In 2009, Harris et al. published a study that aimed to understand individual behaviour within the macro social context of Second Life. 53 An additional purpose of this study was to explore the potential of a world like Second Life to function as a laboratory for experimental social science research on social interaction and behaviour. In this study, participants spent six weeks in Second Life to study behavioural measures and produce self-reported data. This research design allowed the authors to follow possible changes over time. The two main results of this study showed that there was a change of behaviour over time and it confirmed the idea that worlds like Second Life can enable social science research on social interaction and behaviour.54

51

Castronova 2005.

For a brief historical overview and an in-depth case study see also Messinger et al.2009.

53 Harris et al. 2009, p. 438.

54 Ibid, p. 444.

52

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The advanced games and virtual worlds have evolved through a historical development that dates back to the late 1970s. A knowledge base and extensive experience has been gained since the days of the early MUDs when the development started that now includes thousands, indeed millions, of players and inhabitants of what Castronova denotes the exodus to the virtual worlds of the late 1990s and during the first decade of the 21st century.

AN OUTLINE OF APPROACH AND METHOD INTERPRETIVE UNDERSTANDING In 2005, when the decision was made to continue my ongoing research on virtual worlds, a knowledge base already existed, as exemplified in the previous sections, and major research projects like Yee’s Daedalus project had been initiated. It had been shown that the virtual worlds could exist over time and not merely as popular phenomena for a short period. Already then, the game designers’ strategies had developed in such a way as to maintain the players’ and participants’ interest over long periods of time. With this development, a historical approach became relevant with reference to interpretive methodology, constructivist epistemology and actornetwork theory. The actor-network theory has a focus of interest on the relations between actors, who are the human agents of history, and technologies and artefacts, which are seen as the non-human actors of such developments. Thus, this analytical strategy emphasises that technology and artefacts are not just passive conditions of human agency to be manipulated but they also act as agents and stabilisers of agency and transformation. They are active agents and actants which affect historical development.

With this approach some outlines of the research field can be drawn.

Taking an interpretive stance means that the questions asked will deal with the participating actors’ experience and understanding of their engagement with the worlds. In particular, the sense-making triangle metaphor will make the interpretive approach operational.55 Also, the metaphor of a diagram will guide the analysis of

55

Dervin 2003, p. 238.

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connections between human and non-human actors in the actornetworks of human agency.56 This diagrammatic inscription is one of the analytical stabilisers of the many translations that make the connections of actor networks tangible and visible. These analytical stabilisers represent a temporary metaphorical stabilisation.

To exemplify this, let me further introduce the diagram. The content of the diagrammatic inscription is the fluidity of human intentions, visions, relations, expectations and aims of the engagement with virtual worlds supported by the non-human actors and actants that help stabilise this fluidity. In the diagram the fluidity of human interpretation and the non-human stabilisers hereof are denoted programs. 57 But programs always involve many counteracting programs, such as barriers, gapinesses and hindrances, which are denoted anti-programs. The actors meet these anti-programs while acting in and with actor-networks. These fluid processes are in a constant flow and connections are formed and continuously dissolved, translated and transformed such as the expectations and forms of engagement with an online world like EverQuest. The world of EverQuest itself also changes and so does the way in which actors engage with it, the relationships which they form in groups and guilds and the agency they enact. In order to deal with this fluidity, flux and flow, as human actors we reach out for support as provided by non-human actors and actants, be they the words that communicate, the emoticons that show feelings in a chat, the avatars 58 that refer to online presence, the monsters of EverQuest which enforce on us dangers to be dealt with or the many game quests to be solved. They are intermediary stabilisers which enable our human agency and the relationships of the many connections that drive the dynamics of actor-networks. The diagrammatic inscription is one such stabiliser that draws on earlier semiotic

56

Latour 1998, p. 255.

Latour 1998/1991. This notion of “program” is inspired by structural semantics and A. J. Greimas concept “narrative program.”

58 From an actor-network theoretical perspective, the avatar may be seen as an active agent or actant that helps stabilise the fluidity of the social relations in virtual worlds like EverQuest and Second Life.

57

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inscriptions as it refers to syntagmatic and paradigmatic analysis 59 only now translated into an actor-network analysis. This inscription and metaphor therefore enable an interpretation of how visions, ideas and programs of the engagement with virtual worlds and the counteracting hindrances and anti-programs are connected by the actor-networks that make the human actors’ agency and engagement.

The two main analytical metaphors and inscriptions, the triangle and the diagram of the empirical analysis, are further dealt with in chapter 3.

MULTIPLICITIES AND UNIQUENESSES The historical and interpretive approach also entails an analytical interest in the diversities and the multiplicities of these engagements.

From a historical point of view, specific and situated enactments are at the centre of interest. Thus, I will not primarily look for generalisable factors and common threads, but it is my ambition to describe and understand in-depth the way chosen actors’ engagements are enacted over time.

The main trend of research conducted so far aims to understand the relatively new phenomena of virtual worlds with respect to covering the field of research as generalisable as possible. 60 Yee’s factor analysis of motivations is one such example. In general, the statistical generalisation of his analysis should enable us to understand some of the motivations of actors’ engagement but it does not in-depth address particularities and uniquenesses. From his research we can learn a lot about the distribution of a few factors. In return these few factors help us to see a generalisable distribution covering a large population. Often, such analysis can be compared to a still picture, metaphorically speaking, allowing us to see a picture at a certain point in time. Motivations, expectations, sense-makings, ideas, agency and enactments, however, change and transform over time.

59

Latour 1991, p. 110.

Taylor’s research from 2006 is an example of a different and ethnographic approach.

60

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To cover some of these changes, in the present qualitative study the actors’ engagement with their virtual worlds is followed over time for the EverQuest as well as the Second Life cases. In iterations of qualitative video interviews online and offline, participatory observations, follow up talks and collaboration with some of the actors of the cases, in-depth studies show almost literally, the diversities, particularities and uniquenesses of the actors’ engagement.

In this way, I hope to contribute in-depth studies with a historical view to supplement the quantitative studies that have contributed valuable knowledge to our understanding of the new phenomena.

Yet qualitative in-depth studies like these can only cover a small sample. However, this sample enables us to see myriads of instances of social relationships, communication, advanced technologies, economic agency, educational projects and cultural events, all of which are instances that contribute to our understanding of the lives as lived and the associations and cultures as enacted in the virtual worlds in the early years of the 21st century.

Moreover, with the in-depth views of micro-moments of lived experience 61 and being, I also hope to contribute examples of the personal history of actors with their avatars, not only from a psychological viewpoint but with reference to theories of metaphors, semiosis and communication theory. One of the consequences of this approach is that specific places and projects have been chosen for the case studies. I do not think of my studies in terms of covering EverQuest and Second Life as such, but rather as instances and examples of human engagement with virtual worlds. Within the same world, there are profound differences between the ways in which actors have chosen to engage, to enact their presence and projects, and to design their places. As I see it, covering the worlds per se makes no sense as I seek to understand some of the diversities and particularities.

61

Dervin 2003, p. 241. Micro-moments are described as Time-Line steps taken in a course of action and sense-making.

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VIDEO ANALYSIS To conduct the in-depth case studies, a video analytical approach and method has been chosen. This approach and method has been developed over time and originates from the early technology studies at Xerox Parc Palo Alto, 62 which were inspired by ethnomethodology. With this approach, social interaction is seen as organised by humans as well as by artefacts. The analytical points made are that the arrangements of rooms, places and the use of artefacts, such as furniture, structure and organise the way we interact and relate. From this video analytical viewpoint, the reorganisation of rooms, artefacts and technologies can be seen as signifiers of reorganisations made in human relations. When seen in this way, patterns of social interaction and dialogue, such as turntakings and the start and ending of situations, are very often followed or initiated by the reorganisation of artefacts and technology, which is why such reorganisations are of analytical interest. Of equal interest are breakdown situations, when things, technology, interaction and dialogue no longer works.

Over the years, the video analytical approach and method has been further developed through my studies of networked communication and learning and in studies of knowledge sharing among IT system developers and programmers. 63 One of the most important contributions to this further development comes from visual ethnography, in particular the emphasis on ways of seeing,64 which has inspired my practice. Just as we are trained to conduct interviews as researchers, likewise it is important to be able to produce video data, which entails understanding how to see and not only how to ask. I have not yet found the way to do it so this study experiments with the further development of video analysis.

One such experiment is the selection of the visual metaphors of video keyframes. In the empirical analysis that follows in subsequent chapters, the steps taken by the actors to realise their vision and

62

Jordan & Henderson 1994.

Jensen 2005.

64 Grimshaw 2001, 2005.

63

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programs of engagement with virtual worlds are referred to and pinpointed by single video frames. The important point is that they help visualise the non-human actors and actants. The video keyframes do not only serve the purpose of illustration, but the identification, selection and choice of these keyframes are the stepping stones for the analysis.

Thousands upon thousands of images and snapshots have been selected and the analysis is enacted in a process of reversed storyboarding, which means using the video recordings to create storyboards by decomposition of the video recordings. This leads to the selection of a few video keyframes. In the reversed storyboarding and selection of video keyframes, the analysis is inspired by the sense-making triangle, the actor-network diagram and also by the foci of ethnomethodology as mentioned. Thus the video keyframes help me realise my ambition of contributing an interpretive understanding of virtual worlds without losing track of the nonhuman actors and actants that stabilise and organise the many ways of engaging with virtual worlds like EverQuest and Second Life.

ORGANISATION OF THE DISSERTATION I will now present a brief overview of the main content and organisation of the chapters that follow. Hopefully, this is helpful for the navigation of the analysis as presented in this dissertation.

The analysis starts with reflections on what is a world and how I understand the virtual worlds as such in chapter 2: Virtual worldmaking. This understanding has gradually crystallised in the process of working intensely with the data from video interviews. The concentrate of these processes is expressed by the notions of worldmaking and metaphoricity.

In chapter 3: Engaging with research, the methodology and the two inscriptions, the metaphors of the triangle and the diagram, are introduced. The empirical approach and the video analytical method address different ways of seeing with an oligoptic and panoptic vantage point and questions about singularity and multiplicities as relevant to the analysis

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These methodological reflections are then followed by chapter 4: Production of data in which the composition of the empirical field, the questions asked, the cases chosen and a timeline are introduced.

Following this, the method of participatory observations is presented together with the findings from these observations in the shape of 37 tableaux. In this way, the method as applied is discussed alongside the presentation of the findings. Also, in this chapter, the video analytical method of video interviews is introduced and the chapter is closed with some reflections on method.

Chapter 5: Co-construction is the first of five chapters which cover the empirical analysis. In this chapter, EverQuest and similar games are briefly dealt with as seen through the eyes of some of the actors. I also examine the choices they have made to co-construct and make sense of their being in the virtual worlds of EverQuest and Second Life through description and analysis. The description is documented by quotes from the video interviews whereas the analysis is organised around selected video keyframes. In each of the chapters the analysis begins with the actors’ interpretation of situations of engaging with the EverQuest world followed by the Second Life cases. Some narratives have also been chosen for each of the chapters covering the empirical analysis. The narrative of chapter 5 is: 1. Star Wars Galaxies, 2. An Evil Landlord.

In chapter 6: Mediators, the many choices that the actors have made in the sense-making processes of creating and developing their avatars are described and analysed. The outline of this chapter follows the same organisation of content as in the previous chapter.

The narrative of this chapter is: 3. A Busy Shaman.

In EverQuest the relationships between actors and their avatars are organised around guilds and missions, and in Second Life the cases chosen are about the relationships formed as part of projects and businesses. These are some of the many agencies followed in chapter 7: Relationships. Again the outline of the chapter follows the two previous chapters of empirical analysis. In this chapter the narratives are: 4. Fighting Mobs, 5. Pioneering Spirit, and 6. Creative Media Maker.

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The analysis in chapter 8: Expressions of self differs from the previous three in the sense that it respects the participating actors’ basic need for privacy. This means that only few video keyframes are selected to make the analysis. Therefore, it mainly relies on the reflections as verbally expressed in the video interviews. In this chapter, the actors express the way they see themselves as part of the chosen worlds and in relation to other actors with their avatars. The narratives are: 7.

Fascination, and 8. Spacy Bubbles.

Chapter 9: Navigation deals with the way in which actors navigate their everyday life including the part of it as enacted in their chosen virtual worlds. The need to respect the actors’ privacy again means that video keyframes have been omitted from the presentation of the analysis. The narratives of this chapter are: 9. Living and Playing Together, 10. A Magic Avatar, and 11. A Salesman’s Experience.

In chapter 10 Synthesis of the analysis, the analysis of the previous five chapters are synthesised with respect to some of the similarities and differences.

With an outset in this synthesis, in chapter 11: Avatars and engagement the phenomena of avatars and engagement are subject to further theoretical analysis. In the first case, a brief overview of research on avatars is followed by a semiotic interpretation, which is then used to analyse the avatars chosen by the actors of the present study. In the analysis of engagement, four studies about the experiential aspects are reviewed. This review leads to an understanding of the phenomenon, which then guides the analyses of some of the many narratives of the empirical analysis.

Finally, in chapter 12: Conclusion, some conclusions about visions, hindrances, diversities and transformations are suggested.

In this study the term ‘actor’ has been chosen rather than ‘user’. The reason for this is that I wish to emphasise the active co-creation of the worlds with which the actors engage. In the notion of ‘user’, the perspective chosen is from a system’s point of view. The system is at the centre and the users are seen as positioned by the system. The term actor emphasises the active engagement, co-creation and the

34

relative autonomy in relation to the system. Moreover, it explicates the reference made to actor-network theory, which is one of the major theoretical threads of the analysis. From an actor-network perspective, as we have seen, actors are not only human. Nonhuman actors, actants, or agents are as active as are the humans in the making of sense and meaning. Whenever the notion ‘actor’ occurs in the following chapters, reference is made to human actors whereas the non-human actors are referred to as such but also, in some cases, as actants and inscriptions65. When referred to as nonhuman actants, the semioses 66 of the sense-making processes emphasise the narrative aspect of the interpretations.

65

Latour, 1991, 2005.

The two carriers and actants of meaning “intermediaries and mediators” are of particular importance to the semioses; see Latour 2005, pp. 37-46.

66

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2. VIRTUAL WORLD-MAKING In this chapter, I suggest an interpretive understanding of virtual worlds. To support this, actants of theory are introduced as interpretive means of analyses: the concept of metaphors as understood by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson,67 Andrew Ortony,68 and Zoltan Kövecses, 69 and world-making as discussed by Nelson Goodman.70 The interpretive understanding suggested is the result of many steps taken in this empirical analysis. It was not applied from the outset of the study but gradually emerged from many discussions with the participating actors, with other researchers, and not least from discussions on how to define virtual worlds 71 as part of an interdisciplinary and international research workshop, 72 and in a follow-up blog discussion of this question on the research project’s blog.73

METAPHORICITY In order to suggest an interpretive understanding of worlds like EverQuest and Second Life, and with that the umbrella term of virtual worlds, I have found that metaphors can offer optics to help us wrench free of a predominant technological understanding. This does not mean that our understanding of the technology is of no

67

Lakoff & Johnson 1980, Johnson 1987.

Ortony 1993.

69 Kövecses 2000, 2002, 2005.

70 Goodman 1954, 1978.

71 Journal of Virtual Worlds Research, 2008 Vol. 1, Think pieces.

72 In June 2010, the virtual worlds research project at Roskilde University arranged an international workshop with leading researchers to discuss issues such as how to define the concept of virtual worlds, Magleås, June 79. See the project’s blog: worlds.ruc.dk.

73 The blog discussion was initiated and moderated by Dr. CarrieLynn Reinhard, see worlds.ruc.dk/ as part of the Magleås workshop.

68

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importance; in fact quite the opposite can be said. Many scholars have contributed valuable knowledge on this subject emphasising that technologies are active agents and non-human actants of meaning-making and sense-making processes of interpretation and negotiation.74 To contribute an interpretive understanding therefore, it is suggested that we consider the sense-making aspects of engaging with virtual world-making technologies. The term metaphorical world-making is a conceptual actant of thought that will support us in seeing virtual worlds from the vantage point of an interpretive understanding.75 My hope is that this change of terminology will help make our understanding of these digital systems more abstract, and in doing so expand the technology- and systems-oriented views. Grouping all online games together under the umbrella term of virtual worlds can be problematic as many worlds exist and are very different, for example the older multi-user online role-playing games such as EverQuest and the newer user-generated world of Second Life.76 A game such as EverQuest can draw on the long tradition of gaming that dates back to before the development of computer games. 77 Game theory is a well-established research field and field of practice also within systems development.78 In contrast, a world like Second Life has no long lasting tradition on which to draw. In spite of these differences, the interpretive understanding of virtual worlds when

74

Latour 2005. The concept of non-human actors as active agents of meaning-making is part of actor-network theory further dealt with in chapter 3.

75 Several different vantage points are possible when analysing an empirical field as multiple as actors’ engagement with their chosen virtual worldmakings. Thus, the interpretive is not but one of many possible understandings.

76 I shall use the term social and user-generated world to emphasise the decisive part played by active co-design of the actors of worlds like Second Life. It is not, however, an unproblematic term as it tends to underestimate that the Linden Lab firm completely controls the conditions and framing of the environment thus conditioning possible world-makings.

77 Game theory has a long tradition in various fields such as mathematical theory, biology, and economics, see Huizinga 2000/1949.

78 Bartle 2004.

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seen as metaphorical references will help abstract the understanding of EverQuest as well as Second Life.

Accordingly, I will now seek to look in more detail at metaphors as well as the conception of virtual worlds as expressed by the term world-making. In considering the philosophical understanding of world-making, I will also briefly touch on questions about reality(ies) as the dichotomy of virtual and real pervade many gamers’ and actors’ understanding as well as many academic and public discussions and writings about online virtual worlds like EverQuest and Second Life.

CREATING NEW REALITIES WITH METAPHORS In their work on metaphors, Lakoff & Johnson (1980) exemplify and show the pervasive metaphorical nature of our understanding of culture, life, environment and society. Their examples show how a metaphor highlights certain features of conceptual understandings while suppressing others; how it involves specific aspects of these concepts, highlights important experiences and generates coherence while it masks others and, potentially, gives new meaning thereby creating new realities. 79 There is no likeness between lives as experienced, travelling as enacted, and movement as performed.

However, the metaphor ‘life is a journey’ generates an understanding of life in which we have a start and an ending and in between, over time, we will experience events and agency indeterminate and unforeseen as well as habitual, expected and foreseen.

But the power of a metaphor is not only its potential to generate coherent understandings that help us make sense of our experience.

They unite reason and imagination, according to Lakoff & Johnson, into a unity which is the basis of imaginative rationality: Metaphor is one of our most important tools for trying to comprehend partially what cannot be comprehended totally: our feelings, aesthetic experiences, moral practices, and spiritual awareness. These endeavours of imagination are not

79

Lakoff & Johnson, 1980/2006 in O’Brian (Ed.), pp. 103-114.

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devoid of rationality; since they use metaphor, they employ an imaginative rationality.80 This understanding of metaphor and rationality has a parallel in Lakoff & Johnson’s view that a metaphor is not only a way to describe and understand reality but it also changes what we perceive as such, thus affecting how we act upon these perceptions and understandings.

By extension, the notion of virtual worlds can be seen as a conceptual mapping of the multiplicities of complex multi-user virtual worlds created and enacted by metaphors and with multiple references to the physical world. These references and metaphors highlight certain features while suppressing others; e.g. the worldliness of the metaphorical islands in Second Life, or the races and classes of EverQuest. These are metaphors which help us conceptualise, map and enact the interpretive organisation of the virtual world. The imaginative rationality of this metaphorical understanding makes certain aspects of human agency more likely e.g. music events and dancing in Second Life or battles in EverQuest and it encourages certain feelings, experiences and comprehensions.

When one engages with the agency and relationships of virtual worlds then what is conceived as real in the physical world, is transformed and reshaped in-world to become digital and semiotic references81 to virtual world-making and culture. Thus, digital objects can be seen as non-linguistic realisations of metaphors82 by indexical

80

Ibid, p. 114.

Brier 2008, Guddemi et al. 2009, Hodge & Kress 1988, Kress & van Leeuwen 2001, Peirce, in Dinesen & Stjernfelt 1994; van Leeuwen & Jewitt 2001.

82 Kövecses, 2002. A conceptual domain is understood as any coherent organisation of experience. This understanding leads to a distinction between a conceptual metaphor and metaphorical linguistic expressions. In this understanding, the expressions make manifest the conceptual domain in many different ways made possible by the coherent organisation of experience. If we use the metaphor “life is a journey” to understand life then a distinction is made between a source and a target domain, e.g. what we are trying to understand is life, the target domain, and we are trying to 81

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reference to presence and patterns of binary digits; patterns which, moreover, refer to electrical signals.

SPATIAL METAPHORS AND MOVEMENTS Travelling is one of several sensitising metaphors83 of this study. It is a metaphor that covers movement between places, the generation of a sense of presence and the engagement of senses as we travel. The participating actors of this study all traverse their worlds from zone to zone, between landscapes of deserts, peaceful green pastures, to dangerous mountains and rocks in EverQuest; and from island to island, place to place in Second Life. According to common language, they also move in and out, travelling from their dining room or bedroom or their offices and workplaces into their chosen worlds. 84 These spatial metaphors of out-here/ therenesses and inthere/ herenesses, respectively, weave what is conceived as real life and what is seen as virtual in-world. In other words, this study is full of spatial metaphors of travelling in landscapes, zones, and islands and the spatial metaphors of being out here or in there. Add to this the metaphorical understanding that, in this study, I seek to follow the actors, when they traverse and engage with their chosen worlds.

Borrowed from actor-network theory 85 this travelling metaphor of following the actors is a sensitising analytical metaphor that will help me focus and find my way through the study.

understand it by reference to a source domain, a journey, see Johnson 1987, Kรถvecses 2000, 2005, 2006, Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, Lakoff 1993, Ortony 1993.

83 A sensitising metaphor refers to a conceptual, non-human agent of meaning-making, interpretation and thought, which helps us sharpen the focus of an analytical process. It is borrowed from the conceptual tool of sensitising concepts as developed by Blumer 1954 and Van den Hoonaard 1997.

84 In his analysis of the metaphor of balance, Johnson shows how it corresponds to pre-conceptual bodily experience and patterns of activity.

He emphasizes that these pre-conceptual bodily patterns, e.g. balance, are constitutive to human experience. In the present study, movement is seen as a preconceptual bodily pattern that creates and constitutes the experience of being in or out of spaces. See also Polanyi 1966.

85 Latour 1998, 2005.

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The metaphor of travelling is a well-known and commonly held understanding of life as expressed in the well-known saying ‘life is a journey.’ This expression involves a metaphorical understanding in the sense that the two conceptual domains–life and journey–are related, as one domain is understood in terms of the other. 86 Furthermore, in the above-mentioned saying, the conceptual understanding of life generated by the metaphor of a journey also refers to ‘movement’ and the saying even continues ‘where there is life there is movement.’ These metaphors help us generate particular understandings of instances of a multiplicity of phenomena, which would otherwise be incomprehensible; they generate ideas, conceptions and associations; they create and constitute how we construct, perceive, interpret and enact our world. In constructivist theories, in particular, metaphorical creativity and projections are seen as constitutive to processes of human sense-making.87

86

Kövecses, 2002.

Theories of metaphors are many: linguistic e.g. Black 1962, 1993, semantic e.g. Cohen 1985, pragmatic e.g Searle 1969, conceptual e.g.

Johnson 1987, Kövecses 1990, Lakoff & Johnson 1980, Lakoff 1993. In the introduction to the second edition 1993 of Metaphor and Thought Andrew Ortony distinguishes a constructivist from a nonconstructivist theoretical understanding. With a constructivist understanding, metaphors play important parts in language and thought, the distinction between the literal and metaphorical is dissolved, meaning has to be constructed rather than perceived, and, basically, metaphors and language are creative. In his theory of metaphors published 1987 in the book The Body in the Mind, Johnson discusses the literal-core theories such as the comparison or similarity theories of metaphors (dating back to Aristotle and his works Poetics and Rhetoric), and the metaphorical proposition theories, the latter a theoretical position developed in opposition to a rationalist understanding of metaphors as a kind of non-essential literary figure of speech of no importance to reasoning and cognition (see Johnson p. 66). In propositional theories, metaphors are seen as creative as well as constitutive. Johnson refers to Romantic treatments of language as represented by Coleridge (1817/1907) in Lectures on Shakespeare and his distinction between fancy and imagination in citing Coleridge, who sees fancy as “a mode of memory emancipated from the order of time and space” whereas imagination goes beyond the mere associative activity of fancy to modify an image, “by a sort of fusion to force many into one” (see Johnson p. 68). Following the propositional line of thought, Johnson refers to Richards 1936 and his 87

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MAPPING AND MEANINGFUL PLACES If we take this understanding one step further then a world can be seen as a place where there is life. This is not an answer to the question of what is a world, a question that has been discussed throughout the history of philosophy.88 Rather, it is an understanding that distinguishes between abstract space and the experienced world and place. Without the experience of living and experiencing time, there is probably no world. If we accept this, a distinction can be made between, on the one hand, space as abstract temporal-spatial sets of coordinates and, on the other, meaningful places as experienced in world-making.89 The abstract coordinates of maps and the affordances90 of mapping, which make worlds, are useful non-human agents and inscriptions that help us map our movements and trajectories. A map helps us make sense of, and interpret, our experience by suggesting icons and metaphors and, moreover in the case of virtual worlds, it helps generate indexical traces of our movements.91 It is, however, not the map itself but the reference to other maps that gives us access to this well-known metaphorical understanding. We interpret our current world maps using knowledge and skills we have been taught since

conception of thought as irreducibly metaphorical and our reality as a projected world. In the nonpropositional understanding as suggested by Davidson 1978, metaphor is a special use of language to intimate or suggest something otherwise unnoticed. In his writings about sign relations, Peirce (1931-35/1994) sees metaphors as hypoicons, which refer to particular kinds of iconographic sign relations. He divides the hypoicons into pictures, diagrams and metaphors depending on the relation to what Peirce conceives the category of Firstness.

88 In recent writings, Gunkel (2007) critically discusses questions of relevance to the understanding of avatars and virtual worlds when seen from a philosophical perspective. His criticism includes the understanding of virtual versus real worlds and what he perceives as a predominant digital reason.

89 Goodman, 1978; Lewis, 1986.

90 Gibson, 1986; Norman & Draper 1986; Norman 2002.

91 This indexicality is referred to as a mechanically active alphabet in Finnemann’s dissertation (1994) and in Aarseths (1997) analysis of new forms of computer-generated text if seen as cybertext as ergodic text.

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early schooling. Afforded by these semiotic references and metaphorical maps, we can interpret EverQuest and Second Life and see them as worlds. To exemplify this, let us look at the early version of EverQuest. No map was inscribed and made available by the creators of the game. Therefore intense efforts were made by the gamers to mutually map the experienced world in order to generate a meaningful interpretation of the many different zones they experienced. Mapping the world and leaving traces of one’s journey seems to be part of making sense of worlds. Consequently, in the second version of EverQuest, a map was inscribed to afford a visual and metaphorical interpretation of one’s whereabouts and journey, and the places already traversed and experienced. In the worldmaking of Second Life, two maps provide these modes of interpretation: a mini-map and a larger map. The mini-map traces one’s orientation with the corners of the world in the shape of a yellow dot referring to the avatar’s vantage point along with green dots that indicate the presence of other avatars. The mini-map refers to the abstract spatial coordinates and corners of the world as well as to avatars. In this way, the presence of avatars is visually interpreted by online non-linguistic and digital realisations of a metaphorical map. The green and yellow dots refer to indexical sign relations and traces that allow us to follow our own and other actors’ trajectories of presence in the world in a very abstract form.

F IGURE 2 . The avatar’s vantage point. The Second Life mini map depicts the vantage point of one’s avatar – the yellow dot – relative to corners of the world (NW, W, etc.)

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F IGURE 3. Indexical green dots. The larger map of indexical references shows avatars present in a small sample of islands – the green dots.

The larger map of Second Life in Figure 4 is a scalable and detailed metaphor composed of indexical references. There are things such as stores, events and places marked on the map but, most importantly, the abstract space has now been turned into meaningful areas of land and sea, mainland and islands. Supported by indexical references, the map affords a visual interpretation and mapping of the many different instances of world-making.

F IGURE 4. Detailed map. The large map shows the outline of the island Wonder DK and the islands of Metrotopia, Exploratory Lab, Viking Ships and Kattegat South and North in Second Life.

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If we zoom out to look at the map as an interface to online virtual worlds, such as Second Life, these world maps are agents or nonhuman actants that help us interpret what we experience. The many separate, diverse, contingent, indeterminate instances and expressions of life, as interpreted and understood by the metaphor of a world and map, create a corresponding organisation of experience.

In this, the non-human actant and inscription of a map play an important part in visualising this interpretation, as one can never actually and unmediated experience the world, or virtual worlds; this is only made possible by metaphors and semiotic references. The metaphorical power of the map generates a sense of a wholeness out of a myriad and chaos of instances, a wholeness, which can be seen and experienced. This applies to any kind of world whether we call it a virtual or a real world.

From an instrumental point of view, the maps of EverQuest and Second Life support navigation from one point to another, whether teleporting or flying around the world. When seen with an interpretative optic, the worldliness of Second Life, for example, is experienced through the map and its metaphors.

Even if our world maps and the maps of EverQuest and Second Life are not similar, they share some correspondences: worlds are vast with different topographical qualities such as deserts, mountains, pastures, seas, islands and continents. They are inhabited by living beings ranging from bacteria to lizards, monkeys, horses, spiders and humans. The maps expand our horizons of possibilities by showing us the many choices of world-making.In other words, pursuing the question of what is a world leads us to compare maps of virtual world-making with conceptual world maps that visualise the metaphor of a world and help us create and enact world-making. If, primarily, the conception of what is a world is generated by metaphorical interpretation and semiotic references, then an essential distinction between virtual and real worlds makes no sense.

If we zoom in to observe the virtual as well as the real world then we can only see a very small sample. What we see and experience are situated instances of agency and engagement on a small scale. We are not seeing the wholeness of the world. This means it makes no

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sense to differentiate between the experiences of worldliness afforded by pressing the keys of a keyboard from the experience of viewing a ‘traditional’ map of the world. In both cases, we may see them as virtual as well as real. If we zoom out, then this optic allows us to see the wholeness, but then we cannot see it all. To see the whole, i.e. the whole world, we have to refer to metaphorical interpretations and semiotic references of mapping; only then can we see the wholeness of the world. With this optic, the real and the virtual worlds are both metaphorical.

To summarise what has so far been said, I will suggest that, from an experiential point of view, both the virtual and real worlds may be seen as metaphorical world-making. 92 What we see is not a dichotomy between real and virtual but worlds out of possible worlds. The conception of world-making involve potentials, in plural.

Consequently, to understand the many possibilities and potentials it makes no sense to see the real and the virtual as ontologically opposed or in parallel.

WORLDS ARE IN PLURAL If we accept that worlds are in plural and that real and virtual worlds are not ontologically opposed or in parallel then the question is: what makes a world? In his inquiry into this question, Nelson Goodman (1978) points to several processes that are involved in world-making: composition and decomposition, weighting, ordering, deletion, supplementation and deformation.93 These processes do not

92

Goodman 1954, 1986, Putnam, 1988.

In Words, Works, Worlds, the American philosopher N. Goodman (1978) discusses the philosophical questions of monism versus pluralism. In this, he refers to James’ (1909) A Pluralistic Universe, and, most importantly, to E. Cassirer’s notion of multiple worlds. Arguing against the predominant scientific understanding that the only real is the physical world to which all other can be reduced, Goodman shows that dichotomies between real and unreal, fact and fiction may rather be seen as descriptions and depictions relative to a frame of reference and to ways of describing; thus, questions of rightnesses occur as not all descriptions and depictions are equally right, there are still right and wrong versions relative to the framing. In one of his earlier works Fact, Fiction, & Forecast (1954), Goodman shows how their 93

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follow particular sequences, and Goodman does not claim to have identified everything that goes into world-making. However, let us look at what worlds are made from.

First, it is important to note that in Goodman’s view there is not only a physical world to which all other worlds can be reduced. He suggests that we see the world as that which all right versions describe. 94 Every world may be as real as the other as they are matters of reference and of rightness of description according to such reference. Depending on the frame of reference and rightness, a world may be seen as a real world.95 Second, worlds are made from

differences may be decomposed so as to make meaningless a distinction between fact as real and fiction as unreal, and also how forecast is an integral and constitutive yet fictitious part of dealing with facts and the world. Moravesik’s (1979) and Bredo’s (1979) reviews of Goodman’s book Ways of World-making is a brief introduction to his philosophy as presented. A comprehensive discussion of Goodman’s philosophy, in particular his aesthetics, as well as Goodman’s answers to the critics and debates can be found in Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, see Ackerman 1981.

94 See Goodman, chapter VII On Rightness of Rendering in Ways of Worldmaking (1978). Goodman’s radical relativism has been subject to critique.

In particular the ‘everything goes’ consequences of relativism have been critically discussed. In his answers to the critique, Goodman suggests the notions of ‘rightnesses of rendering’ and ‘fit’ as conceptual tools to restrain relativism. The complexity of his standards of rightnesses and philosophical position is briefly summarised by Goodman in this way: ‘radical relativism under rigorous restraints. Goodman’s contributions to philosophy and the questions regarding relativism, rightness and worldversions have recently been subject to discussion in articles by X. Donato-Rodriguez (2009) and C. Elgin (2009) and so his critique of the correspondence and identity theories as well as his philosophical position as compared to transcendentalism and empiricism, see van Fraasen, 2009. The aesthetic theory of his philosophy is discussed by Jaquette, 2000, Maine, 1999 and Kuhlenkampff, 1981.

95 It is important to note that in his text about world-making, Goodman also states that a willingness to accept and welcome all worlds builds none.

Thus, his concept of rightness is important for furthering our understanding of what is a world. In his radical relativism the notion of rightness replaces that of truth; rightnesses depending on frames of reference and on right versions of the world. In suggesting this notion of rightness he reflects on ‘what is rightness’ and addresses questions concerning worldversions in conflict, subject matters of convention and content, tests and truth, veracity and validity, right representation, and fair samples. This is mentioned to

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other worlds, according to Goodman. Other worlds which undergo the many dynamic processes of world-making as mentioned above.

Processes whereby content and form are decomposed, taken apart and re-composed, put together, weighed and sorted differently with different emphasis, accent or ordering. The human capacity to overlook and supplement, to be blind to what neither helps nor hinders, and to flesh out physical stimuli, e.g. in the perception of motion, are also some of the dynamics of importance to worldmaking in Goodman’s understanding.

Accordingly, the virtual worlds of EverQuest and Second Life are no less real than the physical world depending on the frame of reference, but they differ as not everything belonging to one world belongs to the other because the dynamic processes of composing and decomposing of existing worlds by world-making help us change the frame of reference involved. The entities of the worlds may be the same, but the emphasis, accentuation and ordering that come with a change of reference are different. In this, some aspects are deleted, or rather, overlooked, others are supplemented such as transformations between two-dimensional and three-dimensional shapes.

Metaphorical creativity may be seen as one of the possible ways of changing the frames of reference thereby versioning the worlds and generating rightnesses of the versions.

To briefly summarise, in the present study the virtual worlds of EverQuest and Second Life are seen as versions of world-making.

There is no dichotomy between a real world and unreal virtual worlds. There are, however, different versions relative to the frame of

emphasise that Goodman’s idea of relative reality does not mean that everything is equally right. There are right and wrong worldversions e.g. in physical, perceptual, or artistic worlds. Goodman’s philosophical interest in art and aesthetics is among others inspired by Dewey (1934) in “Art as Experience”. The ideas about worldmaking among others have influenced Bruner’s (1986) work in “Actual minds, possible worlds”. His constructivist philosophy has been disputed, see e.g. Farrell 1982, Putnam 1979, 1996, Quine, 1978. A recent overview and discussion of his philosophy has been published by Cohnitz & Rossberg 2006.

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references of meaning as mediated and afforded by metaphoricity and semiotic sign relations. Closing this chapter, I will now comment on how to refer to virtual world-making in the subsequent chapters.

From the understanding that has evolved out of the reflections as formulated in this chapter, virtual worlds can be conceived as multiuser non-linguistic and digital realisations of metaphors and semiotic references by world-making. Obviously, this theoretical conception leads to complicated language and if thoroughly applied it would negatively affect readability. Therefore for the sake of clarity it will be referred to as: virtual world-making.

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3. ENGAGING WITH RESEARCH In this chapter, I aim to provide a pair of field glasses that allow a clear view of the many choices made when engaging with the research of this study and the methods in-use. I have been inspired by grounded theory method (GTM) as this qualitative research methodology has allowed me to look at various theories during the process of researching in order to get closer to finding out how actors engage with and make sense of virtual world-making. In the many processes of studying the actors’ engaging and sense-making of their virtual worlds, my approach is participatory and dialogic. In this approach, ways of seeing with oligoptic and panoptic views, actants of theory, analytical inscriptions, and sensitising metaphors are some of the concepts that refer to the methodological choices that have been made; choices, which I am about to introduce. Methods in-use are also introduced, in particular, the methods of participatory observations and video interviews.

AN EMPIRICAL APPROACH This study of actors’ sense-making when engaging with virtual worldmaking is empirically driven. It is inspired by a grounded theory method approach96 (GTM) even if it does not strictly, step by step, follow this approach to research. Rather, as it has lately been shown, GTM is a ‘family of methods,’97 a family of grounded theory methods.

Most people know from personal experience that the many similarities within families also generate differences expressed as

96

Bryant & Charmaz 2007, Denzin 2007, Glaser & Strauss 1967, Glaser 2007, Star 2007, Strauss 2007, Strauss & Corbin 1998.

97 Referring to a family of methods, Bryant & Charmaz (2007) points to Wittgenstein’s notion of a ‘family of resemblances’ which should help us understand similarities and differences, i.e. to distinguish what is a game and what is not (i.e. language games), Wittgenstein 2009/1953.

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disagreements and discussions, debates and quarrels; and the same is true of the GTM family.98 In this chapter, the important point is to emphasise that the GTM approach does not imply that this study is atheoretical; rather, as the notion signifies, it means that its motivation is to study empirically and discuss with participating actors ‘in what ways do actors engage with virtual world-making?’ and ‘what is it?’ that makes sense but also to answer these simple questions by concurrently generating empirically grounded accounts with reference to actants of theory, sensitising metaphors99 and analytical inscriptions.100 The aim is to empirically ground and mobilise theory that will guide us to see and understand what goes on in the field of

98

In their introduction to the Handbook of Grounded Theory Method, Bryant & Charmaz (2007) suggest that the different schools of Grounded Theory Method should be seen as a family of resemblances because the differences are less than often presumed. In the later development of Grounded Theory Method, Strauss and Corbin (1990) recognises theory as intertwined with observation and empirical study. This diverges from the approach to open coding and emergent categories’ approach of the early writings by Strauss & Glaser (1967) and later writings by Glaser. This ongoing discussion is addressed by Bryant & Charmaz (2007) and in particular Charmaz (2003) when they suggest that the ongoing discussion between what is seen as an objectivist versus a constructivist approach and perspective should be nuanced as researchers need not subscribe to either of these. As it is shown in this chapter, my approach emphasises that theory is seen as actively involved with any kind of empirical research, knowledge construction, and emotional engagement; see also Star (2007) about living with Grounded Theory. By the term ‘actants of theory’ wish to emphasise that there is no all encompassing theoretical framework that sets the stage for the analysis only agents and actants of thought and reflection which help me identify and analyse ways of making sense of situations of engaging, see also Dey and Clarke & Friese in Bryant & Charmaz 2007.

99 The notion of ‘sensiting concepts’ is borrowed from Blumer 1954, Van den Hoonaard 1997, Bowen 1969. In the present study however, it is used in the sense of sensitising visual metaphors in the shape of video keyframes.

100 The sense-making triangle and the diagram are examples of some such.

Inscriptions can best be compared with the semiotic concept of figuration even if it is not similar to this. In the present usage of inscriptions, the linguistic aspect is toned down. I shall use the notion of inscriptions to denote non-linguistic signs and figures, non-human actants, which support the many translations that partake in analytical imagination and reflection.

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sense-making 101 and agency making.

102

of engaging with virtual world-

The notion of actants of theory refers to the close relationship of this study with actor-network theory. From this perspective, human actors and non-human actants are seen as equally important to the weaving of threads and chains of actor-networks that make meaning. They do, however, have different parts to play in the enactment of human agency.

When seen with the optic of actor-network theory, social relationships are fluid, contingent, changeable and vague to the extent that they limit the stability necessary to temporally connect the many associations103 that form interpersonal and social relationships.

To form temporary stabilities non-human actors and actants, such as technologies, diagrams, artefacts, tools, dotted notes, media, symbols and signs have parts to play. Consequently, theories may be seen as semiotic stabilisers of the many fluid and changeable empirical data of this study, data that are produced by a variety of methods of study.

Supported by actants of theory and sensitising metaphors, I have tried to stabilise the understanding of the analytical matters that emerge as we engage with the production of data. Thus, theories can be seen as narratives and actants that help us stabilise and inform our understanding as referenced by metaphors, signs and diagrams. In this context, to inform literally means to put ‘in form’ in semiotic as well as physical shapes, inscriptions and design. The notion ‘actants of theory’ refers to the shapes that help us put in form our

101

Sense-making as a phenomenon as well as a methodology and method is dealt with in many different ways in Dervin 2003. In the chapter “SenseMaking Methodology: Communicating Communicatively with Campaign Audiences” (pp. 232-249) the metaphorical depiction of the active processes of human sense-making is systematically substantiated.

102 Agency is seen as doing something which makes a difference, produces a transformation, leaves a trace, enters an account; see Latour 2005, pp. 5253. For a recent discussion of this concept see Hitlin & Elder 2007, Hitlin & Long 2009.

103 Latour 2005. Associations refer to the composition of the collective. It denotes the many actor-networks that make society.

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understanding when matters of concern are seen from the optic of theory.

The actants of theory need not refer to the full scale of a certain theory, e.g. actor-network theory; rather actants will help us focus on certain aspects rather than help us strive to see ‘it all’. Thus, different theoretical optics allow us to see and understand some matters of concern in different ways but usually not everything. With this in mind, it is worth considering whether we can bring together the chosen actants of theory of this study and still maintain debate and discussion or if there will be constant quarrels. We will find out if our actants can travel together or if their disagreements are so severe that they are forced to part. If this is the case, I will then seek the crossroads of disagreements where this happens. Thus, the theoretical reflections while we are travelling around the worlds of EverQuest and Second Life do not take as a point of departure theoretical problems per se. Instead, the reflections focus on problematic situations that may occur when we bring together actants of theory with different perspectives. To help clarify the optics, distances, roads and crossroads of the empirically driven studies, the actants of theory are obvious helpers and guides.

From the outset, before the production of data in video interviews, participatory observation, archive and website studies, the sensitising metaphor of foci was decided. The way these foci are studied and analysed is influenced by two key theories: actor-network theory, and sense-making theory and methodology. Actants of these theories and metaphors are the main contributors as are the micro-moment studies of actors’ engaging. Together, they have put in form the continuous processes of describing, analysing and concluding this study.

As a starting-point of analysis, I will take the movement metaphor of the sense-making approach 104 and the dynamics of translations in actor-networks, 105 which enact processes of meaning-making. To

104 105

Dervin 2003, pp. 232-233.

Latour 2005, p. 108.

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help answer the simple question ‘in what ways do actors make sense of situations of engagement with virtual world-making?’ some sensitising metaphors and inscriptions of analysis – the triangle and the diagram – are inscribed in the analytical optics. The foci of analysis, which they help provide, are subsequently made explicit by exemplification. Although in an ideal situation, researchers would always use the grounded theory method with an open mind, in practice it is often clouded by their academic experience. In this, I am no exception. Thus, the epistemological lenses chosen to view matters of concern acknowledge that even the simplest production of data is loaded with meaning, interpretations, understandings and meaningful conceptions.

However, my empirical studies start with an open mind, in the sense that no prescribed analytical categories have been developed, no analytical matrix has been programmed, and no template of categories is inscribed in analytical software. As will be shown later, the empirical studies acknowledge that the participating actors are the experts when it comes to making sense of their virtual worldmakings. Not that I as a researchers just describe what actors tell me; rather, I will write thick descriptions taking into account the expertise of the participating actors.

In short, in a bottom-up movement I will describe and document the actors’ accounts and their making of sense. However, doing this requires some actants of theory to help me analyse the accounts.

Metaphorically speaking, in top-down movements the actants of theory influence and substantiate the empirical accounts of analytical matters of concern. In this way, the actants of theory put in form the analysis as woven by the actors’ rich accounts. Thus, from the vantage point of the researcher, I will engage with the description and analysis of these rich empirical accounts supported by the actants of theory and sensitising metaphors.

With these reflections in mind, I will now introduce the actants of theory that will assist me in the analysis. As already mentioned, I do not apply a theoretical framework to the empirically grounded analysis but rather point at some actants of theory to guide me.

Actants with leading roles to play are: the sense-making metaphor

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and triangle as visualised by the communication researcher Brenda Dervin106 and the diagram depiction of technological innovation107 as shown by the sociologist and anthropologist Bruno Latour, 108 see Figure 5. Guided by abductive reasoning109 these two leading actants of theory, and their inscriptions, have been used to put in form a composition of this study. A composition that combines the triangle and metaphor as dealt with later in this chapter.

F IGURE 5. The triangle and the diagram. The sense-making triangle depicts a pattern of relationships between situations as experienced, gap-bridgings as faced and outcomes as enacted. The actor-network diagram depicts tensions that are generated by processes of substitutions and diffusions. These inscriptions organise the empirical analysis. They are dealt with in more detail at pp. 73-79.

As a first step I will, however, accompanied by them, travel along some of the distances, traces and trajectories of actor-networks of connections that we are about to follow in the subsequent analysis.

106

Dervin 2003, p. 238.

Latour 1991. The understanding of technology as presented by Latour is part of a turn in the understanding of technology; a turn which emphasises the social aspects of technology and the interaction between human and technology; this understanding is influenced by the development of sociotechnical and social-constructivist understandings of technological systems, see Bijker et al. 1987, Mumford 1979, Woolgar 1996. A socioemotional understanding of the engagement with the Internet has been put forward by P. Wallace (1998) who discusses many questions that have also been dealt with by the research on virtual worlds. Recently a pragmatist understanding of technology has been suggest which emphasizes that living with technology is an active part of our experience and sense-making, see McCarty & Wright 2004.

108 Latour, in Law 1991.

109 Aliseda 2006, Reichertz 2007, Peirce in Dinesen & Stjernfelt 1994.

107

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Let us start by taking a first step to locate the virtual worlds and actors with whom we are about to engage.

WHERE ARE THE VIRTUAL WORLDS AND THEIR ACTORS? The very concept of virtual worlds110 sounds as if they are easy to identify with clear-cut contours in a kind of singularity111 that allow us to point and say ‘this is a virtual world’, ‘this is EverQuest and over there is Second Life’. However, in searching for virtual worlds, gradually the picture gets blurred as a multiplicity112 of objects and agencies appear on the scene and screen. 113 These multiplicities often bring confusion. Where should we travel and what should we look for, point at and talk about to find the virtual worlds?

Confronted by confusion, one of our obvious choices is to draw on earlier experience and some of the actants of theory114 that can help us find virtual worlds. They all play their part in helping us find the way but, rather than helping us find only one way, they will point at the many roads, networks and paths we can take. It may seem as if they complicate matters rather than clarify. However, it is in the complexity of theory that, hopefully, we will gain some insights into the engagings with virtual worlds that we study. Not in the shape of the only path or road to be taken, but by mapping some of the many paths and roads. Yet for a moment, I will ask the actants of theory to stay in the background while we choose some optics which have proven helpful in earlier studies. I would like to start with the notions of oligopticon and panopticon115 as ways of seeing.116

110

This concept and common language use is widely accepted as it is included in the Metaverse Roadmap 2007. This roadmap includes mirror worlds, virtual worlds, augmented reality and web wear.

111 Law 2004, pp. 50-59.

112 Ibid.

113 Dourish 1998, 2001, Laurel 1991.

114 Some of which are: metaphors (Lakoff & Johnsson, Ortony, and Kövecses) world-making (Goodman) actor-networks (Latour and Law) sensemaking (Dervin) a triad of sign relations, semiosis (Peirce) and forms of engagement (Bilda et al., Morrison).

115 Foucault 1977, Latour 2006.

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WAYS OF SEEING To find the way while travelling, our visual sense and perception are important in helping us map the fields and areas we traverse. The two optics of the oligoptic and the panoptic allow us to see things in different ways. In short; when we look for virtual worlds in the form of an oligopticon, the step taken is to localise the global.117 It is our first move, if we look for human or non-human actants to help us see the global, the ‘out-therenesses’118 of virtual worlds.

By this first move, we are looking for something or someone who/that can show us the whole, because we can see only very little.

To exemplify this way of seeing, let us consider the archaeological method of studying tree rings of old oak trees in order to calculate the age of a tree, and also most importantly to gain knowledge about the weather and fertility across centuries–sometimes going back to the Middle Ages. When we look at complex matters such as the weather and the fertility of soil over centuries, then one of the oligoptics that assists us is a cross section of old oak trees which can show us the whole in spite of the fact that we can see only very little in a cross-section.

Thus, seeing the wholenesses is only made possible by the little we can see; in this case, we do not see the complexity, the multiplicity, the diversity of the phenomena that we study. Yet, to study the micro-moments of virtual worlds we also want to study the multiplicities, which means that we cannot see the whole or complete picture. From this vantage point, we can see the diversities of only a very small section. This is the case when the vantage point is panoptic. The frequently shown example of the panoptic view is a

116

Questions about how to see are actualized by field work and especially so when field studies make use of video analytical approaches. Ways of seeing are dealt with from an ethnographic vantage point by Grimshaw 2001, 2005, Goodwin 1993, 1994, 1997, Pink 2001, 2006, 2007, 2008.

Williams 1995 even suggests that we need a concept of ‘gaze theory’ and she identifies different paradigms of seeing.

117 Latour 2005, p. 173.

118 Law 2004, pp. 23-27.

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prison119 designed to allow the prison guards to see it all when the cells and the prisoners are under surveillance, but only because what they see is a very small section of the world, the prison.

In earlier studies, it has proven helpful to oscillate between these two ways of seeing and I will also do so in the present study.

ASKING FELLOW TRAVELLERS In continuation of this, the question is: where do we find oligoptica that will help us locate the virtual worlds? As mentioned above, the ways of seeing, the sense of vision is an obvious form of orientation when travelling. Another important way to get directions is to ask advice from fellow travellers at the many places and sites that we pass. The associations of human actors are therefore possible starting points for asking where to find oligoptica that will help us locate the virtual worlds. However, let us now move on to examine the human actors that take part in this study.

We have observed that when asked where the virtual worlds are located the human actors all point in the same direction. They point at their computer screens, not to their head or body, nor do they point at both. This is surprising. They see the computer screen as an oligopticon of their virtual worlds. Of course, they do not use the expression ‘oligopticon’, but there is no doubt in their minds that their computer screens are where the complex and global phenomena of virtual worlds are located. This is the case with the virtual worlds of massively multi-user online role-playing games as well as user-generated social worlds.

At this point, it needs to be said that the actors asked, do not think in terms of virtual worlds, massively multi-user online role-playing games or user-generated social worlds; these are expressions from a different terminology. Pointing at their screens, the actors think in terms of names; they are naming their world as if it is a specific place rather than a general space or typology. They talk about EverQuest, their associations or guilds, e.g. Draconic Guardians, or their

119

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Bentham 1785, Foucault 1977.

projects, e.g. Literary, in Second Life. Before I elaborate on this, let me take a little further the assumption that the computer screen is an oligopticon that locates the global.

DISMANTLING THE VEHICLE To do so, I will again bring in some actants of theory to help me elaborate on this assumption. Briefly, I will look at the many networks of connections that are brought on to the scene when we use the screen as an oligopticon. Obviously, the screen presumes a computer. When looked at from the perspective of common sense, the computer looks like and is talked about in terms of a singularity.

Even if there are different brands, designs and quality, the overall understanding is that a computer is an ordered object, a vehicle of meaning-making that works without attracting our attention—at least that is the ideal. It is part of the hinterland of virtual worlds, a black box, an intermediary120 or a vehicle, which we do not usually take into consideration. It is present and works to transport us to the world of virtual associations.

This is true unless it stops working. Then our attention is directed towards the vehicle and we start dismantling it, at least in our minds.

The black-boxed vehicle of the hinterland, this intermediary, steps forward to the scene of our minds as the agency of engaging with virtual worlds. It becomes a network of agencies that will lead us all around the world rather than just an orderly and organised singularity on our desk.

In cases of breakdown, we suddenly become aware of the many different places that we will have to visit in order to overcome the problem. The first step is to locate some of the nodes of the networks involved; secondly, to estimate the importance of this node relative to the problems we face; thirdly, to seek guidance and ask others if this node is likely to cause this problem; fourthly, to await some guidance or information; lastly, to translate this guidance from

120

An ’intermediary’ carries meaning without any transformations of the meaning it carries. In actor network theory it is a carrier of meaning as opposed to a mediator, which transforms the meaning it carries.

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information and suggestions into action. This, however, is an abbreviated trajectory of dealing with a breakdown situation and it is probably far more complex in practice.

Also, it is likely that there are several trajectories and networks to follow. If we zoom in on a breakdown situation that frequently occurs, for example for the actors of Second Life, we find that the computer’s graphics card is very often to blame. Some of the multiplicities of the networks of a breakdown in running the virtual world of Second Life are likely to direct us to California where the Linden Lab firm, the developers of Second Life, is located.

Furthermore, it will take us to the development department where the many decisions are made that influence the version of the vehicle we need in order to make Second Life work, such as which graphics card to use. But the development department is not the only factor involved, we also have to continue our journey to the department in charge of the web version, their external communication, and with that the many branches of digital networks. However, if we stay in this department then it is likely that the customer support department will also get involved, especially if we actually use the graphics card recommended on Linden Labs’ website and in the knowledge base of Second Life. In this case, it is most likely that the problem is a malfunctioning graphics card. This will then point us in the direction of the firm that designs the cards, a firm located in Korea.

Now, let us stop the journey along the many roads and trajectories of breakdown situations. The networks that we have followed are very roughly carved. There are many more variants and multiples involved in dismantling the vehicle when it stops working; when the singularity of the vehicle dissolves and turns into a multiplicity of networks of connections. With this thought experiment, I have outlined the conceptions of singularity and multiplicity as they are some of the actants of methodology of this study. Even if the computer is an object composed of the utmost complexity, an assemblage, 121 or a gathering, 122 when we treat it as a vehicle, its

121 122

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Latour 2005, pp. 16-17.

Law 2004, pp. 97-100, 145-148.

multiplicity and diversity of interrelated networks become part of the hinterland; it is made absent, while the ability to transport agency and meaning steps forward. We have seen that what counts as an ordered unity and a black box in one situation can quickly turn out to be complex and multiple.

Hopefully, this thought experiment has also illustrated that what counts as ‘this’ depends on the context: the situations, the places and sites, the scale, the history and the moments of time. Depending on the context, the many networks and trajectories of agency and meaning oscillate between different forms and patterns. When we take a close look at the computer in one situation at a certain place and in a given moment, for example when it works, it appears to work in an orderly fashion. However, at another time, in another situation, such as when it does not work, it appears to be chaotic in a multiplicity of networks. The larger the scale of time and place, the more likely it is that we see patterns that sometimes the computer works while at others it does not. If the timescale is long, for example a decade, then it is likely that the patterns also change as the computer might stop working or it might crash, which means that the pattern is abruptly stopped.

Before we travel on, let us take a look at the distance we have now traversed. At this point, we have seen that the technological network is important in helping us locate the virtual worlds—at least when seen from the minds of the actors of this study. Still, it is important to make yet another observation: the virtual worlds are part of a ‘flat’ network, if we follow Bruno Latour in his insistence to keep what we study at the same level123 from the smallest to the largest, from the graphics card to the Linden Lab business organisation, the international trade routes and divisions of labour. If the graphics card does not work then, even on the horizon, we cannot see the virtual worlds. It means that the networks of technology are seen not only as the precondition for the virtual worlds but also, in many instances, as a network that has the potential to create hindrances. The technological network enables and hinders; sometimes in ways that

123

Latour 2005 pp. 165-173.

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we can understand and at other times it leaves us in chaotic situations that do not make sense.

That said, I aim to keep all the different fields and networks flat and not to explain what we see and sense by levels and categories. This means that the graphics card is just as important as the actor. When seen in this way, the virtual worlds do not just have the appearance of some underlying level of technology; rather the field is enabled, enacted and performed by interrelated connections of networks that sometimes work and sometimes do not. When we travel and traverse the technology and media, then traces and trajectories are enacted by the actors as we take part in making the networks work.

PACING THE MARKET AND EXPECTATIONS When the actors point at their computer screens to show where to find their virtual worlds, they also point at the name of the world and, closely related to this, the company that produces, develops and maintains the world. In the case of EverQuest, this is Sony Online Entertainment and their many global clusters of computer servers running the worlds of EverQuest. What seems to be one world and game therefore quickly dissolves into different worlds targeting different groups of gamers, some in the US and some in Europe and Asia.

We also realise that the companies behind the games are vital to their development. Sony Online Entertainment launched their first EverQuest world in 1999. This dates the game back to the early days of the large-scale advanced online role-playing games. Interestingly, after just 5 years the company launched a new game EverQuest II in 2004. This new version was not just one of the usual extensions to large games that are regularly introduced to the market and gamers but a sequel to the first version. Taking into consideration the huge investment needed to finance the development of advanced multiuser online games, this is surprising and bears witness to the fast pace of development that characterises the field. Sony Online Entertainment was no doubt aware that a rival company Blizzard was going to launch the future blockbuster game World of Warcraft that same year. If we look for some of the connections that drive these

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transformations, then we can look at one of the inscriptions that visualises and keeps track of the development of virtual worlds such as the MMOGchart.124 One of the charts125 shows us a similar story regarding the world of Lineage, which was launched almost simultaneously with the first EverQuest. In 2004 a new world, Lineage II, was launched along with the extensions of the earlier game. To understand these similar developments of EverQuest and Lineage, we need to look at the larger picture and the development time span. EverQuest, Lineage and Ultima Online are early games. Between 1998/99 and 2004/05, however, many other games were also launched, including Dark Ages of Camelot, RuneScape, EVE Online and Star Wars Galaxies. In the network of connections of the different worlds, the introduction of World of Warcraft by Blizzard Entertainment was felt throughout the industry. As shown in the MMOG chart, we can see an almost immediate and vertical trace that indicates an explosion-like development in the registered accounts of that game. Looking at the two versions of EverQuest, the MMOG chart visualises the different games and the market forces that drive some of the transformations in networks of competitive relationships.

This excursion to the networks of market forces is not designed to just tell the history of the games but to show the many interrelated networks that are part of a study of virtual worlds. These networks of market forces have an important part to play when we try to understand the two different versions of the game of EverQuest. The other important factor that heavily influences changes in the games is gamer expectation. The many games introduced to the global market between 1998/99 and 2004/05 set ever-increasing standards and expectations for the graphic design of the worlds, which again leads us back to the graphics cards of the computer as a vehicle.

I will, however, stay on the path that leads us around the networks of expectations. As we shall see later, some of the gamers make clear

124 125

http://www.mmogchart.com/charts/, Retrieved 01-11-10. http://www.mmogchart.com/Chart1.html, Retrieved 01-11-10.

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distinctions between the two games of EverQuest and the many different cultures of the communities that gather and associate around each of the games. In their view, the old and classic version of EverQuest signifies certain values, norms and communities, as we shall see in the empirical analysis in chapter 5. It appears that the networks of market forces are also interrelated with the expectations of the gamers and the different cultures that are part of the different worlds and games.

MEDIATING PERSONAL HISTORY The first step taken by the actors to enter their virtual worlds, be it EverQuest or Second Life, is to make sure that the vehicle—their computer hardware and software—can be made absent and step back into the hinterland thereby allowing their chosen world to step forward. However, the location of their computers in living rooms, bedrooms, offices and other physical places of the actors’ engaging is also part of the scenery, to such an extent that the actors do not point to their head, body or mind but to the place in front of their computer when speaking of virtual worlds. The power of imagination, engaging and experience are not what initially springs to their minds.

The surroundings of the computer with its screen and the actors’ everyday life have a part to play. The scene is set in certain ways with items of everyday life such as candles or coffee to create timing and spacing that attunes the actor’s senses to the experience of actual engagements with the worlds. Yet only if the computer screen shows the images, the websites, the tutorials or the registration sites of the chosen world can we see it as an oligopticon that will help us locate the global virtual worlds; only then, will it allow us to point at the computer screen as the starting point of our journey that will lead us to ask new questions.

When the actors are asked where they are located in the virtual worlds, they point at their chosen avatars. From the outset, the avatars predominantly refer to the world system, yet over time, they come to bear witness to the actors’ engagings with their chosen

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worlds; that is, they are transformed into personal mediators. 126 Therefore, in this study, the avatars are not seen as the actors’ virtual identities, their representations or presentations as in many other studies. 127 Referring to the understanding discussed in the introduction, they are seen as the actors’ fellow traveller; his or her non-human actor, mediator and companion.

Most likely, the immediate perception of an avatar is that of a nonhuman actor and actant that takes the shape of an intermediary. Seen in this way, it is a vehicle that transports and enacts actors’ sensemaking and engagings with the virtual worlds; a singularity whereby meaning is transported without any changes, transported in a blackbox-like style of movement. This perception of the avatar changes if we scale up the optic of timing and spacing. Introducing a historical vantage point to the understanding of avatars shows us that the avatar changes and takes on many different shapes, functions, outfits and expressions. It seems that when we introduce these scales with a historical perspective, the avatar turns out to be a multiplicity rather than a singularity; it continuously changes and enacts the meanings that connect the human actor with his or her in-world presence, and with other actors and avatars. The avatar enacts and communicates personal history, experience, engagings and agency. Looked at in this way, it becomes a changeable multiplicity that transforms the actor as well. If, as a starting point, the avatar is taken as a vehicle, or a black box that transports meaning, it gradually transfoms and dissolves to envision the multiplicities and diversities that make it the actor’s personal mediator.

WHAT DOES MEANING DO? Now let us move from the actor-networks to look at actors travelling through their virtual worlds. The metaphor of travelling may appear a little strange in this context as the human actors are all located,

126

Jensen 2009.

Adrian 2007, 2008, Bartle 2004, Beau & Deseilligny 2009, Biocca 1997, Biocca & Levy 1995, Boellstorff 2008, Davies et al. 2009, Downs 2009a + b, Filiciak 2003, Hemp 2006, Kolko 1999, Talamo & Ligorio, Taylor 2002, 2005, Webb 2001, Williams et al. 2008, Yee 2006b.

127

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almost fixed and stationary, in front of their computer focusing on the screen and the interface. It looks as if the computer with the screen is not at all a vehicle for travelling. This is, however, an observation that depends on the way we see the situation. From an oligoptic perspective, the computer may be seen as a vehicle that transports meaning, but it does not show what the vehicle carries, or what meaning does. This could be because the travelling and the many movements are only in the bodily minds of actors. If so, it may make sense that the actors appear to be fixed by their computer; the movements may then be seen as only occurring in their minds.

SHIFTING TO A PANOPTIC VIEW It does not, however, make sense to see things this way from a panoptic perspective. From this optic the questions of scale, spacing and timing once more appear on the scene. The situated agency, the fixation by the vehicle—the computer—are only seemingly a fixation. By zooming in on the micro-moments, it becomes apparent that on a minor scale multiplicities of movements take part in the enactments that carry meaning. Movements on the interface are embodied agencies that sometimes make sense and sometimes do not, as we have already seen was the case with the vehicle. The exact same patterns and processes of the computer as working or not working apply to the making of sense, to both the actor and also to me the researcher; sometimes what goes on while moving around on the interface makes sense and sometimes it does not.

From this we can see that timing is an important actant. In some situations, on a minor scale and at certain times and spaces, movements either make sense or do not; at the same time and in the same space and scale it is an either/or if the computer works or not, and if the interface makes sense or not. However, if we zoom out on the scale and time, even if it is the same space, it is possible to, simultaneously work, make sense, not make sense and sometimes make sense or sometimes work. If the perspective of micro-moments, such as from minute to minute, is changed to the timing of day to day, or month to month, then it makes perfect sense to say that the computer worked and did not work on different occasions. The same

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goes for the making of sense of the movements enacted on and by the interface.

With this in mind, I will now return to the panoptic view that was earlier left behind when I juxtaposed the oligopticon and the panopticon. Let us first realise that again, the matter of scale is important for what we can see. There is not a distinction in the form of an essentialist difference between the oligoptic and panoptic view but matters of scale and optics are at play; to see the whole in a timescale of a hundred years is a rash business, if not impossible; to see it all in a minute, even if just as impossible, lets us see a lot, in some cases even everything, but not the whole. In other words, when we study the micro-moments then the optic, the timing and the scale should help us strive to see the multiplicity, because we can only see very little; or to put it differently, we can put on a pair of glasses that will enable us to see with a panoptic view.

One of the effects of taking a panoptic view is that we can see many other actants on the scene, especially with reference to sensemaking. This reminds us to reflect on the question about what meaning does; a question that we left behind when we went on to elaborate further on the panoptic view. Returning to this question, it is possible to draw on the actant of theory, the sense-making triangle which has contributed to the theoretical understanding.

TRIANGULATING THE MAKING OF SENSE But first, let us recapitulate what has been said so far about what is important if we are to find the directions of our journey: the travelling metaphor and movement, the flatness of networks, the scaling of optics, the processes of respectively transporting and/or transforming meaning, and of singularities and multiplicities. These concepts and metaphors are some of the important actants of theory we have met from actor-network theory. With this in mind, I will now focus on the inscription that visualises sense-making processes and some interrelations as depicted in the sense-making metaphor, the sense-making triangle. 128 The very idea of this depiction is to

128

Dervin 2003, p. 238.

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explore the how(s), when(s) and where(s) of sense-making processes, in other words the sense-makings generated by the enactment of human communication as part of human agency, life and history.

This metaphorical triangle and inscription will also help us recognise the flatness of the world depicted. Even if there are gaps and hills to pass, we find no ontology that implies a world of levels; rather, what we find are patterns of relationships.

This finding points to the origin of the triangle metaphor. It results from an effort to question some of the influential and early understandings of communication theory,129 in particular, the target group analysis of campaigns and planned communication designed for mass audiences. 130 It is aimed at dissolving the static understanding that primarily focuses on the entities of communication rather than the processes and the dynamics; a focus on the nouns rather than the verbs, or the verbings,131 as it is shown

by Brenda Dervin’s metaphorical depiction.132 In brief, depicted by the sense-making metaphor, see page 75, Figure 7, human beings continuously move through the time and space of their experience, life and history from here to there, moment by moment, and it is in the many verbings of these movements that we find the makings of sense. In Dervin’s view, this is as opposed to seeing the nouns, the entities and categories such as demography, personality, role, lifestyle as analytic categories applied to the study of sense-making and communication. The very purpose of the triangular metaphor is to dismantle the singularity of a category such as audience, and to seek instead the diversities and multiplicities of situated communication. The metaphorical depiction is part of a 129

Dervin 2003. With her critique of the transmission model of communication, Dervin suggests that the gap-bridging idea of the sensemaking metaphor should support a focus on processes and dynamics rather than entities and states. To exemplify the problems of the latter approach, she points to the understanding of communication and audiences as mainly described by demographics and socioeconomics.

130 Ibid, pp. 61-73. Dervin’s critique is elaborated in the article “Users as Research Inventions.”

131 Ibid, pp. 101-109.

132 Ibid, pp. 233-251.

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movement away from the understanding of planned and organised communication in terms of general categories towards an understanding that seeks the uniquenesses of situated communication. Even if we are trying to analyse unique and situated enactments of communication there is also a search for patterns, as will be shown later.

Travelling through life, in time and space, finding one’s way is a journey with gaps and gapinesses133 everywhere. As human beings, we have to face these gaps of different situations with approaches, reflections, feelings, attitudes, assumptions, actions and practices.

These vary continuously depending on the situation and the individual as shown by the sense-making metaphor. On the journey from one situation to the next, personal history with its past, present and future horizons is part of the making of sense of these very moments. The way the traveller sees him- or herself as moving or stopped in a given situation; the way he or she understands and interprets the situation, all of these views make the making of sense and communication. When we as travellers are confronted with some of the many gaps of life, the movement is momentarily blocked and stopped. Confronted with the many gaps that interfere with this continuous movement, the flux or flow of life, gap-bridgings are enacted by mobilising human resources and non-human agents from our personal and social history and experience. We are situated in time and space experiencing our situation and movement in what is seen as ‘situation movement states’: stops and movings.134

DISCUSSING THE ROADS AHEAD Before we travel on, let us now stop to take a look at the distance so far traversed. Sense-making theory has joined company with actor-

133

The discontinuity thesis is a basic assumption of the sense-making ontology as depicted by the triangle and sense-making metaphor. According to this thesis as humans we experience the world and life as partly ordered and partly chaotic whilst moving through our life and different time-space situations. These movements continuously generate gaps, gapinesses, between e.g. one moment and the next, people and events, self today and self yesterday, see Dervin 2003, pp. 238-239.

134 Situation movement states are further dealt with in this chapter p. 77.

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network theory and the obvious question is whether they can continue travelling or if they should part. And this, of course, depends on whether or not they are moving along the same path heading in the same direction towards the same destination. So far, it seems that they can travel together towards an understanding of human agency and communication in terms of the diversity and multiplicities of situated communication, rather than explained by general social categories organised in hierarchies of instances. This effort is summarised by the need to keep the social flat,135 that is, to understand agency, actors, sense-makings as interconnected actornetworks of different scales and patterns of relationships rather than hierarchically organised general categories. Thus, to understand the multiplicities and diversities it is also important to dismantle the usual categories applied to theoretical analysis of communication.136 So far, the actants of theory, our contributors, are well matched in helping us see dynamics and movements, connectedness rather than categories, to nuance and dissolve singularities in order to glimpse the multiplicities. Furthermore, it appears that the flatness of the connected networks complies with the moment-by-moment understanding of verbings rather than nouns. With the optic of actornetworks, human agency and communication are interrelated and situated connections of human and non-human actors who/that

135

Latour’s aspiration to understand and explain the agencies of humans and non-humans by keeping the explanations at the same level, that is: to keep the social flat, is a foundational aspect of the critique of the politics of explanations of sociological theory. Actor-network theory seeks explanation by looking at the multiplicity of connections and translations of human and non-human actor-networks rather than by organising multiplicities in levels and hierarchies seeking explanations by reducing complexity to singularities and categories of hierarchical interrelations.

136 With a functionalist approach to the analysis and planning of communication, categories such as age, gender and socioeconomics are frequently used. When seen from a sense-making optic these categories are nouns that do not capture the discontinuities and changes of chaos and order and the hereto-related gap-bridgings of human agency; and if seen from an actor-network theoretical perspective they are empty signifiers that serve to reduce complexity by hiding multiplicities in conceptual hierarchies.

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transport and transform meaning. This can be compared with a sense-making optic in which agency and communication are enacted by situation movements of stops/movings moment by moment, from one time to another and in patters of relationships at the intersections of the time horizons of past, present and future.

However, when the question concerns the understanding of time and space, we seem to face a problematic situation. We find ourselves at a crossroad where each of our theoretical contributors will protest and claim that they are being dragged down a road not of their choosing137 to accept a mutual understanding. In the depiction of the sense-making metaphor, and in the descriptions of this, some of the strong allegories and metaphors are anchors and horizons.138 Sensemaking, it is said, is anchored in time and space; it occurs at the intersection of time horizons; and they can be compared across time, space and people thus yielding patterns of both centrality and dispersion. The movements through and the comparisons across time and space indicate that time and space are seen as set and already ‘being out there’; it is seen as a background for comparison of sensemaking and sense-unmaking.

In understanding time and space, the sense-making metaphor differs from actor network theory, which relies on a multiplicity of timing and spacing. Seen from an actor network theory perspective, they are not a kind of already-set background, a kind of natural condition; rather timing and spacing are continuously enacted. These two actants of theory have divergent understandings of time and space, at least so it seems.

Again, the question that results from these reflections is whether or not these two actants of theory can follow the same roads and paths as fellow travellers. Our reflections point to some crossroads, for example on the one hand, the presumptions and conceptions of time and space as either a given and set reality out there or, on the other,

137

This phrasing refers to the patterns of situation movement stops, see p.

80, as identified by Dervin’s empirical research on sense-making in practice.

138 Dervin 2003, p. 239-40.

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as enacted. Furthermore, there is another crossroad between the understanding of patterns of sense-making that appears in comparisons across time and space and the dynamics and patterns of interconnected actor-networks that appear in different scales and scaling. For now, however, these crossroads will not force us to ask the actants of theory to part but instead to stop and discuss.

Earlier, we saw that pointing to the screen is the movement that directs our attention towards the actors’ virtual worlds. These movements, by which the actors select what and how to communicate, are enacted in front of the screen; that is in the field of tensions between human and computer. These fields may be seen as gaps between the user and the system 139 with the interface(s) as a stage or arena140 that visualises the actors and their personal way of being present in the virtual worlds. When seen in this way, the interface is not only at the intersection of the actors’ present spaces— in front of and on the interface of the computer—but also between the past and present: the many times in the past when they have been present in-world and on-the-interface. Usually, an interface is customised to serve the actors’ practices and communication; thus, it can be seen as an oligopticon of the actors’ personal and social history and experience. The interface leaves behind many different traces of earlier history. In some cases it is highly specialised targeting general statistics, analysis and system feedback about aspects such as building and design in Second Life. In EverQuest it frames a complexity of affordances141 that allows the gamer to get an

139

This idea of a gap between the user of a computer system and the system dates back to the early research on human-computer interface design by Norman & Draper 1987.

140 The understanding of the computer as a medium rather than a calculation machine was early suggested by Laurel (1991) in her analysis of computers as theatre. The development of virtual worlds, not least the massively multi-user online role-playing games, are obvious examples of this theatrical understanding.

141 The conceptual understanding of affordances originates from Gibson’s approach 1950, 1966, 1979 to the perception of the visual world. Through many developments of the concept of affordance, e.g. Norman 1987, 2004, 2007, this understanding has been adapted to emerging theories about human-computer interaction design and design of everyday things; also, the

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overview of the other gamers and his or her own status. It can also trace personal and social communication in the world.

Addressing the questions of personal history and experience brings us back to the sense-making metaphor. If we see the interface as an oligopticon that visualises the many traces and steps taken at the intersections of time and space, then one of the next questions concerns who leaves behind these traces. In the depiction of the sense-making metaphor, the person, or actor, is at the very centre of analytical concern. The metaphorical inscription depicts a person moving through a landscape filled with the gaps of his or her life and lived experience. In Dervin’s other version of the sense-making metaphor, we see a group moving through their lives and lived experience. Still, sense-makings and sense-unmakings are depicted as enacted and experienced by the person either alone in the landscape, or in a group. Dervin summarises this understanding by a set of alternatives to the usual categories of users of communication systems such as demography and socioeconomics. The alternatives which she suggests are individuals, groups and nations.

When we compare this understanding with our fellow travellers from the actor-network theory some obvious differences appear. The actor-networks include human as well as non-human actants, or actors, and their networks. When seen from this optic, the interconnected nodes of actants are at the centre of analytical concern. The person is seen as being part of interconnected networks internally and externally and there are no levels such as the categories of individual, group and nation. Actor network theory actually originates from a position that opposes the understanding of such categories. Latour would argue that these categories reduce multiplicity and complexity to singularity by dragging the many different and diverse instances of agency, experience and communication onto hierarchical categories. In this way, the multiple engagings and experiences of the actors are reduced to analytical typologies which, from an actor-network perspective,

conceptual understanding of affordances are part of the theories of social semiotics, e.g. Kress & van Leeuwen 1996, 2001 and van Leeuwen 2005.

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impoverish the multiplicity rather than provide the basis for an analysis. That said, the sense-making focus on the verbings of communication, as mentioned earlier, also insists on taking as a point of analytical interest the actor’s situation and lived experience rather than generalised categories. Dervin (2003) writes: This grouping of categories attempts to assess why in a given situation a person tries to use an information and communication system (e.g. database or mass medium).

Dimensions of attention include, as examples: situation complexity (the embeddedness in a complexion of other situations; the diversity of elements involved; the clarity of the situation; the number of people involved); power and constraints (the actor’s perception of his or her freedom to move and his or her own force); and barriers (what the actor sees as standing in the way – self or others, bureaucracies, timing).142 In this citation, it appears that the criteria for the three different analytical groups organise this understanding. It takes the actor’s world as a starting point of moment-by-moment trajectories rather than an observer-oriented focus on categories across time and space.

As such, there is an analytical concern to find the roads ahead that will help us analyse and follow the paths of multiplicity rather than to accept an analytical strategy of general typologies applied across time and space. Moreover, the categories: individual, group and nation are primarily applied to be able to see the differences and similarities rather than to reduce multiplicities. Taking a closer look at these categories they may well be seen to refer to a scaling of human relations from the singular to ever-increasing numbers of actors and relationships. If seen in this way, these analytical groups, which at first appeared to be hierarchically organised categories, can be translated into matters of scale as we saw earlier when we looked at the panoptic and oligoptic views.

142

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Dervin 2003, p. 54.

We may, however, face another crossroad on our journey with the actants of theory. The divergences concentrate on the difference between the personal actor of sense-making theory and the actornetworks of humans and non-humans. As we have already seen, actor-network theory includes non-humans as equally important in networks that transport and transform meaning whereas Dervin sees sense-making as part of an actor’s inner world and in negotiation and communication between individuals and within groups.

Metaphorically speaking, the actors of the sense-making metaphor are travelling by foot with no vehicle. The systems, interfaces, computers and artefacts are not a significant part of the depiction.

The question is: where are the non-human actants? Even if some of the empirical fields of study concern information and communication systems then the non-human actors and actants appear to be agents of peripheral importance.

In the current study, however, it is argued that non-humans are agents that enable the bridging of gaps as referenced by the sensemaking metaphor. Still, so far, it seems we can shift between the pair of sensitising metaphors of theory, the triangle and the diagram. They do not provide the same optic but they can continue their journey if we keep track of the differences.

COMBINING THE TRIANGLE WITH A DIAGRAM So far, we have looked at virtual worlds from the perspective of the oligoptic interface identified by the actors when they answer the question about where to find their virtual worlds. These oligoptica can be seen as traces of the actors’ making of sense of the world when they seek to bridge the gap between the interface and their sense-making engagement. To study the actors’ engagement our focus is on: (i) the co-construction of world (ii) the actors’ personal mediators as shaped by avatars and (iii) the enacted social relationships. In order to follow the trajectories of the actors’ sensemaking in relation to these foci, the analytical inscriptions in the combination of the triangle and the diagram are the guides that support the empirical analysis.

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As mentioned, the analytical inscriptions are composed of the sensemaking triangle combined with a diagram of innovation. 143 Let us start by looking at the diagram and the notion of programs and antiprograms. A program is a series of steps taken to realise an idea or an intention and the many non-human actors and actants that are mobilised in support hereof. An anti-program counteracts each step taken. The relation between the programs and anti-programs leads to tension and struggling. 144 To put it another way, the dynamics of diffusions can be seen as and-relations whereas substitutions are the dynamics of or-relations. However, what then are the dynamics of these processes and relations between programs and anti-programs?

To answer this question, the metaphor of a battlefield will help us see tensions between sense-making programs and counteracting antiprograms. Such tensions and struggles are seen as some of the driving dynamics. In the dynamics of substitutions, the program is reconfigured and transformed using symbols and artefacts, human and non-human actors and actants in order to give weight to sensemaking programs. The dynamics of diffusion can metaphorically be described as the battlefields of human actors and non-human actants struggling to expand the paths and trajectories of sense-making programs when confronted with counteracting anti-programs. To follow such dynamics, the steps taken will lead us to a front-line of tensions. The sense-making processes and the steps taken to realise

143

Latour 1991. The diagram inscription borrows from Latour’s analysis of the innovation processes. The diagram refers to Latour’s translation of a syntagmatic and paradigmatic pattern of analysis when seen in relation to substitution and diffusion of innovation.

144 The notion of ‘program’ borrows from the abstract formula of a ‘narrative program’ (NP) as developed by Greimas (1974, Danish translation) in his theoretical understanding of semiotics. In short a narrative program is a trajectory (array) of utterances of doing (action). They may be in different modes of existence, relations and temporal situations (T), e.g.: nonexistent (irrelevant at T1), virtualized (idea or desire for action at T2), actualized (action under way at T3) and realised (action has been completed at T4).

The notion of trajectory or array indicates the temporal aspect of narrative programs. Latour is inspired by the idea of a narrative program but he does not strictly follow Greima’s formula.

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visions and programs make the program or the anti-program heavier, while the frontline reveals visible tensions.

The diagram, as depicted in Figure 6, designates the ‘or’ and the ‘and’ relations145 of interrelated enactments of programs (P) and antiprograms (A). The parameters of the analysis are inscribed by the vertical and horizontal axes of the diagram.

The vertical axis refers to a top-down movement of translations, substitutions and add-ons that put in form some of the steps taken to further certain visions and programs as enacted by non-humans as well as humans. This top-down movement along the vertical axis is interrelated with the horizontal axis of diffusion.

Only if the top-down movement expands sideways along the horizontal axis, do the translations and add-ons expand the diffusion of the sense-making program to counteract the anti-program.

F IGURE 6. The diagram of tensions translates the substitution and diffusion analysis into an inscription and does so with reference to actor-network theory. The struggle between human actors’ with their visions and programs (P) as confronted by some

145

The understanding of substitutions and diffusions borrows from the syntagmatic and paradigmatic patterns of semiotic analysis.

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counteracting anti-program (A) is captured by this depiction. (See Appendices, Figures)

In Figure 6, four steps of substitutions are depicted. To read the diagram: follow the substitutions in a top-down movement. For each step taken, a program (P) is augmented by the substitutions. If, for instance, a designer decides to start a business in Second life then to realise his idea, vision and intentions several steps have to be taken.

From the outset (P) the idea, vision and intention is driving the realisation of a potential program. However, the uncertainty of his chances, knowledge, economy, skills, contacts, etc. to realise this program in Second Life is a counteracting anti-program (A). Thus, the tensions of his situation are characterised by the following pattern: PAAAAA. The program has only little weight to push forward his program when confronted by the tensions as generated by the antiprogram, which is much stronger. When he decides to buy a virtual island in Second Life a first step is taken to augment the program (PP), to make its weight heavier, when confronted by the antiprogram; thus the pattern: PPAAAA. If we compare this pattern with the outset of his program then it has been substituted and translated from idea, vision, intention and actions to be stabilised and augmented by non-human actants, in the present example, a virtual island in Second Life. The uncertainty of his program has been ‘pushed back’ as the program diffuses. It moves sideward along the axis of diffusion as depicted in Figure 6, if the steps taken actually make the realisation of the program more likely. In Figure 6, the steps taken to augment the program are visualised by video keyframes from the empirical analysis.

To be able to follow these steps of substitutions, let us look at the sense-making triangle, see Figure 7, and combine it with the actornetwork diagram of programs and anti-programs to compose the inscriptions that will help us understand actors’ sense-making. The metaphorical triangle depicts sense-making in patterns of triadic dynamics of relationships between (a) situations of micro-moments of personal history and experience, (b) gap-bridgings of situation movement states, i.e. gaps that stop and bridgings that move, and (c) outcomes of such bridgings which actors see as helping or hindering their movements. These are the triadic dynamics that form a pattern

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which we can find across time and space according to Dervin.146 In Figure 7, the video keyframes refer to the actor-network diagram as well as the sense-making triangle. The video keyframes are the links between the two inscriptions. The gap-bridgings of the sense-making triangle can be seen as the steps taken when confronted by the tensions of the programs and anti-programs and as visualised by the video keyframes.

However, from moment to moment, from one place to another, from one situation to the next the multiplicities of such patterns vary and change even if some look alike and frequently appear in empirical studies. These recurring empirically grounded patterns are denoted situation movement states. They refer to the actors’ felt and experienced sense of respectively being stopped or moving while travelling the roads of gap-bridging sense-making. Thus, the metaphors of gapinesses and bridgings are expressed and visualised by this depiction of the roads and worlds as conceived by the discontinuity thesis.147 Seen from this perspective, it is part of human conditions that there are discontinuities between one moment and the next, from one person to the next, between self and others and between different situations. The discontinuity thesis points to the view that an inherent instability of chaos and order is part of being a human in the world. This instability does not necessarily appear in different situations whereas it may be part of the same situation and in micro-moments of time. There is no dualism of chaos and order, but a changeable and interchangeable movement from moment to moment and from situation to situation. This is an important point to be made when we think in terms of the sense-making metaphor.

146

In the article “Interviews Within Experimental Frameworks: How to Make Sense of Sense-making in Virtual Worlds,� Reinhard 2010 shows how Sense-Making Methodology can be combined with an experimental approach in the study of four different types of media.

147 Carter 1980, in Dervin 2003.

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F IGURE 7. The sense-making triangle. The sense-making triangle depicts the triangulation of experienced situation, gap-bridging sense-making of actors’ movements through time and space, moment by moment, and the enactment and outcome of such gap-bridging agency. The video keyframes designate steps taken to overcome gaps, the gapinesses, of situations as conditioned by discontinuity. (See Appendices, Figures)

This line of thought goes well together with actor-network theory to question and oppose dualistic thinking. The theoretical metaphor of the connectedness of human and non-human actors and actants that enact traces and trajectories of translations in actor-networks is part of this understanding.148 With this optic, a chain of connections may appear to be all technology at one end, yet through many translations and transformations at the other end it may involve human actors as well as technological non-humans. There is no static dualism between human/technology, society/nature, virtual/real but matters of scale and dynamics, intermediaries and mediators.

Conceived by the optic of discontinuity when travelling through life we are continuously confronted with gapinesses such as questions asked, confusions felt, muddles experienced, problems to be solved,

148

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Latour 2005, pp. 21-27.

or decisions to be made. The means of enacted communication that we engage with to bridge these gapinesses are the verbings of gapbridging such as getting ideas, imagining, believing, feeling, telling, narrating and thinking. Gap-bridging sense-making, however, is also exposed to the discontinuities of the human life and world. What appears to be a bridge that helps overcome some experienced gap may in the next moment be a felt sense-unmaking. Based on empirical studies, sense-making methodology points to some situation movement states that are conceived as patterns of experienced gapinesses. They are: Decisions: being at a point where you need to choose between two or more roads that lie ahead; problematic: being dragged down a road not of your own choosing; spin-out: not having a road; wash-out: being on a road and suddenly having it disappear; barrier: knowing where you want to go but someone or something is blocking the way; being led: following another on the road because he or she knows more and can show you the way; waiting: spending time waiting for something in particular; passing time: spending time without waiting for something in particular; out to lunch: tuning out; observing: watching without being concerned with movement; moving: seeing self as proceeding unblocked in any way and without need to observe.149 Before I further elaborate on the analytical inscriptions as composed by the sense-making metaphor and the diagram of programs and anti-programs, there are apparent differences that need to be addressed. One of the most obvious has already been touched on: in the sense-making triangular metaphor artefacts, technologies, inscriptions, diagrams, maps have no significant part to play, 150 whereas in actor-network-theory, human as well as non-humans are equally important for the formation and agency of networks and the 149

Dervin, p. 262 It may be objected that the bridge of bridgings is a key non-human actant of the triangle metaphor. In the interpretation of this non-linguistic and visual metaphor, however, I see the bridge as part of the conditioning of sense-making rather than as an active non-human actor and actant.

150

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trajectories produced by respectively translation or transportation of meaning. By the sense-making metaphor, verbings are seen as the very basis for bridge building agency. It is not, however, possible to stabilise the many connections and movements of human associations without the introduction of non-human actants, according to actor-network theory. They are what enable temporary connectedness of human relationships, communication and agency.

The metaphorical depiction of the sense-making triangle itself, acts as a highly influential non-human actant that helps stabilise our thoughts and reflections about human sense-making. Likewise, the inscriptions which I have combined to guide my analysis serve to help me stabilise the many analytical moves and reflections of the present study, even if the stabilisers are never permanent, only temporary. Without the many non-human inscriptions that help me enact the analysis, the instability would probably block my way, put up a barrier and leave many questions open; in short it would leave me with many gapinesses.

USING ANALYTICAL INSCRIPTIONS Composing takes time. It is a process of creating many drafts over time; a process of revising, rethinking or even reversing. While they have emerged, the inscriptions and metaphors that put in form the analytical optic of the current study have travelled the paths of continuous change. From the outset, the foci of analysis: coconstruction of worlds, choice of avatars, relationships with other actors and avatars, expressions of self and navigation of daily life have been broadly sketched to help me look in certain directions and not others, even if some of those may well be plausible directions to follow. However, these sketches do not help me to deal in detail with what is seen. They do not support the detailed analysis of moment-by-moment steps. In order to zoom in and enable a detailed and close-up scale of analysis, the panoptic view will help me come as close as possible to some of the many details of engaging with virtual world-making. Yet in itself, it will not help us see what we are looking at, or for. To enable such close-up views, I will need field glasses and maps to see, metaphorically speaking, the many landmarks that determine where I am, what I see, and to help me

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remember how to find my way. The analytical inscriptions are such a pair of field glasses and maps. These non-human actants will help sharpen what I see and translate it into stabilising inscriptions based on the triangle of the sense-making metaphor, and the diagram as part of actor-network analysis. The triangle and diagram will help me interpret the cases under study and guide me whilst I travel through the analysis. Thus, to find my way in the processing of many hours of video recordings, the draft and drawing of the different battlefields of programs and anti-programs, I have been guided by the actornetwork diagram to better understand the gap-bridgings and gapinesses as depicted by the sense-making triangle.

In four steps, video keyframes have been selected to enact the analysis. The video keyframes visualise the analysis of the video data as they are the outcome of a method of reversed storyboarding (see Chapter 4, p. 137) which has helped me process and analyse the data. By the steps of reversed story-boarding, selected video keyframes become the non-human actants, the stepping stones of the empirical analysis. They will help me to temporarily stabilise the reflections of the analysis. Thus, in the process of making the empirical approach an analytical reality, the keyframes should make observable and visible the many movements, co-constructions, transformations and mediations of the actors’ engagement with virtual world-making.

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4. PRODUCING DATA So far I have introduced the interpretive understanding of virtual worlds and exemplified the methodological approach in trying to locate the virtual worlds. Some actants of theory and the metaphorical inscriptions of a triangle and a diagram, which will guide my further analysis, have also been introduced. The movements and dynamics of ‘making’ – be it of world or sense, or both – have become the centre of my analytical interest. In order to emphasise this approach, in this chapter I will refer to virtual worldmaking as processes of involvement and engagement and in the analysis of the empirical data I will focus on the many processes of the actors’ making the world and their making sense of the making.

Therefore, the next step is to outline the empirical fields and data produced.

COMPOSING THE EMPIRICAL FIELDS The empirical data of the cases are seen as produced rather than collected. From the outset of the research design the empirical field has been constructed by selecting foci, methods and a time span. If seen from a constructivist point of view, it makes no sense to view the production of data as harvesting what is ‘out there’. Rather, in every step taken my decisions and selections form the process.

Outlines are drawn on a piece of paper, on the computer and through the camera lens, all of which contribute to the composition of an empirical field. This chapter explicates some of the many steps taken to produce the empirical data and the written accounts. This explication enables the reflections on how the steps taken influence what can be said about the field under study. In the actual case studies, the starting point is the empirically-driven concern to describe and understand what actors are doing when they engage with their chosen virtual world, how they make sense of their engagement and whether they choose to continue or to stop. Thus,

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the empirical concern is the driving force of the study. Nevertheless, the construction of the field, the decisions about analytical foci, and the questions asked are also accompanied by actants of theory, predominantly the triangle and the diagram as introduced in the previous chapter.

The background for the composition of the empirical field, the questions asked, and the case studies chosen are therefore dealt with in the subsequent sections.

BACKGROUND As mentioned in the prologue, my current study of actors and avatars of virtual world-making is not a first time step. In earlier studies (2002-2004), my research was concerned with felt and experienced personal engagement with knowledge sharing in the 3D Agora-world of Active Worlds – a world open to user-generated co-construction by the actors. At the time of these ongoing studies, the advanced multi-user online role-playing games developed explosively. The complexity of game design increased and their graphic expression was refined. This attracted millions of actors to the games and continues to do so. 151 To make this development a part of my empirical field, I made this kind of world part of the current study by choosing to study EverQuest.

Literature studies initiated the research process and the actual construction of the empirical field in a process whereby websites of online role-playing games and gamers were identified and followed starting in late 2005.152 These initial studies showed that EverQuest was already then a well described and researched world, not least due to early studies of avatars’ social lives 153 and research on the emerging economy of this world. 154 Also, according to the initial

151

World of Warcraft was launched in 2004 and the development curve of subscriptions is almost vertical. The amount of subscription should, however, not to be confused with actual gamers.

152 http://eq2.gamepressure.com/, http://everquest.station.sony.com/, http://eqplayers.station.sony.com/, http://everquest.allakhazam.com/ 153 Schroeder 2002.

154 Castronova 2005.

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studies, EverQuest had apparently reached a level of complexity with most of the well-known affordances of advanced online role-playing games. It was among some of the early classics. 155 The world of EverQuest was therefore chosen for the in-depth studies of video interviews. In this way, the in situ 156 micro-moment studies of the video interviews could benefit from other researchers’ insights and general overviews. The micro-moment studies are close-up panoptic views; they are detailed and the multiplicities of the studies are rich but at the same time highly branched, which makes it easy to get lost in the wilderness. I chose to navigate through this wilderness by working with other researchers’ work and knowledge as mentioned in the introduction.

In 2003, a new world based on actor-generated co-creation of content, Second Life, was introduced to the market. To follow up on the earlier studies of the 3D Agora-world, this world was also included thereby extending the empirical field. As there are many similarities between these two worlds, it was much easier for me to enter this field of research than was the case with EverQuest.

However, in late 2006 when I entered this world there were not many research-based studies of Second Life available which is why the production of data of the Second Life studies was changed compared to EverQuest. Consequently, a long period of participatory and observational studies opened the field for the micro-moment studies of the video interviews.

To sum up so far, the empirical fields are constructed by, on the one hand, a massively multi-user online role-playing game and, on the

155

Untima Online, Lineage, EverQuest, Dark Age of Camelot, Runescape, Eve Online and Star Wars Galaxies are among some of the game worlds launched between 1997 to 2003 before the launch of World of Warcraft.

156 It is part of the video interview method to study situated engagement thus understanding actions, interactions and interpretations through dialogue with the participating actors of the study while they are engaging. The ongoing question of how to study online as well as offline agency is dealt with in this way, see Orgad in Hine 2005, Orgad et al.2009. It is worth emphasising that this methodological choice is not meant to study or reveal online deception or discrepancies see Donath 1999, Hooi & Cho 2010, Toma & Hancock 2010, Van Gelder 1996, Wallace 1998.

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other, a user-generated co-constructed world. These worlds are the multiplicities of the construction of the empirical field, yet it should be emphasised that the current study is not concerned with these worlds per se. The research is not about EverQuest and Second Life but it is concerned with actors’ sense-making in situations of engaging with these worlds. Thus, the study is composed of the multiplicity of virtual world-making as well as different situations of engaging as indicated by five foci of analysis: co-construction of content and conditions, choice of avatar, building of relationships, expression of self and navigation of daily life, see Table 1 below.

ASKING QUESTIONS In spite of my background in research on the 3D Agora-world, it was a new empirical field to study actors’ engaging in a massively multiuser online role-playing game like EverQuest. I had never played this game and had to build up knowledge and experience from scratch.

In some ways, this facilitated the building of knowledge as I was asking questions not as an expert questioning the interviewee(s), but in a dialogue with knowledgeable actors.

The need for dialogue was accentuated by the fact that it was difficult to identify and locate the empirical situations of engaging as it gradually became clear that particular websites such as user forums and communities were also pivotal to the engaging and sensemaking. It was difficult to navigate the online sites and to know which ones to visit and follow.

To deal with this multiplicity, I decided to follow the actors’ trajectories as they navigated different sites and situations of engaging. A general question was, however, formulated in advance: In what ways do actors make sense of situations of engagement with virtual world-making? With the aim of studying this question, some foci and situations of engagement were identified and questions of analysis were formulated. These questions and foci have served as the analytical guidelines for my study rather than as questions to be followed in an interview guide. The foci and questions are summarised in Table 1. The analytical questions all focus on important choices and changes made and steps taken by the actors of

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the current study; yet at the same time they are steps to be taken by any actor who decides to engage with virtual world-making.

T ABLE 1 . Research foci and questions. (See Appendices, Tables) To choose and co-construct 157 the content and the conditions for engaging with a chosen world – be it EverQuest or Second Life – is a part of any actor’s engagement. Therefore, the choices and decisions about which world to choose and co-construct are foci of the current analysis. The same is true of the choice of avatars, whether humanoid avatars, sci-fi superheroes, shamans or objects. EverQuest and Second Life are both multi-user worlds inhabited by avatars, which means that other avatars – and with that other actors – are present, so relationships with others are also foci of relevance to the analysis. When we follow the steps taken by the actors as they engage with these choices and relationships, it leads to questions about the expression of self. Thus, co-construction of in-world conditions, choices of avatar(s), relationships and the expressions of self are foci and situations dealt with in the production and analysis

157

This term is used to emphasise that every construction of virtual worldmaking is afforded by the system design which provides the tools for the construction. Thus, there are affordances and hindrances to take into consideration when dealing with the actors’ agency of world-making.

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of data. Obviously, the actors’ engagement with their chosen worlds influences their everyday life. 158 Regardless of the form of engagement, whether it is entertainment, work, socialising or the fun of creating digital 3D objects, figures, equipment or cities, it is still influential.

The questions outlined above are the same for both worlds in the empirical analysis and they concern steps that any actor will have to take when engaging with a world – be it EverQuest or Second Life.

However, this multiplicity of the construction of the empirical field is not aimed at an actual comparison of the worlds even if the questions are the same. Rather, the aim is to let the worlds mutually elucidate each other to enable a study of variation by difference and similarity.

CHOOSING CASES The prevalent method of research is case studies. 159 The empirical fields and the cases studied are followed over time to address the analytical questions about whether the engagement continues or stops. In late 2005, I started researching literature and websites about EverQuest and two years later in 2007 I conducted video interviews.

While recording the EverQuest video interviews I carried out intensive participatory observations in Second Life as well as video interviews with Second Life cases. Follow-up talks with participating actors and, in some cases, close collaboration with actors as partners in the research project about virtual worlds ended the production of empirical data by 2009/2010.160 This long period of time has enabled me to follow all of the cases involved with the empirical research from their start to the end and closing. The exception is an international project, which has been 158

The engagement with the worlds is seen as a part of the actors’ everyday life rather than a separate and parallel sphere.

159 Creswell 1998, Flyvbjerg 2006, Miles & Huberman 1994, Ragin & Becker 1992, Stake 1995, Yin 2003.

160 The research project about sense-making strategies and user-driven innovation in virtual worlds is run by Roskilde University and Copenhagen Business School 2008-2012.

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followed since 2008 to get a frame of reference that goes beyond Danish projects.161 The production of data from the case studies and the time span 2005 to 2009 is depicted in Table 2.

To qualify as a case study, several criteria were considered. First, the cases should be followed over time; second, they should exemplify different kinds of engagement; third, the methods of video interviews and participatory observations had to be acceptable to the participating actors; fourth, they should experience the engagement with virtual world-making as meaningful; and finally, I needed to follow their engaging in different situations. These were the main considerations which guided the choice of cases even if in a few cases only some of these criteria were followed.162

161

The Metanomics project represents a high Second Life standard of professionalism. It is run by highly skilled actors and with a complex, global organisation involving among others Second Life Tweet TV. It is still running and continuously followed.

162 The video interviews with Martin, a young high school student, have been slightly different from the others as Martin had no steady character and game at the time of the video recordings. Only a traditional qualitative interview and no video interviews have been made with Kasper, a young researcher. The case of Metanomics has been closely followed in 2008/2009 yet at the time of writing it only serves as a background study.

Meetings have been held and a traditional qualitative interview conducted with Judith an innovation consultant about a Second Life case in a Danish financial institute. The case is not included as cutbacks early led to the dismissal of the consultant.

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T ABLE 2 . Production of data by case studies, distribution hereof over time, and the methods in-use. (See Appendices, Tables)

The empirical field studies and video interviews with actors of the massively multi-user online game EverQuest were initiated by the accounts of a young high school student, Martin, who shared his extensive and in-depth knowledge and expertise with me based on his years of experience with many different forms of online games.

Introducing and explaining the complex field of the games, Martin was the first participant in the video interviews and his expertise paved the way for understanding the many features of the online websites that are part of the games. Therefore, the video interviews with Martin opened the empirical process along with the literature and online site studies. As shown in Table 2, these video interviews were followed up by informal talks over time until the end of 2009.

The question about how to identify other case studies of relevance was then dealt with by literature studies. 163 The wide range of options was narrowed down with reference to a distinction made between single-oriented and community-oriented player styles; a distinction which is suggested in a research study of the world of 163

E.g. Castronova 2001, 2005, Jacobsson 2006, Schroeder 2002, 2006, Taylor 2002, 2005, Yee 2004, 2005, 2006.

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Lineage;164 this is a world similar to EverQuest and in 2004 it was the largest of the multi-user online role-playing games. According to some of the early Lineage studies, distinctions can be made between the different player styles. Therefore, to identify new cases I looked at and followed some of the online sites of the EverQuest game. These knowledge bases and forums are created by dedicated gamers and actors to exchange all manner of information including ideas, insights, experience, knowledge, feelings, virtual goods, equipment, figures and even recipes. Jan, a dedicated and single-oriented gamer of EverQuest was chosen to be a second case and participant in the video interviews because his single-oriented playing style was quite different from the case of Martin. Jan had the same amount of gaming experience as Martin yet with a different playing style, as it will be described in later chapters. The video interviews started in 2006, and were continuously followed up by informal talks until 2009. In late 2006, the case of the guild Draconic Guardians became relevant to my further study. Again, this choice was made because the playing style of the guild Draconic Guardians differs from the two cases already mentioned as it is a community-oriented guild. The video interviews with Draconic Guardians were followed up by informal talks until 2009.

After processing the empirical data about actors’ engagement with EverQuest, a rich account was written and published in early 2007.165 Thereby a rich account of the video interview studies was made available to the participating actors halfway through the studies. In this way, other gamers who showed an interest in this study also had a chance to be part of the process. The preliminary and temporary publishing of the rich account was part of the validation process as well as an experiment with a form of research communication that allows participating actors to get an immediate response to their participation.

164

Whang & Chang 2004.

Jensen 2007. Publishing some preliminary results from the EverQuest video interviews was made possible by an experiment with the Books-onDemand publisher BoD. 165

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At the same time as the EverQuest video interviews, participatory observations166 in the social world of Second Life were conducted.

These observations aimed to qualify the choice of the Second Life case studies: the public Literary project, the Times business project and the Wonder DK start-up business. Again the cases were chosen because they elucidated quite different situations of engagement. The Literary case was a Second Life project in a public institution while the Times and Wonder DK were two very different private business projects. The Times project was developed to build a virtual branch of an international company whereas the Wonder DK case was an entrepreneurial start-up of a Second Life business renting out land to well-known Danish companies.

PARTICIPATORY OBSERVATION The Second Life case studies started in spring 2007 with video interviews conducted with two participating actors, Janne and Mads, from the Literary project. Again, the video interviews were followed up in early 2008 by a research workshop.167 Video interviews were also carried out with the actors who had initiated the Times and the Wonder DK cases.168 Both of these cases were followed throughout 2008, with Wonder DK followed up until 2010. As with the case studies of EverQuest, a preliminary and temporary account was published in spring 2008 to invite the participating actors and others interested in the study to comment on the accounts.169 The engagement with the world of Second Life falls into four periods of time. The participatory observations form a curve of increasing and decreasing involvement in a time span from January 2007 to March 2008: introductory observations were conducted to get an

166

This approach to the empirical studies is inspired by ethnomethodological and ethnographic methods, see Atkinson 1988, Atkinson & Hammersley 1994, Clifford & Marcus 1986, Cresswell 1998, Denzin 1997, Denzin & Lincoln 1994.

167 This workshop is part of the research project: Sense-making and userdriven innovation in Virtual Worlds.

168 The projects have been partners in the research project about Virtual Worlds whereby a close follow-up on these cases has been possible.

169 Jensen 2008.

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overview; these were followed by an increase in intensity of participation until a phase-out with the aim of identifying possible new cases on the international scene. The observations were conducted mainly at Danish Second Life places and islands, because the in situ video interviews deal with online as well as offline activity as part of the study. However, some examples of projects from the international scene are also followed to put in relief the studies of Danish projects.170 In the accounts about these participatory observations, thirty-eight tableaux chronologically organise the narratives from the four periods of participatory observations. Each tableau is centred on two in-world snapshots from Second Life that document events and observations. They are followed by notes concurrently written during the observations. The tableaux are concluded with keywords that summarise the snapshots and writings.

These observations have led to the choice of case studies, but the tableaux also show some of the diversities of engagement of early Danish places and projects in Second Life. The accounts serve two purposes: on the one hand, they account for the many steps taken in the process of choosing the Second Life cases and, on the other, they aspire to provide accounts that can document and help us remember some of the early experiences and engagings with virtual worldmaking in the history of worlds like Second Life.

OVERVIEW . PERIOD I: JANUARY TO MARCH 2007.

The observations in Second Life began in late 2006, when I moved from the multi-user online role-playing game of EverQuest into the virtual world-making of Second Life that represents a very different kind of world than EverQuest. It is a world where the resident171 is supposed to be actively engaged in designing and creating his or her world either alone or together with a group of virtual friends, or commercially.

170

Metanomics and Shakespeare Company Second Life are two international cases that have been part of the observations, an still is.

171 Subscribers of Second Life are called residents when they are in-world.

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It was not difficult to get a feel for the world and to find out how best to utilise the many different navigational and design tools and features thanks to my previous research on Active Worlds. In the introductory phase, the aim of study was to survey Danish islands and places with a view to choosing some for the in-depth case studies. By the start of 2007 some of the early Danish virtual islands, and places were being covered by Danish media – in traditional print as well as electronically and online. During this period I was increasingly contacted by journalists and students asking questions about Second Life. Some of the media formed part of the initial observations.

T ABLEAU 1. The House of Youth was one of the first Second Life places of the observations. This virtual place mirrored the severe and ongoing conflict that was taking place at the time in the city of Copenhagen with encounters between the police and thousands of young people who were evicted from the real-life House of Youth in central Copenhagen. This conflict was also highly political in nature.

My observations looked at how the virtual site was utilised by some of the young people.

One of the difficulties of carrying out observations was the chat language used by the young residents, which felt as if it was written in some kind of encrypted code. Furthermore, it seemed to have a tone of violence. One incident is illustrative of this. One of the chat sessions between groups with opposing views discussed the ongoing conflict and crises with the disagreements escalating into a kind of verbal violence. The youth groups ‘shouted’ at each other in the chat by writing in capitals and using many exclamation marks whilst launching disruptive chats that were scripted to obstruct any further communication. From this it seemed that the Second Life platform did not provide a place for the young people to reconstruct their communities and build something new in the virtual world-making.

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The House of Youth was heavily affected by conflict and disruption. [conflict, obstruction, remediation172] 173

T ABLEAU 1 . Chat violence. The House of Youth.

T ABLEAU 2. Literary was a recently started public project in which an entrepreneurial project team explored the world whilst seeking answers to serious questions about their profession in Second Life.

Representing a public institution with societal obligations to general education I was interested in finding out if Second Life had a part to play. The Literary project was visited regularly at brief intervals. It turned out that a group of professionals met on a regular basis accompanied by their avatars to discuss that very question. When invited to join one of their meetings, of course, I accepted. The organisers of Literary had bought an animated chair with a script that creates or ‘rezzes’ a new chair each time a newcomer joins their meeting. Automatically, the script introduced the new chair to the meeting circle. The animated feature of the chair was highly effective. I felt welcome rather than intrusive while attending their meeting and could listen to the chat discussions without engaging in them. Due to the online world’s environment, the atmosphere and the tone were highly informal although serious matters were discussed. When asked, I told the group about my research in and about Second Life. They took an immediate interest so we kept in contact to exchange ideas and experiences in the time to come.

172

The concept of remediation refers to the interrelated processes whereby one medium is the content for another, see Bolter & Grusin 1999.

173 The keywords in square brackets summarise the brief written field notes along with the snapshots.

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[meeting circle, animated chair, serious discussions, informal, exchange of ideas]

T ABLEAU 2. Meeting circle and meditation bubbles. Literary project.

T ABLEAU 3. As previously mentioned, some of the Danish media were early participants in Danish Second Life projects. A new television station, TV2 News, built a site to present some of their newsreaders and host celebrities with pictures on the wall linking to external websites about the TV station and the journalists.

Over time, the place did not change and develop; neither did I meet visitors except at the dancing session shown on the snapshot below (to the right). It turned out that it was initiated by a group of journalist trainees working at the station. The project was a test site whose success would determine whether to continue or close the TV2 News Second Life project. The students were responsible for the project, which closed when they left TV2 News to continue studying. “We usually expect our programs to reach an audience of a million viewers. In Second Life there is a target group of approximately 17,000. It is too limited for our purposes,� said the program manager. [students, media project, journalists, celebrities, websites, test-site, audience remediation]

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T ABLEAU 3. TV2 News. Media.

T ABLEAU 4. The University of Southern Denmark was also an early participant among the Danish universities. When they entered Second Life, a copy of the university’s main building was built. The interior design reflected real life design with an aula, auditorium and a library. I revisited the building regularly. However, as there was no spontaneous activity to observe, I decided to move on. [main building, real life emulation]

T ABLEAU 4. University of Southern Denmark.

T ABLEAU 5. House of Horizon was a collaborative project founded by the Danish IBM with the consultancy firm Innovation Lab.174 The initiative was covered by the computer magazine Computerworld and attracted a good deal of attention. An opening reception event with press coverage took place and was followed by competitions.

However, the partners of the collaborative project did not continue

174

The firm Innovation Lab has been one of the partners in the ongoing research project: Sense-making strategies and user-driven innovation in Virtual Worlds.

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with other new activities. [collaborative project, press coverage, redefining]

T ABLEAU 5. Collective project. House of Horizon.

T ABLEAU 6. Aftenshowet is a popular Danish interview and entertainment program. A studio was launched in Second Life and in-world avatars were invited to ask questions and submit issues to be discussed. The Second Life studio did not attract much attention or in-world activity, neither did it impact the TV programme. Unlike the more traditional media, the international tabloid press AvaStar (picture to the right) took a different approach to media in Second Life . The journalists of the AvaStar magazine focused on in-world activity and only covered issues outside Second Life if they had an impact on Second Life activity. [studio, media project, in-world press, questions, suggestions, remediation]

T ABLEAU 6. Danish TV-show and the tabloid press AvaStar.

S UMMARISING In the first period of observation, it turned out that the Literary project was an interesting initiative with which to further observe and engage. Their meeting circle with the animated chair that invited

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avatars to join in and actively take part in discussions about serious matters in an informal way seemed to generate activity that was worthwhile studying in-depth.

Other places observed also contributed to the understanding of the dynamics and design of Second Life places. The House of Youth was an example of how difficult it is to handle conflict and also how easily obstructive behaviours can evolve. The TV2 News’ Second Life place was a showcase of the station’s media activity but was a test site with little adaptation to the virtual environment.

Furthermore, the initiative was a marginal activity in the organisation only made possible by the work of journalist trainees. The Aftenshowet place was also an in-world showcase of a TV programme although with an invitation to actively participate by submitting questions and suggestions. In order to see other examples of media in Second Life, the AvaStar press was included in the initial observations. The magazine AvaStar’s approach clearly generated inworld interest and activity as it dealt with Second Life matters.

Moving on from media examples to educational institutions, the University of Southern Denmark’s Second Life project was an interesting place to observe as it was the first initiative among Danish universities. At the time of observations, the project could also be characterised as a showcase. The university’s main building was built to emulate the real-life building. As opposed to mere emulation, in the House of Horizons project the idea was to build a collaborative place. As such, it represented the vision of creating something new rather than just copying existing activity and institutions. Also, the project was cross-disciplinary and transgressed borders to include the media, big business, and a small and medium sized Danish consultancy company.

SETTLING. PERIOD II: APRIL TO SEPTEMBER 2007 In the second period, the aim of study was to participate and engage with the Second Life activities observed.

T ABLEAU 7. A decisive step was taken in Period II to get involved with the Second Life agencies. From the general observations an overview was formed and a feeling of familiarity with the Second Life

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world had emerged. Early contacts were made, still on the basis of a somewhat distant observational stance. Thus, the next step was to experience what it felt like to act and communicate when engaged with purposeful agency. I was actively looking for the opportunity to engage with participatory observations of relevance to the ongoing research. An opportunity occurred in April 2007. Every year the Danish Ministry of Innovation and Research dedicates a day to the communication of research in society. In the Literary project, the initiators planned to arrange an event to mark the day. The event was to be mediated at the town square of the Danish town Roskilde, as well as at the project’s place in Second Life. As the team behind the Literary project knew about my research, they asked me to lecture on the social life of avatars in Second Life at the event. In accepting the invitation, I moved on from non-committal participation to engaging and experiencing how to plan, organise, and, not least, purposefully communicate in Second Life. Based on experience from the Active Worlds’ project, my suggestion was to record the lecture in audio form instead of only using chat. Therefore, recordings were made in a semi-professional sound studio based on a written manuscript. To plan the sessions, I met with the Literary team at their offline workplace. From earlier experience, I knew that it would be difficult to maintain avatars’ attention, so I suggested producing a set of soundtracks that would allow for chat sessions in between. The group of avatars associated with the Literary project were invited along with anyone else interested in the topic.175 Whilst lecturing, I experienced first-hand some of the difficulties communicating in and with a group of more than 2-3 avatars. It was hard to hold their attention and participants walked around looking at things, trying them out, listening and chatting. Some flew in while others flew away. Thus, it was difficult to assess what was happening and how much attention the attendees were paying. This experience is very much in line with findings from my earlier research.176 In groups of 23 avatars it is possible to maintain a focus whereas in groups of up to

175

The Literary project has been a partner and case study in the research project: Sense-making and user-driven innovation in Virtual Worlds.

176 Jensen, 2007.

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10 or more there is a need for new forms of communication. [involvement, co-construction of events, focus, attention, group size]

T ABLEAU 7. Lecture. The annual Day of Research. The Literary project.

T ABLEAU 8. Surprisingly, the Danish and global e-bank, Saxo Bank, chose to design their island not only with a focus on a main building, commercials and logo but with a virtual carnival moving slowly around the island. The design was inviting and encouraged the visitor to join in with visually appealing and imaginative platforms and figures. I stepped on board to try out the different dances and platforms of the carnival happening around their island. [visually appealing, carnival, imaginative, inviting, dancing, moving, redefining]

T ABLEAU 8. Carnival. Saxo Bank.

T ABLEAU 9. Most importantly, a further step was taken to settle down on one of the Danish islands. Wonder DK was the island chosen177 as

177

The Wonder DK business has been a partner and case study in the research project: Sense-making and user-driven innovation in Virtual Worlds.

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I had been visiting the island frequently for some time. Wonder DK was one of the Danish islands that generated traffic and activity with avatars often chatting and hanging out together. The owner had designed a world much in line with a commonly held cultural selfimage of the Danes. The initial design idea was a paraphrase of the very famous and popular Danish television production ‘Matador’ – a TV-series which is often repeated on Danish television. Besides the reference to this popular TV-series, the environment was purposefully designed in a very lifelike reconstruction of a fictional Danish provincial town, Korsbæk. There is nothing spacy or futuristic on the island. Visiting the place, it appeared homely with a cosy atmosphere, both of which are qualities often emphasised by Danish self-understanding. Settling down, it was the intention to engage with the agencies of the place by participatory observation. I also wanted to invite residents and visitors of the island to take part in in-depth interviews. Forskningsbiksen Roskilde University (Research Shop Roskilde University) was a little shop for rent among many other shops in Wonder DK and it was chosen to be the basis for further observations and engagings. In the process of moving in, I experienced some of the basics of not just browsing, observing and travelling but also of becoming a settled resident. Furnishing the research shop was a creative process. Although, I did not master the design tools of Second Life straight away, a sense of ownership with the early and very simple design evolved. Gradually, the Second Life places took on a different meaning. In settling on the island of Wonder DK, I started to feel at home. [moving in, settling down, shop for rent, research shop, design idea, sense of ownership, feeling at home]

T ABLEAU 9. Research shop Forskningsbiksen. Wonder DK.

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T ABLEAU 10. Besides moving in on the island of Wonder DK, I regularly visited Saxo Bank’s Second Life place.178 The constructors and designers of the island were still emphasising unexpected aspects of the bank’s activities such as leisure, relaxation and fun.

They were seemingly just as important features of the island, if not more important, than the trading. [the unexpected, redefining]

T ABLEAU 10. Relaxation and fun. Saxo Bank.

T ABLEAU 11. On one occasion in Wonder DK a well organised meeting, arranged by one of the originators of the Second Life initiative NetworkSL, took place on the town square to debate issues such as the presence – or rather the absence – of Danish universities in Second Life. The occasion was the presentation of an award to the University of Southern Denmark for being the first university to move into Second Life. It was well-organised and an agenda and organisers’ roles had been prepared in advance along with welldefined rules and roles. The meeting turned out to be a success.

However, halfway through the public meeting, an episode of virtual harassment occurred as one of the participants had prepared a virtual bomb. A countdown was initiated that cut off the chat and any communication. Every 30 seconds a bomb exploded followed by yet another countdown. The owner of the island managed to identify and ban the intruder, but all attendees were somewhat shaken by the

178

Saxo Bank has been a partner in the research project: Sense-making and user-driven innovation in Virtual Worlds.

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incident. [public meeting well-organised, harassment, virtual bomb, shaken]

success,

virtual

T ABLEAU 11. Public avatar meeting. Wonder DK. T ABLEAU 12. In Denmark, during spring 2007, there was much media hype and stories about the fantastic ‘new world’, ‘new frontier’, ‘new identities’ and ‘new possibilities’ in the media coverage of Second Life. Very little of what was written was based on in-depth journalistic research. Priority had been given to the sensational stories about either success or failure.

However, the Danish newspaper Politiken sent a reporter into Second Life named Ridiculous Writer. This reporter conducted a series of interviews and observations, which were written up and published as articles. Ridiculous Writer was invited to Wonder DK when he asked for an interview; yet at that time the hype was changing into anti-hype. Second Life had not, it said, lived up to expectations, so it had now been ‘given up’. Stories about projects that stopped and firms that closed down their virtual branches began to proliferate. Based on early and very preliminary attempts to move into the world, the media and many opinion formers now concluded that Second Life was of no use. [reporter, hype, expectations, sensations, anti-hype]

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T ABLEAU 12. Interview. Politiken. Wonder DK. T ABLEAU 13. Suddenly one day, while still furnishing my research shop, another incidence of virtual takeover occurred. It was a visual takeover in the form of a scripted occupation of the shop and town.

A script was launched that interrupted and disrupted all activity.

Regardless of whether it was intentional or accidental, it felt highly intrusive and shocking. Fortunately, after a while I got over the defencelessness one can feel in virtual worlds. [virtual harassment, visual take over, scripted occupation]

T ABLEAU 13. Virtual harassment. Forskningsbiksen. Wonder DK. T ABLEAU 14. Gradually, the town square of the provincial town KorsbĂŚk in Wonder DK became one of the preferred places for my observations. The town square was a well-defined framework for human relationships and being together. It was the ground zero of the island and there were always avatars around to chat and have fun with both residents of the town and passing visitors. The owner of the island also organised many events; even political comments were designed and placed at the square such as a political comment at the time of the Tibetan crisis. During the Danish election campaign

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posters were put up and a political meeting held. The antiimmigration rhetoric of some Danish politicians was commented on with sarcasm. Political events were humorously mirrored in design.

Yet chatting, dancing and animating were still the most popular and frequent ways of passing the time at the town square. [town square, framing, human relations, events, political comments, design, dancing, animating, chatting]

T ABLEAU 14. Town square with a Tibetan demonstration (left) and chatting (right). Wonder DK.

T ABLEAU 15. International places and projects were also visited during Period II. In August 2007, the yearly conference of the American Sociology Association started with a mini-conference in Second Life. Poster images, PowerPoints and other traditional media were remediated to enable presentations and allow for questions in immediate continuation. It was a little boring. The remediated slides and PowerPoints were not appealing in the Second Life environment, and the discussions were difficult to follow as the discussants seemed to know each other well. There was a definite distance – a feeling of being left out – in spite of the fact that one of the organisers was very forthcoming and friendly when she realised that I was an ‘outsider’ from Denmark. Still, the Second Life environment, the technological constraints, and the remediated framing obstructed attention. It felt somewhat confusing and boring rather than enlightening. [conference, slides and ppts, forthcoming organiser, constraints, feeling left out, confusing, boring]

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T ABLEAU 15. Mini-conference. American Sociology Association.

S UMMARISING Over Period II some decisive steps were taken. Non-committal observation at a felt distance changed to processes of engagement and involvement. On occasion the involvement even extended to the construction of events and activity that were observed and engaged with – such as the case of the event of the Second Life lecture about the social life of avatars arranged with the Literary project. Working with the Literary team, visiting their workplace, producing the audio tracks and planning the event were all offline agencies that helped me understand how the project group worked with their Second Life experiments.179 When the research shop was rented in the provincial town of Korsbæk on the island Wonder DK another step was taken, as I got a chance to learn in depth and firsthand about the everyday life of the town. Arranging, designing and furnishing the place brought about a new feeling of ownership in the world and with that a profound change in my understanding of the social life of avatars in Second Life.

Attending the events in the town and living an everyday life in the research shop Forskningsbiksen, I also experienced virtual harassment. One example was a virtual bomb disrupting a public meeting at the town square of Korsbæk. Another was the animated visual takeover that interrupted all the activity in the town. In such

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The Literary project has been a partner and case study in the research project: Sense-making and user-driven innovation in Virtual Worlds.

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cases there was a feeling of powerlessness and also anger towards the intruders.

B ELONGING . PERIOD III: SEPTEMBER TO DECEMBER 2007 In Period III the aim of study was to engage with the field over time and predominantly at the same place.

T ABLEAU 16. At the request of my director of studies, a Communication Studies Second Life workshop was planned at the University of Roskilde in autumn 2007. Many hours were spent arranging the workshop in a Second Life design. One of the larger corner buildings in KorsbĂŚk was rented and the design of a virtual framing for the workshop began. The design idea was to emphasise contemplation in a Zen-inspired room very different from any of the lecture halls and study rooms at the real-life Roskilde University.

The workshop ran through October and November. Blogging, lectures and project work in groups were some of the important study materials and methods of the learning processes. A total of 3 project groups attended the workshop. It aimed to develop the students’ understanding of virtual methods such as interviewing with Instant Messaging (IM) and chat together with concurrent virtual observations. I expected the students to utilise these methods to engage with and analyse relationships. The results of their inquiries and observations were followed by an analysis of communication and a Second Life design. [workshop, teaching, contemplation, unusual, virtual methods, remediation]

T ABLEAU 16. Workshop. Roskilde University. Wonder DK.

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T ABLEAU 17. As shown on the snapshots below, clearly some of the students enjoyed their life as residents in Second Life. Moving in on a rented plot of the Second Life mainland, they created a tropical paradise with luxurious furniture. [students, joyful, paradise, luxury]

T ABLEAU 17. Workshop students. Communication Studies. Roskilde University.

T ABLEAU 18. The Times is an international job recruitment firm.180 It was a business case and for some months an entrepreneurial employee with an avatar named Helle had built up a virtual branch of the firm in Second Life. When I moved into the research shop in Wonder DK, the choice of my location in-world was influenced by the close proximity to a Times initiative NetworkSL. The aim of this initiative was to build a network of Second Life businesses in order to share knowledge and experience. However, it turned out that the NetworkSL initiative never actualized as the principal organiser no longer logged on to Second Life.

The founder of the virtual branch organised a new initiative Match with the aim of organising Second Life job fairs. When asked, I agreed to give the introductory talk at the first job fair. Many avatars and firms attended the first fair. Job seeking avatars got to meet with representatives from the participating firms. In this way, an informal meeting could take place and in cases of mutual interest, the job fair meeting was followed up by real life contacts. The Match case had a difficult start yet the opening event was promising. [business case,

180

The Times project, and its sequel Match, has been a partner and case study in the research project: Sense-making and user-driven innovation in Virtual Worlds.

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networking, remediation]

closing,

recruitment,

informal

job

interview,

T ABLEAU 18. First job fair. Match.

T ABLEAU 19. In the autumn 2007 there was a Danish election campaign. Some of the political parties took part in a Second Life meeting. The Danish television station TV2 Øst organised a political meeting in-world at Nytorv – a town square in Korsbæk that was well suited for such events. Many avatars attended the meeting.

Politicians from the two parties Det Radikale Venstre (Social Liberal Party) and Venstre (Liberal Party) took part in the meeting to experience what it is like to run an election campaign and a meeting in the online world. The day after the meeting, the liberal party Venstre moved in and furnished one of the shops on the corner of the town square in Korsbæk, Wonder DK. [political meeting, electoral campaign, remediation]

T ABLEAU 19. Political meeting. Wonder DK. T ABLEAU 20. A group of Danish avatars were virtual friends, and regularly met at the town square in Korsbæk to small-chat. Avatars from Europe, Asia and the US also visited the square. They went for a

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walk in the provincial town and often joined the group chatting at the square, not least, because they were invited to do so by town guides. The welcoming attitude of the town guides towards other avatars created a friendly atmosphere. The square provided a framework for friendly relationships and was also a stage for displaying self-design. [virtual friendships, Europe, Asia, US, friendly, self-design]

T ABLEAU 20. Small-chat. Town square. Wonder DK. T ABLEAU 21. On the island of Wonder DK there was a sandbox.181 This attracted avatars who experimented while learning how to create and build imaginative and realistic creations and buildings.

Thus, it was always a lively place and as such very well suited for observations. Clearly, the sandbox was also a place where many friendships and even romance began for some avatars. [sandbox, experiments, romance]

T ABLEAU 21. Romance. Sandbox. Wonder DK.

181

A sand-box is a place for everybody to design and build even if they are not landowners.

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T ABLEAU 22. Very often, imaginative self-constructions and elegant ball room dresses were displayed side by side, day and night at the town square. [self-construal, show off]

T ABLEAU 22. Day and night time. Town square. Wonder DK. T ABLEAU 23. One day, a street performer passed by the sandbox in Wonder DK to show some funny tricks, gestures and not least the advanced scripting that the performance relied on. [street performer, funny tricks, gestures, advanced scripting, show off]

T ABLEAU 23. Street performer. Sandbox. Wonder DK. T ABLEAU 24. A game Una was scripted by a resident who ran an inworld place aimed at gaming. It attracted the attention of avatars passing by and also some of the more settled residents in Wonder DK. [game-play]

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T ABLEAU 24. UNA game. Workshop. Wonder DK. T ABLEAU 25. Without a doubt, music and dancing events are some of the most popular events in Second Life. One such event was a concert with the Danish group Heat at Nytorv in KorsbĂŚk. The dancing events opened up the possibility for avatars to show off some of their advanced dancing gestures and scripts. In the case of the Heat concert a lively and heated atmosphere evolved. [music, concert, dancing gestures, dancing scripts, lively atmosphere]

T ABLEAU 25. Heat concert. Nytorv. Wonder DK. T ABLEAU 26. Info Island DK was an island and a project that involved several Danish libraries. 182 It was an experimental project with librarians who discussed and imagined a virtual world library.

Some of the librarians also used the project to learn how to build and script, and develop the many skills that are necessary to master the world in new and creative ways. Their experimental arrangements

182

The Info Island has been one of the case studies in the research project: Sense-making and user-driven innovation in Virtual Worlds.

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encompassed meetings with popular authors. [libraries, literary meetings, remediation]

T ABLEAU 26. Info Island DK. Cultural meetings.

T ABLEAU 27. The seasons changed in-world in line with the offline world. Snow began to fall in winter and avatars dressed up as Santa’s little helpers with Christmas hats. They chatted side by side with avatars dressed for summer. [snow, Christmas hats, summer, mixed seasons]

T ABLEAU 27. Snow and Christmas. Wonder DK. T ABLEAU 28. Public holidays were also celebrated in Wonder DK’s old garden. One of the town square friends who frequently visited the place gave a concert over the Christmas period. The Christmas music showed the importance of traditional holidays to some of the in-world residents of Wonder DK. [yearly holiday, Christmas music, remediation]

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T ABLEAU 28. Christmas music. The old garden. Wonder DK. T ABLEAU 29. New Year 2008 was celebrated at the town square.

Women in luxurious gowns celebrated with workmen and semihumans. A sexy girl and a furry woman show advanced and well synchronised dance performances. [New Year, feast, luxurious gowns, craftsman, semi-human, dance performance]

T ABLEAU 29. New Year’s Eve 2008. Town square. Wonder DK. S UMMARISING As a settled resident in Korsbæk in Period III, I observed and engaged with everyday life over time. Following the turn of seasons also allowed me to experience annual festivities – such as Christmas Eve and New Year’s Eve. Entertaining events such as music performances, concerts and street performers juggling with animations and advanced gestures were also part of virtual life. It was, however, not only music events that could make avatars dance.

Dance performances regularly took place at the town square of Korsbæk as dancing is very often a chance to show advanced animations such as dancers’ romance and love. However,, first and

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foremost, virtual friendship chats had a prominent part to play in the avatars’ social life at the town square.

The first Match job fair was held in the third period of observations.

Engaging in the event, again, I got to know about the comprehensive preparations and huge effort needed to organise such an event - not only the design of the job fair with stalls for each of the participating companies with their logos and specific interior design requirements but also the dressing up of the representatives from the companies.

Often, the participating businessmen and women were inexperienced when entering Second Life but at the same time eager not to reveal their inexperience. The mobilisation of Second Life networks of friends and partners in business is pivotal to an event such as the job fair. This made it very time-consuming.

Thus, in taking part in the event, I learnt a lot about what it takes to set up a major event in Second Life if it is to be successful. Evidently, it made sense to conceptualise and ritualise events so as to organise repeating events with affiliated networks of avatars. The Second Life Metanomics project is an example of this from the international scene.

SEARCHING. PERIOD IV: JANUARY TO MARCH 2008 In Period IV, the observations of everyday life over time continued, yet my attention turned to the international scene as the aim of study was to identify potentially new international case studies.

T ABLEAU 30. In order to stay informed about non-Danish initiatives, I travelled around international islands and projects and gradually these observations came to predominate. Early, I noticed that interesting things were going on at the Metanomics place. Interviews were carried out with decision-makers who were influential to the inworld conditions and agencies. People such as members of the Linden Lab team, researchers, chief executive officers from big IT firms and artists participated in interviews that were broadcast inworld and video-casted on the project’s blog.

The Metanomics project carried out experiments with a multi-sited distribution of the interviews in cooperation with the in-world

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Second Life CN television channel, and also with the early use of voice chat. When Robin Harper, one of the influential members of the Linden Lab team was invited to an interview, several in-world places also took part in the event – including Saxo Bank, which was also one of the sponsors of the Metanomics project.

The project stood out as being highly organised and the interviewing avatar Beyers Sellers was highly skilled, taking into account the conditions of Second Life. The audience were experienced with Second Life and this project and they were not first-time visitors as could be seen by the sophisticated design of their avatars. 183 [international project, complex organisation, interview shows, well organised, decision-makers, CEOs, researchers, artists, impact, regular event, returning and experienced participants, remediation]

T ABLEAU 30. Interviews. To the left an interview with Robin Linden. Metanomics.

T ABLEAU 31. It seemed that the audiences of the Metanomics events were returning avatars. From my initial observations the number could be put roughly at an average of 30-35 avatars at each of the sites involved. The avatar design of the audiences embraced advanced semi-human as well as realistic design, both of which in a very sophisticated style. [Semi-human design, realistic appearances, sophisticated style]

183

The Metanomics project is a case study in the research project: Sensemaking and user-driven innovation in Virtual Worlds.

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Tableau 31. Avatar design. Metanomics audiences.

T ABLEAU 32. In the Old Garden of Wonder DK music events continued. One of the regular avatars enjoyed entertaining the visitors. Mostly, the avatars who attended the events were regular visitors and members of the Wonder DK Friends group, but accidental passers-by also joined in. On such occasions, it became clear that dancing was a preferred form of contact in loving, tender and lively animations. [music, dancing, tenderness, advanced gestures and behaviours, remediation]

Tableau 32. Music in The Old Garden. Wonder DK.

T ABLEAU 33. Dancing at the town square also showed specific behaviours. It could indicate tenderness between dancing partners through items such as the pink and heart shaped balloons which symbolised the romance between the two dancers. [romance, dancing, heart shaped balloons]

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T ABLEAU 33. Dancing with heart shaped balloons. Wonder DK. T ABLEAU 34. In Wonder DK’s sandbox it was possible to meet avatars in romantic and draconian outfits next to tough guys. [draconian, tough ]

T ABLEAU 34. Draconian outfits. Sandbox. Wonder DK. T ABLEAU 35. Sandboxes were always lively places. Here avatars trained their basic designing skills alongside some of the experienced equilibrists juggling with objects, buildings and animations. There was an immediate gratification in performing such advanced skills. [sandbox, equilibrists, juggling]

T ABLEAU 35. Virtual experiments. Sandbox. Wonder DK.

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T ABLEAU 36. Big Danish companies and branches of international companies attended the second job fair of the Match project. In evaluating the event, the project organiser Helle reported that many of the returning participants had commented on the improved quality of the personal meetings. They found that the second job fair offered better quality and in-depth conversations compared to the first.

Participants in the job fair were big business, IT firms, some small and medium enterprises, a public institution SKAT (Ministry of Taxation) and one of the largest Danish newspapers. Attendees were businessmen dressed up in traditional suits side by side with exotic warriors and romantic knights. [job fair, big business, traditional, exotic, romantic]

T ABLEAU 36. Second job fair. Match.

T ABLEAU 37. Early in the observations, the international Shakespeare Company Second Life attracted attention. In the company a group of actors performed Shakespeare’s play Hamlet. The Globe Theatre staged the performances, all of which with a somewhat unusual and very demanding audience. The attention of avatars was transient and it was difficult for the actors to get a feel for and to sense the audience. [magazine, in-world literature, The Globe, Shakespeare, Hamlet, play, unusual audience, transient attention, remediation]

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T ABLEAU 37. Hamlet Act 1. The Globe. Shakespeare Company Second Life.

S UMMARISING Early 2008, the observations once more aimed to generate a general overview and to identify international projects of relevance to future studies. Metanomics and the Shakespeare Company Second Life stood out as projects and places that were worth studying in greater depth. The former agreed to be a case in future research. This gave me a chance to learn more about significant initiatives. The international projects were very active with regular events and initiatives, and the affiliated groups also seemed to be active in the networks that organised the projects.

CONCLUDING The observations of the first period showed that the Literary project was an interesting project. Their meeting circle with an animated chair that invited avatars to join in and actively take part in discussions about serious matters in an informal way generated activity that was worthwhile studying further. Therefore, these observations were followed by in-depth video interviews and follow up talks with this case.

During the second period of observation, non-committal observations turned into involvement with, and even arranging of, the events and engagements observed. For example, the event of the Second Life lecture about the social life of avatars was arranged with the Literary project. Working with the team, visiting their workplace, producing the audio tracks and planning the event gave me a better understanding of how the project group worked and perceived their Second Life experiments.

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Renting the research shop in Korsbæk on the island Wonder DK gave me a chance to do an in-depth study of the everyday life of the town.

Arranging, designing and furnishing the shop brought about a new feeling of ownership and with that a profound change in the understanding of the social life of avatars in Second Life. Moving in on Wonder DK and observing everyday life was followed by indepth video interviews with this business case, which is still a partner in the research project on virtual worlds.

As a settled resident in Korsbæk, I observed and engaged with daily life over time. Following the turn of seasons, also allowed me to experience annual festivities. The first Match job fair was held in the third period of observations and it showed the comprehensive preparations needed to organise such an event. The Match project was a follow-up on the Times project about which in-depth video interviews were made and the case became a partner in the virtual worlds research project.

In the fourth period there was a gradual phase-out of the daily engaging with Wonder DK’s places as my attention became focused on the international scene. In particular, the Metanomics project attracted my attention, as new forms of communication were explicitly part of the project’s many experiments. The observations were therefore followed up by engaging with one of the shows to partake as a contributor in its hot spot events. Also, in autumn 2008, interviews were carried out and talks organised with the initiator of the Metanomics project and a preparation for one of the shows was followed and video-recorded on-spot. 184 These activities were followed up by a mixed reality session of interviews carried out simultaneously in Second Life and on-site at an international workshop about virtual worlds.185

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In autumn 2008, the initiator of Metanomics was invited to visit the research project and contribute as a guest professor.

185 This mixed reality session took place at the international workshop about virtual worlds that was organised by the research project: Sense-making and user-driven innovation in Virtual Worlds.

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The participatory observations in Second Life thus helped me select cases for further study; the cases selected were: Literary, House of Horizon, 186 Info Island, 187 The Times, Wonder DK, Match and Metanomics. 188 Some of these studies are analysed in the current study whereas others have been analysed in other studies or are still to be analysed.

E PILOGUE : A VATAR DESIGN T ABLEAU 38. The name of my avatar is Chenet Shan. The name Chenet originated from my first avatar in Active Worlds. When I entered Second Life for the first time during the observation period I could choose a figure from stereotypes with female shapes and design: The Night Club, Girl Next Door, City Chic, The Cybergoth, Furry, and Harajuku. There were similar stereotypes in male shapes and skins. Out of the possible figures, my choice was the Cybergoth female because, to some extent, she was in accordance with my conception of the world of Second Life. I saw the Cybergoth female as a cross-boundary figure that transgressed the borders of the virtual and real. She was more a figure of fantasy than the Girl Next Door, who was a stereotype of a realistic figure. Furthermore, this cybergoth figure did not first and foremost convey connotations of a sexual nature. However, with only some minor modifications such as changing the hair colour and giving her a blue instead of a black jacket, I tried to downplay the ‘Goth and Punk’ connotations of this figure. Accompanied by this avatar, I moved on to engage with the places and residents of Second Life. In Period II of observations, however, one of my in-world interviewees commented on the design of the avatar and with that my appearance. Whilst interviewing her, she suddenly mentioned that my avatar was so impersonal that it distracted her. She could not ‘sense’ the person behind and thus relate to the avatar. This made her feel less at ease. Her response and

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Reinhard 2011. As part of a separate study about user-driven innovation, the case study of Innovation Lab is dealt with by one of the researchers of the research project.

187 Heilesen 2009.

188 Production of data is closed. They are still to be analysed.

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comments made me change the design. Below, two snapshots illustrate the design history of my avatar.

T ABLEAU 38. Two snapshots of the avatar Chenet Shan Only minor changes were made when I initially chose the Cybergoth female (snapshot to the left). Entering the Second Life world, I did not prioritise spending time designing the avatar through changing the skin, hair, eyes or clothing, but spent time getting to know the world and its residents. Consequently, the template-like look with no adaptation to the world of Second Life appeared to be impersonal and, furthermore, it conveyed a lack of engagement and interest in the world. It signified a distance towards the world and its residents, which was the direct opposite of my intentions and the method of study.

Therefore, a change of appearance was made. New skin and hair were bought, and, importantly, also new eyes (snapshot to the right).

New clothes and high-heeled shoes completed the change. All of it was bought and not just collected in freebie shops thus signifying a willingness to engage with and to invest in the world.

IN SITU VIDEO INTERVIEWS Following up on the tableaux of the participatory observations in more detail, I will now present the method of video interviews. The in-depth study of actors’ sense-makings in EverQuest and Second Life was made possible by in situ qualitative and open-ended video

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interviews. 189 The choice of cases took into consideration the differences between the two types of worlds; the online role-playing game has many features, steps of development and modes of playing such as quests, challenges, rewards and achievements. All of these are well known and recurring motifs. In Second Life, however, there is, at least from an immediate view, a confusing diversity due to the actor-driven and actor-generated content. Nevertheless, in both cases, the processing of the video interviews follows the same steps and procedures of video recorded in-depth, situated and open-ended interviews.

Video recordings provide exciting rich data but are also challenging to work with. The video interview method has evolved over time and through the practices of studying net-based communication. 190 The method was put to an in-use test by the analyses of the comprehensive assemblage of video data for this study and it is accounted for in the following three steps: 1) prior to recordings, 2) recording in situ, and 3) processing the video data.

PREPARING RECORDINGS. STEP (1) A NALYTICAL FOCI AND SYSTEM The video analytical system Advene has supported the many processes of working the data. In the analytical design of the digital system Advene – Annotate Digital Video and Exchange on the Net,

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This approach is influenced by ethnomethodology and the practices of studying everyday life and work, see Chaiklin & Lave 1993, Coulon 1995, Garfinkel 1967, 1972, 1986, Heritage 1984, 1991, Livingstone 1987, Lynch et al. 1983, and ideas of situated activity, Suchmann 1987, situated sensemakings, Dervin 2003, and also semiotic understanding of situations as suggested by Eco in 1976 and as later revised in 2000.

190 Sources of inspiration for the method of video interviews come from visual anthropology and human-computer interaction design, e.g. Banks 2001, Grimshaw 2001, 2005, Jordan & Henderson 1994, Pink 2001, 2006, 2007, Suchman 1987, Suchman & Trigg 1991, and from reflections on how to see, e.g. Collier 2001, Goodwin 1993, 1994, Goodwin & Goodwin 1998. To follow up on the idea of a ‘gaze theory’ as it has been put forward

by Williamson 1995, I am currently working on this as part of methodological reflections about the study of virtual world-making.

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the five foci already mentioned (see Chapter 4, p. 86) form the basic structure. In Advene there is no built-in concept of how studies are to be designed. However, the system requires that there is clarity about the foci and processing of the actual digital video data produced. Based on the analytical foci, video data are processed in two movements: a bottom-up movement that adheres to the empirical data, and a top-down movement that is assisted by the actants of theory of the analysis. In the bottom-up processing of data, instances of significance, situations and scenes are identified, timesequences and periods of time are constructed, and finally annotations are inscribed to the identified instances, situations and scenes. The bottom-up processing of data adheres to the actors’ agency and narratives. In the top-down movement, data are tagged with the aim of highlighting the interrelations of the empirical annotations and deconstructions on the one hand, and, on the other, the analytical inscriptions. The starting point for both movements is the general transcriptions of the videos. The bottom-up and the topdown movements of processing together produce the analysis by abductive reasoning.192

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In the present study, the digital system Advene (Annotate Digital Video and Exchange on the Net) has been chosen to support the analyses of data, see: http://liris.cnrs.fr/advene/download.html. It is the result of my collaboration with a research project, which has developed the system as open source. To solve the many problems which evolve when using an analytical system which is simultaneously developed, it-specialist Frank Wagner has provided invaluable assistance and support.

192 The discovery strategy of abductive reasoning has been discussed since it was introduced by the pragmatist Peirce. In this study, my understanding of this concept refers to the late Strauss 1987, Strauss & Corbin 1990, Strßbing 2004, 2007 and Reichertz 2007. According to their understanding, it is recognised that theoretical pre-knowledge is part of empirical analysis. This is different from the early research ideal of approaching and coding data with no preconceived theory as put forward by Glaser & Strauss in 1967. In their understanding of abduction, Strauss & Corbin are influenced by Peirce’s late ideas about abduction when he questions that we can ever reach a certainty of the validity of abductive inference. Peirce suggests that intersubjectivity should replace the idea of absolute certainty.

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R ELEVANCE AND PARTICIPATING ACTORS In order to consider if the method of video interviews is of relevance to the study, two questions were asked: do the in-depth studies have analytical foci that entail engaging with artefacts, media, technologies, spatial organisation and reorganisation of spaces? Does communication involve moments of time and space where the body’s memory, knowledge and expressions are important? These questions are asked to consider the relevance of using video interviews as a research method. In the studies of situated agency in and with artefacts, media and technologies, video interviewing is a method that helps observe, engage with, learn, and reflect on bodily knowledge,193 experience, and expression. These are all phenomena that are difficult to recall and express in an interview that relies on retrospective memory and language. In virtual world-making, many actors would experience difficulties recalling the activities, engaging and movements of their avatars. The method of simultaneously producing video recordings whilst doing situated in-depth interviews of the in-world agency and communication between in-world actors as well as the human computer interaction by the interface is a possible answer to some of these problems.

The moments, instances and scenes chosen cover a range of agencies that help produce a diversity and variety of data. By using the situated, in-depth video interviews, they provide an insight into very different instances and scenes in the life and style of the actors' in-world presence. In the EverQuest study there are actors receiving social security offline, a former student now on disability pension benefits, a trainee teacher, a high school student, and a research assistant.194 There is a single player with a single figure and a married couple, who play together and separately with many different avatars. This couple has two children. The youngest player is in upper secondary school. He is a generalist with extensive experience and a systematic knowledge of many different worlds and games.

The others are dedicated EverQuest players. In the Second Life part

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Polanyi 1966.

The interview with Kasper is not video recorded as it was a background interview about the economies of virtual worlds.

194

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of the study, one of the actors is a professional programmer, and at the time of writing making a living as a full-time Second Life entrepreneur. Another type of Second Life project is represented by a business woman in the start up phase of a Second Life branch of her real life company. While the study was conducted her company closed down the Second Life branch, a decision which led her to start up an entirely virtual Second Life business Match. In the public Second Life project, Literary, one of the initiators and driving forces is an academic with a background in Humanities together with a professional from the branch of public service. Together, they run the public project that aims to explore new opportunities for public institutions in the virtual world-making of Second Life. Often, they are present together at their virtual place to engage with the many agencies of the project.

Video interviews always exert influence on the agency recorded.

Even prior to the recordings, in the possible choices of participating actors, the method impacts who and what can be made part of the study. Some of the potential actors declined to be video recorded.

Furthermore, when the recordings take place in the actors’ daily surroundings at home or at their workplace, they can be seen as intrusive. It is essential to minimise the impact, although it cannot be entirely eliminated. Therefore, the interviews have been organised so as to interfere as little as possible with the actors’ daily surroundings, routines and engagings even if it negatively influences the technical quality of the recordings.195 As the influence of the video recordings on the individuals recorded can never be eliminated this has to be taken into consideration in the production of data, and the coconstruction of the field being studied.

S IMPLE AND RECURRING VIDEO INTERVIEWING The in situ video interviews start with only one actor because this makes a close-up interview possible. If two or more actors participate then often the camera will have to be placed farther away. Ideally,

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Unfortunately this approach means that the technical quality of the keyframes selected by the analysis of the video interviews, and included as part of this account, is low.

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the camera should come as close as possible to the actor and his or her computer screen. Close-up recordings have also been supplemented by recordings made from a distance.

The video interviews were made at intervals and with the same actors participating, because recurring interviews have advantages for the production of data aimed at a qualitative analysis. The recurring interviews provided the opportunity to clarify some of the discussions, reflections and agencies of the first recordings; reflections and actions that were difficult to understand or comments made while fighting, trading, chatting or designing in virtual worldmaking. The iterative method enables clarification and further discussion of unclear issues and allows actors to comment on their agencies in more detail than is the case in a first interview.

Furthermore, in the iterative procedures the recordings take advantage of the fact that the set up and scene is well known thus providing optimal conditions for the focus of the interview.

RECORDING IN SITU. STEP (2) O VERVIEW AND OPTICS The actors’ in-world agency, movements, experiences and engagings are followed in typical situations of playing and acting. The video recordings of the agency and play are focused on-screen following the actors’ in-world movements but in addition to the virtual worldmaking they cover engaging with the computer, the interface, the immediate surroundings of the computer(s) and some of the daily life engagements. In the following, one of the actors of this study, Jan, is chosen to exemplify some of the considerations before engaging with a video interview.

Jan often plays late in the evening and during the night, so it was dark when I arrived at his home on the Danish island of Amager.

However, it soon became clear that it was not an entirely usual evening as he immediately made apologies for a messy room. He explained that he had been cleaning the mess but was not yet finished. It obviously affected him that recordings were to be made.

In his eyes, the mess should not be shown in the video recordings. I explained to him how important it was that the recordings reflect his

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everyday life as closely as possible and that they are confidential. I also explained that no video presentation was to be made; rather the recordings would serve as views into his world as shaped by him.

On seeing the room where the recordings would take place, I had several questions: Where is the computer? What possible angles of the camera can be used? How can the recordings be made without changing the surroundings too much? The sound also had to be considered. As the recordings were made close to the computer screen and the actor, the camera’s built-in microphone could be used. The light looked like it could cause some problems. It was dark, and Jan had only turned on a bedside lamp and lit a candle.

That is how he tended to play. It was necessary to make a quick decision to let the images be dark and thereby avoid asking Jan to turn on the light as this change in the conditions of the room would obviously affect his playing. The concerns for the image quality were given secondary priority in order to have as little impact on the environment of the recordings as possible. The actor became directly involved in creating the scene when asked for suggestions as to how the recordings could best be made. This step was important. Jan was to become a participant in the video interview and not just someone observed. His influence on the recordings was a first step in the experience of being actively involved. It appeared that the recordings could be made without changing anything other than setting up the camera. There was room for a fixed position camera as well as recordings with a handheld camera close to the actor and the computer as there was nothing more than a bed, a computer, a TV, and a kitchenette, where Jan lived. The first test recording of Jan’s computer display was carried out to ascertain how the computer’s monitor appeared on the camera recordings.

S ITUATED INTERPRETATION AND A DUAL FOCUS The recordings are interpretations of the many moments and scenes of the video interviews; interpretations that emerge in situ and as such the focus of the recordings reflect the situated interpretations.

Therefore, the idea of a panoptic video set-up that resembles video surveillance, or the logging of all screen activity, does not comply with the methodological approach to the production of data. In the

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video interviews there is a two-fold focus on the actor and the technicalities of video recording. To overcome the sense of intrusion that is often felt by the actor it is important to maintain eye contact as often as possible. The open and intense dialogue of the in-depth research interview is the ideal; a conversation and dialogue where the camera plays a complementary role. The handheld camera enabled me to engage with the video interviews as closely as possible to the actor and his computer screen. Importantly, it enabled me to have eye contact, without the actor focusing on the camera. In Jan’s case, the recordings made with a handheld camera were complemented by recordings made with a stationary camera utilising the zoom facilities. This stationary set-up was used later on in the video interviews, when he was familiar with the process so the close conversation and dialogue became more relaxed.

A VIRTUAL DISCOVERY I started the video interview by inviting Jan to take me to places, things and engagings that he wanted to show. We started with his main avatar; his favourite avatar and figure. What led him to choose exactly that figure, and how would he present it to me? These were the two questions that started the interviews, and then the video interview flowed. In this case, it flowed well. The presentation of his main figure – the gnome Gnossiz – was a good opening, because the figure was close to Jan. There was pride and attachment, which inspired the many associations and ideas that furthered the process of the interview. Jan was followed around his world and asked about the things and places he chose to show. My approach was to carry out the first video interview as a kind of virtual discovery in which Jan introduced his virtual world-making, of which he is the expert.

This offered plenty of substance for the video interview. There was no guide for the interview, but the questions focused generally on the five foci (see 83). The actor was proud to talk about his world. In a subsequent video interview I could then ask specifically about the experiences and actions that influenced the understanding of the five foci when seen from a researcher’s point of view.

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PROCESSING THE RECORDINGS. STEP (3) A NALYTICAL FORMS : T RANSCRIPT AND T HEMES The system Advene 196 links a media file with different forms and templates in a package, which is the basic unit of the processing of data. My design of the packages encompasses three different and open forms that support the processing of data: Transcript and Themes that support the bottom-up analysis, and Gaps, which is part of the top-down analysis.

The Transcript form is unstructured with only time codes and open text whereas Themes is a structured form based on the five foci of the analysis. Gaps is an unstructured form which marks the instances and scenes, sequences and periods of time that prove to be of analytical concern. However, the forms were not fixed at the beginning of the analytical process. They could change as the video recordings were processed. This meant that the video data could be coded and annotated when seen from different perspectives if the results of one process indicated a need for a new perspective. The media file remained unchanged, it was unedited and only annotated and described in different ways if new perspectives were applied as successive layers of analysis.

The processing of video data falls into four main phases: i) general descriptions, ii) mapping and foci, iii) characterising and keywords, and iv) reversed storyboarding and keyframe selection. These steps are not regarded as distinct; they overlap to varying degrees and one step in the analysis can lead to the previous step being reviewed.

G ENERAL DESCRIPTIONS The very first step is to get an overview of the many hours of video data. The overview is generated by multiple reviews of the material and a subdivision hereof in different moments of time, instances and scenes that are described in general. The video recordings are

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Advene: Annotate Digital Video and Exchange on the Net. The system was a beta-version, which means that it was in a process of continuous development while at the same time I used it for my analysis. Many features of the system have been changed since then.

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initially watched several times and in different modes such as ‘without sound’ and ‘fast forward’. In this way, it is possible to see things and scenes that do not immediately catch the eye in a normal review process. Techniques that are used aimed at preventing the eye and understanding from settling too quickly on perceptions and interpretations.

The Transcript form supports the general description as the media files are transcribed in full or, in some cases, only by keywords.

Usually it is a combination of the two. Some parts of the video’s voice may be transcribed while others such as outbreaks of feeling, or other non-linguistic instances of importance, are annotated only by keywords. I then review the videos, and insert time codes each time there is a movement from one scene to another. Insertion of the time codes can be done flexibly because it is easy to insert or delete time codes using the Advene system.

The general description with timestamps is then converted to the Themes form. This conversion changes the descriptions of the annotations into the annotation type (AT) General that configures the first processing of the video data (Figure 8). It is the basic description for all further processing.

F IGURE 8 . Web-view of a general description. To the left are the five analytic foci represented by annotation types (AT). The annotations start and end with a time code and they are shown to the right of the annotation types. The time codes are active and clickable with reference to the videos. Also, the start and end of scenes

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are indicated by snapshots with time codes for each of the actual annotations along with a textual description. Descriptions and snapshots can be continuously edited.

After the conversion to the Themes form, the video data are displayed in a browser in time intervals with brief descriptions. This form provides an initial overview that makes it possible for me to work with structured documents, because the time codes act as active links, and the annotations have been tagged with an identifier, such as “a55� (Figure 9). Thus, it is easy to move back and forth between the descriptions of the videos and the instances and scenes that have been constructed. The description of the video data is always an initial interpretation. Identifying scenes and instances of the videos, marking them with time codes and describing them with annotations are processes that initiate some first interpretations. The interpretations that lead to my descriptions can vary in different reviews. As already mentioned Advene can support more than one such review and description without deleting any of them.

F IGURE 9 . Web-view of all the annotations can be generated. The figure shows an overview of all the general annotations in a selected package. To the left is the identifier, e.g. ID number a55, which is attached to each annotation. The identifier is followed by the active and clickable time codes that refer to the videos. Finally, there is a textual description of the annotation.

M APPING AND FOCI Once the video has been described, the annotations are mapped.

The starting point is the general description of the video. Annotation

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by annotation I consider which of the five foci in the form of annotation types (AT) the actual annotation highlights: Virtual world (Co-construction), Avatar (Mediator), Social interaction (Relationships) Self-perception (Expression of self), Lifeworld (Navigation). 197 To exemplify this: if an annotation is about the choice of avatar, then it is dragged and dropped with the time code of the annotation type Avatar. This makes it appear in the basic line General as well as in the annotation type Avatar. However, the annotation may also highlight the annotation type Self-perception. If so, I will also drag and drop it to this annotation type. Thus, an annotation can appear in several foci of analysis. Due to the complexity of video data analysis, wherever possible I have tried to be ‘rigid’ in the first sorting as the Advene system allowed me to alter or add to the sorting undertaken. The form Themes supports the mapping of annotations. Gradually, the annotations highlight the foci of analyses. In a web-view, an overview of all the annotations of one focus, for example ‘Self-perception’, can then be generated. This is a display with active links to the identifier and the time code of the annotations.

F IGURE 10 . Web view of annotation types, i.e. perception (expression) of self.

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The denotations of the annotation types are very early conceptions of the five foci that organise the system design; the formulation of the annotation types have been changed during the analyses. The actual terms are included in the parentheses.

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E XAMPLE : In the general description of the annotation with the identifier a55, and the time stamps 00:07:08.242 to 00:08:45.682 (hours, minutes, seconds and milliseconds), the annotation says: In this zone, the avatars living here are all barbarians, warriors, those who do not have much intelligence, the stupid [ones]; it does not require much to be a warrior, it requires nothing, just to go and shout (...) to be insulting; [the warriors] have hitpoints, they can survive better and get [the mobs] to hate them (...) how difficult is that! Everybody can be evil. – Jan This annotation highlights the Annotation Types Avatar, Relationships and Expressions of self; therefore it is dragged and dropped to all of these three foci. However, in the three foci different aspects of this annotation are highlighted. Consequently, in the form Themes a structured version enables me to characterise the general annotation.

C HARACTERISING AND TAGGING An annotation that is used on several annotation types can be characterised by Title and Keyword(s) that may vary depending on the annotation type. One annotation can be characterised differently when viewed from different annotation types. In the example above, the annotation could be entitled ‘barbarians’ with keywords such as ‘barbarian, warrior’ when it is dropped on Avatars. The title may be identical but the keywords are different such as ‘hate, insult’ if the annotation is dropped on Relationships. Also, the title may change to ‘evil’ with the keyword ‘everybody’ if the annotation is dropped on Self-perception. In the structured version, the above quote is characterised in this way: Avatars (mediators): Title=barbarians; Keywords=barbarians, warriors; Relationships: Title=barbarians, Keywords=hate, insult; Self-perception (expression of self): Title=barbarians, Keywords=evil, everybody. In a web view the keywords will appear as active links.

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R EVERSED STORYBOARDING AND VISUAL DESCRIPTION The videos are then processed to generate a visual description. The individual annotations are visually marked and shown in a web browser with snapshots starting and ending with actual time codes.

Snapshots are single video frames retrieved by pre-programmed settings of the analytical software or chosen ad hoc. Thus, the videos are described with images. Figure 11 shows an example with two video frames that open the annotations in a pre-programmed web view. Ad hoc programmed series are also generated. In this way, the videos are deconstructed in a process of reversed story-boarding. In this process snapshot-based descriptions of the videos are generated.

F IGURE 11 . A web view of snapshots with active keywords and annotations.

In the current study, the pre-programmed snapshots generated by the annotations and annotation types provided me with a first visual decomposition but in order to get a varied picture, a process of reversed storyboarding generated a series of views.

In a first view, snapshots were generated each 500 milliseconds to translate the video recordings into snapshots. Secondly the same procedure is repeated only now snapshots are manually selected.

These visual descriptions and decompositions leave an extensive amount of visual data that help compose and select reversed storyboards of analytical significance.

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So far, we have generated textual transcriptions, annotations of video data and visual descriptions.

The next steps of analysis aim to narrow down the scope and scale of the views of the data; a process whereby the many scenes and snapshots are translated into storyboards and keyframes. A keyframe is a single video frame that visualises a scene of analytical significance; that is, a scene that helps analyse the data.

Keyframes are selected by using the composition of inscriptions, actants of theory, annotations and visual storyboards. Thus, the snapshots of the reversed storyboarding translate data into scenes of analytical significance when seen from the perspectives of the actants of theory.

Processing the actors’ accounts and narratives, I then bring actants of theory into the process to raise the questions about programs and anti-programs. Significant scenes and keyframes that visualise tensions of these programs are selected. To further and expand the analysis, this is repeated, only now with another question in mind to follow the steps taken by the actors in their gap-bridging sensemaking and agency.

In both cases, the aim of these procedures is to inform the process of composing the storyboards and selecting the keyframes of analytical oligoptica.

To enforce the processes of selection, constraints are enacted so as to follow only four steps of each case and focus.

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T ABLE 3 . The oligoptic inscription refers to the composition of the triangle and diagram (Figure 6 and 7) and the selection of four keyframes for each of the analytical foci and participating cases. For each of the selected keyframes storyboards have been generated in a process of reversed storyboarding. (See Appendices, Tables)

S YSTEMATIC AND INTUITIVELY When the videos have been processed by systematic and thematic deconstruction it has almost become part of one’s mind’s eye, which is an important process for working intuitively with the video data. In the qualitative analyses of a relatively open material this kind of analytical work is important. Interpretations do not always work in terms of sorting, characterising and visual description; crucial breakthroughs may appear when one is deeply involved and familiar with the empirical data as, gradually, relationships emerge and patterns come to the foreground. With the video data in the mind’s eye, a detailed insight can be generated; it may then appear in new ways and in breakthroughs. In such situations some relationships appear to be more important than others, new ideas appear and priorities are clarified in split seconds. However, the associative and intuitive breakthroughs can only be further explored, documented, or rejected, if they are based on a systematic process as described above.

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One example of a mind’s eye process was an intuitive breakthrough that emerged during a sailing trip regarding the actors’ communication skills. Even in the case of Jan, who lives at the margins of society, virtually isolated due to hard living conditions, uneducated and unemployed, the images from the videos show an actor with highly expressive communication skills. He has no problem in communicating his experience and reflections. This breakthrough made me go over the video interviews again with this in mind, and I found that it was true for all the cases. In muted reviews, the richness of the actors’ bodily gesticulation and facial expressions is conspicuous. The actors of this study all have excellent communication skills.

SOME REFLECTIONS ON METHOD Before proceeding to the empirical analysis of chapter 5 to 9, I will briefly reflect on how my choice of methods influences the analysis and production of empirical data.

First, this study is conducted online and in-world as well as offline in daily surroundings. In the EverQuest cases the everyday surroundings are homely; I entered the participating actors’ private sphere.

Evidently, this opens up the doors to in-depth studies but it also closes the doors to participants who feel that it is too intrusive in their personal and private matters. Obviously, this has influenced the outcome of the study. The Second Life cases are all related to work and business so the interviews were conducted at the participating actors’ workplaces. In one case this meant in an office at home and in two other cases at the workplace of a private enterprise and in a public institution, respectively. Opening the door to one’s work and workplace is also a matter of concern as it involves the workplaces’ acceptance of the relevance of the study. Again, to many potential participants this step proved too difficult to take.

The actors who chose to engage with this study are therefore all highly involved with their virtual world-making and they have chosen to willingly share their experience and engagement with me.

The many players of EverQuest who found the game and world of no interest and the residents of Second Life who left after only a few

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visits are not featured in this analysis. As such it is mainly focused on actors who have engaged with their world-making because of some visions of community, business, or the building of networks and relationships. It is concerned with the situations of engaging, which over time make sense, or not, to the actors involved. Thus, the methods chosen do not allow me to map out the field to reach some generalisable typologies. Such studies have already been made.

Therefore, in the qualitative and empirical analysis the knowledge gained from other researchers’ work has made important contributions to my understanding of the field under study.

Moreover, to some extent, the online as well as offline method has limited my possibilities to make this study a multi-point analysis. I have dealt with this limitation in different ways. On the one hand, in situations of engaging such as when following the Draconic Guardians on a mission, I have also focused on the other actors from the guild when they have been participating online. On the other hand, especially in Second Life, I have combined the in-depth online-offline studies with the intensive participatory observational in-world studies.

Considering these limitations how is it that I have chosen to conduct in situ studies? One of the reasons for this choice of method is the question that concerns how actors’ navigate their world-making.

Because I see virtual world-making as an integral part of their everyday life, even if it has a different accentuation, it would make no sense to study only the online part of this. Therefore the choice of method does not aim to compare two essentially different worlds – the real and the virtual – to see if the actors deceive when online, whether the identity they construct is fake or real, or whether their online and offline selves are different in some certain way.198 What I

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In his study of Second Life, Boelstorff suggests keeping the online studies separate from the offline. He sees the online realities in their own right. This is an understanding which I share, in so far as I see the online engaging as real and valid as any other kind of engaging. Still, for my research purposes I wish to follow the actors as they continuously move and navigate their everyday world-making including their virtual world-making, see also Orgad, in Hine 2005.

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seek is a picture as dense as possible to see the nuances and follow how the actors themselves see their engagement with virtual worldmaking as part of their daily life and work.

Opening their doors and inviting me in as the participating actors have done has affected the empirical analysis. Although I have been fortunate to gain information of a highly personal and insightful nature, I have chosen not to reveal and expose it in this analysis out of respect for their gesture of openness. Thus, in the empirical analysis, I will not examine their motives, seek ‘behind’ or dig ‘deeper’ into their narratives but follow their sense-making narratives as told. This analytical approach is not only due to ethical considerations but it is also in line with the methodological aspects of the study, namely to seek insight by following connections of actors-networks rather than to explain phenomena and associations by reference to some other level of explanation such as underlying motives.

Second, in the video interviews my focus is on the personal aspects of sense-making so there is a risk that I tend to underexpose the many relationships with others that partake in the personal making of sense. As I have already mentioned the aim of study is not generalisable typologies, rather I seek the thick descriptions that open the world of uniquenesses of personal sense-making. The anticipation that guides this approach is based on the viewpoint that engaging with virtual world-making is as varied and unique as well as relational, community and culture-oriented as all other human agency and communication. Therefore, I see the contributions made by game theory and design of virtual worlds to sketch gamer typologies199 or the social-psychological contributions which likewise point to user typologies 200 as a map which I can use to help me navigate when I follow the actors. However, in navigating the virtual world-making of the participating actors, what I seek is to capture

199 200

e.g. Bartle’s typologies.

E.g. Yee et al.2008.

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some of the uniquenesses and diversities rather than to sketch some typologies.201 To balance this orientation towards the personal, I have also included relationships in the actual set up of the video interviews. In two cases, the Draconic Guardians in EverQuest and the Literary project in Second Life, the set up of the video interviews was a colocation of the participating actors; a co-location which reflected the actors’ usual set up while engaging. In the Literary case, this colocated set up was a usual practice at their workplace whereas in the Draconic Guardian’s case, this set up was in a private home. The colocation of members of Draconic Guardians allowed me to a) follow two different interfaces with separate views of the world, missions and other agencies, b) experience the dialogue between the participating actors when commenting on each other in relation to my questions and confusions and c) it revealed the multiplicity of communications that guided the guild’s coordination and reflection online and offline, simultaneously. The latter provide interesting data to further research the multiplicity of communication which could be the aim of a future study. However, it has still thrown some light on the situations of engaging with regard to the different forms of communication that are involved.

Likewise, in the case of the Literary project, the co-location of the colleagues of the project enabled observation of both the online and in-world dialogue as well as the offline dialogue of the set up in their daily surroundings. In this way, a division of labour was made visible, which appeared to organise the team’s in-world weekly meetings with professional colleagues: the designer of the project was assigned the job of welcoming the avatars that joined their meetings whereas the initiation of dialogues and the maintaining of communication was mainly the task for the co-located colleague.

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In communication and reception research there has been a turn from the demographic and socioeconomic categories of target group analysis in reception studies to studies of patterns of the construction of meaning and sense-making, see Dervin 2003 pp. 47-60, and this turn has been accentuated by the development of social media over the last 10 years.

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In this way the choice of cases allowed me to gain insight in the many circumstances which conditioned the participating actors’ engaging as planned and enacted. It showed me the picture of the hard work and coordination needed to run the in-world guild of EverQuest and the Literary project in Second Life.

Third, the choice of worlds obviously influenced the empirical analysis. Within the multi-user online role-playing games, EverQuest is an early world with a culture and design that emphasises community and guilds. Moreover, it is a game with relatively few subscriptions compared to a game such as World of Warcraft. The viewpoints of the guild Draconic Guardians and their visions of the game thus reflect an early inner circle of gamers with a loyalty in their engagement with EverQuest and a set of norms and worldviews that value community and collaboration.

In the case of Second Life, likewise the choice of world influences the analysis. This world allows, even requires, that the residents of the world generate and create content. It is an open concept of cocreation in a process where Linden Lab sees their system as the tools provided to empower users who can then make their dreams real in a second life and in the figure of a digital double. As democratic as it sounds, this approach suits actors who have the necessary skills and knowledge to design, animate and script in 3D virtual world-making; not only for their personal fun but also in ways that may be of interest to other residents of the world. Thus, the complexities of engaging with a world like Second Life – the steep learning curve – exclude many actors. Again, the participating actors of this study have all engaged with virtual world-making to the extent that they have realised some visions and purposes by designing in-world places and projects, events and entertainment. The residents and visitors who have entered the world to just browse around and chat a couple of times to then find the world uninteresting have not been involved with the video interviews.

Fourth, the combination of the bottom up and the top down movements of the empirical analysis means that I have chosen the video keyframes that designate the analytical steps taken. In the top down analysis, actants of theory have guided this selection of

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keyframes. They have not been chosen by the participating actors.

However, in most cases my choice of keyframes refers to the actors’ narratives and also quite literally to the scenes and agencies they themselves have indicated.

In the empirical chapters this dual process means that there is a relatively sharp division between the panoptic view which is communicated as closely as possible to the actors’ narratives and, the analysis which refers to the rich description as well as to the keyframes, the actants of theory and not least the metaphors of the triangle and the diagram.

Finally, in chapters 5 to 8, the keyframes refer to four steps taken in the analysis. In the diagram, see Figure 6, fields of tension between the visions of the participating actors’ programs when confronted with some counteracting programs are depicted. These fields of tension are navigated by the actors as they translate their visions and programs to virtual world-making. Thus, multiple paths are enacted and in the empirical analysis they are designated by only four keyframes chosen from each of the foci and cases as shown in the sense-making triangle, see Figure 7.

The constraint that I have imposed on each analysis is to select only four keyframes in the process of decomposing the video recordings.

It is an analytical strategy which I have followed to enforce discovery and reflection. Thousands upon thousands of snapshots are decomposed from the video recordings and then re-composed into 76 storyboards of situations of engaging which I have found significant to the analysis. In this decomposition and re-composition only 76 single video keyframes have been chosen out of the huge amount of potential video frames. Such constraints necessitate the working of data over and over again in processes of redefining, revising, reflecting constantly discovering new ways of seeing and understanding the many instances and scenes before settling on the final choices made. As such, I see these constraints as part of my analytical strategy which stresses and enforces on me the necessity to weigh and accentuate, interpret and choose in an intensified effort due to the many choices imposed by this method of analytical practice.

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This strategy of constraints has been applied to all of the cases in the same way and with the same steps. As such, it may be objected that different situations of analytical significance would call for different analytical strategies. In some cases, I would agree with this objection, but in the present analysis following the same strategy for all the cases means that differences and similarities have appeared more clearly than it would be the case if different analytical strategies had been followed. Also, an obvious objection is that the enforced constraints may cause significant situations to be overlooked. This is, of course, a risk when following such analytical strategy of constraints. However, when strategies are followed it always implies running the risk of being wrong or overlooking something important.

Otherwise it would not be a strategy. Based on my experience, the sharpened constraints make me work the data over and over again until the point when the many choices made do not distort the pictures as composed by the visual descriptions. This is not to say that there is a point of final analysis which we can reach by strategies and procedures. On the contrary, interpretation and discovery are continuous and recurring processes, still, at some point the analysis is, at least temporarily, stabilised in the sense that with the given foci, actants of theory, with the data produced, the analytical inscriptions and strategy no further meaning can be ascribed to the analysis.

With these reflections in mind, I will now proceed to the actual empirical analysis of the cases chosen from EverQuest and Second Life.

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5. CO-CONSTRUCTION This chapter deals with the actors’ co-construction of their virtual worlds and is the first of five chapters focused on empirical analysis.

EverQuest and Second Life offer different conditions for this coconstruction. In the case of EverQuest, the many choices made by the actors and the way they develop their characters, ingredients, crafts and equipment, as well as the way they organise collaboration and communication contribute to this co-construction. In Second Life, the tools for the actors’ co-construction202 of their virtual worlds are provided by the general design but their co-construction agency also entails the design of the environment within a defined set of parameters. This can be seen in the difference between the mainland owned by the Linden Lab firm and the many islands owned by the participating actors of the world. Although the frames and tools of EverQuest and Second Life differ, in both worlds the actors are only allowed to contribute and co-construct their virtual world-making within the narrow and limited frame of reference of the general design with affordances and a set of tools provided by the system designers.

Each of the next three empirical chapters begins with a set of questions that refer to the foci of analysis as presented in table 1, p.

83. The introductory questions of chapter 5 are concerned with what it is that leads actors to choose a certain world. In chapter 6, these questions focus on the participating actors’ choice of avatars and in chapter 7, I will follow the actors with their avatars when they engage in social relationships.

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In Second Life, the focus on co-construction means that the many actors, or residents, of the world who engage with it to consume and use some of the services and events created by other actors are deselected. The Second Life cases are all engaged with the actual design and co-construction of their business and projects.

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The outline of content in each of these three chapters is identical. In the first step, I will answer the questions with reference to the video interview data produced, then these descriptions will be analysed in a process of selecting video keyframes that will help compose oligoptica of the analysis of visions, programs and anti-programs, sense-making processes and gapinesses.

Chapter 8 and 9 do not follow the exact same outline of content and empirical analysis as in the chapters 5-7; therefore the introduction to these chapters will be dealt with later (see p. 286).

In the empirical analysis, each chapter will begin with the EverQuest cases followed by cases from Second Life.

Three narrative reconstructions open chapter 5. The content of these reconstructions comes from video interviews with the EverQuest cases. The purpose of the reconstructions is to shed light on other aspects of engaging with virtual world-making than just the raids and missions so often associated with online role-playing games. Thus, the many crafting and production activities, which are also part of the role-playing games come to life in these three reconstructions.

Secondly, these narrative reconstructions are followed by a brief overview of different worlds as described by Martin, and of the world of EverQuest as described by participating actors.

The questions which open chapter 5 are: • •

What makes actors choose a virtual world?

How do they make sense of the co-construction of content and the conditions for their engagement?

RECONSTRUCTION In the reconstructions of situations of engaging with the world of EverQuest, I will follow the leader of the guild Draconic Guardians, Sia, and the organiser of the guild’s many raids and missions, Janus.

The three narratives “Phials with poison”, “Food to secure strength” and “Night shift” that follow have been written on the basis of video

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interviews with Janus and Sia. The accounts are true to their sources in the sense that they are accounts of parts of the video interviews.

They are written with the aim of providing a different picture of online role-playing games, such as EverQuest, than the typical stereotype which so often appears in public debate about virtual world-making. The stories are not about spectacular fiction with great battles or fights against some evil forces but they deal with manufacturing, trading, skill training and the lack of funding and resources. This working of the video data is a researcher’s account and narrative. It has been sent to the actors who participated in the video interviews in order to get their comments and responses. They have found that the accounts are true to their agency.

PHIALS WITH POISON Janus is on his way to the Abesmore Sea with Thistlefinger, one of his favourite avatars. He is preparing to go on a mission later in the day with Toldo and Gelinu. They are planning a mission to kill monsters that drop good “augmentations” (augs) to gain strength. Janus’ girlgnome Thistlefinger needs skill-ups to be able to produce poison.

With a good poison for greasing her arrow tips and knives, she can better fight the many monsters. Good poison can drain the monsters’ battle force so they will be weakened. It is important for Janus to get the poison but it is difficult to produce, expensive to buy, and right now funding is low. Janus has only a few plat pieces in the bank because Janus and Sia bought crystals last week. Crystal prices vary greatly, and they were very low the week before – as low as 49 plat pieces, but now they are back to the normal price of around 70-80 plat. Nearly all of their plat pieces were spent on crystals. Some of these were sold again as the prices began to rise and most crystals were spent buying things for Janus’ different avatars.

Janus is after a small symbol, an aug, which he needs to strengthen his main avatar the shadow knight Krongh. This specific aug gives slightly higher points in “armour class”. It can improve his stamina and thereby increase his strength in terms of hitpoints. Overall, it means that he will be stronger in combat and better able to withstand the many attacks. The problem is, however, that the small symbol costs 49,000 plat pieces, which is incredibly expensive. Therefore,

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Janus prepares Thistlefinger to go on a mission to hunt the monsters that drop money or crystals. To increase the chances of defeating them, he needs a good poison so Thistlefinger will have to produce it, because Janus has no money to buy the poison.

First of all, he must make small phials to keep the poison. For that he needs clay and many zombie skins in order to seal the phials. Some zombie skins have been assembled the day before when he travelled to the Gulf of Sailors, a beach filled with skins from dead sailors, now zombies. The many skins are now stored in his bank. Now, looking at his stocks, he checks his holding to see how many plat pieces he has. Janus clicks on the bank manager, who is a “nonperson character” (npc)203 that keeps track of players’ finances. Janus has approximately 10,000 plat pieces.

Janus is caught in a vicious circle. In order to create products and things that are useful, or can be sold, Janus’ avatar Thistlefinger must have high “trade skills”. He must train her continuously to be able to manufacture the many different things needed. Only then can his avatar’s abilities and skills develop to a high level. For that purpose, however, he will need many different ingredients and raw materials, patterns and forms, all of which are costly to acquire. This makes it expensive to develop the trade skills, but this is the prerequisite for making money on the things produced. So it is vital to find a way out of the vicious circle.

The zombie skins are in stock, but some of the other ingredients must be purchased by the Abesmore Sea. This is where Thistlefinger can buy almost all of the things and ingredients she needs. At the Plane of Knowledge there is a stove in a central place of workshops for almost all the crafts of EverQuest. Thistlefinger goes to one of the npc-traders that trade clay to make phials but Janus is a little uncertain about the kind of clay he needs as there are many different types and grades. Recently, he bought the wrong ingredients and had to sell them again at a lower price. He does not want this to happen

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A non-person character is a little computer program that controls an avatar figure.

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again. That is why he logs on to EverQuest traders. This site is a comprehensive knowledge archive on EverQuest products, ingredients and qualities compiled by the players themselves and it is always active. Importantly, it contains some recipes, forms and prescriptions regarding the ingredients and raw materials used in different products depending on the avatar level.

With the right clay in the bag Thistlefinger will then have to find and buy some water. It can be bought down by the forge, and afterwards he must find a lathe. Fortunately, Janus has been on this tour before, so he roughly remembers where to find the different ingredients needed. Thistlefinger’s skills at using the lathe are medium, level 137 out of a range of 0 to 300 points.

He collects the things needed to produce the phials. His bags beam green, which means that he has all of the ingredients needed to begin creation of the “combines” of the various ingredients. When they have been produced, the phials are put in stock. However, some of the combines fail. This is because Thistlefinger’s skills with the lathe are only medium and need to be further trained and developed, but Janus does not have the patience to do this.

However, he needs the poison. He also needs to buy a metal plate of a high quality. He succeeds in finding the metal plate and burns the first phials that store the poison. It is with a sigh of relief that Janus notes that the burning of the phials succeeds. After a while, so many phials are produced that there is no room for them in his bags. As a result, some are put in stock. Now, he can fill the phials with poison, which also needs to be produced.

Then the trips start all over again to collect the many different ingredients that are needed to produce the poison and to mix the ingredients in the correct ratio. He needs some special small flowers that are torn from the hands of those who have died as well as many other things, so once again Janus must log on to EverQuest traders to make sure that he buys the right ingredients. However, he also has to use a “subcombine” which is a combine that his level does not allow. This is annoying. He will have to find a “magus” to teleport Thistlefinger to the Abesmore Sea. The magus is a big ship in a time warp. By the Abesmore Sea he finds a trader with ingredients to

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make poison. Fortunately, Thistlefinger has a mortar in her bag so she can mix the poison and pour it into the phials. Thistlefinger has to constantly get the ingredients to continue to produce the poison.

Janus is running out of patience so he tries something else. Maybe he can grease the poison on his knife or arrow tip without keeping it in the phials. But this does not work. There is no way round it, he must produce the poison in order to buy the ingredients needed to continue. Only then can he reach a higher level.

However, he is still 15 points from the 200 points needed to be able to produce the subcombines. The 15 points are hard to get. The higher the level, the harder it is to level-up. Again and again, Thistlefinger must trade the products to the npc trader. He earns 9 plat, 5 gold, 2 silver and 4 copper pieces per phial.

FOOD TO SECURE STRENGTH Sia is in the process of preparing the same mission as Thistlefinger.

She is playing with her favourite avatar Gelinu, and ready to cook in order to produce the food and drink needed for the mission. She will produce a huge quantity so the actors of the mission can get enough food in the top slots of their bags. The food and drink enhance the avatars’ strength. But first, she must raise money for some of the many ingredients she needs for her cooking. In her shared bank she keeps the surplus of ingredients and products she has previously purchased and produced. This is where Sia stores many things, products and money that stem from the various avatars she uses. And she is careful about producing, finding and retrieving them. But for the moment there are more ingredients and products than there are plat pieces, so she has to go to the bazaar to trade some of the many things. She will also have to find just the right recipe and find out who trades the ingredients, and estimate the amounts that the traders have in stock to see if there are enough for her needs. She takes quick action. Gelinu is very high in her “trivia”. In baking she has a level of 293 – out of a top score of 300 points. She uses the “Quick trivia-list” to get an overview of the long list of recipes. The list shows the easiest at the top, so Sia scrolls down to find recipes at her high level. She could choose easier recipes, but then she would not earn enough “skill-ups”, which is why she chooses a difficult recipe.

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The right ingredients for this special recipe are: salad jom jom, jom jom spicy beer, jam sandwich, fully ripened cheese, royal peppermint, picnic baskets and slices of jom jom cake. Quickly, Gelinu runs down to the place where she is cooking and baking, because she already has many of the required ingredients in stock.

There is also a brew kettle, which she uses to produce the jom jom spicy beer. Water, spices and butter are also needed to produce it.

To make the jom jom salad she needs fennel. So she finds out who trades the ingredients and then travels to the traders Serim, Edward and Derim.

She has to put together all of the ingredients as they cannot be bought in their final form. Everything is hard to get. The jom jom cake is the most troublesome as she will have to find “Browny parts” with winter chocolate to be used in the cake. A Browny is a tiny creature that runs around in the areas of the virtual world. She has to kill some of the Brownies in the hope that they will drop a Browny part. They are difficult to find and kill, and it is an annoying task because it takes so long. But there is no way around it.

She also has bowls for mixing things in her bags. She mixes 10 pieces at a time, but runs out of the royal mint. For that she has to use eucalyptus and glaze as well as jam. So she runs back and forth between different traders to buy the necessary ingredients. Quickly, her bags fill up which means that she runs the risk of losing some of the valuable things on the floor. But she has many “aa points”. These are alternative xps which will help get some of the things back again.

When she plays her high-level avatar Gelinu with the many xps, she is better able to deal with the problems that she will certainly face.

NIGHT SHIFT Enough food has now been produced for the coming mission.

Thistlefinger has also produced enough poison to be able to fight the monsters. But Gelinu and Thistlefinger must wait a while before they can go after the monsters that will drop valuables and crystals because one of the other members of their guild, who is from England, must first wake up. He plays the figure Toldo, who is needed on the mission. However, in his offline life he works night

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shift so Janus and Sia have to wait for him to get a little sleep before the mission can begin.

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GAMES AT ALL LEVELS People like to have the feeling that they belong to something.

Often it is the social things that are important; it is people that make a difference.—Martin This quote introduces some of the classics of virtual worlds as experienced by Martin and Kasper, who have contributed important insights to my understanding of actors’ engagement and the economic aspects of the worlds.

S IMPLE AND ADVANCED WORLDS At the time of writing, Counterstrike is one of the most widely used and popular action and shooting games. It is a fairly simple game with two teams who fight against each other. Players fight against terrorism, dismantle bombs or rescue hostages. The two teams start rounds, and the player dies for the rest of the round if he is defeated.

This means there is actually something at stake in the fighting. The weapons are realistic and the game is “any teenager’s dream”, as Martin, a young expert in computer games, puts it. Counterstrike is a team game in which cooperation increases chances of success. In a shooting game such as Counterstrike much depends on speedy responses and on the keyboard and key combinations. Highly skilled players should be nimble-fingered with a lightning-fast keyboard.

However, the game is easily accessible and very quick to learn. It resembles football, in Martin’s view as it is not a complex world.

Many of the people that I know, people who go to technical schools (...) with padded jackets, tracksuit pants and caps play it, because it is so easily accessible, very quickly, like playing football (...) I know a lot of people, who would not normally be characterised as nerds who play it. There is nothing to understand, there is no world you have to learn. Jump into it, take your bulletproof vest, your ammunition, and then just go to war. – Martin In action and shooter games, the avatar also plays a very different role than in a massively multi-user online role-playing game like EverQuest. The gamers need not have a steady avatar or character

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type. There are always many players online, and there is constant fighting in large teams. So, in a game like Counterstrike, players can choose to take part whenever they feel like it, whereas in the advanced role-playing games there are steady avatars who open up the virtual world. Moreover, most multi-user online games are difficult and very complicated to play. Considerable time must be invested before they become really fun and exciting. Advanced games like Star Wars Galaxies and EverQuest are hard. It is estimated that players need to play for half and full years to be able to master the worlds. Therefore, it is often a friend or family member who introduces the virtual world and can help overcome the first steep learning curve.

When you start, there is not much, virtually nothing, so it is a tough game, if you play it concentrated. In the early days you are just running around to hustle and make marginal and silly things to earn xps. It is necessary in the beginning. – Martin Often, to become a power gamer one has to be present in-world up to seven hours per day, or more. Power gamers have to spend this much time in virtual worlds, as it is difficult to achieve success.

Kasper, a connoisseur of the games, notes that it is a known fact that the resources of the games have to be difficult to get. Otherwise, the games will not succeed. Role-players invest time and energy to overcome the difficulties, and through their hard work, the virtual world comes to mean a great deal for them.

People spend so much time, and it adds value if you play for months and years. It is also interesting that if the games are not ‘sparse’ in resources, if there are plenty of resources, and if it is not hard to do well in the world, then people argue that it will not succeed.–Kasper The large and sophisticated role-playing games are permanent worlds where the actors can log on, when it suits them best. Servers are often distributed globally surrounded by dedicated communities

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that operate websites with tips, features and virtual things.204 Closure of a game can even result in remembrance ceremonies.

A server was shut down. It was a little game, so it was not so important, but (...) there were screenshots from the last minute in the world and what the members of the community said to each other. It was funny, almost touching. There'll be some people who suffer a psychological problem because of it; at least, it is something that means a lot to people. –Kasper

SINGLE AND MULTI-USER GAMES The world of EverQuest is part of a larger network of online games.

In the following I will draw an outline of different games and once again I will do so as seen through the eyes of one of the actors of this study, Martin.

There is a big difference between these role-playing games and the simple computer games. When it comes to role-plays, Martin distinguishes between single and multi-user games. The former are often linear in their story. The actors do not get the feeling of cocreating it. However, there are also good single-player games where the story told is so exciting and fascinating that actors find it compelling. As an example of such a game, Martin mentions the role-play Baldur’s Gate. In his view, the story is not quite as exciting as Tolkien, but it comes close. In particular, the Baldur’s Gate 2 roleplay is enriched with many side quests, which are so exhaustive that they feel like a game by themselves.

Ultima Online is one of the early massively multi-user online roleplaying games.205 It is a sophisticated game with an exciting virtual world. It has some of the classic ingredients, such as a repertoire of different avatars and professions as well as crafting. This game is part of the breakthrough of these kinds of worlds. However, it also reveals some of the early problems of game design. From the outset, the

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In Draconic Guardian’s case the “Allakazam’s Magical Realm – Your EverQuest Community” was frequently visited.

205 See Richard Bartle’s overview of the history of games in Handbook of Internet Research, 2010.

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game was not well-designed as it took no account of moments of everyone’s struggle against everyone; destructive moments, in Martin’s view. The so-called ‘player killers’ (pk), were present in the game only to attack the other gamers; to kill them. They hid in the woods, waited by the roads, and killed when stealing; the pks had no respect for others. This anarchy was subsequently countered by organising the game better to create a framing and rules for fighting.

Another early online role-playing game is Dark Ages of Camelot. In the early versions there could be up to 25,000 simultaneous roleplayers. With Dark Age of Camelot, the advanced role-playing games took the first step on the road from the hardcore inner circles and subcultures to the mass games, which now have hundreds of thousands of simultaneous role-players. Dark Age of Camelot is a fantasy game set at the time of King Arthur’s Knights of the Round Table. The game is divided into three factions: Middle Earth, Albion and Iberia. Role-players must choose one of the three worlds and shape their avatar. First the gamer has to select a race such as dwarves, elves or trolls – depending on the faction they select. The different races can do different things, and they can choose different professions and physical abilities. Trolls are hard to kill, people are diverse, they can be a lot of different things; dwarves are good at building, and are described by Martin as ‘hard small bastards with axes’. The fights going on in the game are organised on a virtual battlefield in the middle of the various factions. Armies and clans can gain control over the battlefield and conquer parts of it. Thus, on the battlefield, it is important to be a team that fights together for a common cause.

Neocron is a cyber-punk game. It is a violent world with companies that produce weapons, data and other things that are needed. In this world there are large shady companies. According to Martin it is like imagining Microsoft with weapons and with a private army.

It is a violent world, like ours; the Internet, everything we are used to, cars, just worse, if you understand what I mean. If Detroit at night is bad, so huuh, like a horror movie – yes, cyber-punk! Our world taken to the logic conclusion: a nuclear war, which destroys everything. – Martin

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There are stock exchanges, members who own nearly everything on an entire server, groups of directors, company security, software production, weapons, illegal activities and communications centres underground. There are organisations with a membership fee, such as 1,000 virtual credits per month; employees who receive wages according to economic agreements. There are leaders and ordinary people.

It is a game at ALL levels; there are incredibly powerful levels of shadow governments and then down to the level where you run around in the mutant-infected sewers and shoot mutated rats with a gun. It has ALL levels. – Martin An advanced massively multi-user online role-playing game like Star Wars Galaxies shows how games, movies and events are woven together. The site introduces the game with the headline: “Where the movies left off, your adventure begins”. Movies have become a prelude to the ‘real thing’, which is the role-playing game. Roleplayers play the part of writers writing their own story entangled with the movie’s universe and in communities where events are created and new galaxies of experiences developed.

NARRATIVE 1: STAR WARS GALAXIES In massively multi-user online role-playing games, or MMRPGs, such as Star Wars Galaxies you can alter the appearance of the characters. There is considerable potential to change the look. It is difficult to find two characters that are similar, although there is a tendency for the same ‘themes’. People will, of course, look a bit tough; which they think is cool. Very often people feel the same when it comes to face modes, the main sizes, hair, colour of hair, colour of eyes, colour of skin or colour of lips. So there are some breeds, such as the one race there [pointing], it is a ‘brawl’, it is a classic in Star Wars, a sort of lizard legs. Twileg here! [pointing] Everyone who has seen Star Wars knows it. Each race also has different attributes, things that they can do better than others. For example, a Twileg is a very good musician, dancer and performer. If you choose a race that can dance and play, then it is possible to regenerate and to restore life faster than otherwise. Normally you should be either in a camp, an inn, or a tavern before you can play music. Music and dance represent rest, which help you relax, and then your body regenerates faster. People search for them and travel with them as a kind of minstrel. They invite them to their cities and restaurants so they can get some entertainment. An entertainer can cure an entire room filled with people. –Martin

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MAPPING THE WORLD OF EVERQUEST The game of EverQuest 206 is an early online role-playing game–in two versions–and as such it is a complex world that requires investment of time and willingness to learn. It has become a classic.

The game has the massively multi-user online role-playing games’ distinctive features 207 and it illustrates a development between two game generations or versions. It developed from a relatively simple graphics design, and a simple set-up, to a complex game design with sophisticated graphics. With the improved graphics of the EverQuest game, the inner circles of gamers expanded as the game became part of the early breakthrough for the advanced games of 1998/1999 and it still plays a role with the virtual worlds of games. In 2004, the requirements of the game and the expectations of the gamers were so high that the new version, EverQuest II, was launched.

The following overview of the game is a simple sketch. It aims to provide insight into the virtual world as experienced and seen through the optic of the actors. The game is so complex that it makes no sense to try to describe it exhaustively here. It is much better done on the websites operated by role-players’ communities where people can get advice, guidance and buy virtual objects and shapes that are important for the game.208 M AIN AFFORDANCES The actors’ narratives give a vivid insight; let us therefore follow how they describe the main affordances of the game. Zones form the basic structure, and there are many. Each zone is also part of a continent. In EverQuest II there are, at the time of writing, about 400 different zones, all of which have a different geography. There are plains, mountains, oceans, forests, cities and deserts, to name just a

206

The first version of the game was launched in 1998/99 and the second version, EverQuest II, in 2004.

207 Bartle 2004, 2010.

208 Some of these everyday activities are reconstructed in the beginning of this chapter, see pp. 136-140.

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few. There are so many far-flung areas that it takes a long time to get to know and navigate them.

It is all black when you start. Here [pointing], I cannot travel or walk here. I have only been to all the highlighted places. But when you start then you know nothing, it is all black. These [pointing] are the activity zones, they are the ones that I have mapped; and this is Everfrost. So, when you wake up, when EverQuest starts, then you are out here [pointing] on a ship and on the open sea because you are a refugee. You have forgotten everything and also who you are. Then the ship will take you to this island [pointing], but first you will have to prove that you know how to solve a quest. When you enter the game as a beginner, then you have to solve a lot of small quests before you can enter the island. Then there are the loyalty quests where you are prompted to choose between Freeport, which is for those who are fighting for good and, on the other hand, here [pointing] is evil; so there is a crossroads out here; either good or evil. There are no grey zones. –Jan A map of zones and continents is a necessary affordance to support navigation. The map of the EverQuest world illustrates the difference between the early game and the subsequent expansion and new version. It was difficult to navigate the early version because it lacked a map. The only maps were those created by role-players who had been in the different zones and continents of the virtual world. The maps were published on dedicated websites. Step by step, the virtual world was mapped through using joint effort. The results of the hard work were not commercialised and sold on the website as a virtual artefact but they were seen as part of the efforts to create a common world. They were a ‘gift’ aimed at supporting and developing reciprocity in the community.209 Other role-players could then print the maps to piece together a picture of the world. In the most recent version of EverQuest II, there is a map; it is still relatively simple and basic but it is enough for players to use to navigate without having to rely on printed sketches.

209

Skågeby, in Heilesen & Jensen 2007.

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The zone is situated here [pointing] on the map of where we are now. There is also a map of the different worlds; there are many, many, many areas. This here is continents; (...) we are here. Then there is an atlas, where we can click. We have the full map here, fortunately. Earlier, there was not a full map (...) it came with the extensions. Before that, we had such a map printed out from the network, a map that people had drawn (...) so we used some of it, but now we fortunately have a map.

– Janus The many different zones are designed to be relatively easy at the beginning; it is easy to achieve results and to qualify one’s avatar when it only has few xps. However, as the avatar levels up, it gets more difficult to achieve results and develop the avatar. The zones are designed with areas for beginners and for the very experienced avatars. The zones for the experienced are areas where newcomers quickly fall short, while the zones for beginners do not allow experienced role-players to get new xps to achieve new results.

E XPERIENCE HORIZONS At the outset of EverQuest II, the detailed map is completely black.

When actors enter the virtual world their avatar is nothing; a level 0 symbolised by a black map. The actor wakes up as a refugee in the sea with no memory about who he or she is. In order to get to an island, the actor must prove that the avatar is able to solve a quest, which is a challenging task or mission. Quests must be resolved in the starting zone. Through countless quests the avatars gradually rise in xps and with that in levels of the avatar’s development. Beside quests and xps, levels are some of the key affordances of the game.

Little by little, the map will show sites where the role-player has been; where different quests have been resolved. In this way, the actors gain experience with the world which they entered as refugees with a memory loss. Thus, gradually the role-player becomes aware of his or her avatar and learns about the class and avatar chosen.

Depending on the level, new opportunities to expand the avatar’s xps open up as he or she gains access to new zones. When the entire map is lit up, the player has ended the EverQuest world-making and

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only extensions of the game, which must be bought, can then bring new challenges.

C LASSES AND ABILITIES Each zone has different terms for the game classes. A role-player chooses a race such as a human, dwarf or troll; and a class such as a warrior, shaman or magician. These categories are archetypal with certain talents and skills developed through the xps and levels that the role-player acquires. Xps and levels are the starting point of the avatar’s evolution from a template to a personal mediator with experience, developed abilities and skills that are perceived as unique. At the Plane of Knowledge entry zone all classes can coexist but there are conflicts in the other zones of the game. The nature of the conflicts depends on the classes that play. For example, the warrior class has good skills in battling but no magical abilities. The scoundrels have mysterious skills while the class of magic makers has strong magical abilities but is physically weak. Furthermore, clerics can heal and also have magical abilities but a lesser degree of skill in battle. There are also hybrid classes that, for example, mix a warrior and a cleric. This results in a hybrid with fewer fighting skills but with good magical abilities to protect allies and drive back enemies in combat. In the chapter about mediating (chapter 6) we will meet a gnome, a shaman and a troll; they are the main avatars of the participating actors engaging with the EverQuest world.

M OBS Mobs are computer-generated figures. Often, they resemble bad nightmares or a horror movie. Their mission is to provide the roleplayers with difficult challenges, which are adapted to the level of a group or guild. Monsters can ‘drop’ things of value when defeated; this may be a spell that gives strength or weakens the enemy, the ingredients needed to produce magic forms, or it may be equipment with protective qualities. When a monster is defeated, things can be grouped together as a profit of the joint mission or raid. In this way, the game progresses and it is through the many confrontations with mobs that individual avatars and guilds can develop their talents, skills and equipment. In the many fighting scenes of the guild Draconic Guardian we will meet some of the ugly mobs.

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A SSOCIATIONS AND GUILDS EverQuest is characterised by being a game of associations.

Organising the guilds of the game is one of the essential affordances.

In many areas, the avatars can only fight if they are members of a guild of role-players with certain levels. Usually, it is through cooperation that the struggles and battles fought can be won. The composition of the classes influences this, as does the way in which a player has developed his or her class. Management and organisation of guilds play an important role. One of the actors, Sia, is a guild leader. She says: We are in a guild, I am the guild leader; recently we started the guild. Before, we were in another guild where I also acted as the guild leader. Now, I have a co-leader, I had that too in the other guild, but it was a really large guild; there were many members, 100-150, (...) I also had some officers. – Sia There is a formal procedure to become accepted as a guild leader.

An application has to be approved by a game master.

You have to write: who should be the leader, what name should the guild have, the server, email address, etc. Then you get an email for approval and submit a petition; a letter which goes directly to a game master. – Sia Each guild has a guild hall, where there is a guild bank and a pool. It is a small pool of water. In the pool, the gamers can get mana (life) if they have been injured or killed in a battle.

V OICE CHAT Voice chat is indispensable for coordinating and communicating.

Headsets and team speak are crucial for a good game. It is not possible to enact complex coordination and instant organisation through written text alone. Janus and Sia would rather not play if there was no voice chat. However,, occasionally, hand keys can be used. These are programmed keys that automatically indicate what happens. They are also programmed for time-saving communication, with useful messages for the actors in battle situations such as ‘turn

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around’. This feature is important in dangerous situations in the virtual world of EverQuest when the avatars often face severe threats.

T HE BAZAAR The market place, the bazaar, is an important area for Sia. She is eager to develop her trade skills in various crafts as this enhances the power of her avatar. Sia is manufacturing products, equipment and forms, and the ingredients gathered can be used, for example, to create spells. Her skills may also have implications for the other gamers of her guild. Some of the equipment which she produces can strengthen them. Products and services can also be sold at the bazaar. The virtual money made is placed either in the main bank situated at the Plane of Knowledge, or in the guild’s bank. She can also buy coveted things such as equipment or ingredients.

ANALYSIS 1. CO -CONSTRUCTIONS OF EVERQUEST In the following, I will first identify recurring motifs as narrated by the actors and secondly provide empirical analysis organised around visual metaphors in the shape of keyframes.

I T IS ALL ABOUT AFFECTING OTHER PEOPLE First, let us follow the recurring motifs of the actors’ account of their choice of world. In a game like Counterstrike, players must use their abilities to respond rapidly, get an overview of difficult situations, and make decisions with other players in a well-known world. These are reactions to relatively well-defined plots. In games like Baldur’s Gate 2, there is a fairly linear story, but with many side quests.

Players can see themselves as catalysts for the story. In massively multi-user online role-playing games, the actors themselves make a difference, and the worlds change through their actions. The gamers see themselves as authors of their own stories and as co-authoring the game, because it is all about organising and affecting other people and themselves as much as it is about gaming.

This helps make the multi-user online role-playing games realistic in the sense that it is the other gamers and their reactions, ability to influence and create organisations, have close contacts, plan and lead massive battles and fights, or develop trade and manufacturing

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skills that matter the most. Relating to other actors is the most important part of playing these games. It is great fun to organise and participate in battles or struggles against other clans. Currently, there are so many players of these games that the actors can go to town meeting avatars in virtual pubs or sit by the fireplace, where they can listen to stories from the virtual battlefield—stories about others who end up as kings of countries, leaders of shady guilds of assassins, vicious lieutenants, terrible generals or valiant knights fighting for a good cause. There are friends with whom the actors meet and talk about real life issues as well and there are those with whom they struggle, survive or die. There are leaders at the top of powerful guilds who have so many xps that they can win a battle all by themselves because they are extremely dedicated and have played for a long time. There are ‘community-builders’ whose mission is to organise large clans, conquer kingdoms, or start wars; and there are single players who are always alone in the virtual worlds.

The empirical findings indicate that the sense and activity of coconstructing and co-authoring profoundly influence the experience of being in a multi-user online role-playing game. There are so many choices to be made, so many possible combinations of a myriad of abilities, levels, roles, races, quests, combinations, crafts and ingredients that it almost feels as if one is creating and making the world, which is actually the case, at least to some extent.

S TRIVING FOR EXPERTISE Martin’s case is somewhat exceptional compared to the other cases of this study. At the time of the video interviews, he has no steady avatar or preferred world. This means that the video interviews are mostly about generating an overview rather than following his inworld agency. Martin has built up his expertise from a diversity of multi-user online role-playing games. While introducing, showing, reviewing and telling some of the stories of his many experiences and comprehensive knowledge, we mutually engage in explorations guided by his reflections. Clearly, he enjoys drawing on and also showing his expertise through telling many stories and passing on his fascination and overview. In the present case therefore, we cannot follow the same analytical steps as those taken in the other case

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studies. The oligoptic inscriptions that I will now point out visualise some of the steps taken by Martin to tell his stories.

From his accounts, Martin clearly views Star Wars Galaxies as a breakthrough in virtual world-making. Although it is now an old game, it has all the features and excitements that generate the fascination of the worlds. Even though Martin has tried out many other games before Star Wars Galaxies, from his account, the intensity of the experience with this world creates a strong emotional and embodied engagement. Entering this game sets an example for the many different, widespread and fictitious universes of other worlds which have evoked and inspired his imagination In showing the many different worlds he enjoys introducing and sharing his expertise. In Figure 12, video keyframes compose the analytic oligopticon which designates how choosing, imagining, telling and showing are translations of his engagement in striving for expertise.

F IGURE 12 . Co-construction, Martin. The keyframes designate Martin’s engagement with many different multi-user online role-playing games. In the first two keyframes reference is made to the game Star Wars Galaxies (Image 1 and 2), which Martin sees as one of the fascinating examples of the early advanced games.

The sense and feeling of freedom to act is one of the significant qualities of these games which makes sense to him. Martin’s pleasure in talking about the many different games is referred to in the next keyframe (Image 3). The entry to the world

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of RuneScape (Image 4) is chosen to reference once more the sense of pride in knowing about many genres and games. By these steps taken, Martin engages with his world-makings to translate the affordances of different games to realise his striving for expertise in the field of the advanced games. (See Appendices, Figures)

O N EQUAL TERMS In processing the many video recordings with Jan, the entering of EverQuest is a keyframe of the analytic oligopticon (1: Entering) that points to an important step in his virtual world-making. It visualises his choice of worlds and his making of sense of this choice. To go and sit in front of the computer, to activate and log on to EverQuest is one of the most important steps of Jan’s engaging with his online world.

In Jan’s case, his world-making in EverQuest make sense as they provide a personal space that differs from his offline world in the sense that social relations and the construction of self can be replayed and new versions generated. Entering his personal space provides a playground for acting out and proving his many abilities.

It is an act of empowerment. The visual metaphors which shape the entrance to the world refer to this sense of freedom and potential: he enters the world as a refugee with no memory so that, from the outset, the slate is wiped clean. It is like a virtual birth and a genesis whereby he can start from scratch, building up his figure on the basis of his deliberate choices. He has to choose between continents to inhabit, some of which are for those who work for evil, whereas others are populated by avatars working for good (2: Choosing). He is forced to consider which to choose, and it is one of the basic choices that colours his account of being in EverQuest. Also, importantly, the map of the world is completely black in the beginning. There is no visible world; he is stumbling around in the dark. Gradually, his world appears on the map as he moves around, solving quests to gain consciousness of his world and to cope with its many challenges (3: Mapping). In this way, the sense of starting on equal terms with the other gamers is strongly emphasised. On the basis of equal terms, and in this genesis, he has the opportunity to compare and compete with other gamers of the world. Struggling with the many quests of his genesis, achievements are made visible and tangible through the reward system and status of levels, xps,

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equipment and crafts. (4: Upgrading). Thus, the competition conditions his sense of superiority in the virtual world-making, which is, however, counteracted by a feeling of being marginalised.

F IGURE 13 . Co-construction, Gnossiz the Gnome. Keyframes of Gnossiz when engaging with EverQuest as narrated by Jan. In the first keyframe his avatar Gnossiz the Gnome enters EverQuest flying on a little oriental carpet (Image 1). The carpet is Jan’s introduction to his virtual world-making; this keyframe is chosen because it refers to the thorough narrative about his efforts to learn, understand and gain knowledge. This is the reason for the choice of the map of EverQuest islands where players have to choose sides to either fight for good or evil (Image 2). The choice to fight for good refers to Jan’s quest for challenges and his experience that ‘everybody can be evil’ – it requires nothing. Mapping his experience (Image 3) and upgrading his little avatar gnome (Image 4) are keyframes that both refer to his striving to be knowledgeable rather than marginalised. (See Appendices, Figures)

In the first steps taken when Jan moves into EverQuest, he is urged to make existential and moral choices, thus creating his world when he chooses to struggle on the side of good. His agency and rewards for solving the many quests of a beginner’s life shape his world, as do his looks, bags, inventories, equipment, xps and abilities. All of this generates a sense of being equal and capable in the personal design and shape of his world.

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G APINESSES OF BEING MARGINALISED In the struggle for equal terms, some tensions stand out. A world like EverQuest is a gaming culture that is geared towards joint and cooperative action. As we shall later see, Jan is living a life as a loner and, to some extent, this generates tensions between proving able in his choice of a world which emphasises joint engaging and agency.

A CULTURE OF HIGH IDEALS Moving on to the world-makings of Janus and Sia, we are still in the world of EverQuest, although in an older version than Jan. Janus and Sia travel the world together most of the time but, at some points, their trajectories also part. The first keyframe of the analytic oligopticon that stands out is the interface of the logon to EverQuest (1: Entering). The interface refers to the old version of the world.

Being faithful to the original version of the game is not just coincidental; it is a deliberate choice. Janus and Sia both emphasise that the old version matches their ideas about the kind of virtual world they want to live in. The old version is a synonym for the original culture of EverQuest, a culture that relies on the inhabitant’s engagement in the world and their unselfish sharing of knowledge.

Metaphorically speaking, this is signified by the old version and the Plane of Knowledge of EverQuest, which is where everybody, no matter what race or class, can assemble without any fighting (2: Assembling).

In the video interviews with Janus and Sia, there is a recurring trajectory of choices that point not only to their being in the advanced online game but also to the desire to live in a culture with certain ideals and ethics. Thus, the program of their being in the world may be seen as the desire to follow and live out high ideals of a culture based on solidarity and collaboration. Community building is of great importance to them. The anti-program to their in-world being is a culture heavily influenced by the morality and ethics of the offline world where, in their opinion, greed, profit and selfishness thrive.

To fight this anti-program of greed and selfishness, the EverQuest facilities for grouping and the building of guilds, as referenced by the

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guild hall (3: Staging a guild), help Sia and Janus take the many steps towards their desired goal of making their ideals a reality. As shown later, there is a continuous struggle to keep up their program through the way they seek to build up their guild, the Draconic Guardians.

These ideals are referenced by the keyframe of EverQuest’s shared bank feature (4: Sharing of loot). To build up the solidarity of the guild, it is important to maintain a policy of sharing, in a fair manner, the profits of their many raids, missions, trading and crafting.

F IGURE 14 . Co-construction, Draconic Guardians. Keyframes of the guild Draconic Guardians when the guild engages with EverQuest. The first keyframe shows the logon image to the first and early version of the game (Image 1). It is chosen because it refers to the sense of high ideals, community and moral standards of the culture of the original EverQuest game, according to Sia the leader of the guild. The image of the next keyframe shows the Plane of Knowledge. This is a common and neutral ground for guilds and gamers to gather when they do not want to fight; it is a place to meet and exchange ideas, goods and benefit spells. The guild hall (Image 3) is the common meeting place for the guild to heal and recover from fighting. The guild’s shared bank is referenced by the last keyframe (Image 4).

Through these steps, Sia and Janus, with their guild Draconic Guardians, engage with their world-making to translate the affordances of EverQuest to serve their desire to play in a culture of high ideals of solidarity as opposed to a culture of greed and selfishness. (See Appendices, Figures)

Following the trajectories of tension and struggle between the visions and program of a culture of high ideals of solidarity with a sharing of

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knowledge and outcome as opposed to a culture of greed and profit, the actors take several steps: firstly they maintain the old version, and with that the original EverQuest culture, secondly they enjoy peaceful places to meet with others gamers, and, most importantly, they use the guild and sharing features of the game. All of these steps make sense to them in their design of a shared virtual world.

G APINESSES OF TIME RESOURCES In the case of the Draconic Guardians, building up a team and culture of such high ideals is difficult, time-consuming and demanding. It is easy for high ideals to come into conflict with the other life agencies and resources at hand when confronted with the programs of other gamers of the world. It strains the demands and generates tensions. Both Sia and Janus struggle to make a reality of the high ideals of their international team by organising, fighting and sharing outcomes and virtual profit in accordance with these ideals.

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A CO-DESIGNED WORLD It is the great experiences that are important in Second Life, even if you, as a business woman, go and have a professional purpose being in-world. So experiences, experiences.– Helle The study of cases from Second Life, which will now follow, refers to the same questions as introduced in the beginning of chapter 5 and the content is organised in the same way: First, I will describe the data produced by the video interviews before proceeding to the empirical analysis of the video keyframes as selected from each of the cases.

The metaphorical space of Second Life is organised in islands owned by residents of the world, and a mainland owned by Linden Lab.210 The social relations between residents are regulated and shaped by various rights. The owner of an island has the right to retain control over it. These rights allow the owner to control access to the island, what is allowed or restricted in terms of design and redesign, who is allowed to build, and also the right to evict unwanted avatars, or design, from the island. Different rights can be distributed among group members as the owner of a group can assign roles that offer various degrees of control and freedom.

ORDERLY AND RECOGNISABLE The narratives about three different design ideas start on the island Wonder DK. After a search for Danish places in Second Life, Wonder DK appears to be an island with many visitors and a high volume of traffic. Second Life has built-in statistics which the more experienced residents look at when browsing through the many virtual places.

The presumption is that many actors will meet in places that are worth visiting and a high number of visitors in itself give rise to more traffic, because it is more likely to meet someone and to have a chat or share experiences. The number of visitors is an important parameter for deciding which places to visit. Island owners put much effort into the question of how best to attract visitors to their island.

210

See Au 2008, Boellstorff 2008.

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One of the reasons for this is that it takes a conscious effort to teleport to an island. Avatars do not happen to pass by.

We have bought an entire island, which is called Wonder DK. It is in the large ocean of Second Life. It is an independent island, and you cannot fly from island to island; visitors and residents can only teleport over here. Although I have a neighbour, I cannot just fly over to him. – Thomas As mentioned, traffic figures play an important part in the design of places and activities. Camping chairs are a phenomenon that specifically express the effort to increase the traffic figure. During a tour of discovery, I noticed an art museum with an impressive number of visitors. Later, it turned out to be camping. When camping, visitors sit on chairs to earn cash in the Second Life currency Linden $. The trick is that in this way many residents stay in the same place for a long time, which increases the number of visitors in Second Life’s internal statistics.

D ESIGN IDEA AND STRATEGY The island Wonder DK was based on a deliberate design strategy.

The owners were among the first movers in the period when most Danes moved into Second Life. They started by developing a business strategy. The aim of the business strategy was to build a Second Life business to create a profit that could remunerate one or more of the island’s owners and designers. It was an ambitious goal that, from the outset, required a high number of visitors. The vital issue was to gain the attention of other residents. Initially, this issue was addressed by a design approach that combined the recognisable with a fictional universe. The team decided to reconstruct the wellknown town Korsbæk in a 3D virtual design. Korsbæk is a fictional town from the TV-series Matador, a popular series that depicted typical Danish everyday life, class structure, culture, norms and conventions of a provincial town in the first half of the 20th century and during World War II. Every Dane knows the story, which has become part of the Danish national consciousness. The managers and designers of the Wonder DK island also considered this design idea a reaction to the American dominance in Second Life:

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The plan was to build a Danish provincial town, typically Danish, where all Danes who visit the place would say, wow yes, it looks like something we have seen before. Both because people usually enjoy something they can recognise, but also to counteract this complete American culture that we see in Second Life, where virtually everything else is Americanised. – Thomas So other features from the television series such as old Mrs. Møge’s wheelchair, the Ladies Department Store, ‘Tøjhuset’ and the Bank were also created. This idea and design immediately attracted the attention of many Danes.

The Danish minister of taxation visited and walked around in Second Life with an avatar to oversee those who refrained from paying their taxes and earned ‘black money’. According to Danish tax law the residents in Second Life who have an income from the virtual activity and business are liable to pay tax. It was a media stunt and it attracted a great deal of media attention. So we thought how do we make use of this and attract attention maybe not quite the same attention, but still?

Look [points at the screen] what it says here! It is the famous wheelchair [Mrs. Møge’s] in front of the Ladies’ Magazine. That is the first thing we designed. The Ladies’ Department Store on one side of the street and on the other side Mads Skjern’s Tøjhuset, and, at this site [points] Korsbæk Bank with bank manager Varnæs. That’s what we decided to do. – Thomas Certainly, visitors rushed to see the virtual Korsbæk. How did they manage to reconstruct the places in a virtual world version? These were immediate questions that triggered the curiosity of many Danish residents and the Danish media. Thus, the design idea met the objective, and the island and virtual world of Korsbæk received publicity and many visitors. This transient effect started a positive cycle as rumours of exciting issues and places travel quickly in a virtual world. So many visitors came without too much effort. The manager even told me that subsequent PR efforts since then have been generally ineffective. Once a positive cycle has started people

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continue to visit. However, a good reputation always has to be maintained and this requires a sustained effort to attract sufficient attention, according to Thomas.

A COSY ISLAND The main challenge was to gain more sustained attention and visitors. One of the answers to the challenge was to design a cosy environment, which was orderly, clear and welcoming for visiting avatars.

What we are doing to attract people is to create a beautiful city; some nice buildings and something cosy and homely. We have, for example, a timber-framed house; we have a small duck pond with ducks floating around with a swan. We make an effort to make our entire island nice. We do not use asphalt, only paving stones and lots of green spaces; we must have trees. So, much of the traffic we have attracted has come almost automatically; people have come here once and said, wow, this is really nice, went for a walk to look at things and design, and then they come back. – Thomas The intimacy and cosy environment is, in other words, a priority. In this way, the island is different from many other places. Quite often the main motivation for large enterprises, institutions and organisations is to design and build. These larger groups often recreate the buildings people know from the offline world and use logos and corporate communication to show their identity. Much design of islands and places in Second Life has been done using large monumental buildings, but the result is often lifeless. It is fun to build the places but they are not exciting to visit. This means that visitors quickly lose interest. Out of curiosity, many avatars drop by when well-known institutions and businesses move in to Second Life, but they rarely return after a tour where there is nothing to do or no other avatars to chat with. The monumental buildings are resoundingly empty which causes major problems in attracting attention.

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S ANDBOX AND ATTRACTION It is no coincidence that there is a public sandbox on the island Wonder DK. It attracts many avatars, not only Danes but also from all over the world. There are almost always avatars playing, experimenting or exerting themselves in the sandbox; and from the sandbox it is easy to see the town Korsbæk.

Generally, sandboxes in Second Life are some of the most frequently visited places. They allow room for self-organising activities. There is something to do in a sandbox and everyone knows what to do.

Beginners cannot build in Second Life, unless they own plots of land or islands, or lease places where they are allowed to build within a defined area. This means that residents who have not yet established themselves, bought or hired land, or places, can find a place to experiment. The sandbox is where they have the opportunity to build and design. Many sandboxes are public and are emptied periodically, so there is always room for new design.

They enter the sandbox, and if they see that there is a beautiful town here, then they subsequently can rush over to see where they landed. I think we have got some Americans, Japanese and others who have seen: ‘well, what is this – there is, in fact, an entire town over there. Let's fly over and look at it’. So it also helps to attract traffic. – Thomas

BUSINESS AND ACTOR-CREATED DESIGN The island’s design frames the business purpose of Wonder DK, which is a rental company with a real estate manager. Buildings and places are rented out to enterprises, institutions, universities or media. The rent is paid in Danish currency and not in L$. It is also possible to buy some of the know-how which the island’s designers have built up from designing the town and its surroundings. A real estate office is on the corner of the town square of Wonder DK; the office belongs to DC Aspen, an avatar known by all the tenants, the members of the group Wonder DK friends, and Danes from outside Wonder DK. He is one of the owners of the island and the manager of the world and business. DC Aspen is highly experienced in design, because the business purpose places heavy demands on the island’s

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design. It is not easy to attract tenants, if the island seems messy, confusing and chaotic. It requires control and regulation. That is the reason why properties are rented and plots cannot be purchased – “as soon as we sell out, then we lose control over the island,” says Thomas. To show how necessary it is to retain control, he invites me on a trip to the Second Life mainland, which is one of the first places that visitors enter in Second Life. It is almost with a shiver he shows what, in his view, is ugly and chaotic design.

Linden Labs’ mainland, it is just so ugly. I’ve never seen anything like it. Almost wherever you come across to the mainland, it’s ugly. One of the reasons why it is ugly is that it is split up in small plots. Half are for sale, and there are unattractive rotating signs, and half are just haphazard places.

– Thomas Thomas shows many examples, and afterwards we fly to the small plot of a Danish NGO. It is one of his scare examples.

Well, it is terribly ugly, right? I do not know what it looks like here. And, as I said, ‘land for sale’ signs! It took two seconds to find the first rotating sign. They [the organisation] have a little plot here [pointing]. There are neighbours here [pointing] and there are adjacent buildings and land to the other side where something haphazardous has just been set up. Then there is a neighbour here with a ’celebration’ wall, right? Wailing Wall with a swimming pool on top! Over here are some houses that are designed almost with indifference. That is broadly the situation on the mainland. – Thomas There are no regulations, no consortiums, no municipalities, no technical management or similar body to oversee the creation of an orderly world, instead of the prevailing anarchy. It seems that nobody has ambitions; they have no plans to do anything serious.

Thomas ends our tour to the mainland saying that he almost never visits the places over there. If you want to make sure that there is quality in design and activities then it is essential to have control over the place, he says.

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At the moment we want complete control of things and what people do at the places they rent. If we sell out plots of land, then they begin to build brothels and casinos, and they can build 200-meter high walls around them. That is why we bought our own island to have control over things. When you do serious business then it is no use that all the way around there is design and places that look horrible. – Thomas Back on the island Wonder DK, we go for a walk to see how the leasing of the virtual properties is developing. As so far, it is going well although there are still empty buildings available for rent. It is difficult to start a brand new virtual concept as all the tenants must follow the regulations of the town. Not everything can be done on the buildings’ facades and not all kinds of stores are allowed. For example, brothels, sex shopping malls, and weapons are excluded from the island.

PURPOSE AND ACTIVITY The fastest way to move around in Second Life is to fly. It can be a slow affair to wander through the long corridors and roads. It influences the idea of good design, according to Helle, the owner of the island Match. The open and transparent design where the avatars can easily fly best exploits the possibilities in Second Life. The small cluttered houses with stairs restrict freedom of movement and limit opportunities, in her view.

T HE CASTLE As a first step to her being in Second Life, Helle built a castle, or rather she bought it as a pre-fab package for L$ 15,000 without service. She then paid an additional service charge of L$ 5,000 to get it extracted. It took under a minute, which made it a bad and expensive experience that is unlikely to be repeated. She will not deal with that company again. The fun, however, was to build the pre-fab version, equip the palace, go shopping, get a virtual butler and not least to get new ideas. When the construction and creation of the place was finished then the fun was over. There was no real second goal with her activity other than to create a world and get

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ideas. And her current requirements for the design of places would not be matched by the castle’s design of the time. Today, perfection requirements are considerable even when it comes to the very small parts of the design; just as it is the case for the designers of Wonder DK. Literally, all joints are inspected at their seams: do the walls flicker, because multiple layers have been placed on top of each other, and are the adjustments made carefully? These are questions asked of the designers in Second Life.

The castle that I once owned, I would not have it today. It should be built in a completely different way. You can see some places where the walls suddenly flicker if there are two layers that are placed on top of each other. If so, you simply have not spent enough time creating it. I had also built a dining room in the castle but I couldn’t use it for anything. – Helle The early experience of building a castle points to more general observations and especially to the question of the purpose of the design of places, buildings and objects. A castle quickly becomes boring to inhabit. As Helle asks: “what can you eat in the castle’s luxurious dining room?” Obviously, there is an opportunity for huge parties and a dance floor can always attract avatars but in the long run, it is a very limited way to use the virtual place. There must be something else to do. Activities are critical and this requires knowledge about how to attract attention and promote contact among avatars. The design of the castle is, in Helle’s view, a depiction of a lack of purpose. The empty office buildings or stores without any function for visitors are other examples. However, hiking in empty scenery can be fun if it is in exciting design.

There was a ‘secret room’. It was below the castle. I like things that are a bit mysterious. I had a photo studio down there; plus I had bought all sorts of erotic things. But it was only used for my house warming. – Helle Helle’s castle showed that beautiful scenery cannot attract avatars in such a way that they want to return. The battle for attention is just as hard as everywhere else. Maybe it is even harder. Conventions are not the same. In other life situations politeness can sometimes result

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in us staying at a concert or festival even if we find it boring. In Second Life, avatars can walk or fly away just like that. Therefore, visitors should have the option to be active, to do things and get answers to questions.

Thus, the main point of design is the purpose it serves, while the activities should be the experience offered to visitors and residents that encourages them to return. Activity and contacts are crucial for most purposes. Places with a clear purpose and activities attract attention. It is immediately obvious what an avatar can do in places like sandboxes for designing, or in stores with clothes for sale. Every resident entering into Second Life must learn to build and design, if only his or her avatar. Furthermore, all visitors need to buy things in the new world ranging from clothing to gimmicks. If the actors want to meet other avatars they can visit the sandboxes and some of the shopping centres. There are almost always avatars experimenting in the sandboxes and avatars that go shopping. The purpose of these places is closely linked to the possible activities.

P ERSONAL CONTACT Contact situations are other key issues for design. Who will meet the visitors of the site? Is there anyone to contact, ask questions, or to chat with? This is essential but also resource consuming for the manager and owner of a place and business. The virtual world of Second Life uses both asynchronous and real-time communication with different benefits and challenges. For example, instant messages and group-notices can be stored until the next time a resident logs on. The simultaneous presence and experience are key assets. It is not enough to start a store, organise an office or build a castle if it stands empty and if you cannot meet the owner or other avatars engaged with the agencies of the place. This corresponds to websites created using great design but with no activity. The lesson learned in the early days of the web that a website requires daily maintenance and news to attract attention is a lesson that can be transferred to virtual world-making. The opposite effect is achieved by places that act only as advertising media with nothing else to see. This sends a clear signal to avatars that it is not worth returning to this place.

Contact opportunities, and preferably a personal contact, are success

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criteria and design plays an important role in this. Ringing bells and info clicks are examples of design that aim to address the expectation of personal contact in a way that does not require presence in a virtual office 24:7.

I'm actually getting a new buzzer here, where my logo is on.

When people click on it, I get a message, a blue pop-up over here [pointing]. And people who click get a pop-up that says ‘do you want to be a member of my group’. If you want to be a member of the group, I will send a private message and also if you want an URL with a landmark to the place. – Helle The many design considerations are related to why Helle is present in Second Life. She is not in the virtual world as a private individual but as part of a project at her workplace. She works with a company that has many branches in Denmark and abroad and wants to test the new opportunities that Second Life can offer the company. Her design should make it immediately clear to visitors what the virtual company Times can offer. The project should also reveal whether it is profitable to expand the company’s services and benefits to a Second Life market and vice versa. The design is simple, and she wants to create places in many locations, starting with Danish islands that have many visitors, because, as Helle says “people pile up on an island”. She would prefer four stands each with a direct gateway to the company’s place, which says that avatars can earn L$. The company should be located in a de-centred way on many different existing small places with high traffic instead of buying an island to design the company’s main building. Furthermore, it must be fun to get in touch with the company. This is much more important than office buildings.

I could easily arrange for a lot of events where I could talk about the company’s services, but I do not really know how much it would generate in here. I think it will be possible in the long run especially when we get the voice chat. But it must still be something that’s fun. It can also easily be fun. I have a lot of ideas for the various possibilities in-world. –Helle

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ATMOSPHERE AND EXPERIENCES Mads’ narrative reflects the pride he feels as he talks about the place Literary, which he and a colleague have built in Second Life. Their design of a meeting place frames the use of Second Life in a public institution. The two colleagues are early movers among the Danish institutions that enter Second Life early in 2007. They want to explore new opportunities and not just copy the offline world or the public institution, which is their common workplace.

I MAGINATION AND FANTASY Their initial idea was that the place should inspire the imagination.

There are meditation bubbles with swimming fish and flying ladybirds to look at while meditating and with music that changes depending on the perspective. It is all designed to prepare for events that the project team has planned for the annual Day of Research 2007. The bubbles should also have included whale music, but it was not possible to find that kind of music.

So I think that there is an experience of a mood which, of course, would not be possible elsewhere. In this way, I think we’ve hit something that Second Life can be used for. I have built the bubbles. We discussed what they should be like and then Janne went shopping to find things [pointing]. Meanwhile, I designed the bubbles. The place was designed using a joint effort. It took place in Second Life, because it is very nice to have different perspectives when the design is in 3D, because the way it looks depends on the different angles. – Mads The fish are purchased. They move around a point which is the centre. The bubbles are coated with a surface that spins around. This creates a special experience, which both Mads and Janne experience as inspiring. It boosts the imagination and creates a strange feeling in a fun way.

S PONTANEITY The design was created spontaneously one night where they were exploring the world together. There was no plan or architecture for it.

It was designed in and using the experience. Other avatars visited

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and helped so the design process developed into an event and happening.

We tried it all out, we built various things and then an avatar in the shape of a hen came by and asked what we were doing.

We began to talk and kept asking how it felt to go through the design, which was created from our experience of it. While we stood there, we asked: what happens to you when you go through? It was such a strange feeling when you could see an avatar that suddenly showed up in front of you in quite different ways. Building the bubbles was a really fun process. – Mads There is no doubt about the purpose created by Mads and Janne. The place is a meeting place and not just publicity for their institution, or a copy of its usual services. It is a place where actors can meet in new ways and gain new experience. From the outset, the design was open in the sense that the idea was to give visitors the opportunity to build on the project’s place. This resulted in the design quickly turning into a mess, because only few visitors and residents designed something serious. Therefore, the current design of the place is fixed and only the group of regular project participants can alter it. They try to keep the group as open as possible and the project team invites avatars to become members although they have no rights to build and design at their place.

PITFALLS AND PROBLEMS From the outset, the Literary project was located on a small plot next to two well-known Danish places. When the two neighbours moved to an island, the Literary project hurried to expand and buy more land around their place because they had previously experienced that one of the neighbours had built a three floor building with a grey wall next to the Literary project and they wanted to prevent something similar from happening. However, the project still chose to stay on the mainland instead of buying an island. In Mads’ view, it is more likely that passers-by will visit their place if located on the mainland. While I follow Mads around the project’s place, it appears that something that does not belong to the place has been put up.

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This demonstrates once again how difficult it can be to regulate and manage plots and places on the mainland.

However, the problems that Mads can report pale beside Helle’s experience with the first piece of land that she bought: NARRATIVE 2: AN EVIL LANDLORD – HELLE I bought a piece of land on an island and I thought that now I own the land that I was the only one who could do anything. I had had it for only a few days when I bought a ‘security boot’ that would help me keep track of people, so unwanted visitors would get a message that they would be sent home within 30 seconds if they themselves had not left the site. I did not think to add the owner from whom I bought the island. While I was offline, the owner had received a ‘send home’ message from my security boot. I was a novice in the ways they did things in here, so when I logged on, a message just said that the owner had ‘reclaimed’ my land!

My land taken away from me! It was 8,000 square metres of land which had just been taken. I could not even get to the island. I was ‘banned’ from it. Of course, I wrote to him, but he was very rude. What happened? I had simply not complied with the rules, so he was entitled to take back the land. It turned out that it was because he was sent home by the security boot. I had to apologise and was then allowed to buy it back for a very simple sum of money. In the meantime, I contacted the Linden Lab, and I wrote: what am I going to do in this situation? They replied that they could not actually do anything, because it is he who has the ownership of the island. I was really taken by surprise and scared, and I thought ‘this is something really bad’. Then it turns out that there are many others who want to sell their plots on this island because he is a really unpleasant person. I do not know what is in it for him. Then I continued to build on my plot, and it went really well for a period of time. I had no contact with him. One day, when I logged on, he had cleaned up something on the island. It meant that my prims had dissolved; only half of my castle was left! Only half of my stuff! A huge amount of money had just disappeared. I wrote: what happened here? I got no answer so I thought ‘I’ve just got to get out of here!’ I actually threw all of it out. I could not even save it. Then I made a big yellow sign with ‘for sale’ and put the plot up for sale on the search page. A really nice guy and his girlfriend came by to have a look at it. I felt sorry for them and thought ‘oh no’ now they will have to rent land from a bad landlord. I had paid L$ 25,000 for the plot, but the guy only had L$ 18,000, so he got it for L$ 18,000. And his girlfriend bought the second plot of land for L$ 11,000. I just had to get away from there! When I logged on the next morning, there was a message from the owner of the island that he had ‘reclaimed’ my land, because the girlfriend had logged on and bought the plot while I was offline. I should have told him about it immediately.

Now, another resident had bought land, one he did not know. I replied that I could not be expected to be logged on 24 hours per day. Then, he reclaimed the land that I had left. I wrote to him again and asked if he enjoyed annoying other residents. He

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just ‘muted’ me. After half an hour he wrote that if I rushed to sell it then I was allowed in again, but then he wanted me off his island. A very unpleasant man.

ANALYSIS 2. CO -CONSTRUCTIONS OF SECOND LIFE A TTRACTING THE ATTENTION OF OTHER RESIDENTS Wonder DK is a business based on a deliberate design strategy that aims to create the environment in which to run a business. In order to make this purpose a reality, the business idea aims to attract visitors, especially a Danish audience. From the start the target groups were Danish groups, places and communities in Second Life so the design idea signifies an environment that is typically Danish, a cosy place where visitors feel welcome and at home. In other words, the strategy addresses the problem of how to design an environment that is immediately recognisable, as well as something new that is worthwhile visiting.

Initially, in dealing with the problem of attracting visitors, this issue was addressed by combining the recognisable with a fictional universe. With many visual references and virtual objects, a fictional universe was created based on the TV series Matador. This typical Danish provincial town was orderly, controlled and well designed.

Thomas, the manager, closely controls the agencies and design of the place. However, when the novelty value faded, the question of how to gain sustained attention — and with that, returning visitors — became urgent. One of the answers to this challenge was to design meeting places for avatars: a town square where avatars could pass the time and chat with some of the voluntary workers and ‘employees’ or get advice from the owner of the business.

A somewhat different approach to design is characterised by the Times business project. The open and transparent design of places in different locations where avatars fly in and out is seen as the approach which best exploits the options of the online world and makes most sense to the initiator of the virtual branch. This contrasts with many Second Life places where buildings, doors and houses are hindrances for moving around. Engagement and agency rather than

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buildings are critical issues when it comes to attracting attention, enabling networking and raising awareness of the place. Through this approach, open places that facilitate many purposes and agencies are the places that make sense, according to Helle. Thus, presence, experience and contact are conceived as key assets of the world, which is why this design approach favours agency, personal contact and freedom of movement.

In the Literary project, the place is designed to inspire imagination.

The design is created in a spontaneous, collaborative and codesigning process. There is no plan or architecture for the design as it is based on actors experiencing the world simultaneously. It is designed so people can experience the creation of an unusual and inspiring meeting place, not just a copy of the usual activities of the project’s public service obligations. It is a place where actors can meet in new ways and gain new experience. In the Literary project, the place is created with a design idea that emphasises a ‘not possible in real life’ approach.

R UNNING A BUSINESS IN S ECOND L IFE From the video interviews, there are four keyframes that show the steps taken to start the Wonder DK business in Second Life. The first keyframe of the analytic oligopticon clearly refers to a Danish provincial town with a cosy and homely atmosphere (1: Reshaping town). It is a deliberate choice to target Danish rather than global audiences, thus signifying that Wonder DK is not an American place and design. The virtual arena offered by Second Life to design one’s own content clearly appeals to one of the initiators of the project.

Since early childhood, he has been engaged with the design of environments and model railways. Now, there is a chance to start a business utilising these skills and to test the possibility of making a living by running a Second Life business renting out shops. The program of these design processes is the desire to run a business and to experiment with the worlds’ potentials. Obviously, the antiprogram is that no customers will rent his shops to establish their own businesses on his island. In designing a Second Life business, the many steps taken by Thomas aim to strengthen this program.

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Travelling with Thomas around the design and place, another step stands out. One of the initial ideas is to not only refer to the design of a provincial town but also to fiction, to the fictitious town of Korsbæk (2: Remediating TV-series). In remediating Korsbæk, one of the most important steps is to attract the attention of potential visitors to the town and with that also tenants. This second step allows Thomas to combine the recognisable with the fictitious.

The design of a real estate office and shop at the corner of the town square makes the program of running a business visible; it is made tangible and located (3: Locating office). However, attracting the attention of present and potential residents of the world proves difficult. As attention is the alpha and omega of running the business, Thomas includes a cosy town square with a village pond, birds and benches in his design (4: Reshaping square). With the square, a meeting place is staged, a step that proves to be important to furthering his business.

F IGURE 15 . Co-construction, Wonder DK. The keyframes are visual metaphors of Wonder DK as narrated by Thomas when he engages with the Second Life business Wonder DK. The first keyframe refers to the design of his business in the shape of an island with a cosy provincial town (Image 1). This is referenced by timber-framed houses by the town pond. The design of one of the buildings known from the fictional town Korsbæk (Image 2) and the business office of Thomas’ real estate agency have been chosen because the meticulous design refers to the feeling of

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pride in designing and building up a business in this new environment. The Korsbæk town square (Image 4) refers to the urgent need to attract visitors and traffic to Wonder DK’s island and business. With these steps taken, Thomas, with his companion avatar DC Aspen, engages with world-making to use the affordances of Second Life to help him run an in-world business as opposed to the risk of attracting no attention and customers. (See Appendices, Figures)

Moving into Second Life and taking the first steps towards the many struggles between the vision of running a virtual business and the anti-program of attracting no customers, the recognisable and fictitious are combined in a remediation of a famous and popular TV series. The business is made visible and tangible, and spaces for avatars to meet are designed and provided.

G APINESSES OF MARKET STRATEGY To realise the vision of running a Second Life business, the design strategy of Wonder DK and the business model are targeted towards a Danish market and possibly also Nordic. This strategy excludes a vast group of international avatars and projects which also visit the island. These international visitors mainly come because of Wonder DK’s open sandbox, which attracts attention to the design of the island. To attract tenants that are willing to pay rent for one of the town’s virtual shops, Thomas must, however, rely on a limited market with a design that clearly targets Danish audiences and customers. The business model and design strategy point to the tensions generated between, on the one hand, a design that clearly attracts attention due to a consistent design strategy with national references and, on the other hand, the self-same strategy that limits the number of tenants on the global scene.

A VIRTUAL BRANCH OF A REAL LIFE BUSINESS When we follow the trajectories of steps taken by Helle in the Times project, they lead us to an international business with a branch in Denmark. The Second Life project is aimed at starting up a virtual branch of this company. Helle’s immediate manager in the company, which is only one of several in Denmark, supports the project. The top managers, however, are not convinced that the project can bring outcomes worth the investment of time and engagement necessary to build up the virtual branch. However, Helle is convinced that it

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makes sense to test Second Life’s entrepreneurial potential, and she starts the business with a very small budget. At the time of the startup, she has already been present in-world for a while, and she has gained a lot of experience and know-how as to how to design, communicate, and not least, avoid some of the many problems and pitfalls of this world. So, when we follow the steps taken to establish and design the virtual branch of her workplace, they are not the steps of a beginner. The many choices that have been made are deliberate, and they are based on experience.

Processing the many recordings from the video interviews, the business model appears to be nomadic as opposed to the static virtual business of Wonder DK. The model is made tangible not through digital 3D bricks and walls but with a balloon-like avatar advertising the logo, name and content of the company and its services. At the time of the video interviews, her vision is to convince the management of the offline business that investing time, money and manpower to build up a virtual branch is worthwhile. The risk is the inability to attract the attention of a potential client base. In order to realise the vision, the first step taken is to design the travelling business model in the shape of a fun and sensational avatar, which is also an advertising pillar of the company’s services (1: Travelling).

Moving around, travelling to many different islands and places is a business strategy that makes sense to Helle; she sees it as a strategy which will help her attract attention to the virtual branch and its services.

Helle also lives a private life in Second Life and she merges the private and professional dimensions of her presence. When she steps out on the dance floor with her avatar, she also talks business, makes business contacts, invites further cooperation and the professional contacts she makes feed back into her personal contacts and friend lists that are so important to the nomadic business model (2: Merging). Still, there is a need to empower the nomadic business model and create awareness of the project’s many services, so distributed places are also designed (3: Distributing). The design emphasises the aspiration to create open design that adapts to

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Second Life conditions, making it easy for avatars to move around and fly in and out of places (4: Opening the design).

F IGURE 16 . Co-construction, Times. Keyframes of the Times project as narrated by Helle when she engages with the Second Life business Times. The keyframe with the travelling and conspicuous avatar (Image 1) is chosen to reference her business strategy of moving around the many places of Second Life to attract attention to her business purposes. The sophisticated design, whether private or professional, is referenced by the next keyframe chosen (Image 2). The travelling business avatar means that Helle is building her business at many different in-world places (Image 3) with an open design that allows avatars to easily enter by flying in and out (Image 4).

With this design she seeks to adapt her business design to the conditions set by Second Life. By taking these steps, Helle, with her companion avatar Helle, engages with world-making to translate the affordances of Second Life to help her run a virtual branch of an international company and confront the risk that she cannot convince her work place of the relevance of this. (See Appendices, Figures)

To start a virtual branch of the international company, steps are taken to convince the top managers of its potential. This is the vision of the Times project. In the tension and struggle to attract the Second Life residents’ awareness of the virtual business, a nomadic business model is designed; private and professional activities are merged; and the distributed and open design of the branch is adopted.

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G APINESSES OF ACCEPTANCE To start a virtual branch of an international business with top managers who do not support the idea unless results are generated very quickly means that Helle, from the outset, is up against difficult odds. The business model developed is likely to have exacerbated the problems. When seen from the perspective of an online world like Second Life, the nomadic model and the design of a sensational and fun avatar makes sense. However, when seen from the top managers’ point of view, it may be difficult to see the seriousness of the project and its relevance to the offline business. Tensions are generated between what makes sense to a Second Life business and what appears meaningful to leaders of an international company.

I NITIATING A PUBLIC DEBATE The trajectories of the Literary project lead us to an institution that provides many different services to public audiences and society. It is a societal service and an institution with long-lived traditions and procedures. Members of the staff take pride in their profession in which they deal with old media as well as new digital media.

Tradition, professional pride and the question of how to deal with the many new digital media channels continuously challenge the traditional and professional culture of the institution and play a part in shaping the design and trajectories of the project. Thus, processing the video interviews, it seems that the vision of this project will start a public debate about how to make new media, such as Second Life, a part of the institution’s services.

Following the first step of the project’s trajectories, the journey ends at a rented plot of land on the mainland of Second Life (1: Renting). It differs from the Second Life islands where the island owner has full control over the place. On the mainland, there is no control over the surroundings of the plot. However, to realise their visions, the project team chooses this location. They believe it is easier to attract the attention of passers-by and visitors on the mainland than on one of the many islands.

A next step in struggling to attract public attention is to design the place together with other avatars and visitors. This co-designing

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strategy aims to open up the place for public engagement and to show and teach interested avatars about the designing processes of Second Life (2: Co-designing). As a result of this approach to design, the keyframe shows the meditation bubbles (3: Experiencing). The bubbles are designed in spontaneous co-designing processes that create an immediate and joint experience. To further reach out to a public audience, blogging is an active strategy whereby the members of the team seek to engage public interest in the project and its visions (4: Blogging).

F IGURE 17 . Co-construction, Literary. Keyframes of the Literary project as narrated by the project team when they engage with the Second Life project Literary. The first keyframe is chosen to reference their meeting place rented on the Linden Lab mainland (Image 1). The place has no overall plan or design and was originally conceived as a place for co-design together with a public audience (Image 2).

Following no plan leaves the design open to spontaneous experimentation, which is referenced by the next keyframe (Image 3). It shows Rob meditating in psychedeliclike meditation bubbles that make possible extraordinary experiences and out-of-thebody-like feelings. In the last keyframe (Image 4) the blog refers to the public discussion initiated by the project and the many critical voices of these discussions.

Through these steps taken in the literary project, the team engages with worldmaking to translate the affordances of Second Life to help them start a public debate about the possible potential of worlds like Second Life as confronted by the antiprogram of attracting no interest or debate and of generating collegial critique. (See Appendices, Figures)

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To start the Second Life project in a public institution that provides cultural services to public audiences and society, steps are taken to initiate public debate about the potential of this. In the tensions and struggle to realise this, the project team opens up the place to public audiences and invites visitors to take part in the design. The team adopts a strategy of designing which emphasises the mutual experience of moving around, watching the design from different angles, and talking about the experience. Furthermore, blogging is employed in order to help generate public debate.

G APINESSES OF POINTLESS DESIGN In the Literary project, public audiences are targeted from the outset in order to start a debate about Second Life as an example of the new kinds of digital media which increasingly influence the cultural field of their institution’s services. In doing so, the project team aspires to create a place open to the public. However, it proves to be almost impossible to inspire such public debate. The open, co-designing strategy adopted to engage public interest in the world is abandoned because it generates problems with messy and pointless design and it proves difficult for many to use the design tools. Furthermore, the location of the project on the mainland markedly impairs the project’s place with almost obstructive neighbourly design. Tensions are generated between the open, joint design strategy and the somewhat pointless design created by visitors of the place who have no design ideas or skills. Therefore, the project’s strategy is changed to only allow the project team to design.

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6. MEDIATORS Selecting an avatar is also a matter of personal playing style.

What you like the best, and how you like to play. – Sia This quote from the video interview with Sia briefly summarises one of the unexpected findings of this study. In it, Sia emphasises that a personal playing style is found even in the online role-playing games where roles define certain abilities and skills of the chosen avatars. It can be seen that the avatars of the game are played quite differently depending on the actor who plays them. This is an apt quote with which to introduce this chapter’s analysis of the participating actors' choice of avatars. The analysis shows many differences between the players but also shows that they share a significant commitment and engagement to playing.

The empirical analysis of the video interviews about the choice of avatars will follow the outline introduced at the beginning of chapter 5 (see p. 147). First, I will draw a rich picture thus describing the many choices made before selecting visual metaphors in the shape of keyframes with which to illustrate and analyse the choices made.

The two questions that guide me through the analysis are the same for the EverQuest and the Second Life cases: • •

What makes the actors choose particular avatars?

What is it that makes sense for actors to engage with these particular avatars?

HIGH-LEVEL AVATARS There are many different classes of avatar with their own abilities and skills in a world like EverQuest. Some classes are especially good at healing and casting spells on other avatars. These may be good spells, which enforce, or poor spells, which weaken. Other classes

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may be good at forcing monsters off the battlefield or drawing new monsters onto the battlefield so there is always something to fight for.

Once a class has been chosen, each avatar is developed and trained.

Classes are the framework for the development of avatars and provide a predisposition for certain skills and abilities that can be further developed. In this framework each player can shape his or her avatar and develop it with a personal style. This is true for the characters, their design, and for the training of their abilities and skills. It creates a close bond between the avatar and the actor.

Classes and avatars are chosen not only because of their appearance, but because their differing abilities mean that they can play different roles in the game. This also influences the actor’s choice of avatar.

In the narratives that follow, some of the actors211 of this study talk about their avatars, and their gallery of avatars, almost as if they are their fellow travellers.

THE GNOME GNOSSIZ G OING SOLO Gnossiz is a runt, a gnome, who can travel around the far-flung landscapes and worlds on his magic carpet, which is red and Oriental in design. Jan introduces Gnossiz and his flying carpet proudly. It has taken Jan blood, sweat and tears to get both the avatar and the carpet. The ‘little red’ or gnome is a challenge, a quest in itself. It took four quests and a lock, or exclusion from the game after each quest. That is why, there are not many people who have it, says Gnossiz’ owner Jan proudly.

The little red, it is a quest in itself, four quests with a lock in 24 hours; therefore there are not many who have it. People are lazy. – Jan Overcoming the many quests to get a gnome as a class or character was worth it, says Jan. The reason for this is the characteristics of

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Martin had no steady avatar at the time of the video-interviews; he was in a process of gaining knowledge of as many different worlds as possible.

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Gnossiz. He is good at going solo. That means he is less dependent on other players and roles than many of the other classes. A gnome is tiny, only half the size of the other avatars and classes. The difference in size can result in a David and Goliath feeling where the runt can trap large monsters and overcome the dangers that lurk everywhere in the virtual world. The difference in size also helps to highlight the gnome and his owner as being crafty and courageous.

He can go solo very well; he does not necessarily rely on others. He can solve quests and deal with threats and dangers which would usually require a group. They [the game designers] have tried to limit the options, so you cannot go solo; but they cannot stop me because I've found a way. If I do not win, then I die. I will go down to 2% of my hitpoints and almost no mana. – Jan The gnome’s homeland resembles the land of the Hobbits. We have to leave the urban area to travel to the countryside to get to it. On the way, Jan comments on the zone where the barbarians live. They are, in his opinion, stupid and ignorant.

Here you will find all the barbarians; the fighters. They are not much in intelligence; rather stupid. It doesn’t require much to be a warrior: anyone can do that. It takes nothing. You only have to go and shout, (...) and be insulting. Fighters have hitpoints. They can survive, and in war they are better at getting monsters to hate them. This is the role of the barbarians.

How hard can that be? We can all be evil. – Jan I NTELLIGENCE AND POWER From the outset, the avatar has to increase in levels and gain the necessary experience points, xps, for its class or type. This is crucial for Jan if he is to maintain interest in being in the virtual world. To gain respect from the other players his avatar has to increase in intelligence and experience. The rise in levels increases the avatar’s capacity for action, which affects the challenges it will face and the defence opportunities it has, either alone or with others. Having a high level and intelligence gives a player more power.

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I would like to be level 62. Then you get maybe 20 in intelligence instead of 14; it gives more power. – Jan Conversely, a high level can also cause problems. It broadens one’s horizons and options, but if the avatar’s level is too high for the zones, then no xps are earned. If a high level avatar plays together with avatars of a lower level, it is no longer possible to earn xps. This brings the fun to an end. There is nothing to strive for and hence no incentive to overcome obstacles and dangers.

I cannot just go in; go into these zones. I get nothing in there; I get no xps. -Jan A LONER Gnossiz the gnome, the little red, is a loner. He often fights alone without companions and in battles against powerful adversaries.

However, he survives because he is cunning and clever, and he even helps other players who have not yet reached his level and who do not have his intelligence.

During play, many choices are made, experience is gained, matches are won and cunning strategies are developed; all of this creates a close link between Jan and his companion, the gnome Gnossiz.

However, the same is true for other avatars and their owners. It is true to such a degree that it is immediately possible to see if there is another role-player behind an avatar. If, for whatever reason, a player other than the owner plays with the avatar it is considered very negative and a fundamental betrayal of trust and a violation of the norms.

If several persons play with the same avatar? That does not happen! Poor fellow if he did! Then you cannot rely on the person sitting behind the avatar. You cannot chat with that person (...) You do not go and chat and play with someone else’s avatar. It is tantamount to deciding what someone else is going to say; it does not happen. It won’t take long before you will find out that they are not the same. -Jan

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The gnome Gnossiz is Jan’s only avatar. He cannot afford to have several avatars and subscriptions in his current financial situation.

KRONGH THE SHADOW KNIGHT P LAYING WITH FINESSE Janus has several characters that he plays a lot, among others, Krongh, Mefisto and Thistlefinger. Krongh is a troll and shadow knight. He is the first avatar Janus created when he started playing EverQuest. Krongh is his main avatar. He is not a true warrior but a mixture of a warrior and a necromancer who is good at casting death-spells. Krongh will never be as strong as either a true warrior or a necromancer but he mixes the two. It takes finesse to merge them and Janus enjoys the complexity of this. As a warrior the avatar’s tasks are simple but also a little boring: it is all about fighting, beating and possessing good equipment. There is little subtlety involved. As a shadow knight, Khrongh can, however, play fake when monsters are pulled around in a zone and into the guild’s battlefield. This means that the monsters will miss him when they hit, which is a clear advantage in battle. He can also cast spells which shorten the life of monsters. This makes them furious, so they focus their attention on him and not on the other players. In battle, this can help the other players in the guild. He has the strength to resist monsters although he attracts their attention.

Janus has spent over a year playing up his avatar to the current level, level 70. Many hours and virtual money have been spent to acquire the equipment and the forms needed. Currently the challenge for Janus is to develop the skills needed to be able to optimise his main avatar, Krongh. In the guild they joke about Krongh. It is part of the game. Krongh is a little eccentric; he can smell and eat gnomes. One of the other members of the guild has a co-leader who shouts ‘gnome-kebab’ whenever he meets Krongh because he is a gnome and Krongh always tries to eat him. This has to be prevented by the others. The joking is a harmless form of ritual fun.

Krongh is playing for the evil side but is about to change sides from evil to good. He is trying to work his way towards missions on behalf of the ‘good parties’ of the game. He can now fight for both good

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and evil parties; previously the good parties would attack him and try and beat him to death if he showed up on their side. Although this has changed, they still do not completely like him. He must work to win their trust.

The troll here is becoming a very good boy. He is working on the factions for the good parties in the new zones. Now he can get missions for the good instead of the evil side. Then he can move on with the good and few missions, where they would otherwise beat him to death. – Janus J ANUS ’ AVATAR GALLERY Mefisto is a magician. He is Janus’ second most played avatar after Krongh. It took many hours to find just the right colours for Mefisto’s clothing, which are one of Mefisto’s main characteristics. Clothes can also be bought, and it is important to know how they will look.

However, instead of focussing on how the dress or equipment sits and looks, Janus looks at the stats meaning that he focuses on what a piece of cloth can do. He subsequently spends time trying to colour it and put identifying marks on it.

Very often, Janus also plays his female figure, Thistlefinger. He has gradually worked her way up to level 53. A lot of time has been spent levelling her up. It is an advantage to have avatars at different levels. Then a gamer can choose to play an avatar that corresponds to his or her mood and energy levels. It is very challenging to play a top level avatar so if some evenings the player needs to relax then it is an advantage to play with an avatar like Thistlefinger who requires less of her player. If one loses lives or dies with a low level avatar, then it does not take too long to get back on level again.

In Janus’ gallery, there are also two rangers and a druid. They are not often played. The class of rangers does not appeal to Janus and it takes a long time to play up a druid to a level where the real fun begins. Janus would rather spend this time on his other avatars.

The class of rangers did not draw me in. It was boring. A ranger can track and fight, but not much else. – Janus

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Finally, there is a necromancer in Janus’ gallery. It is an avatar he only plays with a younger and slightly inexperienced family member.

Together they go to places where Janus has not recently been but knows very well; places which he has left in order to seek new challenges. In this way, the young and inexperienced player, Tom, gets his training.

A ESTHETICS When avatars are played at a high level it excites sincere admiration, bordering on an aesthetic experience, from the other players. Carl from Janus’ guild plays a druid. Janus describes his game as “super cool, super, super cool and superfrosti”. Carl is cool-headed and has the experience needed to be able to maintain an overview with a clear sense of perspective, even in stressful and pressured battle situations.

It's such a beautiful sight to see him play. – Janus

THE SHAMAN GELINU A BUSY AVATAR The shaman Gelinu is Sia’s preferred and main avatar. Gelinu is a much-admired avatar and almost a goddess to Sia. The shaman can heal, not as well as some of the other classes, such as clerics, priests or druids, but well enough to make it an important part of Gelinu's repertoire of actions. The shaman is a difficult class to play. Players have to always be aware of what is happening and what the other players in the guild are doing and what they need. Therefore, the shaman can do many things. Gelinu has many talents and skills such as the ability to slow down mobs, throw curses, do damage and eliminate resistance, cast disease-based spells and saves in various forms. Furthermore, she is capable of buffing, which means that she can cast beneficial spells on other avatars to strengthen them.

Therefore, Sia, with her companion Gelinu, is busy improving the skills of the other members of her guild Draconic Guardians. She can increase their strength, speed and resilience, and she can prolong their lives. A shaman who reaches level 34 also gets a pet wolf as a companion summoned from the spirit world. The wolf can make her stronger and better at attacking.

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NARRATIVE 3: A BUSY SHAMAN – SIA Gelinu can throw slow, so the mobs move slower. When attacking, they attack slower. It is the shaman who can make them slowest. She can also throw dots, which is damage over time spells; it is a question of who can cause the most damage in the shortest time. In other words, I can throw a curse every six seconds, giving 440 in damage and do it in 30 seconds. It will be pulled from the life of the mobs, (...) And, I can throw four at once. So every six seconds, Gelinu can give more than a 1000 in damage. There are some mobs, if they have high magic resistance they may well resist. But then I have a second spell I can cast on them. It takes away their strength; it reduces their resistance to magic. I also have some that can lower resistance to disease, dot spells. They are disease-based, and not magic-based (...) I have saves, that is, saves against disease, saves against magic, saves against poison, saves against cold, etc. If the mobs have a very high magic resistance, then it is difficult to cast anything magic-based on them. But I can cast some of these diseases, such as plague, and it will have a greater chance if their disease resistance is not so high. She can also cast direct damage spells and she can do buffing and cast beneficial spells on other players, spells that will enforce them.

For the other members of her guild, she has many different types of spells. As a shaman, she can ensure that their agility will be higher, and increase their dexterity, that is make their strength and speed stronger and faster when they are in battle, so they can run faster and have a higher run speed. Shamans have very many opportunities to make things better. The only thing she cannot improve is mana regain, or mana regeneration. You have a mana pool, which you use when you cast spells. All spell casting costs mana, so there are limits to how many spells you can cast. Mana is like life. Every player is born with a certain amount of life and some start mana that increases every time you raise your avatar’s level; your main pool of mana will increase with the level. So it is coupled to level; mana depends on the level and equipment. You can supplement it with your equipment.

Mana regeneration is something that takes place every six seconds, when you stand, walk or whatever you do. You will always regenerate your life and your mana. If you stand up, then you do not regenerate as much as when you sit down. And then you can add to that your equipment, which makes you regenerate faster, and you can get spells thrown at you to gain life. This will help you to regenerate faster, so you regenerate 60 lives per second, which is nice. There is another class that can regenerate mana faster than the shaman. This is the enchanters. The other classes must also have some benefits; otherwise everybody would want to be a shaman.

So it is difficult to be a shaman; you are busy, and you are buffing all the time. So every time there is a mob, you must slow and if you are really unlucky, then you as a shaman may also be asked to act as a main healer then it is you who stands to heal.

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As the shaman is a difficult class to play, Sia initially made use of her friends’ knowledge and experience to get an introduction to EverQuest. Friends who guided her enabled her to quickly get up to level 34, where she could get her pet. Now she has reached level 70, which is the highest possible in the guild and the version of EverQuest she plays in.

What is also difficult is that it makes many demands on a shaman. If you join a group, then you very often must buff the members all together. You can throw so many different things, and you have to do it. It is not enough to regain the other gamers’ lives. They must have agility, run speed, rush, and there are a lot of things. You are very busy. Every time a mob turns up, then the shaman has to throw slow on the monsters. If it fails, then there is a danger that the other members of the guild will die. – Sia In short, the other players’ strength and lives depend on the fact that their shaman, Gelinu, understands her role in the game. It is demanding, but it is also a role that incites pride and admiration when played well. The others in the guild become very attached to their shaman. There is no doubt that Sia is very proud of her avatar Gelinu, and that it is a role she likes to play.

C RAFTING AND TRADING Gelinu also has things to do on her own. She is good at creating new crafts and products and obtaining the ingredients needed to develop them. These can often be hard to get. Therefore other role-players may want to buy them at the bazaar. With Gelinu, Sia has developed her trade skills to a high level. She produces food, equipment, jewels, ceramics, forging work, basketry and many other things, which can be exchanged for other valuables, whether in the form of virtual money, things with mature properties, metals, precious stones or crystals. Her account in the shared bank is full. All of her avatars and figures put things of value in the bank, which is a major transit point of the Plane of Knowledge.

Sia produces things and increases her trade skills on days when she does not want to be involved in combat with the guild. These are the

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days when she is tired and does not have enough energy to be aware of and act on the many things that a shaman needs to do. There is also prestige in being good at many different things. The things needed to enhance Gelinu’s trade skills are grouped into her trade bags and boxes, which are full.

She is highly ranked when it comes to trade skills: baking 267; forging work 208; brewing 254; fishing 200; basketry 200; articles of jewellery 176; ceramics 299; tailoring 198. At the beginning of the game, the avatar increases rapidly in levels, but it becomes increasingly difficult the higher the level. For example, between level 150 and 200 many combines must be made to get to the next level.

In alchemy Gelinu is at level 296, and maximum is 300; but it requires at least 20-40 combines to increase just one level when her starting point is so high. Furthermore, many of the ingredients needed to manufacture the combines are difficult to obtain.

Gelinu’s trader is a bazaar slave – a non-person character (npc).

Everything Gelinu produces and acquires – the raw materials and ingredients – that can be sold on the bazaar will be put on the slave who will never leave the bazaar area. The bazaar slave has the task of selling things that Gelinu puts up for sale. The slave is always active even if Gelinu is not present. In that way she can sell things and earn virtual money all the time.

This one makes food, armour, clothes, which you can also sell to others. It is an aa – alternative attachment – that can be used to increase your experience points [xps]. If you have reached level 70 and cannot get to 71, then you can use these [pointing] to buy up. I have 295, and now I just received my sixth. The skills that can make your avatar better and faster. – Sia S IA ’ S AVATAR GALLERY Sia has a total of 14 avatars and characters but she does not play many of the characters much. Besides Gelinu, Perplexed is one of her favourites. She is a gnome with a special hat that makes her look cool and tough. It is a highly valuable hat worth between 50,000 and

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80,000 plat pieces. The hat is borrowed from a fellow guild member, Ralf from Holland.

Perplexed, my little warrior, my runt, she is very sweet. Her hat, it is very funny. It looks as if there are sunglasses on it. I think it looks so cool. I can remove the graphics, so it looks as if she is not wearing a hat but I think it looks cool. It is one that I borrowed from Ralf. – Sia A little further down the ranking we find Sweet, a cleric. She can also heal and throw hitpoint buffs but she is not played so often. Cleric is not a class that appeals to Sia. Sweet is still played occasionally because she is part of a team with another avatar Sour, an enchanter.

Originally, Sweet and Sour played with two other friends in a team with Strong and Juicy. This team would run around and have fun without the seriousness of the game. However, Strong and Juicy have ceased to play, so only Sweet and Sour remain in the original team.

This means it is not as much fun anymore.

Finally, there is Jader. She is a ranger, an old-fashioned forest knight with a bow and good relations with the forces of nature. A ranger can track, which means that she can keep looking for monsters up in the raid zones. Only rangers and druids can track and trace. In this way, Jader plays an important role in the guild when it is in combat.

She can also cast a little magic without really being able to withstand the blows she will get.

ANALYSIS 3. PERSONAL MEDIATORS OF EVERQUEST In the empirical analysis that follows, I will first identify recurring motifs of the actors’ narratives and then look for visual metaphors and inscriptions as visualised by keyframes from the videos. In this way I will follow the actors’ many steps in their struggle to realise their visions and mediating programs. In the processes of struggling, the actors translate their avatars in ways that will help them make their visions a reality.

T O SEEK ADMIRATION AND FUN First, let us take a look at what the actors say about their avatars, their sense-makings, and their engagement with the world of

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EverQuest. They all talk about the eagerness with which they strive for something. The exact content and the reasons for striving may differ, but it is a recurring theme in their narratives. Some of the actors strive for appreciation from their fellow players and other members of their guild. They want to feel the attachment and admiration of others. Others strive to achieve prestige and status.

Actors may have important parts to play in battles or have abilities to fight superior forces, but in general, the striving only makes sense because there are obstacles, challenges and hindrances to fight and overcome, even if the fighting takes blood, sweat, tears and a lot of time.

Producing and selling things and objects are other engagements that make sense, especially so in the case of Sia and her shaman. The production of the many different things and virtual objects takes a lot of effort, which makes the virtual products and goods valuable. The scarcity of resources affords certain engagings while the continuous upgrading of skills is part of the effort needed to produce and trade.

Earning virtual money to buy valuable equipment and the raw materials necessary to refine and simplify the crafting of goods and products is a way to improve strength in combat.

Basically, by learning and knowing, actors earn the xps that are so important for the levelling and rating of their avatar. It is not only a matter of time spent within the game in successful battles but also a matter of knowledge and skill. Thus, earning other gamers’ respect and empowering the avatar depends on the abilities developed by continuous upgrading. If it is no longer possible to upgrade, then the gaming no longer makes sense.

It is also worth mentioning that admiring other actors who play the game sublimely provides an aesthetic experience. Joking is part of the game and this includes making fun of avatars, changing sex, getting drunk and flirting.

In summary, striving, achieving, upgrading, making fun and empowering are some of the motifs and verbings of the actors’ narratives about their avatars.

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S URVIVING AGAINST ODDS Entering into EverQuest, Jan has chosen to travel through the world with a small gnome named Gnossiz. His presence is signified and visualised by his gnome while Jan is struggling to survive against the odds. The mediating program of his struggle is to prove to himself and to other gamers that he is capable of surviving in these difficult conditions as a loner.

Jan travels around the world with Gnossiz and is not a member of a regular guild. Gnossiz is a loner even if he sometimes goes fighting together with virtual friends in loosely coupled groups organised ad hoc (1: Going solo). While processing the video interviews, this is the striking metaphorical picture that stands out. Going solo with a small avatar that faces severe dangers defines his choice of avatar (2: Being small); he did not choose one of the strong races and classes, such as a warrior. It makes sense to Jan to be with his small gnome because it allows him to show that it is his characters’ skilfulness that helps him survive even if he is small and not very forceful.

The keyframe that visualises Gnossiz moving around EverQuest on his flying carpet signifies the persistent work that Jan has put into solving the quests necessary to acquire the carpet as well as the many obstacles that he has overcome in doing so. This struggle is part of his mediating program and vision, as it portrays Gnossiz as a survivor against the odds. His survival is only made possible because of his shrewdness (3: Acting clever). In his many fights, Gnossiz’ shrewdness also allows Jan to face severe dangers and to make Gnossiz appear even more courageous (4: Daring). In playing Gnossiz, he circumvents the limitations that have been set by the designers of EverQuest and manages to fight the dangers that will help him increase his experience and knowledge. Fighting back the tensions of defeat, he survives due to the knowledge and intelligence he has acquired.

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F IGURE 18 . Mediator, Gnossiz the Gnome. The keyframes of Gnossiz the Gnome as narrated by Jan when he engages with EverQuest. The keyframe with a close-up image of Gnossiz (Image 1) and the keyframe of Gnossiz moving around the world of EverQuest all alone (Image 2) are chosen with reference to Jan’s feelings of pride and his sense of superiority that comes from standing alone. These are motifs of his narratives and agency. Flying around the desert on his oriental carpet is a chosen keyframe (Image 3) that refers to the narratives about patiently solving difficult quests and overcoming barriers whilst carefully dissecting ensuing tasks to gain knowledge.

The sense of courage when exposed to dangers is referenced by the keyframe of Gnossiz fighting a giant (Image 4). By these steps, Jan, in company with his avatar Gnossiz the Gnome, engages with world-making in a process of translating the affordances of EverQuest to let him strive for survival and cleverness as opposed to being left behind in a situation with no more gains to achieve. (See Appendices, Figures)

G APINESSES OF A LONER During the video interviews with Jan, his main concern is how to follow some of his casual virtual friends to new zones of the game.

Despite the fact that he emphasises that his companion avatar Gnossiz the gnome is a loner, the sense of being left alone in EverQuest while some of the other gamers move on to new extensions, is a recurring theme. There is not much left for Jan and Gnossiz to do and no more gains to achieve without moving on to the new zones in the game extensions, which he cannot afford. This means that world-making no longer makes sense to Jan.

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H AVING FUN Each time Janus logs on to EverQuest, he is met with a screensaver showing his avatar Krongh the troll. Thus, his presence in front of the computer in company with Krongh the troll is to tell the other members of his guild that he is now joining them, and Krongh also mediates to Janus the understanding of how it makes sense to be in the world of EverQuest. Step by step, we can follow these mediations of Janus with his companion Krongh while they are fighting to have fun. This mediating program and vision of having fun is, however, confronted with the tensions of boredom caused by the routine-like agencies that are also part of his world-making in EverQuest. In the many tensions of this struggle, steps are taken, and again, visual metaphors in the shape of video keyframes will help visualise some of these steps.

In Janus’ view, the troll is a rather simple race and figure to play, as are many of the other races and classes. Therefore, in order to seek fun and excitement (1: Having fun), the troll is transformed by merging some of Krongh’s abilities with some of those from other races and classes (2: Merging). The merging of abilities helps Janus take the step to transform Krongh in order to play with finesse.

Playing with finesse instead of only by force is what makes sense to Janus (3: Playing subtly). His troll can lead monsters astray in many different ways and also reduce threats by distracting the monsters’ attention; while the monsters focus on his troll, the other members of the guild can focus on fighting the threats. This takes strategic knowledge.

Another important step is to make sure that his troll is strong and well equipped (4: Brewing). Producing equipment and ingredients necessary to trade or use on raids is not an agency that Janus enjoys.

The many routines that it takes to produce equipment, supplies and other resources make no sense to him and he finds them boring although he appreciates their necessity212. They appear to be counter to the program that makes sense to him. Such agencies only make

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Some of these routines are exemplified by the reconstruction: Phial of Poison, see chapter 5.

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sense to him if they serve the purpose of having fun or fighting with finesse.

F IGURE 19 . Mediator, Krongh the Troubletroll. Keyframes of Krongh the Troubletroll as narrated by Janus when he engages with the EverQuest guild Draconic Guardians. In the first keyframe chosen, the avatar looks like a warrior equipped for fighting. Janus refers to the feeling and qualities of having fun not just the game of fighting to win (Image 1). To have fun, however, Krongh the Troubletroll is merged with the qualities of a necromancer (Image 2) which means that the troll will have to be played with finesse and not brute force. Playing subtly and with finesse is referenced by a keyframe (Image 3) that shows Krongh on his horse; this is Janus’ screenshot when he turns on his computer. The chosen keyframe that shows Janus whilst brewing, his preferred craft (Image 4), refers to the fact that routines like crafting make no sense to him as they do not arouse feelings of fun. By these steps taken Janus, in the company of his avatar Krongh the Troubletroll, engages with world-making to translate the affordances of EverQuest to let him strive for fun and the feeling of community as opposed to the boredom of routines. (See Appendices, Figures)

G APINESSES OF SKILFULNESS The close relationship between Sia and Janus makes it possible for them to set the stage together for their engaging with EverQuest.

Being close to the guild leader, Janus can focus on his preferred playing style, which emphasises the fun part of the game. His skilful play thrives when he can use his main avatar Krongh the troll to fight with the Draconic Guardians. His skilfulness and know-how do not,

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however, allow him to step down or back to a lower level of play. To control the game and be able to unfold and develop his skilfulness is a vital part of his mediating program and visions as opposed to the counteracting boredom of routines.

A CHIEVING AUTHORITY In Gelinu’s case, the struggle for leadership is an ongoing process of Sia’s mediating program and visions. This struggle for her vision makes sense to her and her being in EverQuest with the companion avatar Gelinu. The ever-present tensions and threats are the many demands, skills and abilities necessary to perform as a leader in her virtual world-making. If she is unable to meet the demands of leadership it threatens to counter her mediating program and visions.

In processing of the video interviews, the first visual metaphor that stands out is the logon image to Sia’s EverQuest, which shows a portrait of her shaman, Gelinu (1: Healing). This figure has been carefully chosen to create an avatar, a companion traveller, with the capacities and resources to support and strengthen her guild, the Draconic Guardians, when they are on missions and raids (2: Protecting). The supportive engaging made possible and signified by the shaman is important in obtaining acceptance of her leadership from the other members of the guild. Striving for and achieving leadership of the Draconic Guardians also means that she has to know exactly how to support each member of the guild given their roles, levels of ability and resources. In other words, following the steps taken by Sia leads to an avatar with the abilities to build up acceptance and authority to act as leader of the Draconic Guardians.

It is, however, not only the agencies of the raids and missions that help Sia and Gelinu undertake a leadership role. Building up other abilities is equally important. Achieving high-level skills in activities such as crafting, cooking and trading takes up much of Sia’s time and is very often time-consuming. It is important to Sia to occupy a highranking position on the many lists that have evolved to help gamers compare and compete with each other in competences other than

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raiding (3: High-ranking). 213 This is partly because she finds it amusing and compelling to know about the myriad of combines, ingredients and recipes necessary to obtain such a status but also because it takes know-how to trade and acquire the raw materials, as well as the tools, necessary to fabricate and produce. The high ranking helps her strengthen Gelinu’s talents and thereby her authority. Trading allows her to increase her income and surplus to subsequently strengthen the guild; and her cooking supplies the guild with food when they are on long-term missions.

Thus, following Sia’s steps in creating Gelinu as a leader she is struggling to realise her mediating program of leadership. The trajectories lead to ever-increasing levels of complexity of this struggle (4: Systematising); these complexities threaten her leadership program if she cannot cope with the many demands.

F IGURE 20 . Mediator, Gelinu the Shaman. Keyframes of Gelinu the Shaman as narrated by Sia when she engages with the EverQuest guild Draconic Guardians.

The keyframe shows Gelinu with a screenshot that Sia enjoys. The first keyframe (Image 1) refers to feelings loaded with pride and joy that border on love. Fighting together with Draconic Guardians she is in the game to support the other members

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Some examples are reconstructed in the narrative: Food to Secure Strength, see chapter 5.

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of the guild (Image 2), healing and helping thus striving for leadership. The keyframe which shows her bazaar slave trading on the EverQuest market is chosen because it refers to her ambition of achieving a high ranking in crafting and trading (Image 3) as Sia finds that it makes almost more sense than fighting. Crafting, cooking, trading and systematising are agencies referenced by the keyframe that shows some of the content of her bags and shelves of the inventory (Image 4). By these steps taken Sia, in company with her avatar Gelinu the Shaman, engages with world-making to translate the affordances of EverQuest to let her strive for leadership and achievement as opposed to the many demands on her time and resources thus imposed. (See Appendices, Figures)

G APINESSES OF STEPPING BACK Sia’s struggle for leadership in company with her main avatar, Gelinu the shaman, makes sense to her and is the cause of the everincreasing demands, which strain her time and resources. At the time of the video interviews, Sia had stepped back as the leader of a largescale guild. The Draconic Guardians is a small guild compared to the one she was once leading. It was difficult to step back when confronted with the barriers of time and resources. However, as a former high-ranked and top-level guild leader, it makes more sense for her to step back down the ranks than it does to leave the world.

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PROFESSIONAL AVATARS It’s just like in real life. If someone has fifteen safety pins in her face, then you will have some specific reservations or a specific way to act in relation to her. And it is the same here in Second Life. – Janne In this section of chapter 6, I will now proceed to the analysis of the cases that have been chosen to exemplify engagement with Second Life and the participating actors’ choice of avatars. Again I have used the same questions for this section as for the description and analysis of the cases from EverQuest. The outline of content and analysis is also the same.

The quote that introduces this section reveals how Janne compares her experience from Second Life with her ‘real life’ to emphasise that there really is no significant difference.

The Second Life cases show a wide range of different avatars. From the outset, Mads’ avatar was a shared female avatar who was later transformed to become a man, Rob, with a necklace; Alice is Janne’s avatar with long legs, a narrow waist and stylish shoes. Helle’s avatar has different outfits so she can change her look depending on the situation. She can be dressed as a fantasy avatar that is sweet, fun and recognisable, but also as a business-like avatar214. DC Aspen is Thomas’s avatar. As a businessman in Second Life, Thomas needs an avatar that evokes trust and credibility and so he has chosen an avatar that resembles him.

ASSESSMENTS The avatar is the visible expression that accompanies the actor in the steps taken to become a member of groups and communities. Its appearance quickly reveals whether the actor has spent time and effort getting acquainted with the basic skills needed to provide a personal expression. Those with experience in Second Life can immediately evaluate a new avatar to see if there is experience and knowledge in the expression and design. First, clothes and

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The avatar has the same name as the owner Helle.

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accessories are analysed to see if they are standard and retrieved in the most common freebie boxes and malls, or if they are the result of subtle design requiring knowledge and skill. Another important question is whether it is a personal design. This initial analysis takes place almost unnoticed when avatars meet.

EXPERIENCE AND STATUS A zoom in on details of the design is also revealing. Are the outfits and accessories well adapted to the avatar? Many dress suits and shoes, necklaces, earrings, belts, hair and glasses can be too big, too broad or too small and require individual adaptation. A pair of high heels, which can be bought almost everywhere in Second Life, often require meticulous adaptation as it is hard to get a foot to fit the shoe.

Most shoes must usually be enlarged or reduced and there must be a fit on the foot with the right angle. Likewise suits are rarely a good fit and their adjustment requires knowledge of some of the basic design tools. Furthermore it all needs to be assessed from many angles of the 3D perspectives. In this way a single glance and zoom in on an avatar shows clearly the effort expended to acquire skills and knowledge of the world and the efforts made to engage and partake.

The desire to participate or maintain distance is expressed by the design. The avatar’s design can thus be seen as one of the many expressions of the world’s standards and norms.

With this follows an assessment of the avatar’s status. Avatars can quickly be placed within one of three categories: the inexperienced newbie, the experienced avatar and the master. In the large mass role-playing games, the avatar’s appearance and design is a symbol of status that commands respect. In a virtual world like Second Life, the focus is on the avatars as mediators of status, because there is no explicit assessment in the form of levels. Standards, norms and the status signified by the avatar can be quite daunting for beginners.

Offers of help are very often given to newcomers, which indicates that others can immediately see one’s status as a newcomer. This can feel intrusive.

The initial reactions and comments I received as an inexperienced newbie avatar all pointed in the direction of my

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status as a newbie. In interactions with other avatars I was positioned as helpless in relation to assertive statements such as: It is obvious that this is a new world for you and that you feel among strangers. In other words, they expressed my newcomer status. –Karen215 These conditions affect communication between avatars. It is acceptable to inquire about clothes, design and digital objects that are fascinating, or animations and gestures that are fun and impressive. The recognition of experience, the adherence to standards and norms, the status achieved, and the many assessments are some of the mediations made possible by avatars in a virtual world like Second Life.

PERSONALISING An example of how the avatar’s design may influence communication comes from personal experience. The first version of my avatar design was sporadic. I did not do much to design new eyes, get new skin, get shoes or buy new hair; rather, she was a standardised avatar and her clothes had only few adjustments and a new eco t-shirt. A chat interview with the avatar Viva made the effects of this clear. After a while, Viva said that my avatar affected the conversation in a negative way. My avatar was more like a template than a person. Thus, it was difficult to get a sense of presence. This made me reconsider the design. The template-like appearance clearly created a sense of distance.

CHAT: SENSE OF PRESENCE Viva: When I see an avatar, for me, it creates a sense of presence; soon after, the avatar is perceived as a human being.

Chenet: “Yes, I believe presence is a key word.

Viva: You have chosen a special avatar that may restrict your options if you want to contact the residents in-world.

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Karen is one of the students taking a course about communication and design in virtual worlds in 2008.

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Chenet: Sure? But she was the first avatar that I chose in Second Life, and - LOOL - I cannot just leave her.

Viva: Well, it is not that you are not cute, but you are not present for me; you feel like just an avatar.

Viva: Can you follow me?

Chenet: Yes, I can.

-Viva, Chenet

A FULL-TIME JOB AND TRUST A DEFAULT AVATAR Thomas is not really interested in the looks of his avatar. His interest in Second Life is systematically focused on the idea of being an estate agent in Second Life. The idea of creating an island fascinates him, and he would like to turn this fascination into his living. This makes the design of his avatar important as if it is not convincing, it may be difficult to do business in Second Life. His customers will be unsure of him, and it will be difficult to build the trust and respect that is needed. This becomes clear to Thomas one day when, after months of intensive design work, he is confronted with his appearance.

My avatar looks like this at the moment. In the beginning I used a default avatar because appearance has never really interested me – neither here nor in real life. It was only when I started getting some complaints from people who said that I looked stupid that I realized I had better do something about it. – Thomas His avatar looked like a newbie with default clothes and hairstyle so Thomas was forced to go shopping and decided to find a dinner jacket. This made little difference as a dinner jacket is also an outfit often used by beginners. He continued shopping for new clothes and new skin to comply with the current standards for looking businesslike and credible. His avatar’s design and appearance proved to be of great importance to running a business and having a full-time job in Second Life.

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T RUSTWORTHY APPEARANCE The current look of the avatar DC Aspen resembles Thomas. This is fully intended. It was a difficult look to create because virtual clothes, hair, skin and shoes are designed for younger people. If one is a bit older, it may be hard to find something that fits. This is thought-provoking.

Now my hair is short and receding. I am a middle-aged man now. Virtually all the skins – I have looked at hundreds – they are all for younger people. There are no adult males. Therefore, my avatar is far too young. He is probably in his 30s. But believe me, I have looked, and looked, and looked. He is the closest I have come my real life appearance. – Thomas Skin is a crucial sign and there are a wealth of products to choose from in malls with many freebies or in specialty shops that require more time to find. Thomas has little time for this and often feels like he is wasting his time although he recognises the importance of his avatar design.

My skin, I had to buy it. Was it L$ 2,000? I think so. That is 40 kroner or something like that, so that was okay. And the clothes are also bought; I do not remember the cost. I had to find some clothes that were a little business-like. I am at work when I'm in here. – Thomas R EAL ESTATE AGENT The requirements for DC Aspen’s looks are not just the similarity with the owner behind. The appearance has to be in accordance with his business. In Thomas’ case, this means that the avatar needs to refer to his profession as a virtual real estate agent. Fortunately for Thomas, there are residents who earn money designing avatars. He shows me the building next to his real estate agency office at the corner of Korsbæk’s town square, which is the store where he ended up buying his avatar’s current appearance.

It's the old theatre stock. It is a Second Life store. He creates avatars. It is only the looks you buy. A Shrek avatar here [pointing]. If you have always dreamed of being like a playboy,

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then you now can for L$ 450, or a roligan, a supergirl, or a superman. –Thomas

A FUN MASCOT AND A BUSINESS WOMAN F UNNY AND BUSINESS - LIKE One of the main success criteria in Second Life is how an avatar appears to others. Helle’s eponymous avatar can change how she looks. On the one hand, she is a company mascot, a fantasy figure that resembles a sweet and funny ball or balloon and, on the other hand, she is a business-like avatar. She has made an effort not to look sexy because she is in Second Life on behalf of the company she works in to experiment with possible opportunities of Second Life.

Her picture and avatar need to create trust. The avatar should be approachable as well as slightly unusual so it is easily recognisable.

The avatar is designed for her business experiments so it is crucial that it attracts attention.

I also have a very business-like avatar outfit. – Helle Helle has a lot of clothes together with skin, hair, shoes and evening dresses; her virtual wardrobes are full to bursting. There has been a great deal of power shopping going on but there is order in the cupboards of Helle’s inventory.

So I just put it up here. Here you can see. Here are my favourites [pointing]. Then there is something in here [pointing], it reads evening dresses, not big but elegant; there are those below and these trousers, [pointing] these are business-wear and shoes, they also have their own colour. I shop a lot. It is important when you have to find something, right? I have organised it, so I can now quickly go in and find whatever I need. – Helle Little in her avatar design is left to chance as it is important to create a good first impression. An avatar that waddles does not look good so she will have to wear a smart animation to make her walk in a professional manner. The next step is the choice of skin for the avatar. This also takes a lot of shopping. At least ten different skins

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are in Helle’s inventory. However, it is her first skin, which is still in use. It has become a part of the avatar. To replace her first skin would alienate her to the avatar.

I have been around looking for skin. But after I got used to my first skin, then I cannot get used to any of the others, because this is her skin. Otherwise, I look unfamiliar. I have one skin here with which I look a little darker. It makes my avatar look grumpy. Here you can see the difference. I also have extra eyelashes to give a little extra. And then you can buy body oil, which makes you shine. The skin really makes the difference. – Helle The avatar’s hair has been replaced. She wanted to find hair which is as natural as possible. The first hairstyle was large and adventurous but it was also very unnatural, even in colour. Helle had to take time to find hair that looked as natural as possible, preferably hair that looks like her real hair.

I NTEGRITY AND DOUBLE STANDARDS Helle alternates between two outfits: the funny and the business-like.

Sometimes the avatar wears the mascot’s costume and at other times the businesswoman look. However, she still has only one avatar although it would be possible to have one for business use and one that is private. This is not because of a lack of avatars. When Helle moved into Second Life, over the first month there was a limit of L$ 13,000 on the amount a new avatar could spend on shopping. This was not a restriction she could accept. So for each new avatar she created, she could spend another L$ 13,000. She created 15 avatars, which are now ghost avatars. The reason why Helle refrains from more than one active avatar has to do with her sense of integrity. She would feel a loss of integrity; almost like double standards.

There are also some fellow avatars who ask: Why do you not have two avatars in here; one entirely private, and another for business? But, it would be the same as having a double standard. It would be difficult to separate the two. It is I, Helle, who is in this avatar, who has this network in Second Life. If I came with a different name, then I would not be able to use

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my network in the same way. And I would not own the same things, for you cannot divide your things and inventory between two avatars. It would be a real mess. – Helle It is possible if one has two or more completely different networks in Second Life, but it would be experienced as strange and wrong to enter another name and another avatar for Helle: "I'm the one there!" she says and points to the screen.

THE SERIOUS LITERARY AND COLLEAGUES S HARED AVATAR In the beginning of the Literary project, the team shared a single avatar; a woman who, occasionally, was transformed to a man. It was confusing and an unusual blend of the sexes. Three colleagues used the shared avatar to experiment with the virtual world. She was originally a plump and serious-looking little avatar, very literary in style, almost a visualisation of the stereotypes of an intellectual worker as someone who is boring. The idea of the shared avatar was to let everybody at the project’s workplace get a chance to try out Second Life. However, the change of sexes proved to be too confusing; one day the avatar was a woman and the next day a man depending on who had most recently used the avatar.

This is a man. In the beginning he was a she. We created an avatar for the institution as such, and the idea was that everybody could test the avatar. And it was a woman. We tried to walk around the world with the avatar. When I walked around with her, then - I did not find it particularly pleasant. – Mads As they shared the same avatar, it was never possible to know what the avatar would look like at the next log on. The contacts and friendships made by the avatar complicated the transfer and sharing between several persons.

In the beginning, I met people who turned out to be colleagues. As soon as contacts and friendships evolved then it

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was impractical that there were several people behind the avatar. – Mads R EPRESENTING THE WORKPLACE Finally the avatar became Mads’ avatar because he had created most of the design of the project’s place and he had the workplace credit card. For Mads, it was unpleasant to move around in Second Life as a woman, so he decided to transform the avatar to a man. However, being a woman from the outset left its mark and the avatar still wears a necklace that cannot be removed.

The chain is a remnant from the days when he was a woman. I can’t remove or change it. So it is a legacy from back then, when he started as a woman. – Mads In the beginning, he had a punky Mohawk hairstyle and tattoos. The Mohawk was changed and the avatar got new hair, a t-shirt with the Literary project’s name, and the eyes were made bigger to make him look happier as in the beginning Rob looked a little dangerous in Mads’ view. This did not work well because he represented the workplace. There are limits to how an avatar representing the workplace can be designed.

So I have given him some more hair, and now he wears the institution's t-shirt. He is the most official of our avatars. He represents us. – Mads

MAD ABOUT SHOES AND NOT FLIP FLOPS O N THE EDGE There are some young people who dress up in almost cartoonlike ways with jet-black sharp bobs, or funny wigs that resemble something from Pulp Fiction. So, I’m always thinking, wow, this would make a really good avatar! It is a little dangerous, I think. Then I start thinking ‘should I stop it here’ or what? – Janne This quote shows how Janne gets inspiration for avatar design and her concern about the boundary between her daily life and her life in the virtual world. In Second Life, design is often realised in

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metaphorical forms that can affect the way in which one sees daily life. For example, some avatar designers start to see others as if they were avatars and subconsciously get inspiration for avatar design from people they meet. Janne is aware of this which is why she asks if it has gone too far. This does not mean that she is less committed to the design of her avatar, Alice. The avatar resembles her owner only with longer legs, a slimmer waist and red hair.

Here you get a chance to have it the way you can’t in real life; slender waist again like when I was young, and long legs, which I have never had before, even when I was young. – Janne S TYLISH SHOES Her companion avatar’s facial expression is interesting because it looks slightly like a baby face. At first, her hair was template-like but now the red hair is flexible and covered by something that looks like a cap. She found it in a freebie shop. The cap causes reactions because some people think it looks like a beak while others think it looks like a pixie hat. It was chosen because it conceals problematic design.

The hair comes with such a strange cap. If you remove it - I have tried to manipulate - it looks really ugly. Then it is just some long stripes, which end sticking up. And then there are some other thingies, sticking up. The person who has created the hair, covered it with this strange cap. – Janne Janne’s interest in appearance, hair and clothes pales into insignificance when compared with her love of shoes. She never compromises on shoes and they are always bought and not found in freebie stores.

I wear free clothes, which I found in a freebie shop; but never my shoes. For in here, I also love shoes. I have actually bought my shoes. Mmm, I love shoes. I like the ones with high heels.

Alice does not wear sandals – that is for sure. – Janne

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Janne makes demands when it comes to shoes. In doing so, it is difficult to distinguish between the avatar and Janne. One of the first things she did as a newcomer was to find stylish shoes for her avatar.

This was a must!

I MPRESSIONS AND EXPECTATIONS The use of avatars makes Second Life different from a chat forum.

From looking at how others have designed their avatars, one makes assumptions about the owner. These assumptions may be wrong but, as in other situations, they impact the expectations and the way one acts and communicates, says Janne.

If I meet someone who has a goth-like outfit, someone who I do not know, then I will act differently than if it is an avatar that looks like a cute girl or someone who resembles Jane Doe – Janne The design and appearance of the avatar produce an impression and an image of the person who owns it. It paints a fuller picture than is possible in a traditional chat room. This is perhaps illusory, but it is the way it is experienced. In Second Life impression, imagination and fascination are part of the game. There are knights on the white horses, fabulous creatures and beautiful people. All of this falls flat if the illusion is broken. Although Second Life can use voice chat, some users consider voice chat as an intrusion into this fantasy world as it can interrupt the fictional, and often fantastical, universe. The voice is a uniquely personal physical expression of its owner that reveals many details. Some actors find that these personal details can interfere with the romanticism and imagination of Second Life in a way that destroys their fascination.

CHAT: AFTER VOICE CHAT Chenet: Nice to meet you – do you often visit WD? Lune: Up and down – pre-voice I did.

Chenet: Why not after-voice?

Lune: Voices kill the magic and adventure!

Chenet: It may be said.

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Lune: Second Life turns into a bit of real life.

Chenet: Well, nice, see you ;-)) Lune: Chenet! The virtual world-makings is cool, inspiring fascinating superheroes; but in voice they suddenly become Benny from the North-West!

Lune: When the voice comes in!

-Chenet, Lune

ANALYSIS 4. PERSONAL MEDIATORS OF SECOND LIFE With reference to the rich accounts of the actors, the empirical analysis will now follow the same steps as in the EverQuest cases.

P ERSONALISING THE PROFESSIONAL When listening to the narratives about the actors’ Second Life avatars it appears making sense of them is a matter of personal expression by design. In personalising the design of the avatar, actors build up an attachment and affiliation of bonding. The personal expression also means that other avatars get a sense of the actor’s presence and can imagine the owner. Designing, however, takes skill and knowledge, which means that learning is closely linked to this process. Avatar design is an important skill and activity that influences relationships with other residents of the world. A standardised look, or the look of an avatar dressed up in clothes, skins, hair, eyes and accessories from freebie boxes, indicate that the owner of the avatar has spent no time or money acquiring the necessary design skills and knowledge.

Appearance is also important in communication and the first impression of an avatar’s looks invites comment. In fact, commenting on appearance is a frequent way of initiating contact. Comments are often made if the avatar’s looks convey the impression that an avatar needs help in upgrading the design according to Second Life standards and norms. A poor appearance is likely to mark the actor as a newbie, which indicates low status. Assessing status based on the design and looks of avatars requires skill, subtlety and the ability to design which in turn require an investment of time, a commitment to Second Life and a portion of imagination.

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However, other verbings relate to the professionalising of the avatars.

If the engaging with Second Life is aimed at business purposes or other professional engagements, then in many cases, the design of the avatar also has to take into consideration the norms of the offline world as well as Second Life standards. In these cases, the avatar design may be adjusted to resemble the owner. Thus, conforming the looks according to offline norms and standards influences the forms of expression and imagination. It also increases feelings of trustworthiness and credibility, which are so important if one is running a business or a serious project, for example renting out land or selling services.

R UNNING A SERIOUS BUSINESS Together with his avatar DC Aspen, Thomas is struggling to make a reality of his mediating program and vision to run a serious Second Life business. Working full time, he continuously has to counter the threat of attracting no customers to his business. This is the everpresent struggle that makes sense to his engagement with Second Life business.

As he runs an in-world real estate agency, Thomas’s design of his avatar, DC Aspen, is a reshaping of the cultural image of a typical businessman-look (1: Reshaping businessman). Even if clothes and appearance are not important to Thomas in his offline life, he decides to take this part of his business seriously, as it influences the chances of attracting customers. The looks of his avatar are changed in order to inspire trust (2: Trust building). To appear trustworthy, he chooses a design that mediates seriousness as well as professionalism in a way that is recognisable to his customers (3: Professionalising).

The design of his avatar, as well as the design of the island and his office, is part of this struggle to mediate trustworthiness and seriousness. It is a struggle that takes into consideration his new profession as a real estate agent as it involves many sales speeches about his island and business (4: Working). Sales is not part of his earlier work life experience so he has no professional experience on which to draw but it is expected and necessary if he is to be able to convince his customers.

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F IGURE 21 . Mediator, DC Aspen. Keyframes of DC Aspen as narrated by Thomas when he engages with the Second Life business Wonder DK. The first keyframe of his companion DC Aspen shows a reshaped businessman (Image 1). The second keyframe refers to the businessman with a background view of his business island with the provincial town Korsbæk (Image 2). These keyframes refer to the qualities and feelings of trust that are vital when starting a business in Second Life. To professionalise his businessman appearance, an outfit is bought (Image 3). Standing in front of his real estate office (Image 4) the keyframe refers to the narratives about how to build up and work with an in-world business to make a living. By these steps taken, Thomas, in company with his avatar DC Aspen, engages with world-making to translate the affordances of Second Life to serve his efforts to appear trustworthy and serious as opposed to inexperienced and newbie-like. (See Appendices, Figures)

Following the many steps taken by Thomas leads us to a struggle of mediating his program and vision as he seeks to attract customers by acting convincingly and seriously, thus mediating professionalism.

G APINESSES OF TRUSTWORTHINESS Thomas’ focus is on the design of his new business island. Gradually, however, he is confronted by expectations, norms and standards with regard to his avatar design and profession in the world of Second Life. Even if he personally takes no interest in his avatar’s appearance, he is forced to take it into consideration in order to appear trustworthy as opposed to inexperienced and newbie-like.

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J UGGLING OPPORTUNITIES Helle’s avatar has a range of different appearances and outfits.

Together with her avatar, she is struggling to realise the mediating program and visions of making the absolute most of the opportunities available in Second Life. Helle seeks to counter any limitation to this as it makes sense to her to juggle with her avatar and have fun.

Different carefully-designed outfits216 mediate her presence. Stepping in-world, she can take on the shape of a companion avatar that resembles herself, a self-portrait-like avatar that bears witness to Helle’s skilful design (1: Personalising). With this avatar, she engages with the world in casual or professional mediation, as her inventory is full of outfits and accessories (2: Professionalising). The egg or balloon-like avatar is favoured when she is present with the Times project; this avatar allows her to travel around and attract attention to her business project (3: Working). Helle takes pleasure in exploring opportunities and in experimenting with her appearance by swapping between a balloon-like avatar and a dressed-up avatar in business suits or exquisite gowns (Juggling 4).

In processing the video interviews, the recordings show how Helle, continuously changes her avatar’s appearance and outfits. A recurring motif is the need to attract attention, be it through professional design or through funny appearances; these are important mediations, as it makes sense to Helle to be in the world of Second Life for both professional and serious purposes and not just to socialise and chat.

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In Second Life an avatar can change shape and looks by wearing outfits that completely change its appearance.

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F IGURE 22 . Mediator, Helle. Keyframes of Helle as narrated by Helle when she engages with the Second Life business Times. The keyframe with a close-up portrait of the avatar Helle (Image 1) refers to Helle choosing an avatar with the identical name Helle. Looking at all the keyframes the differences in the avatar Helle’s appearance become apparent. The professional outfit (Image 2) is the conspicuous looks of her working avatar (Image 3) and the juggling with appearances (Image 4).

The keyframes chosen refer to feelings of curiosity, eagerness and fun that recur throughout Helle’s narratives. To build-up professional as well as personal in-world networks, the multiple outfits of the avatar Helle refer to her adaptation to quite different instances of world-making – socialising, working and designing – that span both personal and professional relations. Through these steps, Helle, in company with her avatar Helle, engages with world-making to translate the affordances of Second Life to serve her efforts to build networks in ways which adapt to in-world conditions and standards as opposed to the expectations of her other workplace.

(See Appendices, Figures)

G APINESSES OF ACCEPTANCE In Helle’s case there are tensions between what makes sense to her workplace as opposed to the Second Life project. The funny avatars easily adapt to the in-world project but are not convincing to the top managers of her workplace and to business contacts, which include some major Danish enterprises. Therefore, Helle has to specialise and create avatars that are suited to different occasions.

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R EPRESENTING THE WORKPLACE Mads’ avatar has undergone many changes in order to realise his mediating program and visions, which are to experiment with the professional traditions and practices of his workplace. Not everything is acceptable for professional purposes, even in a world like Second Life. The trajectories of his struggling with the tensions generated because of the provocative appearance of his avatar are visualised in the keyframes below. As depicted, Rob is a male but from the outset he was a female, an avatar shared by the staff members at his workplace (1: Sharing). However, the sharing caused much confusion, so Mads took the most important step of making Rob a personal rather than a shared workplace avatar (2: Personalising).

In this process, Rob is changed taking into consideration the public and professional opinions and standards. He gets new hair, a t-shirt with the project’s name on it and a happy look. So, on the one hand, Rob is changed to make him a personal avatar; on the other, it is necessary to take into consideration the professional aim of the project, which represents a public institution. Thus, the personalising and the professionalising of Mads’ avatar is a double-sided process.

When meeting with other avatars and colleagues, the avatar mediates the professional project (3: Professionalising).

After Mads’ redesign of his avatar, the avatar fades into the background because Rob primarily focuses his engagement on design and experimentation. (4: Experimenting).

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F IGURE 23 . Mediator, Rob. Keyframes of Rob as narrated by Mads when he engages with the Second Life project Literary. The first keyframe refers to the design of the avatar Rob (Image 1) or rather to the processes of redesign by many translations: from being a shared female Rob becomes a personal male avatar. In the close-up keyframe of Rob there are still traces left from the shared female as unsuccessful attempts have been made to remove the necklace (Image 2). This keyframe is chosen with reference to Mads’ feelings of displeasure when accompanied by a female avatar. The sense of revivifying a traditional professional practice by in-world discussion, debate and provocation is referenced by the keyframe of one of the Literary’s meetings (Image 3) and this is also the reference made by the keyframe in the fourth image showing Rob in the process of design experiments creating some spacy meditation bubbles (Image 4). By these steps taken, Mads, in company with his avatar Rob, engages with world-making and translates the affordances of Second Life to let him strive to personalise a professional avatar as opposed to sharing a mutual workplace avatar. This allows him to experiment with and challenge traditions of his profession. (See Appendices, Figures)

G APINESSES OF SHARING AN AVATAR In the process of designing his avatar, Mads is confronted with two kinds of tensions. Sharing a workplace avatar is the first step taken in the program to convince his workplace that the world of Second Life is worth exploring. The sharing of an avatar is, however, too frustrating. Social contacts and inventory are confused and displaced when different people use the avatar. Early on, steps are taken to make Rob his companion. The shared avatar, therefore, is personalised. In this process, Mads experiences the tensions between

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a personalised avatar-look as opposed to representing the project of a public institution. Subsequently, his avatar’s looks are changed from a punk-like provocateur to a young man with a contemporary look wearing a t-shirt with the project’s name and logo.

P LAYING ON THE BOUNDARY Accompanied by her avatar Alice, Janne is playing around on the boundaries between the Second Life project and her other work life.

Playing around makes sense to her. It is the mediating program and visions of her engagement to push the borders of her profession as mediated by the avatar Alice. In pursuing this program, she is struggling with the tensions generated by the set traditions of her profession.

When asked during the video interviews, she stresses the fact that the face of her avatar has been carefully designed to give it a personal expression (1: Expressing), whereas the hair and clothes are bought in freebie shops on a quick shopping tour around Second Life’s many shopping places. The flexi freebie hair is poorly designed, which is why it is covered by a cap (2: Dressing). This is not important to Janne who is mostly engaged in experiencing the world. With a slender waist and long legs, Alice has a shapely and sexy look that challenges the cultural images of her profession (3: Shaping); not much effort and agency has been invested in shopping as Janne quickly moves on to see and experience as much as possible. When it comes to her shoes, however, she is willing to invest much more time. Shoes mean everything to her. Finding stylish shoes like the ones she would wear offline is a matter of importance (4: Shoe shopping). Travelling around Second Life with ugly freebie shoes of poor design is unthinkable, even if her stylish shoes are expensive by Second Life standards.

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F IGURE 24 . Mediator, Alice. Keyframes of Alice as narrated by Janne when she engages with the Second Life project Literary. The close-up keyframe of Alice is chosen with reference to her explicit effort to create a companion avatar with an expressive facial design (Image 1), an explorer as shown by the keyframe of Alice in front of the spacy meditation bubbles (Image 2). They both refer to Janne’s strong feelings of emotional engagement and the feelings of an almost childish curiosity, eagerness, joy of playing and the ensuing fun of extraordinary almost psychedelic experiences. Her dress bears witness to the eagerness and speed of Janne’s engagement as Alice’s clothes are all freebies (Image 3) except for her shoes (Image 4). Janne’s attachment to shoes is of great importance to her in the design of her companion avatar Alice. By these steps taken, Janne, in company with her avatar Alice, engages with world-making and translates the affordances of Second Life to let her strive for fun and to push the borders of her profession as opposed to set professional conformity. (See Appendices, Figures)

G APINESSES OF PLAYFULNESS Playing around on the edges of conformity, Janne is struggling to resist the many norms that tend to guide the practicing professionals of her field. Her mediating program and visions are to signify and visualise a playful and explorative approach to her profession as opposed to set traditions.

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7. RELATIONSHIPS When you see someone who can play his class almost perfectly, then you can sit back and simply say: it is fantastic.

–Janus The outline and content of chapter 7 follow the previous two chapters with thick descriptions and subsequent analysis although there are some differences. The questions subject to analysis are similar for the EverQuest and Second Life case studies but their focus is different, as I will take into account the different characteristics of the games of EverQuest and the user-generated world of Second Life.

In the EverQuest cases, cooperation and competition are accentuated, while the focus is on business and networking in the Second Life cases.

The quotation which introduces chapter 7 has been chosen because it shows how the player Janus experiences that the game is not just about competing and winning but about the aesthetic experiences that are also integral parts of the game. His admiration for players who master the game shines through the quote and this feeling recurs in the many narratives of the other participating actors.

The questions that guide me through the empirical analysis of this chapter are: • •

How do actors engage with other avatars and actors?

What is it that makes sense for actors to engage the way they do?

GUILDS AND RAIDS IN EVERQUEST BATTLEFIELDS AND FIGHTING Janus and Sia are out fighting monsters together with members of Draconic Guardians, which is the guild in which they almost always

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play. Members of the guild come from Denmark, Holland and England. As told in the subsequent narrative, they are fighting against ukus. Constantly, their language changes between in-game Englishspoken coordination supported by the guild’s team speak and the English and Danish languages that are spoken in front of the computers where Janus and Sia play together. The fight is coordinated on two levels: the in-world actors must know about the characteristics of each participating avatar and with that the implications for micro-coordination on the battlefield, but the two actors in front of the computers must also coordinate their actions and the choices they make in the course of split seconds. Let us now follow them to the battlefield whilst they are fighting mobs: NARRATIVE 4: FIGHTING MOBS THAT DROP VALUABLES – JANUS, SIA Janus: Okay, I’m going to, yep; I’m moving back a little; be careful out there, go back, I’m moving on a bit, oh yeah, move it fast, okay resisted.

Sia: I’m casting again, dragon is slowed, calling a spell, you need a spell.

J: Enough, yeah.

S: I’ll throw a few dots on it.

In a split second, Janus is inattentive so he will need help [author].

J: Damn it! Just calling: it hit me. I’m over here; thank you! (...) I think you have to remind me not to attack too early.

A new mob shows up on the battlefield. Immediately, Sia evaluates it while estimating her own ability to go into action all the while still attentive to the other players’ needs. [author] S: [to guild] Okay, so there is an uku. They are hard but drop valuable things. [to me] Earlier, I threw bain, which is a curse, then you get 440 in damage down here [pointing]. It will then run every 6 seconds. The mob also throws things at me which means that I get on a snare which makes me move slowly (...) Janus just said in the team speak that he had to tag the spells cast on the mob to make it run.

Right now, there is another mob, but the second one is far away (...) [to guild] Yes! It’s rooted! Oh no! Not anymore. Now it’s only a bit slowed. Aah! Okay. [to me] It is this multitasking! I considered whether to root the mob, but then one of the other players died. Not because I’m in trouble yet. [to guild] Yes, you will get healed over time – more than 50%. [to me] Now he got healed over time, healing every 6 seconds 700, or 630, for a while. It is not super long.

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The fight is worth it. Fun things and valuables await the team if they defeat the monsters. Then the mobs will drop the things and valuables that correspond to the levels of the role-players. These are attractive things, so they hold their position. Sia constantly monitors the needs of the other role-players in the difficult battle situations. She has chosen an interface that provides automatic feedback on the other role-players’ status. It is difficult to read and it requires considerable experience. [author] S: I can see that Janus has lost his region now. I have a feature here which reports each time any of the others lose. You do not have to have it, but I have chosen to.

Then he need not say ‘oh, I’ve lost region’. I can heal Janus when he is down to 77.

Then he gets a heal over time. It costs less mana than if you just heal it all at once, [to guild] yep yep.

But the threats are getting ever more dangerous. The difficulties are piling up for the group of role-players who must use their talents and skills to the utmost. [author] J: Problems, yes! We will have to fight the four-legged mobs with spikes. They are hard and fast. [to me] Some of these mobs they just look so ugly. [to guild]Okay! [to me] But at least the troll holds them back. (...) [to guild] Yeah; let's try to take down the scorpions and move that way, yep yep. [to me] I will have a look in the zone to see who else is there as two other mobs are now beyond us.

It seems that there is a need for a retreat to get a break and to consider a new approach so players can regain control of the situation.

In the battle, the actors have to be able to multi-task, to coordinate quickly and to have an overview of the status of each of the roleplayers in the guild. This means they need detailed knowledge of the many talents, skills and also the personal style of play that is associated with the various classes and characters.

In some of their many narratives, we will now follow the actors and their avatars as they fight, compete and cooperate.

C HOOSING A MISSION In most zones of EverQuest, the actors will have to ‘group’. The missions and raids chosen determine how many role-players are in a group, and the classes, levels and equipment needed to defend the group and defeat the monsters. Sia and Janus are on their way to a mission with their avatars Perplexed and Krongh. They are meeting with Ralf and Tom who are both from their guild Draconic Guardians.

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[to guild] So we will go to zone … ‘welcome back Thomas’ … here we go. Kill 55. [to me] It tells us where to go, and how many monsters we will have to kill. Then we will go to the portal here [pointing] that teleports us to the zone. It saves a lot of time; otherwise we would have to run. – Janus The small group has to select a mission based on an assessment of their strength. There are many raid zones where they cannot go because they require great strength of the various classes and especially so of the individual avatars. Success depends on how each avatar is played up in level and strength, and also on the equipment provided.

Sia: Our small group, our guild, we would not be able to cope with the zones that are harder than this one.

Janus: It’s the equipment that makes the difference. – Janus, Sia If the guild was larger, they could achieve more but this would require either a fairly large group if the members were at the same level or some top-tuned guild members.

If I was involved in a larger guild it would require about 35 people, or 17 top-tuned avatars. We have neither the 17 toptuned avatars nor the 30 members. – Janus V ALUABLES AND YIELD On a mission, Janus and Sia assess with the guild the things a monster can drop. It is the equipment dropped by the monsters that make it worth fighting against such a formidable adversary. The various mobs drop different skills and equipment. There is a constant balancing of the cost and benefits of the droppings. Mobs drop things such as augmentations, spells and equipment. All of these can be used in the many battles when the individual avatar is fighting together with the group. Sia seeks to improve her equipment and also her ability to heal. There is also the additional prospect of a dividend in the form of valuables that can be sold at the bazaar.

This mob can drop some good stuff [pointing]. Here! Yep, yep.

It can be used for augmentations. It is a special thing that can

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be used on your armour to give you a bonus so you will be better, for instance, at healing. The mobs can drop something that you use to produce the augmentations, and some of it can be sold for 17,500 plat pieces to other role-plays at the bazaar.

– Sia Often, it is not a dividend that will only benefit the individual roleplayer. In the small guild Draconic Guardians they share the valuables. Cooperation is a way to play-up the group so there is a balance between the individual gain and the common benefit.

I will take what they drop because most of the things that drop will have some value. So we will sell them when we're done and then share the yield. – Sia Playing in a larger guild would help them get better equipment and other things that can be gained from the stronger monsters. These things have a higher value, but the role-players do not have the strength.

There are zones we would like to go to; zones where some of the spells that I need will drop. But we are not strong enough to go there. Ralf’s warrior, for instance, he must have a high armour class - higher than he has now (...) It is difficult and not easy to get, if you do not have the armour class then you will die. – Janus Sometimes profits are also shared with other guilds in a selfless manner. One day Sia is invited to a raid in a slightly larger guild. She knows one of the guild members who recommended her to the guild leader. It is not easy to be allowed to join as it takes only one avatar that is not played-up in level to weaken the entire group. The larger guild is on a raid after a big monster that drops a breast plate, which is a piece of equipment that Sia needs. The guild lets her get the yield of the fight: the desired breast plate.

I was allowed to roll a dice and I won. The others had the breast plate; they just wanted it as a trophy. I was allowed to roll on it because I had done my part of the job. – Sia

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Sia tells of an acquaintance who is not in the Draconic Guardians.

This gamer plays sporadically. At times she is online very intensively around the clock. Other times she disappears for long periods of time. She invited Sia on a mission even though she did not have to.

When the mission ended, Sia got a magnificent thing as a gift.

Then she said ‘join the group here’ and she cropped up something that I was sure not to throw on the ground.

Something that was absolutely fantastic. And it was a gift because she did not have to offer it. – Sia T IMING AND ATTENTION Much depends on a good configuration of classes and on the individual players. In principle the classes may be able to do the same, but they still need to be played well. Playing well depends on concentration, alertness, views, quick responsiveness and the ability to assess the exact needs of a given situation. It gets easier in a guild if it is based on cooperation. Janus, Sia, Ralf and Tom have played with a certain configuration of avatars so often that they know each other’s style of playing inside out.

Ralf, the monk, is the ultimate class to pull the mobs, the ultimate puller class. The good thing is that he can retrieve one mob at a time although they are close to each other. Earlier, three mobs attacked us because I was too fast. I started to retreat, so I threw too early. Then came the three mobs, but it is not a major problem with this configuration as we have fought in it very often. – Janus The timing of the guild is right because they have played together so often. Timing is an important factor and role-players often have to react in a matter of split seconds. If the actor reacts too early or too late, incorrectly assesses strength or ill times the response, it can influence the outcome. [to guild] Do you want me to pull, or do you want to try to pull with Galvec? [to me] The mob will go close so he can cast a spell on us. [to guild] Okay, [to me] Sia goes outside to pull monsters. If we just run then we will have everything at us at

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once. There was one over there! I should be behind them because that is where I do the most damage. So hopefully they will not come because Sia has more hitpoints than me; she can better defend herself against them. I can do more damage, but if they turn on me, then I am for it. – Janus Sometimes, the team gets into trouble, although the members of the group know each other well. Sia is in the game with the avatar Perplexed but she has not been paying sufficient attention and has missed a timely response. She should have ensured that the monsters were slow in their attack. Instead, they now come quickly so she is beaten and dies. It affects the group as a whole. [to guild] I got hit for 179, but mostly below 100; no, 24 – that was 29; 106 and 85 – not a lot but enough. I forgot to press down the button, sorry! (to me) I think the main problem is that they are not slowed. If we only had my shaman! Now, we will be beaten. – Sia Although Perplexed dies in this battle she can be revived by a cleric.

I have died this way before then I popped up where I had found my soul, as they say, completely naked. I lost xps, but then went back to get the things from my dead body. A cleric came to resurrect me. –Sia D AVID FIGHTS G OLIATH With his avatar gnome Gnossiz, Jan is in battle with a monster – a terrifying mob. In many zones, actors will have to group to win. The mobs are programmed so that only groups of varying sizes and composition can defeat them. Yet Jan’s wily avatar, Gnossiz, has found a way around this so he can fight solo as a gnome against the mobs. The mob that Gnossiz faces must be met with a group of at least three or more members. It is a Cyclops-like giant. The thought that comes to mind is David’s battle against Goliath, which is an analogy that obviously delights Jan as he is proud of his standing.

Despite the fact that only a group of more than three can defeat the giant, he plays with only one gnome, and still manages to earn xps.

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This is only possible because of his superior fighting techniques and equipment, he says.

In reality, I could not kill him, but I have found a way. Now I just stun him in the head, cast a spell right in the head at him.

Now I freeze him so that he cannot run after me. I am on good distance. Hope he does not cast spells, because he can also cast spells. But I have got resistance. He has many hitpoints.

So, look! Here he comes! It was just to experiment. Look!

When he sees me, see how fast it goes. I have the equipment to do it. A stroke, now he is stunned again. It cost half of my life. –Jan In a later fight, Jan meets one of the monsters that can only be defeated by a group. This monster is difficult to fight solo. Gnossiz resists and survives by only a hair’s breadth. Depending on what he needs, Jan goes to different zones and chooses to fight with monsters that are dropping things of value. In one of the zones the fight is against lions that drop good things especially if the king lion is popped. When the king lion is popped, it is killed and it pops-up after an hour. It does so in many rounds so it takes time to pop. The reward is that players acquire the things that are dropped. These are valuable things that can strengthen and improve the avatar. Gnossiz meets a royal lion that drops a belt of great value to him.

S ELFISHNESS AND JEALOUSIES The battle between Gnossiz and the mobs, which can only be fought by a group has made some of the other players jealous, says Jan. They are jealous of the fact that his gnome can fight solo. They claim that the gnomes and the wizards have become too strong and so they have complained to the game owners. Therefore, changes in the design have been made to stop this. There can be fierce competition and rivalry between groups and certainly not always mutual respect.

But then, they have tried to make it harder for me (...) This is because there are some players who have complained. They say that the gnomes and wizards have become too strong. It is pure envy. They could have been a different race which does not get the abilities of the wizards and gnomes. But, surely,

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they [other gamers] did not spend the ten minutes reading what the different races can do. –Jan The fighting does not always further cooperation and selflessness. It can also create greed. Some role-players have no morals; they steal and pursue quite selfish goals instead of thinking of the group; some also act with no respect for others, according to Jan who has firsthand experience of this type of player.

There is only one person, I do not like. Look! I have written a note that I do not like him. He is a bastard. Only one roleplayer out of everyone I have met. I was down here [pointing] popping for about an hour. I had just been fighting so I was down in hitpoints and mana. But it was I who popped. There is an unwritten rule that you do not go and steal something, I’ve spent time on. He saw the mob, looked at me, and then he threw at the mob and stole all the time that I’d spent on it. I wrote to him that it was not okay and I just got some crap back, to put it bluntly. He simply wrote blah, blah, blah. Bad person, why be so greedy. – Jan Competition and performance are often linked. For some actors this gets out of control. These actors are not welcome because they only pursue their own purposes. Their sole focus is to rise in levels. It is not hard to recognise selfishness, greed and not playing for the group, says Jan. She forgot to say hello to us all. They are so focused on level, level, level that they completely forget to be nice. (...) We can analyse them and you can soon see the greed. It is not that hard and you can also see that the group has no purpose. I do not like it. But it is one of the consequences. They cannot all be good. There are some who need to be less good. – Jan

GUILD AND COOPERATION D RACONIC G UARDIANS Janus and Sia play together in the guild Draconic Guardians, where Sia is the guild leader. The members of the guild have discussed the

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name of the guild with each other. They agree that the name Draconic Guardians is captivating, easy to remember and a reflection of the world of fantastic creatures and of good and evil forces that inhabit it. Other gamers will take note of that name, which is important for gaining a good reputation.

Sia is a little uncertain of how many members are in the guild as she displays the guild’s web page with a summary. Many of the roleplayers have several avatars, and sometimes they are also present with their alters. The alters are avatars which the players do not play very often but they are still part of the guild. The conclusion is that the guild has 10 unique members. Otherwise she keeps a fairly good track of who plays with the guild’s main avatars and which countries they come from. Sia always asks the members of her guild where they come from because as the guild leader she likes to know who the members are.

It is a fairly small guild with only 10 members; this is not much when it comes to raids in dangerous zones. Previously the members were in another larger guild, where Sia was also the leader with a coleader and a number of officers. It was a much larger guild with 100150 members but it gradually disintegrated. The former leader left the guild together with some of her best friends. The problem was that they took their main avatars out of the guild and left behind only a lot of alters. The English couple, Robin and Jannie, who are now members of the Draconic Guardians, had 18 alters in the former guild.

The problem was that there were many people who began to remove their mains, they are the ones that are played the most, and they are usually those played-up to the highest levels. You can have several. In each account you can have a number of avatars, I think it is 6 or 8. We were left behind in a huge guild but with a lot of alters. We also had some mains but there were a lot of low-level avatars; small tools with which we could not do anything great. – Sia A guild with just alters is of no use. Therefore, Sia and Janus started the guild Draconic Guardians. It is a small close guild, almost like a

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family. There is mutual trust and they discuss everything. Sia’s brother, Tom, is also a member of the guild. This adds to the feeling of a small family.

O NLY FOR ADULTS Tom is a member of the Draconic Guardians, even though he is only 18 years. Otherwise the guild is only for adults and there is an age limit of minimum 22 years for members. This is because there are things you do not do, or talk about, if younger players are present, says Sia. I could not dream of being mischievous if there is a younger player with us. And my Gelinu, she is a flirter. It is very funny especially when we both [Janus and Sia] flirt with the same avatar. Janus also has some female avatars and I have some male. So sometimes I am a man, he is a lady, and it is a lot of fun. – Sia But it is also a question of attitude. Young role-players have a different attitude to the game. It can be difficult to rely on them and they do not always respect others’ time. They generally have no children and therefore do not have the same responsibility. In Sia’s experience with players from other guilds, they are more individually focused.

Then they suddenly have to go for ‘just 10 minutes’ and we are waiting and waiting for them to come back, or they say ‘I’m going for lunch’ or something like that and then perhaps an hour passes before they come back. So that is really annoying!

There are some things the younger players do that the older players don’t do. We have children and respect for each other’s time. – Sia C OMMITMENT AND NORMS Obligations and time are two important factors for playing in EverQuest. Both Janus and Sia would like to be part of a larger and stronger guild which could accomplish great things but playing in a large, professional guild is binding to a degree which is almost similar to a job. There are fixed meeting hours and members have to

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participate in the set dates, for instance, three times a week scheduled at times that do not necessarily fit in across time zones.

This is difficult if actors have other commitments such as children and family.

We could also join one of the large raid guilds, but this requires something else, a different attitude. It requires that you’re willing to raid, for example, three times a week in which you are obliged to attend. And with children and family, it cannot be done, (...) we want to have fun, it is not the most important thing to get the coolest of the cool things. The important thing is really to have fun. (to guild) I’m okay! (to me) But to get the best of points it requires that you are in a large and strong raiding guild. – Sia Generosity is a way to build up trust and with that cooperation with high ethics in a group. There are very clear standards as to what is acceptable and unacceptable. Sia has an open invitation to a larger guild where they like her and her style of playing. As already mentioned, it is difficult to be a member of such a guild. In this guild members earn points for each of the raids in which they participate; conversely, it costs points to get a chance to earn things that are dropped and it costs points to get a chance. Therefore it requires hard work. Players have to be a member of the guild for a while before they get any opportunities and the guild disapproves if players just come and go to score as much as possible for their own gain.

It’s difficult to jump back and forth. It will be frowned on if you came in and were involved for just two weeks, got some fantastic equipment and then dropped out again. Then you have not done your part of the job. – Janus Previously, Jan played in a large guild with 200 members. They were people with whom he had built up friendly relationships and got to know well as he chatted with some of them every day. In Jan’s view, this was similar to reality.

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There are other players with whom you speak every day in the chat room, just like in real life. That is, you get to know them.

–Jan Close friendships can require ethics and they reveal the player’s character. It takes a long time to level up the avatar to such an extent that the game’s potential can be fully exploited. Above all, it requires action. In action it is possible to see the kind of person who plays behind an avatar and his or her ethics, according to Jan. In here, you cannot lie [in EverQuest]. You cannot shirk your character. It took 13-14 months to reach the current level.

You’ve spent a lot of time on it. Imagine: that’s what you do, and write; unlike in this world, where I can chat for hours (...) If I write something in EverQuest then it has an impact right away, it has a purpose. –Jan The type of character of person who plays with the avatar has consequences in the same way as it would in the offline world.

It is of no help that you have the best wizard in the world and can smash everything and everyone, if there isn’t anyone who can stand playing with you. Just the way it is in real life. –Jan T EAMWORK AND ROLES Cooperation and knowledge sharing means a lot to Jan. It is almost impossible to find out everything in EverQuest because the world is so complicated. Therefore, specialisation is a necessity as it enables a group of avatars to work together to solve the many quests.

Very often you can simply rely on other people. They have the knowledge so you can ask others. You cannot take all the knowledge needed; you have to specialise. To create a magic carpet takes only four days if people do what I say. I have dissected what it takes, cut it into all the possibilities and found out how it is easiest done and how quickly the others can do what is required. –Jan In the larger guilds, cooperation is organised by the guild leader, who may have a co-leader and a number of assisting officers. How

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the cooperation should proceed and the roles and responsibilities of the various members and classes are all agreed and determined in advance. In a major raid, good leadership is important if concentration and focus are to be maintained.

Larger raids, sometimes with 70-75 players require that the 75 know each other so well that they listen to the raid leader rather than just do a lot of useless things. (...) People know exactly what they should do. – Janus Everyone has an important role to play in the division of labour. All classes are important and mutually dependent. That is why it is difficult to play EverQuest compared to, for example, World of Warcraft, says Janus. But that is the charm of the game.

Every class; they are all important. And it is important that you learn to play your class because there are many ways to play a class (...) I like the group dynamics you have to build up if you are to get results. – Janus To some extent, cooperation is established through the roles, classes, labour and management of the guild, but understanding each other’s style of play means almost as much because of the requests for cooperation in EverQuest. This cooperation is quite often difficult and represents the ultimate form of teamwork, in Janus’ view.

To know each other’s style of play is very important in a game like EverQuest. You cannot manage things on your own so you are really dependent on the fact that you have the right classes, and that those who play the class play it in the way you would expect them to do. It is the ultimate form of teamwork. You must do your part of the job. – Janus M ASTERS OF THE GAME Cooperation may be motivated by friendships, but the desire to be masters of the game also has a part to play. Jan has been in a dangerous raid zone to fight a djennymonster. This type of zone is particularly dangerous for his class of gnomes because it requires a large group to work together to fight the monsters. His motivation is

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to master the game to such an extent that he can take other players along when he has nothing else to do. Jan feels satisfied if he masters the game. It gives him self-esteem, which is manifested most clearly if he can help other role-players.

The last three weeks I have spent getting all the others up to level 60. For some, it took 2 years just to get here. They were in need of help otherwise they would never come up here. –Jan A hyper-avatar is a high level avatar that works with a low-level avatar in order to increase the strength of the low-level. The hyperavatar loses levels and spells as a mentor for a low-level. It brings a high degree of self-esteem and in this way a group can work up a joint and higher level.

As a mentor you can provide 25% of your xps to a low-level and you get the same level as he does. If he is 54 then you are the same. So you lose all the spells and everything that you have, according to your level. –Jan It is a way to build mutual trust and relationships, and is a sharp contrast to actors simply pursuing their own purposes. If some good things are dropped on a raid then it is a sign of generosity and mastery to let another guild member have it, even though you could use it yourself. In this way, guild members are knitted together through reciprocity.

BAZAAR AND VIRTUAL CURRENCY M ANUFACTURING AND TRADE SKILLS There are other ways to get things and skills than by simply fighting and defeating monsters. Actors can produce products and trade them on the bazaar. There is an in-world competition to become the best in trade skills and a trade server shows the ranking. Sia competes with one of the most experienced of shamans who is ranked no. 4 on the server although she herself is only no. 34, which is also a ranking to be proud of. Sia spends a lot of time producing products and selling them, which she enjoys. On days when she does not have the energy or desire to raid she spends many hours manufacturing. She

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bakes, cooks, forges and sews. Her store is filled with a wide variety of raw materials and ingredients to be used for these purposes. She considers it a sport to overcome the many obstacles in order to gain the right ingredients.

There is such a small box below ‘can be used in trademark skills’ and that is stuff that can make you better, for example at forging, sewing or brewing. – Sia Janus does not spend much time improving his trade skills, which he finds boring. However, he enjoys brewing which makes his avatar drunk and unable to talk and walk in a straight line. This is almost more fun than being drunk in real life. Sia and Janus agree that it is entertaining so they often brew alcohol.

I have no patience for those things [manufacturing and trading]. I would rather do anything else. Brewing is what I do most of because then I can do something with my avatar as it gets drunk and runs around; one can hardly manage it and you have no idea where you go. If you try to write something then people cannot read what you’ve written. – Janus When Gelinu gets something of value from raiding or manufacturing, such as a supply of raw materials and ingredients, it will be stored in the shared bank. Later, she can fill up her trade bags with the many things and ingredients and sell them or she can get her bazaar slave to sell them on the big market in EverQuest to get plat, gold, silver or copper pieces.

Yes, in-world, there is virtual money, the highest of which is plat, gold, silver and copper pieces; it takes 10 gold pieces to 1 plat, 10 pieces of silver to gold. – Janus A MARKET FOR MONEY There is also a market for money. Janus and Sia consider that roleplayers who earn their money in this way are cheating as they have done nothing to earn it. It is acceptable to buy cheap and sell expensive, or to use other methods to make profits. However, they view playing the market as comparable to hacking a bank to get

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money. This has unfortunate consequences for the market as a whole as prices are pushed up and work is devalued.

But it’s like hacking a bank to get money. The prices of the good stuff in the bazaar are very, very high because there are people who have bought millions of plat pieces and have money to spend as they wish. This means that prices are pushed up on the things that you may want to buy. – Janus B UFFING LATE AT NIGHT Another way to acquire skills and resources than by manufacturing and trading is by buffing. Sia and Janus consider it relaxing to do this late at night after hours of raiding which require full concentration.

One night at about 3 a.m. Sia and Janus go buffing. Sia casts beneficial and coveted spells on other role-players. The players who receive them can choose to pay for them although this is not a requirement. Many role-players voluntarily donate a little money if they are being buffed. In this way, Sia and Janus earn some money just by casting spells on other players.

Yesterday when we were buffing 3 o’clock at night, we made more than 10 K just by casting spells on others saying ‘donations gladly accepted but never required’. That is, we would like to cast them, even if they do not give anything in return. It is not that you have to pay; there are some who do not have money or things to share; some are new and have nothing. They do not have to pay anything. – Sia

ANALYSIS 5. ACHIEVEMENT AND SHARING In this empirical analysis some of the general points of the thick descriptions are now summarised and are followed by the analysis of the EverQuest cases as referenced by the visual metaphors of the selected keyframes.

F OR INDIVIDUAL GAIN OR COMMON BENEFIT Preparation for missions and raids will always depend on an assessment of the strength and configuration of the group that is going on the mission together. In gaming, assessing the possibilities of succeeding on a mission in the light of the configuration and

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strength of the group are engagements that make sense because the assessment maintains and expands future options for a guild and games. Therefore, judging whether a raiding operation will lead to success or failure for the guild or group is an important part of the game. In these judgements, much depends on the standing of each avatar and knowledge about how each of the avatars has reached that standing. Playing-up one’s avatar to the level necessary to join a mission and raid is a precondition for joining, as the timing of battles is so tight that just one underperforming player can weaken the entire group.

Other important aspects of the judgement are the group’s equipment and the prospect of pillaging. In defeating the monsters, the equipment, abilities and resources that drop make the fighting worthwhile, because this strengthens the individual player as well as the group or guild as a whole. The prospect of a dividend and valuables necessitates the balancing between individual gain and common benefit. Thus, sharing the valuables between members of a group or guild, acting with generosity and confidence, knits together team members in a trust-building process; but, on the other hand conflicting interests can cause severe disagreements and the dissolution of groups and guilds. Negotiating different interests, dealing with rivalries, greed, disrespectful behaviours and cheating are recurrent mediating efforts that are part of the game. In many cases, the use of power is part of this as exercised by the authority of a guild leader and its officers. Therefore, joining an organised guild is difficult, and newcomers will often have to be on probation before being allowed in. Guild members and leaders are continuously spotting talented players with playing styles that fit the culture of the guild. Spotting talent is part of the organising of the guild in order to construct a team and to develop group dynamics that work well for missions and raids across guilds. Another way of controlling the teamwork and group dynamics of a guild is by restricting the membership, for example by introducing age limits. Many friendships emerge in these teams, groups and guilds and in many cases these are as rewarding as the successful outcome of raids.

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Often, the complexity of the EverQuest world and game is handled by specialising. The knowledge and learning needed to cope with the many demanding hindrances and obstacles are almost impossible to acquire by playing alone. Knowledge sharing and mutual assistance, therefore, are pursued partly through in-world player-to-player relationships and in organised communities that run knowledge bases and websites to collect and publish some of the experiences, information and recommendations from the actors of the game.

Knowledge sharing is part of the process whereby actors can upgrade the rating and standing of their avatars and boost their personal selfesteem. Helping other players raises self-esteem and shows one’s mastering of the game, which is important to be able to accomplish the great things that will help develop a powerful avatar.

A CHIEVING A HIGH - LEVEL STATUS Following the trajectories of steps taken by Jan together with his small gnome Gnossiz leads us to the many quests that are part of his making sense of his world-making in EverQuest. The steps taken are part of the struggle to build up a high-level status so important for his being in-world. In this, he is confronted with the threats of not achieving this status.

With Gnossiz the gnome, who is a small and cunning avatar, Jan spends a lot of time solving quests, and he emphasises his ability to go solo with the gnome (1: Questing). Proving to be cunning and clever and surviving while fighting superior forces is the important part of being in-world. Thus, Jan, together with Gnossiz, is not a member of a steady and strictly organised guild. Rather, he joins groups of friends ad hoc when they happen to be in-world (2: Grouping ad hoc).

The high-level avatar has achieved its status because Jan has worked around the rules and manipulated the game. Fighting the designers of the game is part of Jan’s gaming style and is aimed at proving his shrewdness and intelligence (3: Manipulating). Small but high level, he and Gnossiz overcome dangers and threats (4: Defeating). Part of his mediating program is the enactment of status made possible by

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helping other gamers of a lower level. In this way, it makes sense to show his mastery to other gamers of EverQuest.

Following the many steps taken by Jan reveals a small, clever and cunning gnome. Through the gnome, Jan takes pride in being able to manipulate the game and single-handedly defeat the threats of the world and achieve a high-level status in the game.

F IGURE 25 . Relationships, Gnossiz the Gnome. Keyframes of relationships as mediated by Gnossiz the Gnome in EverQuest. The opening keyframe shows a quest buried in the desert sand, which Jan immediately decides to solve (Image 1). Thus the keyframe refers to the effort invested by Jan to prove himself cunning and clever and to upgrade his character Gnossiz. The second keyframe shows Gnossiz alone whilst meeting occasional gamers to go on a possible mission together (Image 2) to fight the feeling of loneliness. The keyframe refers to his casual relationships with other gamers as his main preference is to play alone and sometimes even to manipulate other gamers (Image 3) to prove capable of defeating both the other gamers and the designers of the game (Image 4). By these steps taken, Jan, in company with Gnossiz, engages with world-making to translate the affordances of EverQuest to let him strive for knowledge that allows him to be superior to other actors of the world and fit to survive on his own as opposed to a counteracting feeling of being left alone. (See Appendices, Figures)

G APINESSES OF ACHIEVING HIGH STATUS Although in his account of Gnossiz the gnome, Jan emphasises his ability to go solo, he is at the same time frustrated because his casual

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virtual friends have moved on to new extensions of the game, which he cannot afford. He is not only a loner in the sense that he is able to fight dangers of the world on his own but also because he is left alone in his zones of the game. In these zones he can achieve no further upgrades and, accordingly, no increases in levels or status.

Instead his friends will be steps ahead of him when he can afford to buy the new extensions. At the time of writing, he cannot keep up his status or level-up Gnossiz the gnome.

B UILDING A GUILD OF TEAMWORK If we turn to Krongh the troll and his owner, Janus, then raiding is part of the fun but only when done properly (1: Fighting). Thus, raiding, fighting and going on missions are the part of EverQuest that makes sense to Janus. However, in Janus’s case these agencies should also be aimed at fighting for common goals. The vision and mediating program for his being in EverQuest is building up teamwork among a group of virtual friends. The risk that Janus faces with Krongh is that the guild has members who cannot live up to his high ideals. This would lead to conflicts, which can easily develop in a group that works so closely together and that has to agree on sharing the outcome of pillaging.

Fighting for common goals on raids and missions takes a lot of preparation and organising; these agencies are what make sense to Janus. When organising and planning missions and raids, Janus helps the guild build up the trust necessary to carry them out successfully (2: Organising). The organising and building of trust is made tangible in the shape of his chosen avatar. In fights, the avatar Krongh distracts the monsters by attracting their attention. He exposes himself to the many dangers of raids and has to trust that the guild will live up to the part they are supposed to play (3: Exposing).

Furthermore, each step taken when there is a surplus outcome of a successful raid should lead to the sharing of the surplus. In his view, this is necessary if teamwork is to be built on trust. It only takes a few misleading steps to lead to conflict and distrust (4: Sharing).

Following Janus’s steps has led us to the many organising agencies so necessary if a guild is to develop and thrive on teamwork and trust.

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Struggling for the vision and program, Janus is continuously facing the risks of distrust and conflict.

F IGURE 26 . Relationships, Krongh the Troubletroll. Keyframes of relationships as mediated by Krongh the Troubletroll in EverQuest together with his guild Draconic Guardians. The first keyframe shows Krongh in a fight together with some of the members of the guild (Image 1). This image is chosen because it refers to the kind of relationships that give Janus a feeling of fun and joy. In line with this, the second keyframe shows Janus explaining complicated rules and roles of the game as he is the primary organiser of the missions (Image 2). On missions he plays his role so as to expose his Krongh to dangers so he can attract the attention of the mobs thus helping and supporting the other members of the guild (Image 3). The last keyframe refers to the thorough narrative of mutual sharing and solidarity (Image 4). By these steps taken, Janus, in company with Krongh, engages with world-making to translate the affordances of EverQuest to let him strive to organise the guild and build up trust among guild members in order to increase mutual solidarity and strengthen the guild. (See Appendices, Figures)

G APINESSES OF TEAMWORK BUILDING The team spirit is of crucial importance for Janus’s being in EverQuest. It only makes sense for him to be in-world if he is working and fighting for high ideals and common goals. It is, however, not easy to find players who can comply with such high ideals of guild teamwork. It causes a tendency towards an inwardlooking team distanced from the outer world of EverQuest, which is perceived in terms of distrust and selfishness. However, this distance

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from other gamers and players of the world also induces a kind of vulnerability. It results in a small guild and, with that, the risk of not being able to cover the different roles necessary to succeed in raids and missions; Furthermore, it is difficult to find new members who can live up to such high ideals.

A CTING AS LEADER In the Draconic Guardians, Sia, as a guild leader, is deeply involved with the many questions and challenges this role brings with it.

Clearly, the program of her involvement is to help the raiding, fighting, judging, negotiating and, not least, the successful missions of her guild under her leadership. At the same time she runs the risk of not being able to solve the problems and conflicts that always arise in this kind of close collaboration; risks which in the worst case may lead to the disintegration of the guild.

The choice of her avatar class helps her heal the members of the guild when they face severe dangers in their many fights and missions. This choice was an important first step for her to act as the leader of the Draconic Guardians (1: Leading). To help her play her role as a shaman and leader during raids with the guild, she has set up her interface to continuously get feedback about the standing of each of the gamers of the guild. This set-up allows her to follow and help each member by supplying them with life and resources such as healing whenever needed. Her leadership is based on the monitoring help of her interface and the multitasking competencies needed to interpret the multiplicities of feedback received whilst acting and fighting in pressured situations where timing is crucial (2: Monitoring). In a fight, the other gamers know that she is there to support them when their standing is low and when the guild is in danger (3: Supporting). It is not the fighting that is the interesting part of her gaming; rather, her interest lies in the monitoring, timing, controlling and sharing of loot following successful missions, and the spotting of other talented gamers.

As already mentioned in the chapter about mediators, the many agencies of manufacturing and trading are of an almost greater importance to her than the raiding and fighting activities. She

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considers the market and the bank as places of importance even if visiting them is often done by the many non-person characters of EverQuest: the market slaves, the grocery supplier or the potter.

However, these agencies rely on her contact with other gamers even if this mostly entails interacting with the many websites of knowledge sharing and ranking competitions (4: Trading).

Following the trajectories of steps taken by Sia with her avatar Gelinu leads us to the leadership, monitoring, supporting and trading engagements that are part of her struggle to realise her mediating program, thus fighting against the ever-present risk which threatens the guild with disintegration.

F IGURE 27 . Relationships, Gelinu the Shaman. Keyframes of relationships as mediated by Gelinu the Shaman in EverQuest together with the guild Draconic Guardians. The first keyframe shows a glimpse of Sia’s bags and shelves (Image 1).

This image refers to the feeling of pride of being a guild leader who manages a complexity of tasks and quests on a high level by systematising and organising. In the next keyframe Sia monitors the gamers whilst gaming thus reinforcing her leadership role and controlling the guild and game (Image 2). With her avatar, the leader Gelinu, Sia supports her family-like guild healing and casting spells to help them survive when fighting (Image 3). To master the game her achievements are not confined to the missions and raids as she finds joy, pride and fun in upgrading Gelinu’s crafting and trading skills and valuables (Image 4). Through these steps taken, Sia, in company with Gelinu, engages with world-making to translate the affordances of EverQuest to let her strive to control the membership and

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relationships of the gamers of the guild Draconic Guardians in order to create a family-like guild of mutual solidarity as opposed to a guild with members who pay no respect to others’ time and resources. (See Appendices, Figures)

G APINESSES OF LEADERSHIP The high demands of acting as a guild leader are composed of the expectations of the guild members together with Sia’s understanding of the role and the way she practices this role. Increasingly, her monitoring engagement is growing in complexity as the guild increasingly relies on her to a greater extent when they are fighting.

To comply with the expectations of this monitoring, Sia has become a guild leader of a more loosely coupled guild, which is family-like compared to her former, large-scale guild. The expectations of this new guild are not as demanding as those of her former guild. On the one hand, the social and personal expectations of her monitoring of the agencies of the guild make sense to Sia when playing together with Gelinu. However, at the same time this increasing reliance on the monitoring and supporting role of her leadership means that there is a latent risk that the Draconic Guardians may be dissolved.

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BUSINESS AND NETWORKING IN SECOND LIFE So the point is that networking means a lot. –Helle The brief quotation that opens this section of chapter 7 about relationships crystallises an important aspect of engaging with virtual world-making in a world like Second Life: networking is a means of knowledge sharing that is important for actors learning to engage with an unfamiliar environment. When engaging with businesses and projects in Second Life, design, animation and scripting skills are vital for success, and knowledge sharing through networking is a way of building up these new skills.

As in the first section of this chapter, the content and analysis are outlined and follow the same procedures and deal with the same questions.

COMPETITION AND KNOWLEDGE SHARING In Second Life, there is stiff competition among actors who are running a business. Attracting avatars’ attention is one of the most important parameters needed for success. The creativity used to get this attention is immediately apparent: traffic measurements, keywords on the search list, city guides, camping chairs, sophisticated design, sandboxes and events are just some examples of the competitive struggle for virtual survival and the ways in which answers are found.

T RAFFIC AND MEASUREMENT It is possible to measure almost everything in-world and actors often need to gain knowledge about activity at their places if they are running a business 24:7. Without measurements it may be difficult to get an overview of who is visiting the place, what the visitors are doing, how long they stay, and whether they come back – in part because of the different time zones. So there is a demand for scripts that can meet these needs, and there are, of course, scriptors who can programme them. There are scripts that measure the traffic at individual places, and sensors that scan, count and measure an area of a given radius.

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I have put a sensor in here. Now I will see if I can activate it. I just emptied it yesterday or the day before yesterday. ‘Say list’: there have been 6 visitors since yesterday. So you get their names. It is a small sensor; it is up there [points]. The square is a sensor that detects all traffic within 10 metres of where it stands. – Thomas Residents can get a variety of free measuring scripts at several locations and at no charge. There are freebee scripts available in many shopping centres, and there are script libraries where one can make copies. However, actors may have to order and pay for the more detailed and complex measurement scripts.

So I am in the process of developing a script so that I can see all the people who have been on my island. I get their name, what time they have been here, how many times they have been here; I can see the posters they’ve looked at and get a message about it. This is important for me because this is the way that I can measure whether my place is of interest to them.

The data will, of course, remain anonymous. I would not use it for anything other than my own knowledge. – Helle S EARCH ENGINE Anyone who uses Second Life’s search engine for the first time will probably be surprised by the results. Searches are a competitive tool in which the aim is to get a high placement so that actors will not have to scroll down the list to find the placing. It is also important to use as many keywords as possible and to do so strategically. Once a place is included in the search engine a number of keywords are attached. However, very often the keywords do not mirror the places but rather the fact that many avatars frequently use the keywords in their searches.

You can see, here, I have searched using the keyword Denmark. There are 181 points and many start with things that do not resemble anything Danish at all. – Thomas For instance, the Nordic traffic on Wonder DK is directed by the island’s chosen keywords. The keywords Sweden and Norway have

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been entered by Thomas to describe the Danish place in the search list. If a Nordic resident searches for places and enters the keywords ‘Swedish or Norwegian places’ then Wonder DK will come up due to the fact that these two keywords are attached to this place, even though it is a Danish place. In this case, the Danish place will result in a volume of traffic that is significantly higher than the other Nordic places and the likelihood that the Nordic residents will also visit the Danish place increases. Large amounts of traffic are a significant competitive parameter Where do we have the first real Swedish places? They are all the way down here on the search list [pointing] down on 2700 [traffic number]. In fact, it is the Swedish embassy ‘Sweden opens the world’s first embassy in Second Life’ it was announced. It got a lot of publicity, but they have not done anything. And it is not an embassy in the strict sense. It is more a representation of Sweden, but the traffic figures are as low as 2700. The few Swedish sites have virtually no traffic. Here you can see: 1700, 1600, 1200, and the same applies to Norway. – Thomas C ITY GUIDES AND CHATTING The town square is a central location on the island Wonder DK. Avatars who teleport to Wonder DK enter the island at the square, so there are almost always avatars small-chatting here. The team behind the island take an important step when they decide to hire city guides who are present at the square on a daily basis to welcome new visitors. The decision is part of a deliberate business strategy to encourage more traffic to the place. Little activity at a place tends to reinforce its isolation because there is no reason for avatars to return.

Visiting places where there is life and other avatars increases the likelihood of repeat traffic. This requires good design but the result is that there is always someone to chat with.

If there are other avatars then it generates traffic, especially for those who come to chat. So they often meet here on the square chatting about this and that – Thomas

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Wonder DK’s business is to lease virtual properties and buildingsHowever, it only makes sense for companies to settle on the island if there is a potential market and a customer base. So creating attraction and attention is the alpha and omega for the business. That is why, up to a point, the team behind Wonder DK decides to professionalise the town square and make it a workplace for avatars that work as city guides. These guides receive symbolic wages, and the scheme functions as a kind of organised virtual voluntary work.

I hired two guides, two city guides. They decide for themselves how many hours they want to work. They get L$ 25 per hour.

The first guide, he guided people on his own when new visitors entered the town square asking: where do you come from? Do you know the area? Would you like to see it? We agreed to hire him, gave him a t-shirt and a group name; so there [pointing] is Wonder DK’s City Guide over his avatar name, and on his t-shirt it says ‘Ask me’. It was a great success. It turned out that he could do with a colleague so he suggested one, and now we are looking for a third city guide. – Thomas P UPIL OR MARKETING MANAGER ?

A lot of time is spent chatting, especially if one runs a business in Second Life. Chatting can easily absorb almost the entire workday. It is not easy to judge who to chat to as it is difficult to see the actor behind the avatar, and determine if he or she is a potentially large customer or just a passer-by who wants answers to some questions.

So chat is a time- consuming, although important, agency.

I will just respond to her now. Much of the time that I spend here in Second Life is really to chat. It is not because I want to.

It is people who come and ask me about everything. Everyone knows now that I am in charge of the island that I am the manager. So a lot of my time is spent answering questions. And you have to be nice and friendly to everyone. I do not know whether it is some 16-year-old schoolboy, or whether it is the marketing manager from Novo Nordisk. It is difficult to determine with such an avatar; then you have to be polite and

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helpful and to spend time, regardless of whether it is a school pupil or a marketing manager. – Thomas G ROUPS AND ADVERTISEMENTS The island’s friendship group – Wonder DK friends – was created to ensure some continuity of contacts. Actors in the group choose to create a landmark in the place because they like the life and design of the island and as group members they get a closer affiliation with the place. It creates a good atmosphere when avatars know each other and enjoy meeting. This generates good publicity for the island.

The groups form networks of different forms. These can be closed and open, loosely-coupled, and settled and organised groups. The group name is shown when avatars move around with the group name active. When one meets a new avatar there are two typical actions beyond the initial visual assessment with a quick glance at the design and finish. The first is to check out the avatar’s profile and the second is to have a look at any group memberships. This reveals a lot about the individual avatar such as nationality and interests, which could cover culture, sex, education or business. The creation of groups is, in other words, a significant part of a business strategy.

I suggested that the group be called Wonder DK friends. If people move around Second Life with our group name active then it is a free advertisement for us, then people can see that we exist. – Thomas In-world experiences and events have high priority. At Wonder DK there are now so many activities going on that it can be difficult to get an overview. For this reason, a calendar with an overview of events was created and is a significant contributor to the traffic at the town square.

We appreciate such an event calendar here and give the other Danes who are doing events an opportunity to advertise and write events on it. Over here at the square, visitors can see what happens on the Danish islands. –Thomas

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NARRATIVE 5: PIONEERING SPIRIT – THOMAS Over here is the Learning Centre. They are going to do something. At the moment they use it as their own private sandbox. I have contact with the Learning Centre; he [the contact] is talking about an entire island; an educational island and distance learning. There will soon be voice chat, and then he is ready to do distance learning.

And he has also seen that there is traffic here. Creating an island in the ocean generates no traffic. So he has already mentioned that the island should be linked with ours, and that he was quite keen on this, especially if we will be responsible for it. And here in the neighbouring building is the old theatre stock. It is now a Second Life store where the owner creates avatars. You buy a picture here [points]. I bought my appearance here in order to look like myself as much as possible. Of course, I mentioned that we are not so interested in firms only based in Second Life, but he pays the same rent as the other leaseholders – full 400 Danish kroner a month. The firm Times moved down here where they leased a double building in order to build up a Second Life network with other interested parties. Down here on this corner is TV2 East. It is again a first mover who has initiated it all. She handed over the shop to the web department and from then on nothing happened, nothing at all. She was the only one who thought that it was a good idea to move into Second Life. I think it is the same over here at the travel agency Marco Polo. I only have contact with one person in the firm; the guy who thought it was a good idea.

The same here – Destination Djursland – it is a tourist bureau for the whole of Djursland. Oops, she is actually here! She is also a first mover, and she also runs Djursland Business Council, which helps companies get engaged in various activities. We have made an agreement that she will help businesses into Second Life. I will just see where I stand (using the in-world camera), to see if she is going to ask me something. No, she did not see me. Yes! Now I remember. The city guide told me she is going to give a presentation today to some business organisations.

Now she writes: ‘hello! I have a demo’. She is as busy as I am. Students from a college in Grenaa working with 3D design have arranged the store for her. The agreement is that she will help them get into business when they finish their education. She is a stand-by to help them out in the real world. So they have designed this shop to practice and have arranged it for Destination Djursland.

You should also know about this company: Jysk. It is a very funny story. It was their advertising agency that contacted me and said that the marketing manager in Jysk had an anniversary. They wanted to give him a Second Life shop and an avatar as an anniversary gift. Their advertising agency delivered logo and stuff, with signs and everything, and so I made the shop and decorated it for them. An avatar was created and we made it resemble the marketing manager as much as possible. There was an anniversary reception where the avatar and the shop were handed over to him with three months’ paid up rent. I think it was very funny: To get an avatar as an anniversary gift. I’ve seen him a few times.

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PERSONAL AND PROFESSIONAL NETWORKS Due to the pioneering atmosphere in Second Life, potential competitors are more likely to cooperate and share experience and knowledge as it is a new world to almost everybody there. It often turns out to be mutually beneficial to be in a barter-exchangemerchant network of ideas and experiences. Although there are networks in which competitors cooperate, there is also intense competition to attract avatars’ attention.

Networking makes sense in Second Life, as building up personal networks is easier and faster than at many other places, including other online places. Working-together.dk is the name of a place that attempts to organise the many contacts and networks in Second Life.

Many of Helle’s virtual and real life friends are part of that network and it can provide good business relationships. Her contacts are both Danish and international although the target group for her business is mainly Danish. In Second Life it is easy to get international coThe virtual network capacities of the world make it easy to build a network with many tangible friends and groups.

I have my network in here, in general. I have been a member of Working-together.dk. It is a network of people, and of different types of businesses, but generally, when I say network, it doesn’t mean that I am a member of many groups. It is my friends here [pointing to the list], they come from different companies from different countries, and they do different things. It’s actually fun. There are many people who refer to me being somewhat nerdy in here. –Helle Helle guides me to a location built and designed by a true Second Life child prodigy. At 18 years old, he is quite young but he is already a member of Linden Lab’s designer circle. He is part of Helle’s network and she admires and appreciates what he has achieved and considers him the best member of her network. She also praises a team from the United States, not least because the team builds for a competitor of the company she works for.

The team from the U.S. are based in my competitor's country and are developing an animation for me at the moment. That is

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a little fun, I think. It started when I visited their place to pry.

Then they asked me if they could help and I told them that I was a competitor prying. They thought that was highly amusing. – Helle Helle’s avatar constantly moves around in Second Life to raise awareness of her business. The most important thing in her business strategy is to travel around and be where potential customers are in order to draw attention to her company’s products and services. She does this by communicating directly with people. She starts out by chatting to them and then as the chat progresses she will tell them about the services of her company.

When I stand out here among people and have come to chat with them, they usually ask: What is this about? What are you doing? And quite naturally, I come to talk about the company that I represent, or tell them that I also have a lot of other things going on in-world. – Helle Moving around is fun. There are already positive responses to the company’s services and to her personal contact with potential customers. However, it is difficult to ensure that the personal contacts created in-world can actually lead to results outside of Second Life. In this way it can be hard to see the effectiveness and impact, at least during this early stage in the project’s lifetime.

However, in Helle’s view, it is just a question of following strategies back and forth between Second Life and the offline world, as the personal contact is the most important factor. In Helle’s view the effect of this personal contact is what will be evaluated about the project in Second Life.

Someone told me the other day: it may well be that through a newspaper you can reach out to 100,000 users [job advertisements], but I think that when you’ve talked to people in here, it is far more valuable than anything you could get from, for example, a newspaper. What you are doing in here is engaging someone in a personal dialogue right away. Then people will leave you with a personal experience of your business. Then it becomes something tangible for them. – Helle

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NORMS AND CONTACT There are norms in relationships in Second Life, just as there are in the offline world. Some of these norms have to be followed while others can be broken. Some norms from the physical world will follow the actors when they move in while others can only be found in-world. There are also norms that are easier to violate in-world than offline. Standards and norms have important parts to play because social and personal contacts and being part of many groups and networks are some of the important motivations for being inworld.

A NIMATED CHAIR As mentioned, some of the many norms that we take for granted in the physical world also influence the way in which actors spend their time together in the virtual world. For example, it is not appropriate to sit with your back to other avatars while chatting or addressing an audience, in the same way as in the physical world. Preferably, the chairs, pillows, blankets - anything to sit or lie on - are scripted so as to allow the actors to adapt them to the way in ways they can relate to. Otherwise, they can become too distracting.

Janne and Mads are preparing for a meeting at their meeting place, but the chairs and pillows are not adapted to the scene of the meeting. Janne’s avatar Alice turns her back to Mads’ avatar.

CHAT: IHH, MY ARM Mads: I’ll push your chair a bit.

Janne: Yes, it looks completely silly.

M: Just come; sit behind this, hey!

J: Ihh, my arm. Can’t you come to me?

M: Yes, but can you not sort it out yourself, or what?

J: I cannot come to see me [using the in-world camera].

M: Well, I will help you.

J: Yes, oh, maybe I can manage.

M: I think I have just turned you around.

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J: That’s it! That’s fine, yes!

–Janne, Mads

An avatar that turns his or her back to others in a chat is seen as rude. It is difficult to keep focused without the avatars facing each other. There are also feminine or masculine attitudes. Only rarely will one meet a male avatar who sits with a feminine attitude. To meet the norms of physical contact, Mads and Janne have bought an animated chair to be used in the circle at their regular weekly meetings with colleagues and students. The chair is animated so each time a new avatar joins the meeting, automatically a new chair will be added to fit into the circle. In this way, the newcomer is immediately part of the group and can join in the chat and debate.

The norm is that participants introduce themselves at the beginning of the meetings at the Literary project’s place. In this way, actors show their interest in the other avatars in the circle and let them know who they are and their motivations for joining the circle. It is seen as impolite to neglect this introduction.

He will not introduce himself. That is what he has to do. It is not fair. If he doesn’t! So! Please introduce yourself! You are expected to introduce yourself! He won’t do it. – Janne Slander and gossip are also part of the world of Second Life. This is made easy by instant messages (IM) as well as chat in which parallel conversations can easily develop into conversations about the ongoing conversations, and thus about the other participants and the subjects being discussed. The chat, which is public, and the IMs, which are a dialogue between only two actors, can easily be confused. A comment which is intended and meant for an IM may, by mistake, slip into the public chat. This can lead to a collapse of norms and politeness thus creating unexpected responses and reactions.

I am a little busy because Lasse he insists on talking to me behind the others’ backs. He IMs me, that's okay because it is about Second Life. So we do not sit and squeal on those who

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are there. It is not okay. It is not okay to sit and gossip. Also, it is a bit dangerous to sit and speak badly of others, even in the IMs. At some point you may happen to block something into the wrong window. – Janne Volatile attention may also lead to violations of norms as it is easy to become involved in other activities or avatars than those one is actually together with and part of.

Well, now I am careful not to miss our guests here. It takes an effort to be polite, because you are so easily distracted, and then you can forget to answer. – Janne B EHAVIOUR AND DANCING Favourite places often have something to do with sex. There is lively traffic on the islands where sex is the main attraction. Avatars can often have a sexually inspired design. Numerous shops sell suggestive underwear in a sea of variants with a design that is clearly sexual in nature. This seems to appeal to the female avatars in particular. Other places define themselves by very traditional standards, even a little old-fashioned, as a response to this sexual dominance. These places include old-fashioned dance venues and romantic ballrooms where gentlemen wear traditional clothing while ladies wear modest non-revealing dresses, or castle-like halls that require decent behaviour.

Now let’s go in here. Look! I got a message about how I am expected to behave in here. I must have nice clothes. Men should wear a tie when they come in. When we stand here, there will always be someone who is elegant who asks if you want to dance. It is a bit old-fashioned, so it’s actually really nice. It is almost fairy-tale-like in here. – Helle The popular dance venues are always full of avatars at all times of the day. At these places it is possible to meet other avatars to chat to while dancing. Helle invites me to one of the most popular dance venues where there are many avatars. Some are on the dance floor, while others are sitting, watching and enjoying the scenery. Helle’s dress is beautiful and after a short while in the ballroom, she gets

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compliments on her dress and appearance. In a chat, an avatar comments that her dress is beautiful and invites her to dance. With a fast and experienced eye, Helle judges his appearance and concludes that he is new to Second Life.

It’s him over there [pointing]. He has invited me to dance. He is new, I think. Aah, look, he tried to get a new skin, but it is not good. Also, his hair is not properly modified. So I can tell he is relatively new in-world. – Helle Although her immediate assessment is not particularly positive, Helle still accepts a short dance, possibly because of my encouragement to accept his invitation. Experience and knowledge give status in Second Life, and this is reflected in the avatar’s appearance. A more experienced avatar has a higher status as he or she offers the chance to learn something new, visit exciting new places and experience new things. A newbie such as Helle’s dance partner cannot really offer anything.

Look, what he writes. He says that I can go first and choose the dance. I simply write that he can follow me, because I do not have much time to chat. – Helle The more complicated dances require experience and Helle masters them all. Dancing with a newbie is not something she enjoys and she finds inexperienced partners clumsy.

Well, I know now all the dances. I know them from when I had a castle. But my dress, it is a little too sumptuous for this dance.

– Helle The dancing is quickly completed because we are about to continue our journey in Second Life. So, it ends somewhat abruptly, which seems rude. At places like this, the norms for making contact and concluding it again are very similar to the standards followed offline.

Simply to turn around and leave with a brief comment can feel like a slap in the face. Nevertheless, it is easier to do in Second Life than in the physical world. It requires a mere click on the menu to be teleported home again as the new acquaintance was not interesting

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enough to be added to Helle’s friendship list. In a brief chat Helle says that she is leaving.

He probably thinks I’m a little abrupt and very rude. Well, I will say ‘thank you for dancing’ and then I’ll just write that ‘I must continue’. I do not add him to my friendship list. Then I’ll quickly get out of here. ‘Go home’. It is so nice and easy just to disappear quickly. –Helle S EXUAL ADVANCES It is easy to leave a place and a contact if it is not interesting.

Likewise, it is quick and easy to make contact with avatars one does not know. This makes it easy to violate the standards for how to make contact in Second Life and very often the chat quickly turns to sex. Many female avatars have experienced this, including Mads’ avatar at the beginning of his presence in Second Life. At the time he was one of several users of the Literary project’s female avatar.

Traveling around Second Life with a female avatar was an unpleasant experience for him because of the many situations in which other avatars made sexual advances. These clearly exceeded his norms for making contact.

I walked around with her [the avatar]. It was not particularly pleasant. I had just bought a place in here and had set up a house. So we discussed how we should adjust it to our aims.

The first avatar that I met was a Frenchman. He said ‘I love you’. And he made sexual advances. It was abrasive! Even if our avatar was a little plump avatar that looked like a nerd.– Mads C RITICAL ATMOSPHERE Other types of events at the Literary place are aimed at debate and generating chat. These events have examined issues such as different perceptions of the role of cultural institutions in society, and questions about how best to be present in a world like Second Life.

We would, of course, like to host events here at our place, preferably with something to talk about. If you visit our place,

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you should have a reason to sit down, have something to talk about, and be part of an interesting debate. – Mads The Literary team is in Second Life in an experimental and often surprising role to explore how the online world can benefit their institution. The very traditional understandings of the services provided by their institution have been challenged in Second Life.

There has been critical blogging about the initiative with lively subsequent debate that has meant they have had to react quickly in an often critical atmosphere. The main points made by colleagues and some users are that it makes no sense to spend time and resources in Second Life.

We were starting to get reactions to what we had done in here.

Immediately when we opened our place there were some people who started blogging that there was no audience in here, and that we could not provide the traditional services. It was not a real institution, and so on. This was on blogs. There was such a highly critical attitude towards Second Life, and the fact that we had chosen to move in because it was a waste of time and resources. – Mads It seems that the project’s ideas of exploration are transgressive.

Quickly, the sceptics questioned whether their way of doing things is a serious approach. Furthermore, they expected the project team to do in-depth and long-term interviews in which they explain their overall idea about the development of public services in Second Life.

Mads: They asked really cheeky questions.

Janne: Questions that would require two pages each like: ‘we would like to interview you in the next two weeks’. And such!

We had to account for our overall idea of the public services in Second Life. Questions that were also very detailed and which asked us to spell out everything in detail.

M: They were also very critical.

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J: Yes, we had to almost defend ourselves. Especially one was quite sceptical. I think he is probably a very nice guy in real life. It would be nice to have him visit us.

M: Yes, it is also okay with someone who is critical. He sent an email with all of the critical questions and comments. –Mads, Janne The sceptics also attend the project’s weekly Second Life meetings, which leads to many discussions. Janne recalls one of their discussions when she mentioned World of Warcraft, which made one of the sceptics change his position. At the meeting she emphasised that World of Warcraft is a world which she also knows about.

John, he is sitting here. We had a long discussion at the last meeting. He’s the one who is in World of Warcraft. He was very sceptical; very, very sceptical. He criticised almost everything we did. Almost everything the project created in Second Life. And then we found out that he played World of Warcraft and told him that we had also tested the virtual world of World of Warcraft. Then he completely changed his attitude.

Then we were certainly not as stupid as we were before. – Janne

APPEARANCE AND VIRTUAL ARTEFACTS T HE LOOK OF AVATARS An avatar’s appearance is a common conversation topic. It often starts conversations, and it gives rise to continuous talks. This is true both for avatars that do not yet know each other, and in groups that know each other well. Actors continuously follow and comment on any changes in appearance and a chat often starts on the subject of appearance.

Because much of the conversation is also about how we look, whether some things have been changed since the last time we met, or whether you do something stupid, because you cannot properly control your avatar. It creates an atmosphere that

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allows you to comment on each other and what the avatars do.

– Mads However, despite the openness and ubiquity of the subject, some comments can still cause offence. Commenting on, for example, an avatar that looks like a newbie can be taken the wrong way and be insulting. The avatar’s owner may have put time and effort into the design and the close links between the actor and the avatar mean that critical and negative comments can affect them just as hard as they would do in the offline world.

It may be equally important to follow known norms if you run a business in Second Life.

I spent a lot of time creating my avatar. I think it is nice in the evening to go out and dance. It is fun. And then, I actually met one of our customers from Denmark. He saw my company logo. So we had a chat. But I have to remember that it is still my business that I represent. I must be aware of how I look.

That I don’t look cheap. –Helle T HINGS AND MEDIA Virtual things and design also have important parts to play in communication as they provide occasions for conversation and legitimate contact. At the beginning of one of the weekly meetings in the Literary project, a media juggler attracted all the attention with her virtual things. She was a fairly sophisticated, provocative and sexually suggestive avatar named Sipps Pall and not one of the steady avatars of the group. At one of the meetings she put a media player in the middle of the floor.

It is that plate [pointing]. It plays. Noooo! How I would love to have one. How ingenious! It is just there. I just got a whole box of music; I got a whole box of music. LOOK! I’ve got a whole box of music [chatting] I got it from her, it is a media player!

Let’s see if it works. – Janne Sipps Palls’ avatar soon becomes subject to assessment. She is judged to be an experienced avatar who has been in Second Life for

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a long time because of her equipment. She has hair, wigs and boxes of music, stylish shoes, a g-string, a huge cat, rivets in the ears, a piece of furniture that is animated so it lies in a challenging posture and 12,000 other objects. She is almost like a living circus.

NARRATIVE 6. CREATIVE ‘MEDIA MAKER’ Janne: I do not know her; Sipps Pall. She has been here for a long time, I think. She has expensive hair, and lots of bling, bling. She has spent money.

Mads: Maybe she will sell something?

J: I do not think so. I’ve got a fantastic box of music!

M: Yes, [checking the profile], a member of Denmark, and Hip Joint, she is from Copenhagen Denmark, I think, yes, I think so. She says of herself: just from Denmark.

J: But she also speaks German and English.

M: That’s normal, so do most people.

J: I think she is well educated. There are not many Danes who speak German, Danish, Jutlandish and English! Oh woooow she has such stylish shoes. She has also got a g-string and everything, sticking up above. She is really modern!

M: I think she is from Korsør.

J: She has everything, including a huge cat.

M: It is a dog.

J: No, that’s a cat. I have to find out where she bought her shoes. Her shoes! Noooo, I’ve got a red dress. Yes! See! I’ve got a dress for L$ 5. That is sooo cheap. I want to know if she is here for professional reasons. I would like to know if she is joining our meeting, or if she just wants company.

M: Korsør, that’s what she said.

J: I will have to make sure to be friends with her, so I can get those shoes. Have you offered her membership? It is your job! I just got shoes, oh, and plates. Well, now she is lying down. What kind of furniture? See the posture! It is not ours! Where does it come from?

M: Okay, ha, ha, now I would like to invite her in the group, ha, ha.

J: It is, not here! It is forbidden! Up on Mads’ long legs!

M: Yes, I have just invited her.

J: I would just like to know how she manages all of these shoes, and the 12,000 other objects.

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M: Yes. I don’t think she is old.

J: Neither do I. It is quite amusing. She has many fun things. I think we should make a special group for her called Special Gift Shop - Honorary Membership. Does anyone need anything, she said. She has 12,000 objects - Jesus Christ! Aah, she is popular in many places.

M: She asks if I want such a bed. Yeah, it will of course depend on; ha, ha.

J: You think it is for girls. One who has such a pimp chain around your neck. Did you get a bed now? Aaah! If you put them in a circle, it's like the Romans. You can pay her. Look! Try to pay her and let’s see what happens. You have the money.

M: How much should I pay?

J: Just give her - aah man! Look! Some rivets in her ear! Let’s pay and see what happens. Oh! Have you paid her?

M: Yes. J: She has so many things. Look, she has a tip-jar. There. She is a real money maker!

Aah, what a fox.

M: This is a very serious day, when we had a visitor from Korsør with almost everything.

J: Okay, (checking profile). It might be hard to keep up with her. Aah, you know what? You can pay. What is it all about? You can pay her! What is it about? Is it a ball? Oh, it’s a rattle?

M: Yes. J: I wonder what she sells? Hats? Noises? She loves her sounds. Jesus Christ! Aah, how old I feel. Even in Second Life you can feel old.

M: Yet you’ve got your Christiania t-shirt on.

J: Yes, and a flat stomach. It is fantastic. Noises and a cackle as a hen. Creative. She is very creative. –Janne, Mads, Sipps Pall

ANALYSIS 6. ATTENTION AND ACTIVITY The empirical analysis of this section will follow the same structure as the previous: first, some general points are made and then selected keyframes are analysed.

M EASURING AND EXPLORING The virtual life of avatars and their in-world presence entails travelling and visiting the many different places and islands that make

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up the world. This can be compared to surfing the internet, experiencing and exploring the world by walking and flying. During the early stages of being in-world, travelling takes up a lot of time, but over time certain places become favourites and avatars often return to them and start to adopt familiar routes and routines.

In agency such as running a business or project, designing a place or an island, and building networks, patterns start to change. Gradually, the question is not only how best to experience and explore but, rather how to go about attracting the attention of other actors and avatars that are travelling around. To attract avatars’ attention becomes a major concern and difficulty. Thus, running a business means competing for attention and so it becomes necessary to develop deliberate strategies for attracting attention. In other words, strategising is as much a part of building a business in Second Life as it is in offline businesses. The tools employed include measuring, camping, and naming.

Almost everything can be measured, so scripts and sensors that scan, count and measure the traffic, clicks and movements at a certain place are frequently found and scripting is a skill that is in high demand. Lively places attract attention and the activity becomes selfperpetuating, as activity tends to lead to even more activity. To attract attention, businesses use camping, which means that actors and their avatars get paid in L$ to inhabit a certain place. Camping avatars are referenced by green dots on the overall world map. Other tools to encourage traffic include avatars and actors working in shops or places because this obviates chatting. This kind of chatting is a time consuming activity but, nevertheless, a necessity to be able to maintain and expand a customer base and run a serious business that can make a living. Establishing groups can also serve the same purpose, as it is a way to organise a group of friends and some continuity of contacts. Arranging events and designing experiences is part of this socialising strategy.

Yet another business strategy is to constantly move around to the different in-world places to raise awareness of the business and attract attention. An unusual, funny, impressive or surprising avatar

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design and/or objects is one way to do this. In this way, the actor and avatar running the business look for potential customers to start chatting and building-up relationships. Relating to potential customers, colleagues and even competitors is part of such a networking strategy. In some cases, it is quicker and easier to build up personal networks in Second Life than in many other situations, including engaging with other online sites. Personalising contacts is a breeding ground for good business relationships. Remembering and recognising the many contacts is easy because the actors’ avatars have significant visual cues in the shape of a body, face, clothes and also style and behaviour. These cues make it possible to assess the contact. However, the ease of making contacts and creating and expanding in-world networks does not necessarily lead to offline results. It may be difficult to assess the actual business qualities of the networks.

Running a Second Life project like the Literary project often entails meeting with avatars at meeting places for music events, debates or interviews. In the Literary project, the weekly meetings are attended by colleagues who debate the societal services they provide. In these meetings the actors, as represented by their avatars, discuss whether it makes sense to be present as a public institution in Second Life. In challenging the understandings of the services provided by the institution, the aim is to explore whether there are new in-world options and opportunities. However, exploring the options in this non-traditional way generates critical blogging as the exploration is seen as transgressive. During the meetings, the discussions evolve into several interwoven threads of communication and metaconversation. Interweaving several simultaneous conversations results in a cacophony of communication. The many threads easily lead to a collapse of norms and politeness. Confusing the threads can cause misunderstandings that reveal the difficulties of the norming of in-world communication. Furthermore, coordinating the attention of the avatars present at a meeting place is difficult as it is hard to maintain a common focus. In some cases, this lack of focus leads to a collapse of norms.

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P ROVIDING A FULL - TIME JOB At Wonder DK Thomas is carrying out a mediating program of realising an in-world business that will help him earn a living. To build up this business, his strategy is to design an attractive place and to be contactable almost day and night. In taking these steps, Thomas, with his avatar DC Aspen, is struggling to work against the anti-program of attracting no customers to his virtual business.

Being present in-world almost day and night, Thomas builds up a reputation of always responding to questions and of being helpful and willing to support other actors and avatars when they face problems. Part of his business strategy is to use his business to facilitate events and social relationships (1: Facilitating). These events take place on the town square of his island. The town square functions as a social hub with information about the events happening in other places, games to play, political statements and other information of interest. All of this maintains and fuels Wonder DK’s reputation for being a lively place to meet with other avatars and their actors (2: Staging).

As a part of this strategy of staging social relationships and events, city guides are hired to show guests and newcomers around the place to see and experience the design. Volunteers take on the job of virtual guiding and helping other avatars if they face problems (3: Guiding). In this way, they serve a function in the virtual town and get a chance to easily make contacts with guest avatars. This strategy generates a regular group of friends of the place who meet, chat and dance at the town square. Annual festive holidays are also staged by the Wonder DK business (4: Event making).

Following the trajectories of the Wonder DK business leads us to a business manager of a time-consuming and knowledge-intensive business. Thomas is a business manager who is struggling to master Second Life design, social relationships and communication. His efforts to provide a framework for the avatars’ daily chatting, the initiation of events and parties as well as his support and guidance create a sense of community. These are steps taken that make sense to Thomas in his in-world being and steps that help attract visitors and activity to his island and business.

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F IGURE 28 . Relationships, Wonder DK. Keyframes of relationships as narrated by Thomas when he engages with his business and island Wonder DK in Second Life.

The first keyframe is chosen with reference to Thomas facilitating many events to attract avatars to his friendship group (Image 1). To maintain attention and to frame socialising, the town square of KorsbĂŚk continuously changes over the seasons and with reference to events in-world and in society; the chosen keyframe shows a demonstration of Buddhist monks during the crisis in Myanmar (Image 2) and the city guide initiates a personal chat with visitors to the island (Image 3). Musical events, traditional balls and concerts are other means of using his business and island to frame and stage relationships between avatars (Image 4). By these steps, Thomas, in company with DC Aspen, engages with world-making to translate the affordances of Second Life to let him strive to attract visitors to his island and expand his business by facilitating contact to other avatars through communication, activity and events that counteract the threat of decreasing interest and attention. (See Appendices, Figures)

G APINESSES OF THE W ONDER DK BUSINESS Running a full-time Second Life business is a difficult enterprise. It is as just as demanding as many offline business start-ups requiring a business strategy, skilful design, the acquisition of new skills and competencies, learning, knowledge sharing and a good reputation.

However, when pursuing a business strategy in a new virtual world there is only fragmented knowledge and know-how on which to draw. This lack of generalised experience leads to trial and error strategies that are time-consuming and provide little prior indication of their results. Clearly, this lack of knowledge and experience gives

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rise to more questions than answers concerning the forms and content of a business if it is to develop and thrive in such a world. In managing Wonder DK, it is difficult to overcome the many hindrances, especially as there are few chances of getting advice about how to deal with this new business environment.

A DVERTISING JOBS Moving on to the Times project, we will follow the steps taken by Helle in her struggle for the vision and mediating program to build up a virtual branch of her offline company. This program aims to bring together enterprises that seek new staff members and job seekers looking for jobs.

In the first step taken, Helle’s avatar design is targeted towards advertising jobs. The design allows posters to be displayed that advertise different jobs so the avatar resembles a virtual poster pillar (1: Advertising). Travelling around the world of Second Life, Helle meets many people who are curious about the funny design of the avatar and the purpose it serves (2: Travelling).

While travelling around, advertising the services of her virtual branch, she looks for events that attract many avatars in order to find others to chat with about her business and her experience with Second Life (3: Chatting). In this way, the personal contacts, which she continuously inspires are part of her ubiquitous networking. This nomadic strategy of her business agency enables her to build up a vast network of connections. This network helps her locate actors and avatars with competencies and knowledge that she may need to make progress in the struggle for her program (4: Networking). This network building is the most important part of her in-world business; it is what makes most sense to Helle in building a business in Second Life.

Following the trajectories of the Times project leads us to a nomadic business strategy that helps build networks of connections for knowledge sharing. The many steps taken in the project signify Helle’s struggle to build a branch that will help companies looking for employees to connect with candidates and vice versa.

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F IGURE 29 . Relationships, Times. Keyframes of relationships as mediated by the companion avatar Helle when her owner Helle engages in Second Life with the Times business. The opening keyframe is chosen to refer to the networking egg-andballoon-like advertising pillar design of her avatar (Image 1) that arouses curiosity and attracts attention to Helle’s business by moving around and visiting many different places, (Image 2) and events where many avatars participate (Image 3) or going to ballrooms to dance dressed up in stunning dresses. In the last keyframe, Helle meets one of her friends in her network, a highly skilled Second Life designer (Image 4). She enjoys travelling, making contacts and networking which also arouses her curiosity. Through these steps taken, Helle, in company with her avatar Helle, engages with world-making to translate the affordances of Second Life to let her strive to use her knowledge-intensive networking strategy to make contacts that can be used in running a professional business as opposed to a closed and proprietary attitude and practice. To do this she masters new skills and gains knowledge about animation and design. (See Appendices, Figures)

G APINESSES OF THE T IMES PROJECT In pursuing the nomadic business strategy, Helle manages to build an extensive and widespread international network of actors and avatars with state-of-the-art knowledge, skills and competencies with regard to design and event making in Second Life. Her networking abilities support her in the many complex processes of developing an inworld business. It is, however, a network of actors and avatars located in-world, which means that it is difficult to draw on their networks outside of Second Life.

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I NITIATING PUBLIC DEBATE The initial mediating program of the Literary project was to initiate a public debate about public services in the world of Second Life. The mediating program of their relationship building with other actors and avatars is to discuss with the users of their services whether their in-world presence makes sense, and how they can best be present.

Taking some of the first steps in struggling with their vision and mediating program, the project team opens up the possibility for everybody to learn how to build and design in Second Life and to do so at the project’s place (1: Co-designing). Facing the problems that come with messy and pointless design, this idea is abandoned. The next step taken is to initiate recurring weekly meetings at the project’s place during which interested parties can join in to discuss and debate questions concerning Second Life and virtual worlds in general, and the Literary project in particular (2: Meetings).

Gradually, a group of colleagues joins the meetings to take part in the discussions, often with critical contributions. Thus, discussions are initiated but not with the public audiences who are the end users of the project’s services.

Moving on along the trajectories, the struggle to attract attention and to explore the potential of their in-world being leads the project team to organise cultural events such as inviting guest speakers, launching sound books and holding discussions with authors. All of these steps are taken by the project team to make their vision a reality (3: Event making).

The discussions, debates and events are open to blogging, which proves to be an important means of initiating and continuing many of the discussions of the weekly meetings (4: Blogging).

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F IGURE 30 . Relationships, Literary. Keyframes of relationships as mediated by the project Literary when the project team engages with Second Life. The opening keyframe refers to their work to arrange inspiring and experimental events for fun as well as debate and discussion (Image 1). The meeting shown by the next keyframe (Image 2) refers to the feelings of joy and fun experienced when a new avatar visits one of the Literary meetings. The new avatar juggles with animations and all sorts of tricks and media thus generating a very intense sensation and extraordinary experience that is slightly provocative due to the avatar’s challenging attitudes and animations. The keyframe chosen to show event makings (Image 3) refers to the efforts of Janne and Mads to reach out to a wider audience and attract attention to their project and the new medium of a world like Second Life. This is continuously followed up by blogging (Image 4). By these steps taken, Janne and Mads, in the company of Alice and Rob, engage with world-making to translate the affordances of Second Life to let them strive to facilitate and initiate serious yet fun discussions and debates about new media. This is as opposed to a traditional profession that runs the risk of becoming outdated. (See Appendices, Figures)

G APINESSES OF THE L ITERARY PROJECT From the outset of the project, the idea and vision is to address the public institution’s end-users in order to discuss and experience if and how it makes sense to pursue a presence in Second Life. It proves very difficult. The co-designing strategy requires that participants in the design processes are prepared to learn how to navigate, communicate and design in an unusual in-world environment. Furthermore, building and designing in a world like Second Life are no different to other worlds in the sense that they

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always depend on design ideas and know-how. In other words, the approach presupposes a willingness to invest considerable time and commitment. User-driven content creation in co-designing processes leads to limitations with regard to the public interest, time, motivation, learning and know-how necessary to engage with design in the Second Life world. Early in the project, it can be seen that the project leads to discussions with colleagues in the profession rather than end-users of public services as was initially intended. At their weekly in-world meetings and on the project’s blog, the team is met with criticism of their approach and of the very idea of being inworld as a public institution.

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8. EXPRESSIONS OF SELF The empirical analysis in chapter 8 differs from the previous three chapters. In this chapter, the questions asked are concerned with how the participating actors express their online presence and how they change in and with their engagement. Questions of this type risk becoming highly personal and border on a psychological analysis.

However, I have chosen to focus on communication and relational aspects rather than psychological concerns.

This chapter also has a lesser focus on analysis of video keyframes and only looks at two keyframes showing the actor with his or her avatar. It is my aim to see how avatars act as transformative metaphors, which express the online presence of the owner in the sense that certain personal aspects are toned down while others are accentuated.

When seen in this way, the computer screen is like a mirror. It offers an opportunity to reflect on the expression of online presence with the assistance of on-screen metaphors of designed characters and avatars. Engaging with a game, the non-human actants of avatars transform the mirror image when they allow actors to on-screen express how they see, make and express their online presence.

Expressions of self are rarely explicit; they are highly complex translations of optics that allow us to view ourselves from different vantage points: the zoom-out from deeply involved close-up and inside-out views to the distant view in an outside-in view, and in a reflective view. Such oscillations are part of everyday life and engaging in general, and also of the engagement with worlds like EverQuest and Second Life. In continuous translations of such views, we become aware of personal boundaries.

The on-screen non-human actants, the characters and avatars, allow actors to deeply engage with their metaphorical expression of self as

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well as to observe from a distance the agency and relationships of their avatar(s) with other avatars and their human actors. Often, this changing of optics is expressed with the starting-point of an insideout view as communicated by narratives about the qualities and limitations of other games and gamers, other groups and guilds. Just as actors communicate and express themselves in perceptions of others, so we express perceptions of ourselves when we communicate and express our view of others; thus, in the way we see relationships with others we also express how we see ourselves.217 In the video interviews, this understanding of interpersonal relationships and the expressions of self are frequently referred to in terms of ‘many’, ‘they’, and ‘others’; that is, in terms of how the actors see the other gamers and their agency. Often, these terms express the relationships between their groups and guilds as compared to other groups and likewise between the actor with his or her avatar as compared to other actors’ avatars. In the flow of the narratives about their engagements, the actors continuously ask questions about how to understand others and with that also themselves. Questions like: compared to other groups and games how do I see and express myself in the game, or the group to which I belong? How come that I joined these groups? How come that the others joined my group? What led them to do so? In what way do I contribute to the group(s) of which I am a member? These are some of the questions asked and answered by the actors. These are expressions and engagement that communicate the choices they have made of game, and game cultures, the way they see other roleplayers within and outside their guild and game, and the choice of characters and avatars played and developed.

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The understanding of self has been subject to research for decades of psychological, philosophical, and sociological research. See Giannoni 2006, Higgings 1987, Mckenna et al. 2002, Mead 1934, Peetz &Wilson 2009, Turkle 1984, 1995, 2011.

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As we shall see in the following, it is, however, not only a question of the expression of self, but also a matter of transformation by metaphors and avatars.

The opening questions for the empirical analysis of this chapter are: •

•

How do actors express their in-world presence as accompanied by their avatars and in relation to other actors and avatars?

In what way do these expressions transform the actors?

TIME AND EFFORT IN EVERQUEST It means much more to you if you have a chat room ‘inside something else’ e.g. in a multi-user online role-playing game where the things you say actually have an impact, because it is a person, a figure and a character that means something to you. They represent all the time and effort you have put into it.

— Martin

OPPORTUNITIES AND LIMITATIONS A CURIOUS AND ADVENTUROUS THRILL SEEKER Martin is an adventurous and curious gamer. The storyline of the games he is playing is the main reason for his gaming, but nowadays it is no longer enough, he says. The single-player traditional computer games can be quite challenging and fun, but not in the long run because it is the challenge of playing with other role-players that matters most to Martin. In his mapping of the other games, and their role-players, he expresses what it is that makes sense to him.

The action and shooter games are most important to many other players, he says, but building up something together with other players over time makes sense to Martin. This is the expression of self that is a recurring motif of his narratives.

T O MATCH THE OTHERS There are hierarchies in Martin’s world with superior and subordinate players. Some play at the highest possible levels and can do the unbelievable for which they are often admired. However, if

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the performance only serves personal purposes then it is not worthy of much respect, according to Martin. These achievements serve only to polish their own complacency and to reinforce their superiority.

Other gamers are building their world together, and they engage in it in an almost fanatic way as the main mission in their life, in Martin’s view.

In the narratives, Martin reconciles the two sides as he attempts to develop his characters and avatars to the highest of level while at the same time engaging in building the most amazing clans, worlds and castles, or winning the big battles. In this way, he earns respect and he can compare his abilities with those of the other gamers in the process of expressing himself.

I NFLUENCING AND ORGANISING For Martin, the meaning of being in EverQuest is to explore his personal boundaries by examining the ability to affect other people and to organise them. In this way the game means something; what you do and create has consequences, he says. To act and construct with other gamers, however, is not the same as being equal. Some players are superior while others are inferior, which means that some things are forbidden to them until their status increases. There is never any doubt about the status of the gamers, according to Martin.

In terms of status, it is easy to look at the virtual world-making in the mirror of the computer screen. The picture is clear, a vision of the world, an image with which one can compare the expression of self with the other actors.

Other people react to you in the game. So, the things you are trying to achieve or the limits you are trying to expand depend on your ability to organise clans and guilds and to influence people, rather than the game itself. You may end up being the king of countries or the leader of shady guilds of assassins.

Many goals can be achieved depending on how many people you can influence. You can become a bad lieutenant, a terrible general, or a knight of the good case, but it is still realistic. It all depends on people influencing each other; the gamers are

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human beings as opposed to the game characters and avatars.

—Martin NARRATIVE 7. FASCINATION – MARTIN There is, of course, the general fascination in that it is a game — some kind of basic game fascination in which it is possible to do fantastical things such as beating monsters to death. Obviously, this is what it all comes down to. The aspects to which people are attracted differ from person to person. There are fanatical community-builders, whose mission in life is to build large clans, conquer kingdoms and start wars. Others might just as well be single players. They play virtually alone all the time, working to steadily improve their characters and make them better, greater and stronger. This type of player does not really work with anyone. Yet, these are also the kind of people who have chosen not to play single-player games, despite the fact they show little interest in playing with others. I think there is a fascination in the fact that by making a character better, some people are turned into subjects of that role and avatars’ authority. With a high status it becomes possible to show authority: look! I am a level-50 character; I can get no higher status; I have all the best equipment; I am like a god. It is possible to beat any monster to death if a player has succeeded in gaining such a high-level avatar.

My personal fascination is probably a mixture. There is something fascinating about a world that is not just a shooting range with lots of action and shooters. In the multiuser online role-playing games there is an entire world in which to freely run around; a whole world where you live and breathe and build a world together with up to 20,000 other people. There is an inherent fascination in this that makes the game more meaningful than shooting and action games. It is one thing to play an online game for about one hour; it is quite another to play a multi-user online roleplaying game where you play the same role, character and avatar with the same account for up to six months and really build something out of it. Your effort develops a character, builds a castle or creates a country if you are strong enough.

In any game you can get a lot of friends and enemies, and develop personal relationships because you are with people for a long period of time. I know people who have got to know their future spouse in this way. It is one thing for people to learn to be familiar with chat, but it is something else to meet someone when you are sure you have something to talk about. Chat is obviously good, and even more so when you are chatting in a world where the things you say actually have an impact when it is a person, a character or something that means something to you.

Then chatting represents all the things in which you have invested time. This makes it reasonably certain that people will not just create a new account if they do not want to bother chatting with you anymore. People are usually quite dedicated to their characters and avatars.

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THE STRUGGLE AGAINST SUPERIOR FORCES CLEVER AND COURAGEOUS

The picture, which Jan paints about his EverQuest experiences is almost like the storybook ‘Palle alone in the world’ about a boy who wakes up and finds himself the only person left in the world. Jan is fighting against superior forces in a David-and-Goliath-like situation.

Gnossiz can make it on his own because his master is clever and cunning and uses anti-avoidance strategies that require him to take chances and show courage. In dangerous situations, where many others would run away, he will stay to take his chances. It is evidence of the wisdom that is needed to survive, according to Jan. I take the chance, I do not run away. Many people start to run, but it is like turning their backs to a large tiger: you get some ugly scratches on your back. — Jan Jan gains power through his daring and courageous style of playing, and it amuses him to play tricks on other players to fool them into becoming frustrated and thus to turn them against each other. It makes sense and it confirms his expression of self as being cunning and courageous.

If I want more power, then I use some of my life points. A wizard can do so because the group of characters that I belong to are illusionists. Therefore, Gnossiz can fool the others into something to turn them against each other. Then he watches from the sidelines and laughs at them. — Jan D IFFERENT MORALS Jan does not boast about his abilities like some of the other roleplayers because they have the latest extension of EverQuest but he is not jealous, he says. Other players are jealous of the fact that his runt knows about short cuts due to his courageous and cunning playing style. He can figure out things that they cannot. Also, he does not lie to his group of virtual friends in the EverQuest world because one cannot hide one’s character, he says. It shows in the way you act and write; it has an impact right away unlike in his other everyday life, according to Jan:

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In your group, you do not lie. There is no lying. You cannot hide your character; it easily shows who you are. — Jan Having morals and good judgment play an important role for Jan. Factors such as laziness, stupidity, greed and envy are themes that he touches on several times: what one should do to be a good friend and what not to do. He is eager to draw a clear-cut boundary between himself and many other role-players who, in his view, exhibit unpleasant character traits.

BUILDING COMMUNITIES G AME CULTURES Sia and Janus feel that it is important for them to be EverQuest players. It is a game that stands for a virtual culture, which they like, with norms that they can accept and a culture that reflects their visions and wishes. To explain this, they often refer to the game of World of Warcraft. They see EverQuest as the original game culture before commercialism, greed and selfishness took over. This development represents the negative cultural traits that are associated with a game like World of Warcraft, in their view. It is a game for the young and trendy, and for those who are attracted by quick results that do not require hard work. It is for those who do not play with the heart, but are only interested in earning virtual money or obtaining virtual valuables that can be traded on the many commercial markets that have evolved.

It is with this mentality: I want, I want, I want! It tells a lot about people’s personalities, it reveals such a lot. — Sia I T REQUIRES JOINT EFFORTS It is not easy to play the game of EverQuest. Everything requires hard work and a sustained and constant effort. One has to fight hard for achievement.

It is not like World of Warcraft, where there are many epic weapons that drop without a fight. Here in EverQuest, there are no drops. Here you must fight for it. It is a quest of epic proportions. —Sia

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The many battles, quests and tasks require collaboration to solve them, which makes it necessary to be member of a group. Playing alone is considered to lead nowhere. The game culture is based on communities and groups. Thus, this culture plays a key role in Sia and Janus’ expressions of self as they see themselves emphasising solidarity and a sense of community.

We have a sense of community; what is good for the others in the group is also good for me because it strengthens us all. By the end of the day they might be better able to help me if and when I need it. It makes the group stronger. So we share everything and work and play well together. It is nice. That is also the reason why we are together almost all of the time. You should not have a mentality that prompts you to take some of the goodies before the others get a chance, or allows you to fear they will steal something from you. It is a frustrating mentality. —Janus The morality is explicit. Sia and Janus look with contempt on gamers who only care about increasing their own personal benefit at the expense of others. EverQuest has been designed so that it serves the community culture, they say. This stands in sharp contrast to World of Warcraft.

World of Warcraft is good for someone who just wants to play alone and quickly. Tom, whom I spoke with before, believes that you can do things all alone for very long periods of time, whereas here, if you want something that is just a little exciting, then you will have to group with people. I like the group dynamics you need to achieve something. —Janus B ALANCED ROLE - PLAYERS Sia and Janus see themselves as belonging to an older generation with different standards and qualities than the young gamers.

Consequently, they set a minimum age limit of 22 years for prospective members of their guild. They want to create a good atmosphere and tone that requires some experience which the younger role-players still do not possess. Sia says that she has to remind herself that it is only a game. In her view, young people may

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have difficulty doing so and in keeping the game at a distance. They have a greater tendency to react violently and behave in a way that spreads a bad feeling and generates many verbal attacks. In contrast, Janus and Sia see themselves as balanced role-players who prefer to play in a guild of older members.

Sia: Many of those with whom we play are adults. Robin is 40, Julie is 37, and Kevin, I can’t remember.

Janus: He is 55 years old. Thomas, who we played with the other day, is 63 years old.

S: And Carr, he has adult children.

J: So has Tanglefoot, he is 58 years old.

S: And our old guild leader, who stopped or made a new guild, she had a grandchild in December, I think it was. That is also why we will stay in EverQuest.

J: Until they close down the game. — Janus, Sia T RUST AND DISTRUST Trust plays an important role for Janus. He has had some bad experiences with role-players who borrowed money without repaying him and stealing things that took a long time and hard work to develop. For this reason, he sees himself as closed towards other gamers. He mistrusts others until he knows what kind of person he is facing. Until proven otherwise, his immediate response is to refuse if other role-players ask to borrow something. However, by playing together and grouping over a longer time, he gets to know whether or not he can count on a player as their personality is revealed through their actions. One can observe how they react to critical situations, how they speak to others, and how they behave.

Generally, I have a deep mistrust of the other players who try to be too bold and trick you out of your money. I assume this is the way they are until otherwise proven. The doors are closed until I know them well. —Janus

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The need for strong mutual trust within the guild can make the surrounding world appear closed off. The guild almost takes the status of a family; it is a small team of role-players who know and trust each other because they are familiar with each other’s playing styles and standards. Openings to the outside EverQuest world also exist, even if the guild members start by regarding new players with some suspicion and observing them over time before they become members of the guild. If they show that they can meet the standards of the guild and adapt to the mutual practices of the group, which is part of the guilds’ gaming culture, then they might be allowed to join.

T O PLAY WITH COURAGE Some gamers have no courage in the face of danger. They run away and do not solve their quests and tasks. This has negative consequences for the other role-players who have to work twice as hard or become disabled in combat. That is not true of Sia. Unlike many others, she is courageous when in dangerous fighting and battles, according to Janus.

Sia: So, I do not panic and run away screaming if a mob jumps on me because I can cope with it.

Janus: Oh no, that is the worst mistake you can make. You will just have to stay completely silent.

S: You will have to pull yourself together and hope. — Janus, Sia These are mutual expressions of the culture of their chosen game and guild. Janus and Sia are influential and drive the build-up of Draconic Guardians. The guild is built around the values of mutual responsibilities and equal opportunities. That makes sense to both the leader of the guild, Sia, and the organiser of their raids and missions, Janus. There are, however, also differences between their expressions of self, as it will be shown in the analysis that follows.

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As already mentioned in the introduction to this chapter, in this empirical analysis I will not analyse several keyframes of the actors’ expressions of self in detail but only look at keyframes of the actors with their avatars. As a first step, I will make some points with reference to each of the participating actors and then briefly analyse their transformations of self as expressed.

G AINING EXPERTISE Martin’s desire is to take part in gigantic projects, whether they are kingdoms, guilds of assassins or firms. They are like playgrounds or battlefields that provide unprecedented challenges to be overcome by being aware of his abilities and continuously developing his knowledge. It is the processes of influencing other people that makes sense to him. The dream of gigantic projects complies with his agency that serves the purpose of gaining knowledge about his personal boundaries and abilities thus challenging these boundaries.

To become prestigious, have a high status and power is a thrill and his ultimate goal and dream.

At the time of the video interviews, Martin has no main avatar; he is trying out many different games and worlds in a process of gaining knowledge, which can contribute to the expression of his metaphors of self. Trying out many different worlds allows him to build up extensive and profound insight, knowledge and skills; these are abilities that ascribe to how Martin sees himself. Thus, the choices he has made to learn about many worlds also initiate transformations not only of his expressions of self.

In Martin’s engagement with a diversity of worlds, his transformations of self to become a master and expert of games and worlds is accentuated. In this way, the many agencies of learning challenge his personal boundaries. However, it only makes sense to him to build up expertise if his engagement is part of many different games and gaming cultures. This means he also develops his ability to master these differences.

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F IGURE 31. Martin showing many different worlds.

With his range of avatars as personal mediators, Martin, a high school student, sees himself as transforming to become a systematic researcher and expert when he joins and explores many games.

E MPOWERING A LONER In the choice and creation of Gnossiz the gnome, the many abilities of the loner mean that, in Jan’s view, he need not be a member of a strictly organised guild; he prefers to go on missions or raids with casual virtual friends. However, currently, the group of casual gamers has moved on to new extensions of the game, which he cannot enter as he has no money to buy them. This means that the new zones his virtual friends have moved on to are closed to him.

Jan’s intense desire is to follow the others and become a part of their world again.

Furthermore, he has reached a standstill with his avatar. Gnossiz is at the highest level in the present version of the game and there are no more points for him to earn. Therefore, he spends his time upgrading other players who have not yet achieved high levels. This is frustrating as he wants to be able to engage in the new battles of new zones, thus earning more experience points and reaching higher levels and seeking ways to prove his abilities and intelligence.

Although a loner, he still wants to be a loner alongside other players.

In the case of Jan and Gnossiz the gnome, his expressions of self are also translated and transformed by his engagement with the EverQuest world. The choice of his avatar Gnossiz is part of a transformative process that translates his enactment of self. His chosen avatar has the ability to survive and has proven himself clever. These abilities allow him to circumvent barriers set by others,

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such as the designers of the game or other gamers.In the relationship between Jan and Gnossiz, the avatar accentuates his transformation by the metaphor of becoming a clever survivor and with that the many agencies of learning. However, it only makes sense to act as a clever survivor if his agency is part of a gaming culture that requires learning in a world full of obstacles and difficulties where he can prove himself superior to other gamers. In accordance with his inworld view, cheating and lying should not be part of the EverQuest world as they are in his everyday life. In the transformative processes, moral values are translated by the expression of self in his EverQuest world.

F IGURE 32. Jan and his avatar Gnossiz.

Jan, who is a benefit claimant, sees himself transformed to become an empowered, cunning and knowledgeable actor of the world when he enters EverQuest with his metaphorical avatar Gnossiz the gnome as a personal mediator.

A CTING AS AN ORGANISER AND IDEOLOGIST In the creation of Krongh the troll, Janus strives to play his avatar with finesse. Avatar hybrids appeal to him because they are complex, thus more demanding. Playing a pure class is much too straightforward for him. Only when contributing, even if it is hard and sometimes tedious, can he reach the levels that allow him to play the game with skill and excitement. In EverQuest, he has this opportunity. He can use these abilities to build up a guild of intimate, almost family-like, relationships in a spirit of community based on mutual trust, sharing of knowledge and profit. It pays only if he is persistent and this is the moral of his world-view and his expression of self.

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In the case of Janus and his character Krongh, the avatar chosen enables him to fight with finesse and to work hard on developing the abilities and qualities that he ascribes to himself in striving to build a guild based on mutual trust. Thus, the choice of avatar refers to his view of moral values. In the relationship between Janus and Krongh, the choice of avatar accentuates his transformation by metaphor to become an organiser and carry out the many agencies of organising.

However, it only makes sense to act as an organiser if his engagement is part of a gaming culture that complies with his worldview — that is, in mutual relationships with his fellow gamers of the guild and a sense of mutual responsibilities and effort.

F IGURE 33. Janus with his companion and main avatar Krongh.

Janus, a student teacher, sees himself as transforming to become an organiser and ideologist when he enters the world of EverQuest with his avatar Krongh the troll as his personal mediator.

B ECOMING A HIGH LEVEL GUILD LEADER Sia sees herself as someone other gamers can rely on. That is an important quality for a guild leader. The guild members must have full confidence in her. In a world like EverQuest, it is difficult to make sure that agreements are respected and that borrowed items are returned, which is why trust means so much. As an example, Sia explains that she borrowed a precious and valuable virtual hat from Ralf, who is a Dutch member of her guild. It is worth between 50,000 to 80,000 plat pieces. She was only allowed to borrow it because Ralf is confident that she will not suddenly disappear from the game or simply refuse to return it.

In the process of expressing herself by metaphor, Sia strives to develop her avatar, Gelinu the shaman, to the highest of levels,

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preferably to the sublime. Gelinu scores highly on almost all possible abilities: strength, skills, levels and experience points. She relates to the other gamers of her guild with the intention of sharing her profits and of healing and casting beneficial spells on them. She strives to be indispensable. For Sia, the fights, raids, missions and excitement are of a secondary priority. They are just an occasion for her to spend some of the valuables she has accumulated and to do so for the benefit of the other players, thus achieving the leadership of the guild and a sense of being indispensable.

In the case of Sia and her avatar Gelinu, the choice of Gelinu is not merely a kind of self-expression; rather, it is a transformative process that also translates and adds to her enactment of self. In the relationships between Sia and Gelinu, the avatar accentuates her transformation by metaphor to become a leader and with that the agency of leadership. However, it only makes sense to act as a leader if her engagement is part of a gaming culture that complies with her world-view and is built on relationships that comply with the values of her leadership.

F IGURE 34. Sia with her main avatar Gelinu.

Sia, a disability pensioner, sees herself as transforming to become a highly regarded and high-level leader when she plays with the shaman Gelinu as her personal mediator.

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OPPORTUNITIES AND PROBLEMS IN SECOND LIFE What is fun about Second Life it is that you have all the opportunities that you would really want although they might be limited due to the technical aspects of Second Life, but there is always a way to solve the problems. — Helle It is not only through the perception of others that we express ourselves, but also in the way we deal with complex technologies and systems that require constant problem solving. In the quote that opens this section with empirical analysis of Second Life case studies, Helle expresses how opportunities and constraints go hand in hand and require creativity to solve the many problems that evolve. With reference to the affordances of the Second Life general design, she gives us an insight into how she sees and expresses herself.

Second Life is seen as providing a world of opportunity to the actors.

Some of the recurring themes in the actors’ narratives about Second Life include experiments, creative solutions, crazy ideas, bold adventures, fantasy worlds, childlike joy, cool features and realism, new business strategies and necessity.

SERIOUS BUSINESS Many places in Second Life look awful and are pointless with no obvious purpose, in particular on the mainland, according to Thomas. He perceives his business as different from these places. In the narratives about designing his island, a recurring theme is the control, which helps him avoid a messy and pointless design.

Maintaining the place and making it orderly as well as attractive to visit and settle are important factors in building up a serious business; it makes sense to him, and it expresses his metaphorical self expression as a serious, orderly and reliable business man.

S ALES SPEECHES Generally, IT people are not good at selling, says Thomas. He has a background in programming, so it is hard for him to act as a salesman. Unlike traditional salesmen, he tends to undersell in his company Wonder DK. In a virtual enterprise like the one Thomas

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develops, he has to get used to thinking and acting in new ways. He develops a business strategy and learns how to make a sales speech for current and potential customers. This is actually against his conviction, but it is necessary to gain and retain customers and to convince them of what they get for their money. It is a steep learning curve but over time he gains experience and makes progress.

Rather, I tend to undersell and that is a completely unsuccessful approach if you are to do business. So, I am now trying to get used to sales speeches, although it is somewhat against my ideals. I have gained experience with selling, but, still, there is a long way to go. — Thomas

MUSIC AND CRAZY IDEAS As it is often the case in everyday life, new ideas emerge when listening to music and this also happens in Second Life, says Helle.

Her avatar jumps around while Helle uses her headset to listen to music. She can jump around for hours together with her avatar companion in search for answers to questions and problems. As with most business people doing business in Second Life, her questions often revolve around the issue of how to attract attention to her business. There is a need to carefully think through how it can best be done.

So I found myself just jumping around for half an hour, while I continuously thought about how I should reach out to people.

How do I optimally use the resources that I have? You may say that I am a bit crazy — which I probably am, after all. But that is how I get the best ideas in-world. I keep thinking: how would I do it if I were to target myself? It should be something easily accessible, something easily understandable, and it must be something that is funny, and something that will help me earn some L$. — Helle Helle’s crazy ideas are always closely linked up with a purpose.

There must be something more than just in-world spaces, castles and scenarios. A good example of this is the palace, which Helle designed at the beginning of her engagement with Second Life. It was fun to construct and design, and it was fun to go shopping to set it all

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up. The fun part was getting the ideas. However, when the palace was built, decorated and beautifully finished, then the question was: what was the purpose of building it?

A LWAYS A WAY OUT The link between crazy ideas and a purpose to be resolved using given resources is the creative problem that makes sense to Helle and her expression of self in the Second Life world. The sense of having almost unlimited options in itself is fun and challenging. This is especially true when one needs to find solutions to problems that arise — either because of technical barriers or due to limited resources. For Helle, this is when the real fun begins as there is always a way to bring ideas to life. It might be through ways and solutions that are not optimal, but they exist.

What is fun about Second Life is that you have all the opportunities you really want. It can be limited for technical reasons, but there is always a last resort. You can always find some other way around problems. Certainly, that is how I see it. That is what attracts me. — Helle T HE SHARING OF IDEAS Often in business, knowledge is kept secret – and this is also true in Second Life. Good ideas are not always shared. However, according to Helle, one may as well share the many crazy and wacky and the good solutions ideas with others because everything can be copied.

It comes back ten-fold when she willingly keeps an open dialogue and even shares the best ideas with some of her competitors. What is unique is the commitment that one has to put into it and the ability to constantly renew the product and idea, as she sees it.

Actually, I have managed to uphold an open dialogue with one of my important competitors. They are not that important in Denmark, but globally they are far more influential than our business. They have built a cool, cool country in-world. They have fifteen employees working full-time to manage their world. And, I have a reasonably good dialogue with the person in charge. We actually spar with each other. I know that I am a representative of my business in Denmark, but all the same we

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can spar because I share all my crazy ideas. I do not think one should be afraid to share ideas and experience. — Helle This attitude has implications for the building of networks, which is easy in Second Life, according to Helle. The many networks and groups that exist are linked by common interests such as professions, social contacts or cultural experiences. These contacts are easily made and networks built. In addition, virtual world-making is still in a pioneering period so there is a need for mutual assistance. There is a common incentive to experiment with boundaries and to convince other parties in society about new opportunities. Thus, it provides fertile ground for a mutual exchange of knowledge and experience, which is one of the most frequent motifs of Helle’s narratives.

I T IS A LEARNING PROCESS As a beginner there is a lot to learn. Helle has climbed the steep learning curve of through a process of learning by doing; a process that generates a wealth of experience. After a working day in Second Life — or rather a working night — it is fun to go to one of the sandboxes or other start-up sites where the many beginners go. It is great to be able to help them. Yet, it is also important to generate your own experience; that is the best way to build up knowledge, in Helle’s view. It was not the tutorials and manuals that helped her most when she moved in.

I T IS THE PERSON Helle’s choice is to always be open about her life and to do so she merges her different modes of being. Ultimately, it is always the person that acts and reacts, despite being in a world like Second Life.

It is the person who is acting, sitting, talking, walking and writing. It is not that different from offline, according to Helle.

So it is I who is running around. I am the person. I have been out dancing at night almost a bit romantic. Then, indeed, we were two avatars together! — Helle

ALONG NEW LINES OF THINKING The Literary project provokes many colleagues; a fact that reflects the many traditions and norms of the profession and public institutions

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involved, according to Mads. The project does not follow wellknown paths. On the contrary, it causes many discussions.

Colleagues find it difficult to accept the project, and the discussion about its purpose and form rolls back and forth; there is, however, a need to experiment with new kinds of events and meetings, says Mads. This experimental approach to the project makes sense to him.

There is a need for new ideas and a need to test new opportunities.

This is a recurring motif in the making of sense and expression of self when actively engaged in trying out the boundaries of the Second Life project.

It provoked so many people that we did not meet the stereotypes. It was not enough for them that we just delivered a place where people could meet. The events designed were something we had to try out. It was our intention to do experiments and find out what Second Life could offer. — Mads Early on, the experiments prompted reactions in the media so the project attracted some external interest and it became increasingly engaging. Not least because the initiators had to run several risks as the idea of the project was to be ready to follow new roads, even if they seemed a bit offbeat.

For me, mostly it has been important to signal to the outside world that we are not only dusty and traditional and that it is not always about following the traditional ways of doing things. But sometimes it is about running some risks and doing something, which is maybe a bit silly or stupid, or at least to go out and try new things even before they have been accepted as cool. — Janne A SETTLERS ’ ATMOSPHERE The experimental risk-taking and the engaging start-up project is part of the pioneering aspirations of Mads’ expression of self in the Literary project of Second Life.

From the beginning, there was a settlers’ atmosphere among us and the other institutions. We all started almost simultaneously.

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There was a lot of talk back and forth on how to address the problems and possibilities. There was such a cool atmosphere in the beginning. In taking the first step, we had to continue to see where it would lead us. — Mads

OUT-OF-BODY TOTAL EXPERIENCE The Literary project should convey more than just information; it has to be fun and preferably provide some cool experiences, according to Janne. That is why the project place is designed with meditation bubbles. In the first place, one does not enter a world like Second Life in search of hardcore information but to experience something fun such as “spacy” bubbles with music that will provide an almost psychedelic out-of-body total experience, she says.

Enjoying the fun and new experiences of her virtual world-making in Second Life, even if they can be seen as childish pleasure, is a recurring motif of Janne’s expression of self in the Literary project.

Working with the same project as Mads, she is also taking an active part in challenging of the traditions of their profession.

ANALYSIS 8. ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND EXPERIMENTS In the following section about the expressions of self, the same analysis procedures are followed as in the previous section.

B ECOMING A BUSINESS ENTREPRENEUR Thomas’s choice of his avatar DC Aspen makes his business purposes tangible. In the process of building up a business from scratch, the motifs of necessity and strategy reflect Thomas’s expression of self. Entering a completely new field of business with no prior experience means he has to learn everything from scratch.

Nothing can be left to chance so thinking and acting in new ways and strategising are important parts of his becoming a businessman.

Thus, running a business takes profound new knowledge and a lot of learning – not only about the Second Life platform but also about how to run a business. One of the difficult aspects of his learning is acting as a salesman and performing sales speeches. This is quite different from Thomas’s earlier work as a programmer. It almost runs against his beliefs but it is necessary if his Second Life business is to survive.

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In the case of Thomas, his avatar DC Aspen is running a real estate business as shaped by the design of an island with KorsbĂŚk town, pastures and fields. In the relationships between Thomas and DC Aspen, the avatar accentuates his transformation by metaphor to become a business manager and with that the agency of entrepreneurship. However, it only makes sense to act as a real estate agent and designer if his engagement complies with his worldview and if the relationships with his customers comply with the values of making a living by running a serious business learning how to perform as a salesman.

F IGURE 35. Thomas with his business avatar DC Aspen.

Thomas, a programmer, sees himself as transforming to become a real estate agent, business entrepreneur, salesman and design consultant when DC Aspen is his personal mediator in Second Life.

B ECOMING A BUSINESS MANAGER Helle sees herself as a businesswoman pursuing business purposes while she is struggling to find the best ways to achieve these purposes; it makes sense to her in-world being. In doing so, she is engaging with crazy behaviours in line with her personality. This is a recurring motif in her narratives about herself and her agencies. She engages in finding new ways – although she views the strategies as a bit crazy they usually work. Acting in crazy ways with her avatar, for example by making it jump around and playing with it while listening to music gives her a lot of creative ideas. This is the way she expresses herself and usually works. Solving problems is also part of the designing strategies, as she brings to life the many ideas generated. If she runs into problems, there is always a way around them in a process of creative problem solving. She considers

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problem solving as part of the fun. Building up networks, sharing ideas, exchanging knowledge and experience with other actors and avatars – even with competitors in her field – makes sense to her as opposed to those who keep things to themselves. These are motifs of her narratives about the expression of self.

In the case of Helle, her avatar Helle helps her transform from an employee in an international private enterprise to become a manager of a virtual branch of the firm. In the relationship between Helle and her avatar, a transformation of self by metaphor is accentuated to become a networking manager and with that the many agencies of networking, generating new ideas and sharing knowledge. However, it only makes sense to act as a networking manager if her engagement is part of a business that complies with her world-view, and accordingly the relationships between herself, her customers and her competitors must be in line with the values of her nomadic and networking business strategy.

F IGURE 36. Helle with her companion avatar Helle.

Helle, a human-resource employee, transforms into a business manager, experimental entrepreneur and a network builder when she is present with her avatar Helle as her personal mediator in Second Life.

A CTING AS A DESIGNER AND PROVOCATEUR Working in a field with many long-term traditions, Mads perceives himself to be challenging these traditions. It makes sense to be experimenting because he was educated at a different institution than most of his colleagues. The way he expresses himself as mediated by the avatar Rob shows that he is not as influenced by these traditions as many of his colleagues are. In general, this attitude to redefining

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traditions also applies to the project as a whole. Accompanied by Rob, Mads sees himself as the initiator and designer of the Literary project that aims to facilitate open-ended discussions about following new roads, even if they seem silly. He is following a risk-taking strategy.

In the case of Mads, his avatar Rob is adapted to the requirements of the Literary project and is a representative of his workplace. In the relationship between Mads and Rob, the avatar accentuates his transformation by metaphor to become a project organiser, debater and designer and with that to enact the many risk-taking strategies of running the Literary project. However, it only makes sense to act as an explorative, risk-taking debater if his agencies are part of a lively debate and engagement that complies with his world-view. His relationships with the members of the project team, colleagues at the workplace and the end-users of his institution’s public services have to comply with the values of his explorative and experimental approach.

F IGURE 37. Mads with his avatar Rob. Mads, an academic, sees himself as transforming to become an inworld designer and a debater who challenges the traditions of his actual profession when he is present with his avatar Rob as his personal mediator in Second Life.

A CTING AS AN EXPERIENCE DESIGNER In Janne’s view, there is a need to reach out to younger audiences who should also benefit from the public institution’s services. Being one of the young employees with a childish enthusiasm, she sees it as part of her work to energise and renew the thinking, agency, arrangements and events of the institution. Instead of extending the

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existing institution into the online world, she enjoys finding new ways and creating fun and extraordinary experiences for the visitors to the project’s place. According to her, visitors do not enter the Literary project’s place to seek the same services as in the outside world; rather, they want fun and new experiences. Therefore, creating all-encompassing and extraordinary experiences is part of her narratives and expressions of self.

In Janne’s case, her avatar Alice has been quickly designed in a process of exploration with a minimal investment of time – except for shopping to buy stylish shoes. In the relationships between Janne and Alice, the avatar accentuates her transformation by metaphor to become a playful, even childish, creator of experiences and with that the agency of experience design. However, it only makes sense to act as an experience designer if her engagement is part of a project that complies with her world-view and relationships between herself, the project team, colleagues and the end-users of the public services.

These relationships comply with the values of joyful experiences.

F IGURE 38. Janne with her avatar Alice.

When Alice is her personal mediator, Janne, a public service employee, sees herself as transforming to become a joyful experience designer, a debater and explorer who challenges the traditions of her actual profession.

NARRATIVE 8. SPACY BUBBLES – JANNE I think it has been fun to work with something completely different than we traditionally do. I agree with my colleague when she says, Why should we build a replica of the institution inside Second Life? It will not work very well. If you want to offer something relevant and exciting, then you should pay attention to the services that work well at the place where you are. And, in fact, in the first life, there are

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plenty of things that we now offer that work really well, but there are also many things that need to be improved. In Second Life, however, quite different things can happen. Some completely different things may work well. I think something like the meditation bubbles is fun. In one way or another, they convey an experience.

Now, if I turn on the music it is fun to go into the spacy bubbles. It is like a quasipsychedelic out-of-body total experience, as if you have smoked marijuana or something. I think it is a bold, all-encompassing experience. It is like the experience you can also get from a movie or if you read a book. Not something about hardcore information or ‘how do I find out what I should do with my overpayment of tax’ or some of the really necessary things that we deliver in the offline world. However, if you have moved in here then you expect to experience something fun.

Of course, we can debate how fun our in-world place is, but it is certainly an attempt to create something different. I think it is cool. With the headphones on, I can sit for a long time and stare at the fish, although I know they will show at intervals, and also enjoy the strange butterflies while listening to the music. It is such a cool and strange universe — maybe a really childish pleasure. I know that Natemer [one of the team members], loves this one. Up in the air [pointing], there are meditation pillows. Natemer can hang out here for quite a while. He thinks it is fantastic to sit and meditate. It looks really relaxed — like alpha waves. It is as if you disappear completely into another world. I think it is really cool here.

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9. NAVIGATING EVERYDAY LIFE IN EVERQUEST Voice chat is on all day and we talk to each other about many different things. That is how it works. The voice chat also runs on Ralf's computer; when he goes to bed, then he turns it off.

—Janus In this final chapter of the empirical analysis, I will follow the actors as they navigate their daily life, including their involvement in virtual world-making. As shown by the introductory analysis of worldmaking, I do not see the virtual and the real as two different worlds but as world-making in which different aspects are accentuated in daily life. When Janus turns on the guild’s team speak in the morning to begin his planning of the evening's raids and missions in EverQuest, he is not entering into a second life and world. It is part of his everyday world in the same way as other media are part of our everyday life. It does not feel as if he is entering another world. The commitment to a world like EverQuest is a part of the players’ everyday life. Yet, there is a difference. In virtual world-making, be it games or user-generated worlds, the engagement and involvement require active participation and ‘making’ when communicating and acting with others. Therefore, these engagements occupy the actors’ attention in quite a profound way. The question is how players and actors navigate between the many everyday activities and requirements of which virtual world-making is a part.

As in the previous chapter, I have followed the actors at some distance when dealing with these questions. The actors have welcomed me and allowed me to enter into their personal lives, in their homes and sometimes at work. They have helped me gain relevant insight for my understanding of their lives and dedication. It is and will remain, however, a background understanding, which I

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will not explicitly bring into this chapter in the form of video keyframes.

Therefore, in the following chapter video keyframes are not part of the analysis. The opening questions for this chapter are: • •

How do the actors move and navigate between their in-world life and their other everyday life?

What is it that makes the actors continue or want to stop their engagement?

FRIENDS, FAMILY, WORK AND EDUCATION In one of the video interviews, Jan meets Michael and Else, a married couple who are present in the chat. Michael and Else are passionate about EverQuest in a way that almost goes against their work and their marriage. Jan explains their story with great enthusiasm. The married couple is always together in EverQuest and also outside the world of EverQuest.

NARRATIVE 9. LIVING AND PLAYING TOGETHER – JAN Michael is a computer scientist. He often sits for 10 hours in front of the computer at work and then he goes straight home to start up the computer again. Sometimes he goes to work in the middle of the night, logs in and then suddenly he is present in EverQuest. It is a bit annoying because he gets paid while he plays. It is almost like cheating. He can easily get a computer, and he knows a lot of things that I don’t know. It is easier for him to get everything. Sometimes, she [Michael’s wife] does not even remember his real name. She forgets that his name is Michael. She usually calls him by his avatar name, Keine. That is his role name.

Now listen, she is calling him by his avatar name in the background, just see [Jan is pointing at the chat box]. If I am not mistaken, then they are neglecting their jobs. They have been in-world day and night, so I think I am going to have a hard time catching up with them. They have invited me to dinner at the end of this month; I think it is the 27th. It is in rl [real life] because Jens [a group friend] has stopped playing so we have to persuade him to start again. We are going to invite him to dinner and then talk him into playing again. In this way, we will try to lure him back. It is so strange that he is not in here any longer. We know each other so well; we have lived and played EverQuest together. He has taken care of many tasks in

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EverQuest, which I now have to see to. It was much easier before when he just said ‘you have to do this and that’.

P LAY AND WORK Michael is a professional computer scientist so Jan believes he has an edge in virtual world-making. Whether or not Michael and Else actually neglect their work to play EverQuest is difficult to assess in light of Jan’s narrative and the chat. However, this is his first thought that explains how they are able achieve the results they do.

Virtual world-making can generate problems with work and the obligations that come with a job. Playing on servers located globally means that playing is easily spread over different time zones with demands to play during the night. Servers are never shut down, except when the game is to be expanded, or if there are problems with a server. If one can play 24:7 then it is easy to be tempted to miss work, says Jan. E CONOMY EverQuest also influences Jan’s dreams. His dream is to have multiple accounts so he can play with several avatars, but above all he wants to finance the expansions of the game to maintain his motivation and incentive. If Jan had no economic ties, these would be his first two wishes. Now he merely notes that EverQuest is the cheapest hobby available. He estimates that the cost is 1.50 DKK a day for unlimited access to playing the game, morning, noon and night. Janus and Sia agree that EverQuest is a cheap hobby to play 24:7. Sia compares it with sports such as tennis or skiing, which are expensive hobbies that require expensive equipment or a trip to the movies that has also become expensive.

It only costs about 100 DKK per month per account. And then you pay for the new extensions. It is a cheap interest. If you want the brand new extension, then it costs $30 plus tax because we are located in Europe. It can be expensive. If you are still using the old extensions, then the cost will be $10 or

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so. The weak dollar is almost like a gift. It almost pays for our accounts because we get them cheaper. — Janus One of Martin’s serious problems is the cost of playing. As a highschool student, he is not well off. That is why he circles around the costs of the different games. Until now, he has had a very favourable economic ‘system’ in the form of his mother’s credit card. However, this system is no longer viable because unsurprisingly he has been banned from using the card. It proved difficult to control the expenses.

F RIENDS AND PEER PRESSURE Commitments with in-world friends can be binding. Jan’s friends in EverQuest hope to persuade Jens, who is about to leave the world, to return. Apparently, it is easier to persuade him if the group meets over dinner. The dinner meeting shows how difficult it can be to leave the game; a mutual dependence and obligation can easily evolve, which is hard to break. There is a strong group pressure.

Seen in this way, there is no doubt that the pleasures and the obligations of the game control and profoundly influence many aspects of Jan’s life. It is difficult to earn enough money to be able to play the game but it is also difficult to maintain the motivation to improve his other life conditions by working. Whether this is due to his presence in the online world alone is difficult to say, but Jan’s inworld friends are more meaningful to him than his friends from his offline life.

It controls so much, it is more important than paying the rent.

— Jan

CHILDREN AND EDUCATION G AMES AND CHILDREN Janus and Sia have two children: a daughter Alice, who is in nursery, and a boy Bo, who goes to school. Bo is learning how to read. The world of EverQuest often influences Janus and Sia’s life with children and family. For example, they will stop playing the game when Alice wakes up crying in the evening or at night, even if they are in the

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middle of an important mission for the guild. Alice’s world in the children’s room has a big impact on their virtual life and vice versa.

Sia: We are on a raid [Alice is crying] – let us wait and see if she is dreaming and can go back to sleep by herself.

Janus: [in the voice chat] Hold on two seconds, I will just have to run to Alice. [After a while] I am back.

S: Welcome back. — Janus, Sia Although they seem to master this navigation, it still affects their ability to play EverQuest. They cannot be stable members of a largescale guild with strict requirements for participation and still meet their obligations as parents. Being online many hours at a time, three evenings every week is not compatible with their current life situation. It would be unacceptable if they left the fighting in the middle of the action because Alice needs care, as there would be too much at stake with each raid or mission as part of a large and ambitious guild.

It requires [in large raid guilds] that you are willing to raid, for example, three times a week in which you are obliged to attend. And with children and family, it cannot be done so we cannot join the large and great raid guilds. — Sia HOMEWORK AND EDUCATION

Bo, the schoolboy, is old enough to be absorbed in the online world and in the avatars and characters with which his mother and father are juggling. He is eager to talk about them; yet he has to concentrate on his homework. This proves difficult when he wants to talk about how he sees the world of EverQuest and to show his abilities with the avatar called Nuser during homework:

NARRATIVE 10: A MAGIC AVATAR – SIA, BO Bo: Mom, look here [pointing at his reading book and reads aloud] there is and has been—erm.

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Sia: And then (...) go on, okay! (...) Listen now! Look in your book and read on, (...) come on and read.

B: But why?

S: Why do you ask? You have to read.

B: But (...)

S: Listen! Now, go on reading.

B: Okay, here I think that [pointing at the reading book and reads] the same thing, now he sees it.

Bo reads a few lines but then his mind wanders back into the world of EverQuest.

Sia: Gelinu, she is my goddess, she is cool.

Bo: My god is Nuser.

S: Yes, well, the shamans, they are really cool; if I can learn how to play the shaman then that would be really cool B: Mom? S: Well, shamans can really do many things (‌) right now, you have to listen! In 20 minutes you have to be in bed and before that you have to do your homework, Bo, now I really mean it!

After a short while.

Bo: Sometimes in the game [playing the same avatar class as Janus].

Sia: Yes, now you have to go in and do your homework. Now! B: Mom? S: Sit down and be quiet (...).

B: At the beginning, I did not know what it was; now I know it.

S: It is three minutes to 8 p.m. so read now; choose the short one but you have to practice on the other one as well (...) sit down and keep quiet.

In the end, Sia gives in and Bo shows his avatar Nuser and a huge troll that appears on the computer screen.

Sia: Nuser is Bo’s avatar.

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Bo: My troll, he loves to kill! He really does. But not if he has too few life points left.

Then he flees, or casts a spell, to draw life from his adversary and he becomes invisible to the skeletons.

S: Bo is also occasionally allowed to play with a little help.

B: Yes, at the other [the third] computer. My mother and father will tell me about places not to go, where it is too much. — Sia, Bo

It seems that it is not only Bo who finds it difficult to turn his attention away from the interesting avatars in the world of EverQuest.

Janus also has to finish his studies. He is starting to fall behind and soon he has to write his final thesis to complete his teacher training education.

Martin was still enrolled in high school when the video interviews were conducted but at the time of writing, he has now returned after dropping out to try some other activities. In his view, high school education has not been fulfilling and the system does not appreciate his comprehensive expert knowledge of the virtual worlds.

F ELLOW STUDENTS AND FAMILY It is difficult to start out in a game like EverQuest. Therefore, friends or family often start the interest. For Sia and Janus, the catalyst was a fellow student who knew about their interest in role-playing games such as the early Dungeons and Dragons. Their fellow student urged them to start playing and introduced and guided them through the first difficult steps of the game where the avatars have to work up in level if they are to meet difficult challenges and gain exciting things and equipment.

Members of the immediate family may also inspire gaming. That was the case for Sia’s brother, Tom, who is now playing with the Draconic Guardians guild. He previously played the game World of Warcraft with his girlfriend. When they broke up, many friends also left their group so Tom was left alone in the world. His older sister Sia introduced him to the game of EverQuest and helped him get started in their guild.

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In Jan’s case, some of his offline friends are also his friends in the game of EverQuest and part of his friendship circle. He needs to earn money to finance his EverQuest account and obtain the many extensions to the game. Therefore, he is forced to work as a temporary unskilled labourer. He reluctantly engages with everyday activities such as working but unlike in his everyday life, in EverQuest there are people who miss him when he is not there.

However, to keep up his life in EverQuest he has to also deal with the outside world.

Here [pointing at the chat] someone from the group says that they don’t understand why I have not been online for the last few days. — Jan In many different ways, living a life in EverQuest is a matter of navigating the world-making. In the case of Janus and Sia, it is not just something that goes on after the children’s bedtime and in a separate sphere. Their voice chat is turned on in the morning, just as naturally as other families turn on the radio or TV, and it is left on all day. Daily conversation and family affairs interweave with the dialogues in the voice chat as missions are planned for the evening.

Members must decide who is going to join the raids and missions, which avatars and classes should participate, and which zones to go to depending on the actual levels and constellations of the guild.

Furthermore, the voice chat also deals with many other things than just the game.

Voice chat is on all day and we talk to each other about everything. That is the way it works. — Janus, Sia S CREENS AND BEDS It is difficult to keep up with everything while surrounded by so many displays. There are three computers in Janus and Sia’s bedroom on the wall opposite their TV. They sometimes watch TV, but there is no doubt as to what mostly attracts their attention. The active engagement with the game and the many friendships of the guild win over the attractions of television most of the time.

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We can send each other a voice emot so people can hear it if they are watching TV while playing the game. — Janus The multiple screens are in the bedroom of their flat. After a long evening of games, fun and hard work, Janus and Sia can just stumble into bed.

ANALYSIS 9: PRIORITIES AND REQUIREMENTS To navigate the many different situations and places of daily life is difficult. The same is true when the situations entail virtual worldmaking. Conflicting priorities, demanding requirements, lack of understanding and adhering to social norms are just some examples that point to some of the problems of navigating.

In the closing empirical analyses, I will briefly point to some of the strategies employed as well as to some of the problems and barriers met by the actors.

Each of the analyses is concluded with reference to the current status of the actors’ engagement with their chosen virtual world-making.

I T BLURS THE BOUNDARIES In the debate about advanced online role-play, one of the questions asked concerns how gaming influences the players’ work and education. In the cases of this study, this question also appears to be of importance to the players and can be seen to influence their lives in different ways. However, most of the time there are a variety of solutions to the problem. Working as a computer scientist, Michael, and his wife, can play almost 24:7 because Michael’s job provides him with the opportunity of being online at work as well as at home.

Blurring the boundaries between work and home seems to be one of the strategies applied to his gaming activities. When confronted with this, Jan is envious; he feels as if Michael is almost cheating and that sometimes Michael and his wife are neglecting their duties at work.

Otherwise, it seems unlikely that they could achieve the results and levels they do, according to Jan. Unlike Michael, financing his gaming is forcing Jan to find casual work, thus engaging with people in his neighbourhood and the labour market. From an immediate view, these activities seem to be disassociated from his everyday life

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in the world of EverQuest. However, gaming is driving Jan to maintain contact with other everyday activities. Meeting with some of his friends over dinner is also motivated by his EverQuest engagement. Thus, two different strategies can be seen: in Michael’s case, the blurring of the boundaries is made possible by the nature of his work and his educational background, whereas in Jan’s case, the desire to be able to keep playing forces him to work. His economic means, personal history and educational background mean that only casual and unskilled labour is available to him.

In subsequent talks with Jan it appears that he has left EverQuest to move on to the game of VanGuard, 218 where he is still playing a small figure, a gnome. He left EverQuest to follow some of his virtual friends who decided to try out something new. They are currently considering changing games once more to start playing Rift.219 Achieving great results and influencing other people is part of the game for Martin. He has developed great expertise in this field by juggling many different worlds and games. Feeling important and knowledgeable about many different worlds makes it difficult for him to engage with his high school where his expertise is not recognised and cannot be utilised. The fact that he drops out of school after the video interviews indicates the problems that he is facing in the process of interweaving his expertise with the knowledge requirements of the school system. At the time of writing, Martin is back in school again. In Martin’s case, the interweaving of the different parts of his life is problematic, not least because his knowledge about these social media is currently not part of the educational system. These difficulties are compounded on the one hand by the systemic closedness of the educational system and on the other by Martin prioritising his virtual worlds – at least for a while.

The youngest child in Janus and Sia’s family needs care and comfort if she is crying in the evening or at night. In this way, their gaming is

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http://vgplayers.station.sony.com/ http://www.riftgame.com

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influenced by their daily life. Bo is learning to read and write at school but he continuously needs help to keep his mind on his homework and learn how to read. His focus easily turns to the world of EverQuest, in which he is eager to develop a character that resembles his father’s main avatar. These family matters require Janus’s and Sia’s attention and influence their life in EverQuest forcing them to adjust their strategy accordingly. Thus, even if their desire is to be members of one of the large-scale high-level guilds of the world, they have to prioritise their family situation and start up a smaller guild that almost feels like a family. Turning on the team speak in the morning to plan and organise the raids and missions that evening and night, the EverQuest world is part of their daily life almost in the same way that other families turn on the morning radio or TV. However, the difference is that dialogues with the other members of the guild require their attention and participation in a more active way than listening to the radio or watching TV. The necessity of prioritising due to their other life situation profoundly influences their EverQuest life. In terms of their financial and educational situation, Sia has been granted a disability pension while Janus continues to work on his thesis to complete his teacher training.

In subsequent talks with Sia and Janus it appears that they have both left EverQuest. The simultaneous requirements of the game and their everyday life with children had generated an untenable situation.

Stepping back from a large guild to the smaller guild Draconic Guardians was difficult although necessary as stopping as a guild leader was not an option for Sia. Starting a new game less demanding than EverQuest made no sense to them because it would not comply with their high ideals of gaming. They would rather stop playing completely.

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WORK LIFE IN SECOND LIFE Why should we create a replica of our institution inside Second Life? It just does not work very well. Instead you have to carefully select the services that work well in the environment where you are located. — Janne The quotation which I have chosen for the introduction to this section elucidates Janne’s reflection on how to adjust to different environments and how to handle the differences so they make sense given different accentuations and conditions.The Second Life cases are all part of the actors’ daily work life. They hope to expand the boundaries of their work in order to create new opportunities in Second Life, even if they face many barriers as is also the case with other forms of innovation and entrepreneurship.

PRESS RELEASE AND SOLID WORK M ARKETING From the outset, Thomas aims to make a living of his virtual business in Second Life, and hopefully turn it into a full-time job. The company, Wonder DK, is financed by a team who invest in buying and designing the island.

As agency attracts avatars it is necessary to provide activity and news on the island in the form of events, meetings, announcements and information about what goes on in Second Life. Providing these services is time consuming so the business urgently needs to attract customers if it is to survive.

The next task was to get some customers. We are not just doing it for fun, but because we want to make a living. We are pretty sure that it is possible to make a living as there is so much potential. There are some people who believe that this is the next internet generation; the 3D worlds — not necessarily in the shape of Second Life — could be the next big development. — Thomas Many in-world attempts are made to promote and create awareness of the business through contacts with journalists and outside

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companies, but it is difficult to assess the impact of those initiatives.

The immediate assessment is that most customers have come by themselves because of the successful creation of a well-designed and cosy fictional environment; and not least because the owner of the island is almost always online and easy to contact.

NARRATIVE 11. A SALESMAN’S EXPERIENCE – THOMAS I have a sales speech to convince my customers that they should stay on the island when the probationary period or the lease expires. I spend much time doing this to get better and better. The more experience I get, the faster I can come up with some good arguments. So, I get the feeling of becoming more and more experienced in selling services in here. But there is a long way to go — that is for sure. Initially, I spend some time trying to hold on to existing customers to convince them that they should stay. Some pay month to month, which means that I have to contact them every month when I e-mail the new bill. Then, I tell them about what has happened over the month, how many visitors they have had in their shop, and such things.

They appreciate this extra service.

We have published press releases; we have phoned advertising agencies; we have prepared a long document with info about Second Life and our business and about how cheap it is and about the opportunities. All of the info has been mailed to the advertising agencies with which I have been in contact. But it has achieved no results. I am quite sure that around the country there are many companies that would want to be in Second Life, I just cannot find them. It is like looking for a needle in a haystack (…)

People come all by themselves! Sometimes, if I just sit inside my in-world office, then people come through the door. It is a little strange. I assume that the avatars and visitors have been around to explore the other Danish islands to test the water, getting to know about the prices and such. Then, here they are, because Wonder DK is a place with traffic [visitors], but also because it is a nicely designed Danish provincial town and island. I am pretty sure these are the reasons why they come to this place. Also, we get a little help from existing customers. This [pointing at the screen] is a company that shows customers around the island, and here [pointing] are some media that write about Second Life and our island on their website. There have also been some TV spots. It is all of these small steps taken that cause the growth. Presently, we have 13 tenants so there is a long way to go before I can make a living easily. But I have to try it out. The potential is there. — Thomas

P RICES The first customers got an introductory offer, especially those who have an existing business as they are the primary target audience.

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Companies that only deal with Second Life products and services must adapt to market conditions in Second Life where the prices are very low. There is a self-scale because relatively large amounts of L$ only make very small amounts of US$/Danish kroner (kr.). The conversion from L$ to US dollars and Danish kroner depends on the current L$ exchange rate against the US $. 300 L$ converts to approximately 6 kr. Prices therefore adjust to the expectations set by L$ prices in Second Life. If a script or an animation costs 1,000 L$ then it will be perceived as expensive. This difference in price expectations influences stores and malls that sell virtual products or services, which is one of the reasons why existing offline businesses, organisations and institutions are the primary audience of the Wonder DK’s business and marketing agencies.

We lowered the price to attract the first tenant and to get the first customer from outside companies. Unlike this business model, Second Life shops sell such items as Second Life clothes and furniture at a cost of 100, 200 and 300 Linden $.

That is 2, 4, 6, 8 kr. That is of no interest to us. To spend three hours designing a sofa and then sell it for 8 DKK afterwards, it makes no sense. — Thomas However, it is not easy to match offline business pricing with the Second Life market. There is intense competition with other Second Life companies that lease offices and shops. Therefore, the standard prices are often commented upon by in-world residents who think the amounts charged are too expensive. However, the many offline enterprises who are trying to run a business in Second Life find the pricing too cheap.

So we get many comments about our prices. There are many people who think the prices are in Linden $. They are quite shocked when they realise that the price is in DKK, in particular those residents who only want to sell things such as Second Life design, clothes, or offer their virtual products for free. It makes no sense to them to pay prices according to reallife standards. This is unlike real-life customers, shops and companies for whom the prices are low — almost too low as

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quality and price often are seen as linked. So we have an audience that thinks it is too expensive, and one that says it is too cheap. — Thomas K NOWLEDGE It takes a lot of time to learn how to build, design, animate and script — all of the skills and abilities that are essential if one is to make a reality of new business ideas. It is hard, which is why knowledge is an important competitive factor as it provides added value to Thomas’ services and products being traded. This is a separate service, which often comes as part of the leasing contract.

They came and asked if they could rent the corner building here [pointing] and, of course, they could. They were even more ignorant about how to deal with the environment than we were. So we agreed to decorate the store for them. — Thomas Knowledge and creativity go together. Thomas’ background as a programmer in his earlier work life enables him to relatively easily acquire coding skills. As a programmer, he is familiar with the idea of taking existing code, seeing how it works and then adapting it to one’s needs.

I am a trained programmer, so it is not that hard to change things. It is a language, Linden Lab has invented [Linden Script Language — LSL], but it is very similar to the language called C+, with which I am familiar. There is also a language called Javascript, which I have used on our website. It is very close to LSL so we had no problems with the syntax. — Thomas For a programmer, interpreting the code, understanding how it works and finding out how to adapt it and make changes is relatively easy.

However, it takes time and effort if you do not know the basics.

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CURIOSITY AND A VIRTUAL BRANCH M INI NERD By coincidence, media coverage aroused the curiosity of Helle when she saw a TV programme about Second Life and virtual worlds. One could, it seemed, make a living in a world like Second Life.

I thought, okay! What is this about? I downloaded Second Life the day after and told everybody to try it out and learn what it is all about. — Helle In her daily work, Helle is a human resource employee in a company with many branches all over Denmark and abroad. In her spare time she is interested in computers and could be considered a mini-geek as she enjoys getting involved with websites, html coding and some superficial programming.

When I was 12 years old, I got my Amiga 500. It was brand new and it cost 13,000 DKK. So I had to work as a newspaper girl for two years to pay off my parents. — Helle Her interest in Second Life quickly increased as it proved accessible for someone like her. After a short while, she took the step of buying land and with that all sorts of stuff. Owning land allowed Helle to start designing.

I had been in Second Life for two weeks, so I knew nothing about how to buy or sell land and stuff. I bought 8,000 square metres of land. I started out buying 1,250 square metres, then I bought more — 4,800 more to acquire more prims220. I had become almost like a prim-oholic. I had bought so many things, and I needed to unpack it all. I spent about 800,000 Linden$ plus the monthly fee, which was approximately 20,000 L$. It was not cheap. — Helle

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Prims are the basic building blocks of the design tools in Second Life.

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N EW BRANCH Helle also introduced the idea of a Second Life project at her workplace, where her immediate manager supported the idea. The project started up with a modest budget because the company’s toplevel management was sceptical. The budget provided the start but it is not enough to actually run the project; it mainly covers the ownership of virtual land. Despite the fact that her workplace supports the project, it has to be carried out in Helle’s leisure time thus doubling her work hours; a full-time job in the daytime and then home to 6-8 hours of work during the evening and often at night as well.

When I got home, I would log on and get started. I was home by 6-7 p.m. and I would not stop until after midnight. — Helle It appears that her colleagues around the country back the project.

They continuously send news to the project about services to be advertised in Second Life. With a low budget, long working hours and a strong commitment, the new branch of the company becomes a reality, but the project encounters barriers.

Taxation is an issue that needs to be dealt with when Helle designs the virtual branch in Second Life. A company can attract in-world attention if the avatars and residents who visit the virtual place can earn Linden $. Even though this is mostly very small amounts of money, it is still necessary to follow the tax regulations carefully.

I phoned the Ministry of Taxation the other day to ask what to do, if I arrange a competition with animations in here; if people earn, say, what equals 0.08 kr. Then, surely, they must report it to the taxation authorities; that is the way it is. She also laughed about it. Of course, this is stupid, but on each sign made, I will have to write: be sure to report the amount of Linden $ to the taxation authorities. — Helle Not only have the taxation issues generated problems: holiday payments and pensions are to be paid due to the amount of Linden $ earned in the in-world competitions.

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CHILDISH AND COLLEAGUES P UBLIC INSTITUTION Janne, Lasse and Mads enter Second Life in January 2007. This is when they start the Literary project because the development department and the management of the public institution where they work agrees to carry out experiments with the Second Life world.

Actually, it is by chance they discovered the world. After reading an article about Second Life in a Danish newspaper, the head of the development department decided to ask the leader of the institution for support to try it out. They decided that it would be worthwhile to try and start up a Second Life project.

They talked about it with Morten and asked if it was something for us. Morten, our leader, is always so positive. It all sounds quite fun — he always supports something that is quite fun. So, they discussed it back and forth a few times, and then I was asked if I would like to join the project. — Janne In this way, the project is supported by the head of the institution who gave the project permission to start and three employees become involved. Their project is one of the early Danish public initiatives in Second Life.

It was a bit fast perhaps. I am such a big child, so they probably thought it was something for me. So that evening I went home and found that it was quite fun — and then wow! I created an avatar that same evening to see what it was all about. The next day, when they talked about Second Life, of course, I had already tried to fly and I had passed through Orientation Island, and things like that. —Janne IT DEPARTMENT There is, however, a problem with the institution’s IT department. For security reasons, the participants are not allowed to access Second Life from the computers at the institution. This complicates all the operational procedures. After a while, the project manages to acquire two computers dedicated to Second Life. However, the design and graphics have to be made outside Second Life then they are saved on

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a hard drive to be transferred to the dedicated computers to, finally, be uploaded to Second Life. Thus, working with text and graphics is quite difficult in Second Life; it generates a lot of extra work for the project team, especially, for the project’s designer.

E XPLORATIONS The question whether a public institution can meaningfully use the world of Second Life for their purposes is often asked as the services provided by this type of institution has a long-term and solid tradition for how to practice the profession. The idea of the project is to explore new media to be able to answer the question on a qualified basis. At the beginning of the project, members of the project team travelled around to the many in-world places to see and experience as many examples as possible of what other residents and projects have created.

A N INTIMATE PROFESSION In the professional field of the project, the colleagues involved know each other and their backgrounds because they are all trained professionals who have been educated at the same institution. The fact that the people involved know each other well can be seen clearly when engaging in development projects such as moving into the world of Second Life. Discussions about the project’s in-world agencies quickly spread and there is a group of colleagues who attend the weekly in-world meetings to discuss the many questions of relevance to their profession.

We all know each other. Sometimes it is too much. It is so intimate. We know where everybody in the profession works.

— Janne

ANALYSIS 10: MAKING A LIVING AND INITIATING DEBATE A TTUNING TO OUTSIDE EXPECTATIONS The prospect of making a living from a virtual business serving as a full-time job is a driving motivation for Thomas to start up a Second Life business. Renting out shops in the virtual town of Korsbæk and targeting companies and firms from the world outside of Second Life is the aim of the business. Investing in an island, his team starts to

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build up the business, struggling with many new lessons to be learnt, such as promoting, marketing, keeping up contacts, networking, and convincing customers to stay. Gradually, by trying out different strategies, a business is built up, although it requires a highly labourintensive effort. Often, the working week is 80 hours, which is almost more intensive than starting up a business outside of Second Life.

The different time zones, the expectations of the residents and avatars that Thomas’s avatar should be easy to contact in-world, and the need to continuously learn about how to design and act in the virtual world increase the working hours.

But adjusting to the in-world market is only one of the problems to deal with. Due to the low in-world prices, paid in Linden $, the expectations of customers are set at a low level; prices are so low that it is almost impossible to make a living. As the business targets customers from outside Second Life, the prices are adjusted to outside expectations, which again generate problems with potential in-world customers. Thus, attuning expectations in this new environment is a continuous learning process with many pitfalls and necessities, such as interpreting the new market conditions, acquiring new knowledge, and adapting the world to the business needs and purposes. With a background of working as a programmer, the new environment poses many challenges for acting as a businessman and salesman, but the strategy aims to interweave the two parts by learning, acquiring knowledge and skills, and, not least of all, through hard work and believing in the project.

At the time of writing, the Wonder DK business is still running,221 even if the lease of shops and land is no longer the main agency.

Knowledge consultancy on in-world design is about to become the service that provides income so Thomas can make a living of the business.

Coverage by TV news makes Helle aware of the possibilities of making a living in Second Life. The purpose of the Times project is to

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Shortly after writing this chapter, it appears that the Wonder DK business has been given up. It proved too difficult to make a living this way.

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extend her regular workplace with a virtual branch and integrate the two, making the virtual branch a competitive advantage for the company where she is employed. The project starts with a very modest budget, as the top-level management of her workplace does not see the point in the project. It is, however, supported by the daily management. Doubling her work hours, Helle designs the virtual branch after her usual work day, so the virtual branch is built up during the evening hours and at night.

Abruptly, the Second Life Times project is stopped. This is decided by the top-level management and not by the daily manager. Helle has a personal, in-world start-up project, which is conceived competitive to the company’s Second Life branch. A conflict of interest develops. The branch and the Second Life Times project is closed and is followed shortly after by Helle’s resignation.

Press coverage was the occasion that started a Second Life development project in Mads and Janne’s daily work. By chance, they discovered the world and took up the challenge of exploring and experimenting with this new medium. Initially, their activity was supported by the head of the public institution where they worked.

Struggling with the many problems and barriers of experimentation – safety, the IT-department, resources, mind-sets – in a public institution, they managed to get a development project going in a very short time span. Debating with their colleagues in weekly Second Life meetings turned out to be the dominant activity and strategy of the project. The project was facing problems when cutbacks and a scarcity of resources forced the management of the public institution to prioritise and reduce expenses. The Literary project did not reach out to the end-users as was first intended; rather, a relatively closed circle of colleagues on a national scale was debating the form and purpose of the project. Furthermore, the workplace colleagues did not engage with the project but retained an observational stance. Thus, the conditions for the project were hard, and it could not withstand the cutbacks.

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10. SYNTHESIS OF THE ANALYSIS The analysis has now reached a point where I am able to synthesise some of the many answers to the empirical questions that have opened each of the preceding chapters. When doing this, I will focus on the overall question: •

In what ways do actors make sense of their engagement with virtual world-making?

To answer the overall question using this synthesis of analysis I will continuously change the optic to focus on similarities and differences within and between the cases of EverQuest and Second Life.

COMPARING VIRTUAL WORLD-MAKING It stands out that the landscapes of the mass role-playing game of EverQuest are markedly different from what appears when we zoom out to see the map of all the islands of Second Life. From this the question arises of how to compare the two?

The vantage point of this study is from the actors’ point of view rather than focusing on the systems and platform design, so my point of departure is the actors’ sense-making when they engage with their world-making. As mentioned in the introduction, and as shown by the analyses, I have taken an interpretive stance to the analysis of the worlds of EverQuest and Second Life. To answer the question about the comparison of markedly different worlds, my point is therefore that it is the making of sense and the situations of engaging with the worlds that are compared and not the worlds per se in the sense of their system design. I am well aware that the affordances 222 of the different worlds make different forms of engaging and sense-making

222

See Gibson 1986, Norman 2002.

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more likely. Situations of engaging entail that actors are engaging with something and someone in actor-networks of human and nonhuman actors. Therefore it makes no sense to see the sense-making processes of engaging as separate from the affordances with which to engage.

Emerging from the study of situations of engaging we find assemblages of interrelated actor-networks that condition and enable the actors’ agency. By the use of the term world-making I seek to capture, denote and express these complex assemblages of relationships. As mentioned in chapter two, some of the many processes and dynamics of world-making refer to aspects of composition and decomposition, weighing, ordering, deletion, supplementation, and deformation, 223 which means that worldmaking is to some extent based on existing worlds. Composing new affordances by decomposing, accentuating differently or adding some new affordances to the existing world while maybe deleting others all contribute to the dynamics of world-making. The virtual worlds of EverQuest and Second Life have been made part of the actors’ daily lives and worlds. When we conceive the worlds in terms of world-making they are not separate and parallel worlds but composites of the actors’ daily lives. This is the case because their lives are supplemented, their possible choices are weighed differently, new problems evolve that are decomposed and maybe solved, and agencies are composed and ordered with a different accentuation. The many metaphors, sign-relations and affordances of the virtual worlds make such different accentuations of the actors’ everyday world possible.

In some cases, the similarities between the two worlds are more dominant than the differences whereas in others the differences within one of the worlds go beyond the differences between the two.

This observation reveals one of the problems that we face in the study and analysis of these worlds: the complexities and differences within the worlds and platforms are so encompassing that in many cases it makes little sense to see, for example, Second Life as a unity.

223

See chapter 2.

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If we see it as a unity, then only very little can be said. Only by comprehensive empirical studies of the multiplicities and diversity of places, projects and businesses, can we see the nuances in the broader pictures painted. In this synthesis I will contribute to the nuances by focusing on the similarities and the differences to paint a picture of how differently actors make sense of and engage with their virtual world-making.

MARKET AND MEDIA Let us therefore start our journey together with the actors. We find differences as soon as we ask what led the actors to choose their worlds. In the case of EverQuest, the actors refer to friends and family as the catalysts, whereas with Second Life it was media coverage¾the self-perpetuating cycles of media referring to media that initiated the choice to get involved. As already mentioned, the role-playing game of EverQuest is one of the classics, which was introduced to the market in times when these games were still worlds of inner circle subcultures. Consequently, the media coverage of a world like EverQuest was not nearly as widespread as in the case of Second Life. An example similar to the media coverage of Second Life is the introduction of World of Warcraft to the market. The trajectories that may help us see some differences lead to the history and timing of the introduction to market and media. Thus, the sources of the actors’ choice of worlds point to family, friends and other media and, in this way, they are on par with findings from research on other media.224

CONTENT CREATION Another eye-catching difference is the question of content; who delivers the content and what is delivered. From an immediate view, the world of Second Life is open to user-generated content creation whereas the content of EverQuest is set in advance by the quests, levels, reward systems and predefined features. One may see the former as a platform for creativity and collaboration whereas the

224

Sørensen 2010.

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latter is defined and structured in accordance with well-established knowledge about game theory and design.225 It appears to be a world defined by the system developers and designers rather than by the gamers and actors. It is, however, not that simple as has been shown in the zoom-in on the micro-moments of the actors’ engaging with the two different kinds of worlds. In some of the EverQuest game activities the winning / losing dichotomy is clearly dominant, in particular when it comes to status: either you are a high level winner or a somewhat disregarded low level player. Immediately, the status systems tell the story. With regard to some of the other activities such as trading, crafting or chatting, the game is just an occasion to engage with leadership, organising, collaboration, and teambuilding as shown by the many accounts. In other words, they are engagements much the same as those of the world of Second Life.

Even with regard to reward systems and status, the differences are somewhat blurred. Throughout the sense-making narratives, the question of status is a recurring motif. In Second Life, the look of one’s avatar, not the levels, reveal status in the dichotomy of experienced and knowledgeable as opposed to inexperienced newcomer.

When we follow the actors of this study in the micro-moments of making sense of content and content creation, we find similarities as well as differences; some trajectories and optics lead us to the similarities while others to the differences. However, if we take as a starting point the engaging with available affordances in processes of sense-making there are more similarities than seen in a first view.

A SENSE OF UNIQUENESS In situations of engaging with EverQuest, the actors express a profound sense of freedom to stage their personal in-world presence.

The world provides a multiplicity of affordances that offer a diversity of choices with different combinations and constellations. This generates a sense of uniqueness, a feeling of creating a personal place and the development of a personal and social history. The

225

See Bartle 2004.

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choices range from characters, continents and islands to equipment, crafts, quests, utilities, abilities, missions and raids. A sense of personalising the in-world being emerges, which generates a strong sense of being present. 226 Entering the world in different ways, choosing sides, mapping and upgrading are some of the verbings that tell this story as does the staging of a guild hall, the sharing of utilities and the trading and crafting of virtual goods and equipment. As shown by the two reconstructions, producing virtual goods is part of the gaming, and to some gamers it is even more important than the gaming itself. In the case of the Draconic Guardians, the staging of their in-world presence is to build up a guild and culture of high ideals and to design and use the in-world tools and affordances available to do so.

Although there are differences when compared to the actors, who engage with Second Life, there are also many similarities generated by the sense of co-constructing a personal place and in-world presence. The affordances and referents made available by the world-making platforms are different, but even so the sense of being in a process of world-making and of staging a personal in-world presence enacting mediating programs has many similarities.

SCARCITY OF RESOURCES One of the similarities between the two worlds is the scarcity of resources. In the game of EverQuest, the scarcity of resources is part of the game design and theory: if resources are easy to get and available with only minor effort then the meaning of the game

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Telepresence and the sense of presence are phenomena dealt with in a range of different research traditions of areas such as Virtual Reality, Immersive Virtual Environments, Virtual Learning Environments, Computer Supported Collaborative Work and in research on online games, see Bailenson et al. 2004, Bracken & Skalski 2010, Bystrom et al. 1999, Jacobson 2001, Klimmt & Vordere 2003, Lee 2004, Lombard in Bracken & Skalski 2010, Mania & Chalmers 2001, McLaughlin in Jones 1997, Mikropoulos & Strouboulis 2004, Nowak & Biocca 2003, Salvendy 1998, Schroeder 2011, Towell & Towell 1997, Waterworth & Waterworth in Bracken & Skalski 2010, Westerman & Skalski in Bracken & Skalski 2010, Wiederhold et al. 2000.

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vanishes. Resources are deliberately scarce. Therefore, an investment of time and effort becomes necessary and over time this investment generates a sense of belonging. In a world like Second Life, time and effort are also required. There is a steep learning curve to be overcome if one is to creatively utilise the tools and affordances of the world to create and design the content. It takes time and effort to learn how to design everything from simple furniture and houses to the complex design of entire environments, towns, museums and even amusement parks. The complexity of tasks increases due to the scarcity of resources in the shape of prims, the building blocks of Second Life. It takes a lot of experience and skill to deal with the complexity of larger designing tasks given the scarcity of prims. 227 Only in-world designers, professional or autodidact, with such knowhow can optimally utilise the tools and affordances at hand. This scarcity of resources is not, however, a deliberate choice of the same kind as in the case of EverQuest; rather, it is a system-generated constraint and a limitation of the system performance. Whatever the reason, time and effort are necessary resources for designing and creating one’s presence in the many processes of world-making. The scarcity of resources in the two worlds derives from the many differences of system design. However, when seen from the actors’ viewpoint, both cases require the investment of large amounts of time and learning to be able to creatively juggle with these affordances.

Yet another form of scarcity that has appeared repeatedly during the video interviews is the need to attract the attention of the other actors in the worlds. In Second Life, in particular, the scarcity of the psychological resource of attention, and accordingly the communication required, are recurring motifs of the sense-making strategies and stories as told by the participating actors. It is almost as difficult to deal with this scarcity as it is with the limited prims for design. In both cases, the scarcity of time and attention are problems, which the actors have dealt with through different strategies.

227

The introduction of sculpted prims in Second Life gave rise to in-world discussions because it is said to reinforce a development towards professionalising the design of places and islands.

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SENSE-MAKING STRATEGIES When we look at the entering steps taken by the members of Draconic Guardians, a story emerges of the sense-making strategy of staying true to the original design of the game. This is part of the history of the Draconic Guardians. The ‘EverQuest classic’ approach plays a prominent part in the staging of the guild and the creation of a community of high ideals, solidarity and sharing as opposed to the selfishness and greed, which the guild ascribes to the culture of World of Warcraft. The keyframe, showing the logon interface to the older version, tells us this story.

The choice of world is often initiated by friends but over time the members of the guild choose to stay true to the old classic version rather than migrate to a newer version, EverQuest II, even though it offers a more advanced game and graphics design. The high ideals and ensuing values have consequences in terms of resources. There are many demands and obligations made on the actors, which put a pressure on the time and attention required to meet them in a daily life situation with many competing obligations. If we compare this to Jan, then a different picture and story emerges. From the first step of entering the world of EverQuest, the story of a little oriental carpet, his metaphorical actant, signifies and makes his efforts visible. To acquire this carpet, he had to invest heavily in time and effort. He only managed to get the carpet because of his sustained efforts and because he knows about the quests to be solved and their implications. The carpet eases travel and enables him to fly around the desert of EverQuest instead of running. His investment of time can be compared with the many players who do not take the time to overcome the difficulties due to their laziness and lack of knowledge, in Jan’s view. The opening keyframe tells us about this sense-making strategy by pointing at the carpet, which allows Jan to tell the story.

Moving on to the Second Life cases, they all share the problems that come with the scarcity of resources. One particular example of this is the lack of attention paid by the other actors. To overcome this, different strategies are used involving the in-world design and coconstruction, although there are also similarities in the strategies. In the Wonder DK and Times cases, we find strategies that seek to

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translate and reshape businesses in order to make use of the world’s affordances. In both cases, their mediating program is to attract attention to convince potential customers that it is worthwhile spending money and investing the time necessary to explore the opportunities of the world-making of Second Life.

Yet, the sense-making strategies they enact to explore the opportunities are almost opposites. Entering the world, stories are told that allow us to point to keyframes and metaphorical actants of these stories. In the case of Wonder DK, the opening story is about the reshaping of a typical Danish town; an orderly and regulated cosy provincial town recognisable to any visitor. This design represents a heavy investment of time and learning aimed at attracting the attention of potential customers. It is the designing strategy of a ‘settler’ running a serious and trustworthy business of high standards. At Wonder DK there are no casinos, gun production, sex bars or brothels allowed. If we then look at the Times project, a quite different story is told by the metaphors and actants mobilised. It is the design of a ‘nomad’ and travelling strategy of building knowledge networks. These knowledge networks allow the project manager to solve the many in-world problems of design and agency by using other residents’ knowledge. The scarcity of knowledge about the new environment and world is dealt with by drawing on shared knowledge and know-how as gathered over time by networks and contacts. In this way, the many demands to, convincingly, invite in businesses from outside Second Life are met. The conspicuous travelling avatar is the keyframe which tells the main story about the need for knowledge sharing and network building as opposed to keeping knowledge to oneself. However, travelling around to attract the attention of new members of the groups and networks is a demanding strategy that requires a heavy investment of time. In the Literary project yet another strategy is chosen. Staying on the Linden Lab mainland, the project team hopes to attract the attention of passers-by. They share the same problem of how to attract attention in Second Life as the other businesses and projects, but unlike the Wonder DK business, from the outset, they choose a completely open design strategy. They allow visitors passing by to leave their mark and co-design the place. In looking for a keyframe that refers to

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their sense-making story, we find the project’s meeting place. It has no overall design and not much time has been invested in planning its design. Instead the time and effort employed by the project team is concerned with how to arrange debate meetings and cultural events. The story told is about enlightenment, a public service story of an ‘experimental’ strategy that strives to revitalise their profession’s identity and traditions.

The scarcity of resources generates tensions and misalignments. Jan plays as a loner but sets out to prove himself clever and capable. This becomes difficult when his occasional contacts move on to new extensions leaving him, the loner, behind due to his lack of economic resources. The story of the high ideals of Janus’ and Sia’s engaging with the Draconic Guardians is confronted by the heavy demands on their time and effort; they set out to build a community based on their ideals but the lack of time and the effort necessary seem to block their road ahead. To a certain extent, their story is comparable to the one about the high standards of the Wonder DK business with the investment of time and effort necessary to run the serious virtual business; it is a road paved with hard work. In the case of the Times project, engaging with a travelling avatar adapted to Second Life conditions is confronted by the lack of understanding of the top management at Helle’s workplace. Helle sets out to build networks and business contacts but sees the road disappear when the Second Life branch is suddenly closed whilst she is travelling. In launching a public service project the road ahead of the Literary project appears to be blocked due to the lack of interest shown by public audiences. This forces the project team to make new moves and to find other roads ahead.

CULTURAL VALUES Even if very different stories are told there are many similarities: the actors are deeply involved with moral issues and cultural values and these values are instantly expressed in some of the opening stories about their engaging with EverQuest and Second Life. There are many differences between situations of engaging and the cultural values of the worlds. In the different stories we see a solo survivor, a

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guild and community based on solidarity, the serious settler and businessman, the knowledge-sharing networker and nomadic business woman, and the explorative public service team. Despite their differences, these stories are all concerned with moral values.

These include making an effort and gaining knowledge as opposed to laziness and lack of knowledge; building a community based on solidarity rather than based on selfishness and greed; running a business of high standards and trustworthiness rather than the easy profit of casinos and brothels; sharing knowledge rather than keeping it to oneself; and the serving of public interests and societal enlightenment.

PERSONAL HISTORY AND COMPANIONSHIP When it comes to the choice of avatars, there are also many similarities. Whether we look at avatars in EverQuest or Second Life, the actors engage with the development of their mediating avatars over time. In EverQuest a personal history emerges through levelling up the avatar, solving many quests and going on raids together. The avatar is the mediator of this personal history, thus a very close relationship emerges and feelings are invested. In each of the case studies, the actors are deeply attached to their figures, characters and mediating avatars. They talk about them with pride and joy, and tell the stories of how they came into being, what made them look the way they do, how they achieved their status, got accessories and equipment, the design considerations involved and the agencies in which they partake. When looked at in this way, the avatar is not just the actor’s representation or the way in which an actor chooses to present him or herself; rather, the characters, figures and their design are seen as the actor’s in-world metaphor and non-human actant that transforms the meaning it carries. When seen from this vantage point, the avatars are personal mediators that refer to the actors’ visions and mediating programs with ensuing sense-making processes as well as to the tensions and gapinesses of some counteracting anti-programs.

They are assemblages that connect and refer to the many meaningmaking networks of virtual world-making. In this sense, the avatars of both worlds, EverQuest and Second Life, play parts that are very similar even if the tools and affordances for avatar design are

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different. This understanding of avatars as personal mediators that refer to sense-making processes and the enactment of mediating programs will be dealt with in the following chapter as I will further reflect on this understanding, and do so with reference to a semiotic understanding of avatars.

There are also, however, obvious differences when we zoom in on these personal mediators. In EverQuest we find a gnome, a shaman and a troll each with a personal history. The story about Gnossiz the gnome is told to emphasise that he came into being because he is good at going solo. This is the main story told about his emerging history. Quite contrary to this, the story and history of the shaman Gelinu tells us that she is good at healing and has magic abilities that help her owner Sia support her fellow guild members. Going solo as opposed to supporting others reveal very different stories. In the case of Gnossiz, it is told that the gnome is small, which emphasises that he has to rely on cleverness and slyness rather than brute force in order to survive. With Gelinu as her companion, Sia monitors every activity and move of the other members of her guild; she is indispensable and courageous because she can protect and strengthen the other guild members. Somewhat different is the story told when Janus talks about his Krongh the trouble troll. Even if Krongh looks a little plump, playing him requires finesse and skill.

He is a bastard that merges the qualities and abilities of a troll and a necromancer. With Krongh, Janus enjoys organising and going out fighting together with his guild.

Moving back to Second Life, we find very different characters and companion avatars. There is a business woman, Helle, in the shape of the funny and conspicuous balloon or egg-like advertising pillar; a serious-looking business man DC Aspen; a male avatar Rob with a necklace and a T-shirt with the name of a public service project; and a long-legged female Alice wearing stylish shoes. There are similarities between Rob, Helle and DC Aspen in the way that they are concerned with the professional visions and mediating programs of their projects and businesses whereas in the design of Janne’s companion avatar emphasis is on the experiential aspects of the inworld project. To some extent this is in line with the approach of

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Helle and her Times project that capitalises on funny and unusual appearances. The different design of avatars refers to, on the one hand, the mediation of personal accounts and history and, on the other, the in-world as well as the outside-world programs of running a business or project.

If we look at the tensions and misalignments that confront the actors of the Second Life cases, we see that the personal mediator DC Aspen is confronted with a barrier that threatens the road ahead of the Wonder DK business; a lack of trust in Thomas’ in-world professionalism and business. This is caused by the appearance of the avatar, which reveals that Thomas did not initially invest enough time and effort in its design. To overcome this barrier he has to move on in a different direction and, although difficult, redesign the looks of his companion avatar. In Mads’ and Janne’s case, the sharing of a workplace project avatar proves to be untenable as it generates practical and emotional frustrations. They are facing a bifurcation and a decision is made to redesign and create new avatar companions. In Helle’s case her business considerations are interwoven with her appearance and companion avatar; she makes no distinction between her personal and professional in-world agency. However, moving ahead, she sees the road suddenly disappear when top management close down her business as they are not convinced about her visions and seriousness.

STATUS AND REPUTATION Some obvious differences appear when we change the optic to see the differences and similarities of relationships as they appear in EverQuest and Second life. Some of these differences result from the design of the tools and affordances that frame the worlds. If we zoom out to see the two different worlds with the digital tools and affordances which they provide for relationship building, then there is an obvious difference in that the online role-playing games have built-in predispositions of relationships defined by the gaming affordances. Hierarchies, status and achievements are visible and made explicit and one can immediately judge other gamers on their companion avatar’s appearance and do so according to internal

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scales, ranks and assessment of valuables such as accessories and equipment. The possible relationships are designed by the developers of the games. The picture is different when we look at Second Life. There are seemingly no hierarchies, and status is not made explicit by levels, ranks or other reward systems. This does not mean, however, that status is absent in the in-world relationships but that it is differently enacted. It is not as obvious and transparent as in the role-playing games but the skills, competencies and abilities to design, script and animate generate admiration, reputation and attention. Successful businesses, eventful places, skilful design, interesting debates or funny experiences are agencies that give residents of Second Life status and reputation. When it comes to hierarchies then the picture is somewhat different. The hierarchical ways of relating are not absent but again they are less obvious and hidden from immediate view as there are built-in differences in roles and ownership. The most obvious are the features that enable different roles of the groups that organise the many friendship and business networks of Second Life. The owner of land and groups can assign roles and abilities to group members and these settings can easily be modified according to actual needs as posed by agencies and relationships.

Another obvious difference is the kind of relationship as defined by the game design such as questing, fighting and raiding in EverQuest as opposed to the open-ended user-generated purposes and contentcreation of Second Life. At first sight these are conspicuous differences whereas over time it appears that the complex features of the advanced online role-playing games allow for so many combinations and modifications that they generate a feeling of individually creating and designing things such as figures, accessories, equipment, valuables and crafts. The highly complex inventories of virtual things and signs and their many possible combinations, such as the variety of products, goods, and food to be produced and traded, all contribute to a sense of freedom to act and to relate as individually desired. In spite of the differences, the effort to build-up relationships is as important in EverQuest as it is in Second Life. The relationships may be formal or informal, planned or spontaneous, commercial or non-commercial, organised or

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anarchistic, binding or non-binding but the urge to be part of them is a recurring motif of the EverQuest as well as the Second Life narratives – even for the loner.

PERSONALISING THE RELATIONSHIPS The role-playing game of EverQuest makes some relationships more likely than others. Providing a palette of races, classes and characters, some pre-dispositions come with the design. However, the characters of EverQuest also develop personal playing styles that are recognisable to the other gamers. It is easy to distinguish the different gamers’ playing styles even if the role-players play the same race, class and role. It is even considered to be a violation of norms to play the avatar of another gamer as this can be easily recognised due to the personal playing styles. This can lead to the guild leader banning the owner if the avatar has been lent out to another player.

In many guilds there are strict rules about this because of the meticulous coordination necessary to plan and conduct the many missions and raids. Furthermore, the guild leader’s knowledge about the complexity of roles and, not least, the experience of the playing style of each role-player is a decisive pre-condition for the preparation of missions and raids. Part of this is the ability to spot the players who have bought their avatars to get a high level without investing time and effort to develop their character. In many guilds the bought avatars are avoided, as their owners have not developed the skills and abilities that will allow them to play their role optimally during the missions of a guild. Compared to this, the avatars of Second Life are figures with no predispositions regarding roles and relationships; it is up to the owners to decide, design and enact the avatars to enable certain relationships. Norms have to be followed to signify the kind of relationships that can be expected. To fail to follow the norms can lead to unwanted and unpleasant experiences.

One such example is the misalignment of expectations that occur with the Literary’s shared avatar. The anticipated relationships between the actors and the shared avatar, as well as the in-world expectations, are confused because of this sharing. Being present in the shape of a female avatar makes some relationships more likely than others; in this case, unwanted sexual advances. As Mads has no

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prior experience with dealing with unwanted sexual advances, having a shared female avatar proves untenable. The misalignment between appearance and purpose of in-world presence is apparent in DC Aspen’s and Rob’s cases. The gaps between the default looks of DC Aspen and his serious in-world business proves counterproductive to the trusting relationships so vital to his business. In Rob’s case, the Mohawk hair and punk-like look has to be balanced with the public service nature of his in-world project.

MULTIPLE RELATIONSHIPS If we zoom in on the relationships of the cases studied, we find many different forms. Accompanied by Gelinu the shaman, Sia is managing the internal relationships of the family-like guild and zealously monitoring prospective new members of the guild Draconic Guardians. The urge is to build a community based on mutual solidarity with an outward closedness and a strict control of relationships. Organising the agencies of the guild, Janus with his Krongh companion avatar contributes the solidarity that is the bedrock of the in-guild relationships. In both cases, the pressures of these high ideals of acting as leader and organiser generate problems that result in the initiation of a guild that has a lower level of ambition than desired. The binding obligations and relationships of a large-scale guild are a pre-requisite for high ambitions and achievements but such pressures are irreconcilable with the obligations of their daily relationships. Contrary to this, Jan with his Gnossiz the gnome sets out to prove more clever, able and sly than his occasional friends, even to the extent that he takes pleasure in manipulating them. Although he is a loner who plays solo, the only way to prove himself capable and superior is through his relationships with other gamers.

The tensions and misalignments of resources, time, effort, energy, responsibility and status affect Sia’s engagings in the sense that it is only fun to run the Draconian Guardian’s guild if it leads to achievement, status and ranking. These misalignments finally lead to the end of Sia’s gaming. The demands on her become overwhelming and make her daily life increasingly untenable. Her engagement also

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fades as the achievements lower and the outcomes of raids and missions are reduced. The tensions and misalignments are much the same with regard to Janus and his avatar Krongh the troll. Even if he is not the leader of the guild, his role is as important. The members of his guild know they can always rely on him. His high ideals generate an almost insurmountable blockage, which forces him to redefine and reorganise his in-world engagement. These changes lead to his choice to leave EverQuest rather than to downscale his role and responsibilities. In Jan’s case, he is caught in a dilemma; on the one hand, going solo allows him to prove himself capable to other virtual friends but, on the other, it means that they feel no responsibility to help him advance with them when they move on. Jan is approaching a bifurcation to either build relationships of a closer and more binding nature or to be left behind with the loner’s attitude to gaming. In Martin’s case, as a student his finances do not allow him to continuously build up his expertise, particularly not in a situation where his mother’s credit card is no longer available. His financial resources suddenly disappear so the road ahead disappears. Building up his expertise about the advanced gaming worlds generates a barrier towards the educational system, which he leaves to later return.

If we turn to the Second Life cases, then Thomas recognises early on that relationships are the bedrock of his business. To realise his business visions he designs places for formal meetings and places for informal chatting and socialising, such as town squares. He also hires voluntary city guides to hang out on the town square to show visitors around his island and arranges social events with music, parties and dancing. His aim is to develop relationships that can result in a request for knowledge about his new business field. These requests are difficult to meet as the knowledge about running a Second Life business is scattered and fragmented so building up experience and networks over time is a difficult road ahead. The nomadic approach to running an in-world business, as exemplified by the Times business, leads to a different type of network and relationships. As it has been shown, Helle’s efforts are focused on building up networks of friends and personal in-world contacts. With this approach, she focuses on relationships rather than on the design of places. This

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means her nomadic avatar always has to be contactable so she has to spend much time and effort being online. Furthermore, in many cases the in-world contacts and networks are not as stable as is otherwise the case. At times contacts and virtual friends may be present in-world almost 24:7 whereas at other times they simply disappear. Contacts and friendships are easily made but just as easily end. Agreements can be made with fewer guarantees that they will be followed; objects, animations, scripts can be bought with no guarantee that they work, and there are no complaint procedures. In the Literary case, the relationships with end-users are not realised as the road ahead is blocked by a steep learning curve and lack of interest.

In the Wonder DK case, resigning from his job as a programmer Thomas is facing a steep learning curve not only to learn how to use the design tools, the scripting, and the animations of the world but also to start a new business of design, real estate agency and eventmaking. He is facing a bifurcation when entering Second Life to continue his well-known job and use Second Life as a hobby or to take the plunge and turn Second Life into his business. In his case, engaging with Wonder DK full-time demands online work hours that clearly pressure his time and efforts. In the nomadic Times project the road is washed away when a decision is made to stop its financial support. Facing a blockage of a lack of interest, the Literary project team turns to their in-world colleagues to discuss professional matters of virtual world-making. Later, the road ahead is again washed away when one of the team members in a temporary position is not reappointed due to a lack of financial means on the part of the public institution.

OVER TIME In this synthesis, we have seen that in almost each step taken, when the participating actors choose their worlds, engage with virtual world-making, create and design their avatars, relate to other actors and avatars of the worlds, express their online presence, and navigate their daily life we find multiple ways, which are all guided by visions. When we follow how engagement and sense-making

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emerge over time, then the empirical analysis reveals the multiplicities of the cases. It is shown that the seeming singularity of each case is a multiplicity of changes that translate and transform the actors by their engagement and visions.

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11. AVATARS AND ENGAGEMENT The synthesis of the previous chapter concludes the empirical analysis. So far, I have looked at introductory reflections about world-making in chapter 2, the methodological considerations in chapter 3, and the production of data, the guiding research questions, and the methods chosen in chapter 4. Together these chapters have formed the basis for the empirical analysis as presented in chapters 5 to 9.

I will now further develop the analysis by reflecting on theories of the two interrelated phenomena of avatars and engagement. Both phenomena have become particularly important as the empirical analysis gradually evolved. In this chapter, I will take steps towards a theoretical understanding of the two phenomena,228 which seem to be closely linked: in the video interviews, the actors told me about their avatar(s) with an involvement that was loaded with feelings and enacted by the dynamics of engagement. It was remarkably easy to make them talk about how their avatars came into being, why they

228

To recapitulate the development of the analysis: as a first step some foci of empirical analysis were identified (co-construction, avatar choices, relationships, expressions of self, and navigation of daily life), methodological approaches were clarified (ways of seeing, networks of connections, multiplicities, and sensitising metaphors, actants of theory (the sense-making triangle and the actor-network diagram) and methods were chosen (in particular: participatory observation and video interviews, reversed storyboarding, and keyframe selection). With this as a background, the five chosen foci have been analysed. From this analysis, it gradually became apparent that the phenomena of avatars and engagement should be subject to further theoretical analysis and scrutiny. Thus in this chapter, I will again turn to theory and also introduce new theories as part of the concluding reflections. It may be seen as an unorthodox approach to conclude an empirical analysis by introducing new theoretical reflections, but it is much in line with the Grounded Theory Method that has inspired the approach of my study.

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look the way they do and the personal history of their companion avatars. It was this experience of the actors’ striking engagement with their avatars that attracted my attention to questions of avatars and engagement in the first place.

ABOUT AVATARS In chapter 2, I introduced an interpretive understanding of virtual worlds based on the concepts of metaphors and world-making.

Reference was made to philosophical discussions about how to understand the relationship of a real as opposed to a virtual world, of facts as opposed to fiction. In this, I emphasised that human senses and agency, sign-relations and metaphors are involved with any engagement that creates the sense of a world. Thus, in the empirical analysis, actants of interpretive theory were mobilised in support of this. According to this interpretive understanding the technology of virtual world-making is not seen as one side of a dichotomy with human agency on the other. Rather, technology is seen as an important actant of interpretation and agency, when actors create their in-world presence through the many choices they make and express by world-making. In chains of connections and relationships, virtual world-making can be seen as technology at one end of the trajectory of connections with human agency at the other end. Yet in moving back and forth along these chains, cross-boundary translations are made and supported by intermediaries, which help us (put) ‘in form’ technologies, which can then be interpreted. If seen as non-human actants, technologies partake in a multiplicity of such translative compositions as communicated by intermediaries and mediators.

One of these non-human actors and actants of interpretation is the personal mediator as shaped by an avatar. It can be seen as a nonlinguistic visual metaphor and mediator, which translates the meaning it carries. Through many translations the avatar thus enables the participating actor to navigate the different forms of presence that are part of his or her daily life and virtual world-making. When we analyse the micro-moments of world-making and the making sense hereof, then the avatars are some of the influential mediators of the

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crossing of boundaries which mediate the connections of human and technology in different forms of presence. In this sense, the avatars may be seen as cross-boundary objects229 that enact the connections of actor-networks relative to different forms of presence. Thus, the avatars of virtual world-making have principal parts to play as the mediators of connections between technology and the participating actors’ presence, between the actor and his or her engagement and agency, and with some of the other actors and avatars of the worlds.

In this study, avatars are referred to as companions. Other questions than those of identity and self-construal are therefore accentuated.

The avatars are not primarily seen as a virtual representation of the real actor with his or her identity(ies), sitting ‘behind’ the avatar, so to speak. The theoretical understanding as enacted in the concept of companions has semiotic theory as its reference. From the viewpoint of semiotics, the non-human actants of avatars are viewed as signrelations and interpretants of a multiplicity of interpretative processes such as visions and ideals, sense-making, mediating programs, including identity and representation. Below, I will elaborate further on this semiotic understanding of avatars – the semioses of avatars – and present a brief overview of some of the existing research and the many avatar studies that have made substantial contributions to our understanding of the phenomenon as an emergent field of interdisciplinary research.

But first, let me briefly comment on the phenomenon of engagement.

ABOUT ENGAGEMENT In the research questions of this study, engagement is seen as an integral part of sense-making processes and in the empirical analysis many references are made to situations of engaging. The question is, however, how to understand this phenomenon. Engagement may be seen as one of the driving dynamics of sense-making alongside the dynamics generated by tensions: only when we are acting in and with the sign-based relations of human and non-human actors and

229

Star 1995.

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actants do we meaningfully interpret the world and each other. That is part of the knowledge gained by constructivism and pragmatism230 over the last century. There is, however, a particular qualitative toning of our actions when it comes to our understanding of the phenomenon of engagement; a quality that appears quite readily in the video analysis, where factors such as body language, accentuation, facial expression and outbursts show feelings of pride, joy, fun and anger. One can ‘see and hear’ the feelings of engagement as they are visible and expressive; yet understanding this from a theoretical view-point is not as obvious. Even if this phenomenon is pivotal to participation and sense-making we tend to take it for granted without any further reflection. Therefore, the concluding reflections about this phenomenon have taken the immediate and intuitive experience rather than a theoretical analysis as a starting point. However, following the empirical analysis I have realised that we need to enhance this immediate understanding of expressions of engagement to also include theoretical reflections.

Therefore, in this chapter, four studies are referred to as of particular interest to our understanding of the phenomenon and the chapter is therefore concluded by brief analyses of the narratives of this study.

In these, time as an important actant of the analyses is emphasised.

In the following I will analyse the sign-relations of avatars to then address the question of how to theoretically understand engagement.

WHAT DO AVATARS REFER TO? The concept of avatars profoundly shapes our understanding of presence in the world-making of virtual worlds. The origin of the term is ascribed to Morningstar and Farmer, who coined it in the mid-80s. 231 It is derived from Hindu culture, where an avatar232 is the

230

In this study, the epistemological positions of constructivism and pragmatism are primarily represented by Peirce and Goodman.

231 Habitat was one of the first multi-user worlds developed in the mid-80s

by Randal Farmer (and Chip Morningstar). The early lessons learned from the Habitat world are still current and, since then, the term avatar has become a common name. See also the introduction in chapter 1.

232 From Sanskrit “avatara” which means descent.

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reincarnation of a deity coming to Earth to pursue a given purpose.

By this reference, two separate spheres are construed—the sphere of the deity and the Earth, with its earthly living. Thus, the very idea of two separate spheres comes with the term from which this mediator is originally articulated and conceptualised. Moreover, the connotation that we as humans undertake a new identity shrouded in some sphere of mystery is implied by this particular articulation. As the use of this concept, with its many connotations, has become a part of everyday and research-based language usage, it is worth mentioning—even if trivial—that the articulation of a phenomenon not only denotes but also contributes an interpretation, meaning and use. Living a life in the shape of an avatar that rearticulates earthly living in a virtual sphere, a second life distinct and separate from everyday life, is a broad brush generalisation; yet, it sums up widely held views of how to understand avatars. Thus, in many studies, avatars are seen as a representation of the real in-front-of-the-screen person, a representation whereby the real person enters into a virtual environment or a cyberspace different from the reality. To nuance this understanding and to discuss the conception of avatars as a means of representing the actors, I will first present a literature overview of some of the many contributions to our understanding of the phenomenon to then suggest a semiotic understanding that emphasises avatars if seen as mediators of communication and interpretants of sign relations.

APPROACHES TO AVATAR STUDIES We can, roughly, distinguish two approaches to avatar studies even though they are closely related and increasingly merge and integrate.

At present, however, a distinction can be made between the avatar studies that are concerned with the experimental adaptation of avatars to mirror as realistically as possible human beings233 and, on the other hand, studies of gamers and actors and their use of chosen avatars mainly with reference to virtual world-making. 234 In the

233

Such studies have been published in two anthologies by Schroeder (2002) and Schroeder & Axelsson (2006).

234 For avatar studies of types of gamers and their characters, avatars, see Bartle 2004, Becker and Mark 2002, Jacobsson 2002, 2006, Taylor in

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former, research on behaviour, social interaction and human emotion and expression235 seek to approximate as much as possible the avatar design and performance to create a realistic version of human appearance and behaviour. The expression of human emotions in particular has been the subject of intense research, including the many ways we use our eye-gaze to coordinate and organise social interaction. These studies often aim to experiment with the potentials of different kinds of simulation and tools for collaboration and learning. On the other hand, in the studies which mainly focus on the use of avatars in relation to virtual worldmaking, issues of identity, addiction, motivations, experience and communication have been dealt with. In the following, I will provide a brief overview of some of these studies of avatars from the mid1990s to recently.

A BRIEF OVERVIEW Avatar studies have intensified over the first decade of the 21st century due to years of studies on virtual realities, the dissemination of multi-user collaborative environments and not least in the wake of the mass breakthrough of multi-user online games and worlds such as Lineage in 1998, EverQuest in 1998/99, World of Warcraft in 2003, Active Worlds in 1997, There in 2003, and Second Life in 2003. In the following, I will chronologically provide an overview before summarising and identifying three main themes of the approaches in relation to the keywords: identity(ies), representation, and relationships between self and avatar.

Schroeder 2002, Taylor 2005, Yee 2004, 2005, 2006, 2008, Yee and Bailenson 2007.

235 In several studies Bailenson, Beall, Blascovich, and Loomis 1999, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2006 – with varying compositions of authorship – have dealt with issues of identity capture, social interaction, face-morphing, augmented gaze and digital mimicry. These authors have also published a number of results together with Raimundo and Weisbuch 2001, Rex 2003 and Turk 2004. In series of experiments Garau et al. 2001 and Garau 2006 investigated the impact of eye-gaze on communication and expression.

Studies of collaboration have been reported by Heldal et al. 2006 with regard to interaction with systems, social interaction and problem solving in immersive virtual environments.

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As early as 1984, some of the first reflections were articulated by the sociologist and psychologist Turkle 236 , based on her studies of the early MUDs and followed by her studies in the now classic study “Life on the Screen” (1995). In this book, Turkle draws upon sociological theory of identity and the changes hereof in the postmodern era and society. Drawing on her studies of personality psychology and identity, she suggests that the postmodern self is constructed of many selves including some virtual identities, as suggested by the title of her first book “The Second Self” (1984) and, later in “Life on the Screen.” In her early studies of MUDs the communication researcher Reid (1995) sees MUD characters created by users as self-made people. In her writing, many of the subsequent themes of avatar studies are articulated: self-presentation as rooted in the players’ own imaginations, the wishful thinking that shines through the characters created, and the gender-crossing and genderswapping issues. Having conducted intensive research on virtual reality during the early 1990s, Biocca & Levy (1995) explicate the ideas of a second reality in the virtual reality of online environments.237 Closely related to this are the many studies of multimodal and multi-sensory immersive virtual environments (IVE) and the experimental use of this in social-psychological studies of social interaction and human behaviour. 238 In a study from 1997, Biocca addresses the question of embodiment in virtual environments. He sees the real and virtual bodies as juxtaposed, in the sense that the virtual body is a representation of the user’s body. The graphic visualisation of self, he argues, allows for the construction of a reflexive model of body and identity. Such studies are sources of knowledge that contribute to early avatar studies. In studies of how bodies are gendered and how this affects online interaction and

236

The title of this book indicates the early understanding “The Second Self: Computers and the Human Spirit.” In 1995, Sherry Turkle wrote the classic follow up on these early studies in “Life on the Screen”. In this book, she suggests that the postmodern self is a construct of many selves and virtual identities are some of these. In recent studies of robotics and attachment between human and machine, Turkle 2006 sees the robots as companionate objects. Her studies indicate that strong relationships develop.

237 See also Schroeder 1997.

238 Loomis et al. 1999.

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communication, Kolko (1999) finds that the design of avatars influences communication and interaction.

In 2001, Webb published his studies of avatar culture and issues of narrative, representation, censorship and power relations. Especially regarding questions of gender and sexuality, he concludes that avatar culture confirms such cultural structures whilst also opening up a reflexive space to break with social identity. In a study of strategic identities in cyberspace, Talamo & Ligorio (2001) conclude that avatar identities are dynamic, context-related, and constantly created and recreated by users in a process of strategic positioning. In their study, they see the identities of avatars as congruent to the conceptualisation of identity as a multiple, multi-voiced, positioned and context-dependent phenomenon. The player of massively multiuser online role-playing games and the onscreen avatar are not opposites, according to Filiciak (2003). Rather, he sees the player as altering his or her identity in a process of identification and projection. A survey study by Wang & Chang (2004) 239 about the multi-user role-playing game Lineage indicates that game players develop their own lifestyles: single player, community-oriented player, and off-real world player, and that these lifestyles make certain behaviours and desires likely. It also concludes that game players’ new social identities refer to their real life backgrounds. In 2002, Schroeder, from the point of view of social interaction studies, published an overview of contemporary avatar studies, now a classic in the studies of avatars.240 With contributions from twelve authors, this book provides an overview and a status of avatar research at the beginning of the 21st century. The contributions range from technology-oriented studies of collaboration in multi-modal environments and virtual worlds241 to cultural and socially-oriented accounts of living digitally. 242 This overview was followed up by Schroeder and Axelsson (2006) with yet another overview of

239

A comprehensive survey study of a total of 4,786 game players.

Schroeder 2002.

241 Sallnäs 2002.

242 Taylor 2002; Axelsson 2002.

240

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research on avatars at work and play 243 in twelve articles about computer-supported cooperative work in immersive, shared virtual environments as well as in game studies.244 The common thread of the many different studies of their book concerns questions of social interaction and collaboration. Some of the articles report findings on the influence of appearance, manipulation of eye gaze, naturalism of humanoid avatar design, and the influence of this on behaviour.245 Studying the game of EverQuest, in 2006 Taylor published her comprehensive study of game cultures, and raised issues such as the question of embodiment in game worlds. In particular, she considered female avatar images of bodies and pointed out that the body design of avatars is exaggerated: Male avatars tend to overemphasise chests and muscles to signify power, whereas female avatars are overly sexualized, signifying constant sexual receptivity.

In Boellstorff’s (2008) anthropological study of Second Life, and with reference to Taylor, he emphasised that graphical virtual worldmaking accentuates questions of embodiment as shaped by avatars.

He sees embodiment as significant to presence, self and personhood in a world like Second Life. During his field studies, the predominant responses from interviewees showed that they feel like themselves only “suppressing certain aspects of their personality and accentuating others” 246 when they engage with their avatars in Second Life. Feldon & Fafai conducted a mixed-methods study of avatar-related activities in 2008 in which they reported findings about the importance of users’ choice of avatars and, with that, their control over appearance and customisation. Fox and Bailenson’s study (2009) indicates that creating an avatar in one's image not only promotes identification with the character but also influences behaviours.

The question of how users of virtual worlds respond to agents (computer-generated and controlled characters) and avatars (player-

243

Schroeder & Axelsson (Eds.) 2006.

Brown & Beall in Schroeder & Axelsson 2006, Jacobsson in Schroeder & Axelsson 2006, Yee in Schroeder & Axelsson 2006.

245 Bailsenson & Beall 2006, Garau 2006.

246 Boelstorff p. 119 244

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controlled characters) respectively in relation to physiological arousal is dealt with by Lim & Reeves (2010). Their study confirms the significance of avatars for generating responses as compared to agents. Avatar choice and identification are also issues dealt with in a quasi-experimental study by Trepte et al. (2010). The settings of their experiments are competitive versus non-competitive games, and their study indicates that the avatars chosen are more likely to resemble their users in non-competitive games, compared to competitive ones. In an avatar-based Wii game, Jin & Park (2010) investigated self-related processes, which they see as increasingly important as interactive media environments develop and diffuse.

Three important concepts of their study are self-construal, selfpresence, and parasocial interaction. Self-construal processes concern relationships with others and invite questions of whether self is seen as connected to or distinct from others. An independent relationship indicates a distinctness and separation from others, whereas in an interdependent relationship, self-construal and positive feelings about self depend on close relationships with others.

Self-presence is a psychological state in which virtual self / selves are experienced as the actual self. This state occurs when users and players experience a representation of self either physically manifested or psychologically imagined. 247 Parasocial is a concept introduced to media studies by Horton & Wohl as early as 1956 in studies of relationships between media users and media figures and characters. In their study, Jin & Park define parasocial interaction: [...] parasocial interaction with one’s avatar can be operationally defined as the extent of a gamer’s interpersonal involvement with their avatar and the extent to which game players perceive themselves as interacting with their avatar.248 The results of their study of self-related processes in avatar-based games show that players with a high interdependent self-construal tend to show closer parasocial interaction and a higher self-presence than those with low interdependent self-construal. The authors,

247 248

Jin & Park 2009.

Ibid. p. 724.

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therefore, suggest that interdependent self-construal is an individual difference factor that influences the relationships that players form with their virtual manifestations, avatars. Finally, in a recent study, Downs (2010) suggests that the individual’s relationship to the avatar is a process of identification and as such a multi-dimensional construct. On the basis of a Hegelian analysis of the dialectics between avatar and individual, he sees a synthesis of the two249 in relation to the dimensions: Physical similarity, homophilous identification 250 (physical, demography, values), wishful 251 252 identification, parasocial identification, and ownership 253 identification.

The aim of his study is to identify important composites in order to measure the degree of identification with avatars.

This overview is not exhaustive, yet it shows that avatar studies is an emerging field of interdisciplinary research with contributions from a broad range of disciplines: psychology and sociology (Filiciak 2003; Fox & Bailenson 2009; Talomo & Ligorio 2001; Turkle 1984, 1995 Wang & Chang 2004); media and communication studies (Jin & Park 2009; Kolko 1999; Reid 1995; Taylor 2006; Trepte et al. 2010); cultural studies (Webb 2001); human-computer interaction (Biocca 1997; Biocca & Levy 1995); anthropology (Boelstorff 2008) and philosophy (Downs 2010) — to mention just some of the disciplines that have made substantial contributions to our understanding. As has been shown by this brief chronologically organised literature review, many foci of studies have been dealt with; yet some of the themes are recurring: The digital double, identities / presentation, representation, embodiment, similarities and dissimilarities of person / avatar, and behavioural effects. Common to these foci is that the avatar is seen as a relationship between the person in front of the screen and the on-screen avatar as representing him or her.

249

Downs sees the individual as the thesis, the avatar as the anti-thesis, and the unity of the two as the synthesis.

250 With reference to Cohen 2001.

251 Hoffner & Buchanan 2005.

252 Horton & Wohl 1956, Eyal & Cohen 2006.

253 Sundar 2008, and the MAIN model: Modality, Agency, Interactivity, and Navigability.

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Depending on the understanding of the avatar, different aspects of the relationship are accentuated. When multiple identities are accentuated, the avatar is seen as a complex interaction between social context and identity. If as a starting point it is seen as a representation then emphasis is on how an individual chooses to appear to others and the consequences this has for social interaction; and when starting with the relationship between self and avatar then psychological factors of attachment such as those of identification and projection are accentuated. These differences of accentuation are illustrated in Tables 4 and 5. In Table 4, the first section shows some of the studies that focus on the theme of identity or rather the multiplicities of identity as dealt with in many sociological and, in particular, social-psychological studies. In the second section, focus is on the theme of representation as accentuated in some of the studies on how avatars are designed to represent the user / player; they show a somewhat different accentuation albeit still with reference to issues of identity. Some of these studies raise the question of how resemblance between user and avatar influence our understanding of this representation. Closely related to this are the questions about the graphical representation of the user’s body.

T ABLE 4 . Themes of avatar studies. In this overview, themes are best understood as different accentuations of relationships between actor / user and avatar. (See Appendices, Tables)

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Table 5 summarises some of the studies that accentuate reflection and self-reflection, as seen in the relationship between self and avatar, and also studies of the dynamics that affect and shape this relationship.

T ABLE 5 . Themes of avatar studies. The table summarises studies that focus on reflexivity and self-reflexivity and the dynamics of attachment, identification and projection. (See Appendices, Tables)

The tables show that many contributions have been made, in particular from the field of psychology and also from behavioural sciences and social interaction studies. In the semiotic reflections which follow, the analysis will, however, focus on communication as it accentuates sign relations to suggest yet another way to understand the phenomenon of avatars; an understanding which also includes psychological aspects but now with a different accentuation. If we see avatars with the optic of communication studies then sign relationships are critical to our understanding of the meaningful and sense-making dynamics operating in those relationships. From the point of view of a semiotic analysis it is suggested that we nuance our understanding to see other aspects than just an understanding of the avatar as a representation of the user / player / actor in front of the screen.

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SEMIOSES OF AVATARS – IN THEORY From an immediate view, it seems obvious that the avatar is a sign that represents the user as we have seen in the brief overview presented. Thus, the avatar is best understood if seen as a representation of the person who sits in front of the screen, the real person, whereas the avatar, almost like a shadow, is an illusion inthere, in-world, signifying multiple identities of the actor, e.g. if a male in front of the screen chooses to be represented by a female avatar when on-screen.

There are obvious differences as to how to understand the avatar if seen as a computer-mediated representation of the user. In the comprehensive debate about online identities, that has been ongoing since the early 1990s, questions of how to understand these kinds of interrelations of self and online identities 254 have been a longstanding discussion. The debate has moved between the liberating

254

In 1984 William Gibson coined the term cyberspace in the early texts “Burning Crome” and “Neuromancer;” in these, Gibson anticipates some new understandings of the emerging social relationships played out with networked computers and the technology of cybernetic systems of computers. The idea of another kind of reality, a virtual reality, of new hightech cybernetic spaces, online identities, societies and cultures was inspired by these early texts. But, gradually, as the use of computers as means of communication became increasingly common, the ideas of cybercultures, cybersocieties, cyber communities was made the subject of increased research; see Jones 1995, 1997, Lévy 1995, 1999, Smith & Kollock 1999, Nayar 2008. Also, since the early 1990s research has been carried out on the influence of the Internet and computer-mediated communication on identity, interpersonal and social relationships, see Turkle, 1995, Utz, 2000, Walther 1992, 1994, 1996, Walther & Burgoon 1992, Walther & Parks 2002. There was, in general, an interest to come to understand the societal changes taking place and the new understandings of society and identity as coined by the concepts of post-industrial and postmodern society and culture, see Bell 1976, late modernity, Giddens 1991, postmodern society, Lyotard 1984, Gergen 1991, information society, Beniger 1986, and the network society, Castells 2000. Studies of online identities and social relationships have been ongoing since the millennium change, see Green & Adam 2001, Talamo & Ligorio 2001, Webb 2001, Bargh et al. 2002, Schroeder 2002, Hardey 2002, Nakamura 2002, Barnes 2003, Howard 2004, Howard & Jones 2004, Ellison et al. 2006, Gibbs et al. 2006, Matusitz 2006, Williams et al. 2006, Adrian, 2008.

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potentials of the online identities; in this case, the self and identity are seen as liberated from the limitations of bodily being, disembodied, enabling players to experiment with identities otherwise not possible, such as swapping gender. In the early days of computer-mediated communication, this vision of liberation and the anticipated horizon of new possible disembodied identities influenced the common, as well as the research, discussions and reflections. Cyberspace is, in this vision, the new playground for selfexperiments that provides a new space to break with stereotypes and conformity populated as it may be by cyborgs with new affordances as to human existence. In parallel to this is the early dystopian version of the new modes of communication and community building. In cyberspace, it says, a world of deception makes false pretence, manipulation, addiction and illusion possible; it threatens humanity in a cold and unauthentic being of almost schizophrenic fragmentation. Thus, humanity is faced with a risk of losing the empathy and closeness of human relations in a world where computer-generated forms of intelligent machines and media step onto the digital stage, consequently altering real and authentic relationships.255 In both cases, the cyberspace and cyborg visions of liberation as well as the dystopian view of online fragmentation of self and the deceptions of social relationships, the ideas of a real identity and of authenticity, are essentialist256 conceptions. These are actualised by the recent discussion about avatars and their reference to the person in front of the screen; a virtual and fictional representation as opposed to the real person with his or her real identity and embodied

255

As early as 1991, Donna Haraway publishes her “Manifesto” of feminism and cyborgs and the liberating potentials of online environments, see Haraway 1991, 2000. Questions of the ‘true’ self are dealt with by Bargh 2002 and Joinson 2001; Joinson & Dietz-Uhler have studied self-disclosure and deception 2002 and so has Matusitz 2006. In particular, questions concerning addiction to cyberspace, Internet, online games, virtual worlds have been subject to research, see Suler 2004, Huh & Bowman 2008, Kelly 2004.

256 Bargh 2002.

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being. However, the understanding of identity is contested.257 In the context of this study, I will point to three different understandings, broadly speaking. First, the individual identity may be seen as a unique unity with an inherent and core personality of a set of factors that unfold during childhood to mature when grown-up.258 Secondly, a constructivist conception sees identity as a co-construction of external interactions with the natural and social world, interactions that simultaneously deepen and construct an internal self.259 Thirdly, a social constructivist conception sees identity as a multiplicity of identities socially constructed by the interactions of social relationships.260 Present positions incline to the view that identity is a dynamic and situated construction that develops and changes over time; a situated construction of several identities adapted and afforded by different natural and social interactions and cultural conceptions as shown by the overview of avatar studies. This means that seeing identity as a fixed physical unity is problematised by recent decades of research. However, in the present discussion about virtual identities as represented by avatars, there is a tendency towards a revival of a somewhat essentialist understanding inspired by realism. 261 According to this, the avatar is only a fictitious

257

In concepts of online identity several and different understandings seem to be contained and the distinctions between identity, self-identity, self, selfunderstanding, self-view, self-representation, and personality are not always obvious or explicitly addressed. I will broadly distinguish between understandings of human personality as influenced by biology and based on statistics derived from factor analysis (The big five), see McCrae & Costa 1996, 1997; psychoanalytic and dynamic understandings of self as influenced by relationships and developmental psychology, see Erikson 1959, Kohut 1978-81, internalisation and cultural mediation, see Vygotsky 1933, 1934, and understandings of identity influenced by sociology overlapping with social-psychology, see Goffman 1959, Giddens 1991, Mead 1967/1934, Tajfel & Turner 1986, Turner 1982, Hogg & Vaughan 2002, Fiske 2004.

258 McCrae & Costa 1996, 1997.

259 Vygotsky 1933 1934, Erikson 1959.

260 Fiske and the Relational Model Theory.

261 In this context, reference is made to the second aspect of realism, the independence aspect, which states that facts exist independent of anything anyone happens to say or think about the matter.

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representation—and it may even be deceptive—of the real person with the real identity(ies) sitting in front of the screen.

When seen in the light of recent research on identity, the conception of a real identity dissolves and turns out to be multiplicities rather than a singularity; constructions rather than something unfolding; a complexity that is not reducible to the bodily and physical being and presence. The bodily being is actively engaged with any human agency, even when seemingly passive in front of a screen working with a computer but the sense and perception of self, however, cannot be reduced to the boundaries of this physical and bodily being. 262 The dualist understanding of authenticity that is the conception of a true kernel of physical being in front of the screen as opposed to the virtual fluidity, the unauthentic and potentially deceptive online and in-world being leads us to reflections on what is real. There is a kind of theoretical naivety in the understanding of worlds as real or virtual as well as in ideas of identity as an authentic physical kernel. It leaves out centuries of philosophical reflections as the old dualism seems to reappear in the questions of how to understand the phenomenon of the avatars of world-making.

In a recent article, Gunkel (2010) 263 analyses the metaphysics as developed throughout history from Plato to scholastics, Kant, and Hegel until recent writings of Zizek (2007). In this, Gunkel critically

262

See the earlier discussion of Goodman’s analysis of a reductionist understanding of the physical as related to other forms of world-making.

Also, in writings about ‘personhood’, in two accounts, Peirce addresses the question of what is a person: the semiotic, according to which a person is a continuous process of semiosis, and the naturalistic, according to which a person is only an animal. This distinction has been long contested, the question being whether/how Peirce saw these two accounts as respectively separate or interrelated; also, questions have been raised whether Peirce’s understanding leads him to a mentalistic understanding of human beings or leads us to naive realism and materialism. Without going into detail with this philosophical question, I will reference my understanding to Robert Lane’s (2009) recent study of this question according to which these two accounts are best understood as interrelated. Later, I will expand on this in discussing the three main categories: firstness, secondness, and thirdness, see also footnote 286.

263 Gunkel 2010.

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questions the present understanding of avatars as a kind of shadow of the real cast on the virtual screen, an illusion and as such a deception. In his reflections, Gunkel shows how the ontological problems of what is real have been dealt with, not least by critical philosophy; in this, the essentialist conception of reality is challenged. As human beings we do not have direct access to the ‘thing-in-itself’ i.e. the person in front of the screen according to Gunkel. He takes this a little further as he proceeds to discuss computer-mediated communication and, in particular, the avatars of virtual world-making: The real thing in computer-mediated experience has been, following the tradition and standard protocols of Platonism, the presumed hard kernel that both resists and exists outside the seemingly endless circulation of virtual images, digital appearances and mediated representations (...) Avatars, for instance, are presumed to be the virtual proxy and delegate of a real person (Apter, 2008; Little, 1999) who sits behind the screen and controls the apparent action.264 If we accept that this very idea that the real is a reduction that does not take into consideration centuries of knowledge and critical philosophy, then how can we see and understand the avatars of virtual world-making?

One possible answer is that the avatars can be seen as non-human actants265 of the semiosis of sign relations. Different understandings and theories of signs have always been part of human reflection, not least in the subject areas of rhetoric and philosophy. Broadly speaking, I will distinguish between an instrumental and a semiotic understanding of sign processes to briefly discuss these two conceptions. In doing so, different understandings are summarised and labelled instrumental, even if they also diverge. If sign processes are seen as tools and instruments of a practical utility, then, for instance, the speeches by a politician can be seen as the instruments

264 265

Gunkel 2010, p. 135 Latour 1991, 1995.

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by which he or she seeks to convince and persuade cognitively and emotionally, or to entertain, a person, group or the public. If we see signs as such practical tools or instruments of communication, then reference can be made to the art of rhetoric, and when seen as tools and mediators between external stimuli and internal cognitive processing, then as psychological tools. 266 To pursue this line of reasoning, I will point to a closely-related idea by which signs are best studied and understood by their use, 267 that is, as tools and instruments of usage, e.g. the use of language. 268 In rationalist conceptions, signs are studied as representations 269 and in structuralist theory as elements of a system. 270 In representative theories of signs, the relations of sign and usage is one of “(…) standing for whereas instrumental theory considers this relationship as one of serving the purpose of.” 271 The representative and instrumental theories of signs seem prevalent in current understandings of avatars, if the avatar is seen as an on-screen representation of the real person.

Recently, Nöth (2009) has questioned and opposed the instrumental understanding of signs, regardless of whether they are the representation or the tool-oriented conception, and he does so with reference to the Peircean theory of semiosis. 272 He summarises Peirce’s arguments this way: Whereas the sign involves the triadic interaction of an object, a sign, and its interpretant, instruments merely involve the dyadic

266

Vygotski 1981.

Wittgenstein 2009/1953.

268 E.g. Searle 1983; Wittgenstein 2009/1953.

269 Chandler 2007.

270 Holdcroft 1991.

271 Nöth 2009, p. 14.

272 Peirce sees a sign as something that represents something to someone.

Thus, the sign process is best understood as triadic as it involves relationships between the three things: the sign itself (representamen), the thing that the sign represents (its object), and the thing that interprets the sign as representing that thing (its interpretant). These relationships are involved in the processes that make signs and which signs make.

267

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interaction between the instrument extending the agency of its user and the practical effects achieved by means of it.273 If we interpret the avatar through the lenses of a Peircean understanding then we should look for triadic processes of semiosis rather than instrumental relations. Engaging with virtual worldmaking accompanied by avatars means to engage with what Pierce designates the thirdness274 of triadic sign relations and not only the secondness. This distinction is important because two different kinds of causalities are at play. In secondness, according to Pierce, what we see is efficient causality, which means that there is: (...) a compulsion determined by the particular condition of things […] acting to make that situation begin to change in a perfectly determinate way.275 On the other hand, we find final causality, which “(...) involves triadic interaction.” It is the long-term causality of purposes, intentions, ideas, signs and general laws, all of which belong to the Peircean category of thirdness.276 Secondness leaves no alternatives for creative change, whereas: Final causality does not determine in what particular way [the general result] is to be brought about, but only that the result shall have a certain general character (CP 1.213, 1902). Signs act by final semiotic causation insofar as their semiotic potential can reach its effect by different means.277

273

Nöth 2009, p. 18 The firstness and secondness of sign relations refer to Pierce’s understanding of perception as the association of the phenomenal experience of the perceived (percept, firstness), and the causal interaction between the perceiver and the perceived (perceptual judgement) (secondness); thirdness refers to the semioses of an individual’s mental life constituted by a continuous flow of thought-signs. A person is seen as the interrelations of these triadic processes.

275 Peirce 1903, cited in Nöth 2009, p. 19.

276 Ibid.

277 Ibid.

274

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With the optic of semiosis, avatars are understood as sign relations.

In the Peircean understanding, this means that an avatar is something that stands for something for someone. Moreover, we have seen that the triadic sign relations may be interpreted differently insofar as their semiotic potential can be realised by different means when seen with reference to the interrelations of the categories,278 which Peirce in his phenomenology designates: firstness (monadic), secondness (dyadic) and thirdness (triadic).

Taking a next step, I will now bring into play the understanding that signs make sense by triadic relations and I will do so to help us understand the semiosis of avatars.

In a Peirceian phenomenology firstness is a quality,279 a monad that exists without dependencies and any further relations. A sense of excitement is a firstness, a feeling, and described in Peirceian terminology as a quality. Effort and resistance are the dynamics of making such qualities instances of reality, for example by engaging with virtual world-making. By this, the secondnesses of the firstness are generated. Thus, the dynamics of dyadic relations realises the firstness in resistance and effort, which means that in the realisations we become aware of the firstness by acting it out in particular instances of actions and events – be it in a bodily mind or physical space. We have now seen the qualities of firstnesses and the dyadic relation of instances of secondnesses, the next step is to understand the dynamics that generate the relation of this dyadic relationship, that is, the triadic sign relations of thirdness and final causality.

The most obvious difference between the argument in favour of a semiotic perspective on avatars and the psychologically oriented understandings is the question of what avatars refer to. When avatars are viewed as sign relations in the semiotic understanding, as presented here, then the reference is not to the subject, the person in front of the screen, but to the potentialities and qualities of online presence. The object for this relationship is not the person and the

278 279

See Peirce, 1994, pp. 29-32.

Ibid.

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referent is not the avatar. Rather the potentiality of virtual worldmaking and with that the qualities associated with it are the object for this relationship and its referent is the realisation hereof in instances of online presence. The possible realisation among many other possible realisations of this is unique; thus, the realisation is the creator of history, which gives meaning to the dyadic relations between object and referent. The avatar can be viewed as the particularity of this realisation, that is as the interpretant. As an actant in the processes of semiosis, the avatar is the interpretant which creates potentialities and the realisation of qualities in a certain form and with a unique history. Let me concretise these abstract reflections.

If we recall the map in Figure 3 (Chapter 2), it represents a dyadic relationship when seen with the optic of semiotic theory. In a Peircean sense this relationship is a certain kind of efficient causality or instrumental relationship in the sense previously mentioned. The green dots of the map present a dyadic and indexical relation in and with the computer's active mechanical system of signs. The green dot is the realisation (secondness) of the potentialities of virtual worldmaking. If we assume that the green dot is a realisation of a quality, such as ‘to feel the joy and expectations of realising a business idea’ then the green dot is a referent to online presence; it refers to the fact that this potentiality is realised in instances of online presence. The fact that this relation is indexical means that the qualities are realised by causality even if the green dot is just one sign among many other possible signs. Thus, the referent of ‘online presence’ can be interpreted differently, although it is realised by causality. The interpretant of this dyadic relationship may be an avatar in the shape of a culturally familiar figure, such as a businessman in a suit with a tie or an avatar shaped like a strange and balloon-like walking advertisement pillar. Regardless of the particularity and uniquenesses of the interpretant, the referent in the shape of the green dot is a causal realisation of potentialities. If the realisation is to start a business in a world like Second Life then it causes the dyadic sign relations of online presence albeit with the multiplicity of possible and potential realisations of triadic relationships such as a businessman or a walking advertisement pillar. It is in these unique

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and particular realisations that the dynamics of sense-making can be found.

This interpretation of the phenomenon of avatars differs from many of the prevailing understandings although they are by no means precluded. It changes the accentuation, however, so that the relations between potentiality, quality and emotion in terms of intentions and their realisation in and with a unique history is the focus of analysis. The semiotic analysis primarily focuses on the relationship between the intention to create, e.g. a virtual company, and the unique realisation thereof by, among others, a businessman avatar like DC Aspen. The fact that the unique realisation is also an interpretation which draws on metaphors and images of a general cultural content is obvious, as is the fact that intentions are related to many aspects of a psychological nature. The point is, however, that the focus of analysis is changed, firstly, to establish an articulated plurality between the person in front of the screen and avatars as a phenomenon so that they are not seen merely as the instrumental consequence of the person and, secondly, that the change of optic accentuates an interpretation of the avatar as a personal mediator of the relationship between intention, commitment, emotions, engagement and the possible and unique realisations hereof in a particular form of virtual world-making.

Many choices are made in the dynamics of creating a personal mediator – the triadic sign relations of avatarss – not least how the other actors of the world interpret the mediator. Therefore, we find visual and cultural metaphors whether derived from the actors’ daily life or from fiction. These sign relations of cultural and non-linguistic metaphors refer to the actors’ intentions as well as to the cultures of virtual world-making. In the dynamics of these triadic sign relations, actors generate and mediate interpretations of online presence in the world with certain aims and intentions as well as with reference to the other actors of the world and their interpretations.

In the present study, the interpretant of the semiosis of avatars is therefore seen as the personal mediator of the realisation of potentialities and qualities of online presence, visions, and mediating

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programs in the cultures of virtual world-making. 280 It is this interpretation of the avatars that I refer to by the notion of companions; a term which accentuates the relational and semiotic potentials of avatars. This notion emphasises the relational aspects of the avatar, in the sense of with rather than as relationships; an interpretation according to which avatars are seen as companionate 281 personal mediators. As we shall now see in the empirical case studies, the avatars, when taken as personal mediators, do not refer to some unbounded fantasies of the real actor sitting in front of the screen, but to the potentialities and realities of world-making online as well as offline.

SEMIOSES OF AVATARS – IN CASE STUDIES I will now look at the ways in which the semiotic theory introduced can contribute to this study: firstly, when applied to our understanding of the empirically-based case studies and the participating avatars of these studies, and secondly in order to suggest an understanding that emphasises communication. To examine this, I will follow a stringent procedure, which refers to the empirical analysis of the case studies as well as the concepts of firstnesses, secondnesses and thirdnesses.

To Jan, it makes sense to engage with EverQuest accompanied by Gnossiz the Gnome, the ‘loner’, because his online presence refers to the sense of pride and superiority (firstness); qualities that are realised by instances of online presence (in effort and resistance) alone and on his own (secondness) only in company with the little gnome, the interpretant that helps him realise his presence in a

280

Lane 2009.

In her latest studies, Turkle’s research is focused on the relational artifacts of robots and understanding the relationships between humans and machines. She sees the development of these relationships as transitions from the culture of simulation that characterises the intensive participation in game spaces to the companionship of a robot/human relationship,moving from the psychology of projection to the psychology of engagement. This understanding of companionship although with Turkle’s accentuation of the psychological aspects is best summarised by the quotation “We attach to what we nurture”, which is one of the headlines in a recent article, see Turkle 2006.

281

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certain way out of many possible: as a clever survivor against odds (thirdness). This narrative refers to Jan’s co-construction of his world as, in his view, he only survives against the odds because he is different. Unlike ‘the others’, he sees himself as making a much greater effort to learn and quest, to the extent that he manages to circumvent the limitations of the EverQuest game’s affordances.

To Janus, engaging with EverQuest accompanied by Krongh the Troubletroll, the ‘organiser’, makes sense, because his online presence refers to the qualities and sense of fun and finesse (firstness); qualities that are realised by instances of online presence together with a family-like guild the Draconic Guardians (secondness). In company with the troll, the interpretant, he is realising his presence in a certain way as the organiser of missions in a community of high ideals willingly exposing his companion avatar to dangers to support his guild, when they are fighting together (thirdness). In the same way as Jan, this narrative refers to Janus’ coconstruction of his world and the importance of relationships with other actors of the world. In his view, only because he plays with finesse can he support the other members of the guild. Thus he sees himself as organising and enacting an EverQuest community and guild of high ideals and moral standards.

Sia engages with EverQuest accompanied by her companion, the avatar Gelinu. Gelinu is a shaman who leads the guild Draconian Guardians and is thought of as the ‘cool’ shaman. This engaging makes sense to Sia because her online presence refers to the qualities and feelings of pride, joy and almost love (firstness); qualities that are realised by instances of online presence together with the guild Draconic Guardians (secondness). In company with the cool shaman, the interpretant, Sia realises her presence in a certain way: as a guild leader who manages the many demands on her time and resources, which the game entails (thirdness). This narrative is told with reference to Sia’s co-construction of her world and in relation to other actors of the world. Only because she can manage the many demands and reach high goals and achievements can she see herself as the leader of a guild of high standards; an indispensible leader.

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To Thomas, it makes sense to engage with Second Life accompanied

by DC Aspen, the ‘settler’, because the online presence refers to qualities and a feeling of excitement and a sense of pioneering (firstness); qualities that are realised by instances of online presence with the Second Life business Wonder DK (secondness). In company with the businessman avatar DC Aspen, the interpretant, his presence is realised in a certain way out of many possible: as a businessman struggling to make a living of his world-making (thirdness). This narrative refers to Thomas’ co-construction of his virtual world and also to his relationships with other actors of the world. In his view, only because he is trustworthy, serious, meticulous and with a carefully worked-out design can he aspire to run a business. In contrast to many other actors, he sees himself as carefully and persistently designing and learning to gain knowledge.

Helle is accompanied by her avatar Helle, the ‘networker’, and it makes sense to her to engage with Second Life because the online presence refers to qualities and a sense of curiosity, eagerness and fun (firstnesses); qualities that she is realising by instances of online presence with the Times project (secondness). In company with her networking avatar Helle, the interpretant, she realises her presence in a certain way out of many possible: as a businesswoman who works to make a reality of personal and professional networks of knowledge sharing (thirdness). This narrative refers to Helle’s co-construction of her virtual world and her relationships with other actors of the world.

Helle willingly shares her knowledge with other in-world actors and believes in sharing to gain knowledge as opposed to keeping her knowledge to herself.

To Mads, it makes sense to engage with Second Life accompanied by Rob, the ‘challenger’, because he feels he is breaking new ground by developing and experimenting (firstness); qualities that are realised by instances of online presence with the Literary project (secondness) accompanied by Rob instead of a shared female avatar. In redesigning the shared female to become the personalised male Rob, the interpretant, he realises his online presence in a certain way out of many possible: as a challenger of the embodied tradition of his present profession (thirdness). This narrative refers to Mads’ co-

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construction of his world and with that the relations to other actors of the world. In his view, he is only able to experiment because he is different and not trained in the same tradition as his colleagues.

Unlike the others, he sees himself as debating and challenging conformity and embodied traditions.

Finally, it makes sense to Janne to engage with Second Life accompanied by Alice, the ‘explorer’, because the online presence refers to the qualities and feelings of curiosity, joy of playing, fun and the sense of out-of-the-body and surreal experiences (firstness); qualities that are realised by instances of online presence with the Literary project (secondness). Accompanied by Alice the explorer, the interpretant, she is realising her presence in a certain way out of many possible: as an explorer with a mind set on pushing the borders of her profession (thirdness). This narrative refers to Janne’s coconstruction of her world and her relations to other actors of the world. In her view, she can only revitalise the profession because she is curious, almost childish; in contrast to the others of her profession, she sees herself as playing around with new possibilities.

In summary, when interpreted as triadic sign relations, all of these avatars mediate the actors’ online presence and the emergent history of their unique and particular qualities, interpretations and agencies, which make sense to the actors.

When the actors with their companion avatars realise the triad relationships of firstness, secondness and thirdness of their virtual world-making they have to take into consideration factors such as the norms, traditions, conventions of the culture and community with which they engage. This cultural conditioning is communicated by metaphorical and semiotic realities. If, for instance, their choices are to lead a guild, run a business or inspire public debate, then they cannot just experiment with some random identities; rather, in their world-making realities, they will have to take into consideration the conventions and rightnesses282 of their version of the world. As we have seen in the overview of avatar studies, cultural studies indicate

282

Goodman 1978, pp. 138-140.

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that avatar culture confirms well-known processes of narrative, representation, censorship and power relations known from the cultural conditions of daily life.283 In the semiotic analysis of the case studies shown, avatars do not primarily or only refer to the self, the subject or the person. It does not seek to understand the avatar only as a consequence of psychological conditions of the owner or as a mapping of the motivations that drive actors’ engagement and involvement with their virtual world-making. In the semiotic analysis the focus is shifted to the relationships between the qualities and potentials, which drive and operate the engagement and the instances through which this engagement is realised and enacted. In this way the semiotic theory offers analytical strategies to understand the engagement and involvement from a communication theoretical perspective. Avatars are not seen as a consequence of the actor but it is part of the sign relations that create and realise qualities and potentials of engaging.

In this sense the avatars’ semioses enact a personal mediator, which actively creates and transforms not only the realisation of the actors’ and players’ virtual world-making but also the actor.

As earlier mentioned, engagement may be seen as one of the driving dynamics of agency and the making of sense of virtual worldmaking, alongside tensions and gapinesses. Engaging is the verbing284 that best captures the sense of involvement and the emotional qualities that were so apparent during the video interviews with the participating actors and so manifest in the many accounts about their avatars.

MODES OF ENGAGEMENT In thousands of video frames that compose the video data of this study, images of engaging can be clearly seen. In the empirical analysis, such images have also emerged from the many processes of working with the video data about the actors’ chosen worlds, their

283 284

Webb 2001.

See Dervin 2003, pp. 101-109.

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avatars and the social relationships with other actors of the worlds.285 The deep, emotional, social and intellectual engagement that I have met is amazing. Not only when looking at the fun side of engaging with the worlds, but also when the social relationships and obligations of guilds, groups, businesses and projects turn out to be almost as binding, even burdensome, as is often the case in other life situations. The video interviewees show an immediate joy and eagerness to tell the stories of the experience with their chosen worlds, their many intellectual challenges, the danger and joy of fighting, the hard work involved with building a business or starting a project, or their enjoyment of psychedelic and surreal experiences.

They needed little encouragement to talk in depth about these subjects.

The actors’ engagement is visible and can be clearly noticed while watching the videos, in the facial expressions. Yet, the question about how to understand the experience of engagement has yet to be answered. How do we best understand the assemblage of feelings, intellectual challenges and social obligations, which make up engagement?

From a common understanding, we will probably agree that engagement comes with involvement and that senses and feelings are pivotal to engaging. In research on themes such as how to engage learners with their learning, methods suggest that it is critical to make students and learners actively involved. Making the students and learners participate by acting on something is a well-proven method to motivate attention, involvement and engagement. 286 In continuation of this, the question we can consider is whether engaging with something is necessarily an actual physical action, or,

285

Based on my early findings of the 3D Agora-world experiments it appears that a strong sense of “being there” emerges as well as a sense of social presence, a sense of being there “together with others.” In writings about the phenomenon of online presence, or telepresence, immersion is a frequent conceptual follower. However, in this study, I see engaging as leading to a sense of presence as well as immersion. They both come with situations of engaging.

286 Bers 2006, Shernoff et al. 2003, Dewey, 2009/1922.

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whether engaging may also be seen as actions of the bodily mind.

The distinction between the two is the extent to which the engaging allows the engaged to be able to do things such as influence, alter, manipulate, elaborate or refine the non-human actors of agency, such as in virtual world-making. Engagement and involvement seem to be closely related, if not synonyms, and they may take on different modes such as engagement primarily in the bodily mind, when one is engaged with watching a movie, or engagement which involves our active influence on the agency with which we engage, such as when designing a business in Second Life.

To make the question about engagement a part of my concluding reflections, the next obvious step is to see how other researchers have dealt with the phenomenon of engagement in a brief literature review.

A PPROACHES TO STUDIES OF ENGAGEMENT This review has taken me to almost every corner of research realms.

Overwhelmingly much has been written about engagement. In particular, our common understanding is influenced by studies of teaching and learning, 287 but other fields of research have also contributed to our understanding of the phenomenon not least within the realms of theology. 288 We may see it from the perspective of psychology, 289 issues of democracy and policy, 290 organisational studies, 291 human resource studies, 292 therapeutic intervention, 293 or health care.294 Still, the predominant research has been undertaken in the field of teaching and learning. However, in general, these studies

287

Appleton et al.2008, Bers 2006, Doherty et al. 2009, Egerton 2002, Ferraz & Wellman 2007, Gilmore 2008, Gough 2009, Hedman & Sharafi 2004, Huizenga et al. 2009, Oakshott 1971, Stokes 2007, Virvou & Katsionis 2008.

288 Kemp 1973, 1974.

289 Boeckmann 2002, Leung 2009.

290 Boeckmann 2002, Chan & Pan 2008, Leung 2009, Moy et al. 2005, Watt & Flanagan 2002.

291 Bebbington 2007, Macey & Schneider 2008, Reeves & Read 2009.

292 Macey et al. 2009.

293 Addington & Penn 2005, Flaskas 2007.

294 Charon 2009, Forbat et al. 2009.

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are concerned with questions about how to engage someone in something, how to measure engagement, how to achieve, manage, or intervene by engagement, how to develop strategies and affordances that motivate engagement. In other words, the studies focus on the usefulness, the function, the effects of engaging rather than the meaning and experiential qualities of the experience of engaging with something and/ or someone.

In order to focus the literature review, the next step taken is therefore to identify themes with a special importance to engaging with virtual world-making. In game studies, issues of how to distinguish addiction from engagement is an important question, 295 as is the question of how engagement strategies of game design can be used in other realms of design 296 using the comprehensive knowledge gained by game theoretical motivational models.297 In the realms of aesthetics and arts, questions about the interface between creativity and engagement are dealt with 298 and in the field of interaction design 299 questions that are of particular importance concern how best to design for creative engagement. 300 Some researchers even suggest that we start thinking in terms of human-computer experience rather than human-computer interaction.301

A BRIEF OVERVIEW F OUR STUDIES OF ENGAGEMENT Crystallised from these review studies, I will now dig a little deeper into four of the studies identified, two of which come from research on interaction with computers, one from educational studies and one from aesthetics and arts. These four studies 302 have been selected

295

Skoric 2009.

Brockmyer 2009, Charlton 2007 297 Przybylski 2010.

298 Bilson & Thorpe 2007, Carlson 1993, Gallagher 2005.

299 Lindley 2004.

300 Bilda 2008, Dickey 2005.

301 O’Brian & Toms 2010.

302 O’Brian & Toms’s study is in two articles respectively from 2008 and 2010.

296

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because they are concerned with a conceptual understanding of the experience of being engaged.

In the study of student engagement, Shernoff et al. (2003) suggest a contextualization that covers the culmination of concentration, interest and enjoyment. In this, they take flow theory 303 as their theoretical point of departure. A model of engagement is proposed with respect to modes and phases of interactive experiences with artworks in Bilda & Edmunds’ (2008) research about designing for creative engagement. The third study conducted by O’Brian and Toms (2008, 2010) covers comprehensive, empirical as well as conceptual studies of the experience of engagement. Their literature review is extensive, thorough and systematic, offering the reader an almost exhaustive overview of the research field of users’ experiences of engaging with technologies. Finally, coming from the realms of aesthetics and arts, the fourth study is Morrison’s (2007) analysis of musical listening and different modes of engagement.

E DUCATIONAL CONTEXT (S TUDY 1) In their study about students’ engagement in high school classrooms, Shernoff et al. (2003) have conducted extensive empirical studies304 concerning the association of flow and engagement. Drawing on earlier studies of flow experience, 305 their study focuses on the phenomenological aspects of students’ engagement, which include concentrated attention, interest and a sense of enjoyment; 306 it is important to note that in a state of flow, one would experience cooccurrences of concentration, interest and enjoyment, according to Shernoff et al. These aspects mentioned are the result of general studies of flow experiences and are not specifically associated with

303

Csikszentymihalyi 1990, 1996, 1997.

The instrumentation of this study is Experience Sampling Method (ESM).

305 Csikszentmihalyi 1990, 1997.

306 “Flow is a state of deep absorption in an activity that is intrinsically enjoyable, as when artists or athletes are focussed on their play or performance (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Individuals in this state perceive their performance to be pleasurable and successful, and the activity is perceived as worth doing for its own sake, even if no further goal is reached.” Snerdoff et al. 2003, p. 160.

304

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classroom activities. For the purpose of their classroom studies of engagement and flow, the authors chose to generate a variety of factors to study: phenomenological, instructional, demographic and learning history. In the context of the present study of virtual worldmaking, the phenomenological aspects are important whereas questions and aspects specifically targeting the classroom situation, such as teachers’ instruction and school subjects, are of no relevance.

Following the phenomenological trajectory of Shernoff et al.’s study leads us to the relationship between challenges and skills, and to factors of control and relevance. In flow theory, in particular the relation between a given challenge and the skills needed to meet and master this challenge significantly influences the sense of engagement with regard to concentration, interest and enjoyment.

Four modes of this relationship are seen as influential to engagement: low challenge/ low skills (apathy), low challenge/ high skills (relaxation), high challenge/ low skills (anxiety), and high challenge/ high skills (flow).307 In the results of their study, Shernoff et al. report that high challenges associated with high skills (flow) generate a sense of engagement. Furthermore, it is found that the sense of engagement is significantly higher in experiences characterised by control and relevance. Thus, results from their study indicate that flow, control and relevance are vital when we seek to understand the phenomenon and sense of engagement. 308 O NLINE SYSTEMS (S TUDY 2) A highly comprehensive empirical study about what is user engagement was published by O’Brian & Toms (2008, 2010). Setting out to deconstruct the conceptual understanding of engagement, the aim of their study is to operationalise the concept in order to develop a tool for measuring the experience of engagement.

307 308

Shernoff et al. 2003, p. 164.

Ibid, p. 166, 168.

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The objective of this study is to develop an operational definition of engagement and to identify the key components that make up engagement.309 On the basis of a thorough review of research literature, the authors have designed their empirical studies of users’ interactions with four different types of online systems: video games, online shopping, web searching and educational software. In this, they summarise earlier research about these four types of applications by pointing out several attributes of engagement, which then guide their design of semi-structured interviews310 and an interview protocol based on four threads of experience identified in earlier research by McCarty & Wright (2004). These threads are: compositional, spatiotemporal, emotional and sensual components of the experience of engagement.311 Even if the authors see these threads as components of the experience, they also emphasise that engagement is conceptually a holistic framework.312 In a systematic analysis of the data thus produced, the authors identify four distinct stages of a common trajectory for engaging experiences and, most importantly, they report that their data point to engagement as an iterative process of: point of engagement, period of engagement, disengagement and reengagement, and that the four stages are characterised by attributes. In generating this process model of engagement, the authors suggest the following definition of engagement: Engagement is a quality of user experience with technology that is characterised by challenge, aesthetic and sensory appeal, feedback, novelty, interactivity, perceived control and time, awareness, motivation, interest and affect.313

309

O’Brian & Toms 2008, p.938.

Ibid, see pp. 941-943 for further details about the research design and methodology.

311 Ibid, p. 942.

312 Ibid, p. 940.

313 Ibid, p. 949.

310

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When defined in this way, the experience of engagement is a complex process with a composition that is almost all-encompassing temporally as well as iteratively organised.

O’Brian & Toms’ research aims to develop a tool for measuring engagement. In 2010 they publish further results from two comprehensive follow up studies. One study is concerned with the development and evaluation of reliability of a user engagement scale based on their prior research on attributes and stages. This study is a web-survey of online shoppers. 314 The second study aims to assess the validity of the scale and to find interrelations of the multiple but independent dimensions of the scale. As mentioned above, O’Brian & Toms see engagement as a holistic framework. Therefore they take special interest in the questions about how relationships between the interdependent dimensions of the scale can best be conceptualised.

To answer this question, path analyses of six factors were conducted; the six factors were: Aesthetics, Novelty, Focussed Attention and Perceived Usability, Felt Involvement and Endurability.315 To run the path analysis, six hypotheses were generated to predict relationships among the factors.316 The results differ from the hypothesised relationships of their prediction as three more are added and one is removed. Aesthetics and Novelty predict the other factors of the model as hypothesised, but, contrary to these, the factor Aesthetics directly predicts Perceived Usability. It appears that aesthetic qualities of experience are more than just a matter of appeal. They are seen as core to

314

The web-survey produced a sample of 440 respondents, see p. 55.

The authors thoroughly explain how they reached these six factors, see O’Brian & Toms 2010, pp. 62-63.

316 The hypotheses are: H1 (The engagement scale is comprised of six distinct factors: Focussed attention, Perceived Usability, Aesthetics, Endurability, Novelty and Felt Involvement); H2A (Aesthetics predicts Focussed Attention), H2B (Aesthetics predicts Felt Involvement); H3A (Novelty predicts Focussed Attention), H3B (Novelty predicts Felt Involvement); H4 (Focussed Attention predicts Perceived Usability); H5 (Felt Involvement predicts Perceived Usability); H6 (Perceived Usability predicts Endurability). The hypotheses are depicted p. 60.

315

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creating meaning and satisfying the need for a sense of wholeness.317 Furthermore, the results show that Felt Involvement is a defining factor of greater importance than hypothesised. In the hypotheses Focussed Attention would be mediated through Perceived Usability whereas the results showed that Felt Involvement mediates between Focussed Attention and Perceived Usability. Concluding the results of the path analyses, O’Brian and Toms raised the question concerning our understanding of users’ engagement with technology and online systems: This raises the question of whether personal interest, involvement and fun are as powerful as usability in influencing users’ appraisals of an experience. This supports related work that advocates creating positive affective experiences and views emotion as an essential component in system development (e.g. Laurel, 1993; Nahl, 2007; Pace, 2004).318 Thus, O’Brian & Toms suggest a holistic representation of user engagement to take into consideration also the affective aspects hereof as part of interaction design and measurement.

I NTERACTIVE ARTWORKS (S TUDY 3) In 2008, Bilda & Edmunds publish the results of many years of studying audiences’ engagement with several digital and interactive works of art, all of which were challenging and experimental. 319 Their research focuses on dynamic-interactive art systems, which they describe in this way: Most interactive artworks we refer to in this paper are in the dynamic-interactive category, where the human viewer has an active role in influencing the changes in the art system.320

317

Ibid, p. 63.

Ibid.

319 The authors distinguish between different categories of interactive art systems: static, dynamic-passive, dynamic-interactive (e.g. Iamascope), and dynamic-interactive-varying (e.g. Absolute 4.5). In particular, the dynamicinteractive art systems are of interest to their research.

320 Bilda & Edmunds 2008, p. 528.

318

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Framing their research, the Beta Space living lab for interactive art321 allows the research team to follow, observe and conduct contextual interviews, set up video-cue-recall-situations and qualitative analyses of protocols of verbal and non-verbal behaviours. 322 Based on thorough studies of ten different artworks over a period of three years, the authors suggested a model of engagement with five different interaction modes: Unintended, the participant tries out a system without knowing its purpose and how it works; deliberate, the participant knows a little of what to expect; intended/in control, the participant is capable of setting a purpose for his/her actions and expectations about the outcomes; intended/uncertain, the participant starts expanding his/ her intentions for her actions and expectations about the outcomes; unexpected, the participant questions her/his intentions, expectations about outcomes and what the system is about. 323 Following these five interaction modes, Bilda & Edmunds suggest that they pass through four phases of a sequential and temporal development: adaptation, learning, anticipation and deeper understanding.324In particular the results concerning the interaction modes: intended/uncertain and unexpected are of interest to the present study. The authors see the interaction modes of intended/uncertain and unexpected, if associated with the phases of anticipation and deeper understanding, as modes which hold the highest potential for creative engagement, but they also note that in the interaction mode unexpected, there is a high risk of frustration.

To conclude these results, the authors point out that a path of transformative dialogue between the artwork and the participant is pivotal to the emergence of creative engagement. In asking the question about when it is most likely that a sense of creative engagement occurs, the authors conclude:

321

Beta Space living lab is an environment for artists, designers and technologists to design, implement and evaluate artworks with real audiences 322 See Candy et al. 2006 to learn more about their methodological approach to research on interactive artworks.

323 Bilda & Edmunds 2008 pp. 533-535. The references made to respectively the individual (his/her) and a group (audience) is confusing and needs clarification.

324 Ibid, pp. 535-537.

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Sometimes the participants interpret the situation as unconventional, because their intentions and expectations are not aligned. How participants deal with an unconventional situation is a key for them to see new paths for interaction. This often needs a shift in thinking about the new situation. This shift in thinking can, in return, initiate a new way of making sense of her/ his experience. We identified this path of a transformative dialogue between the system and the participants’ creative engagement. As much as creative engagement is related to how one chooses to make sense of her/ his experience, it is also dependent on how the system generates or triggers these unconventional situations.325 For the purpose of the present study, the idea of a path of transformative dialogues, the model of engagement, the sequential and temporal development of engagement and modes of interaction are results of interest and they will be further dealt with, when I conclude this brief overview. However, before concluding I will look at the final of the four studies.

M USICAL EXPERIENCE (S TUDY 4) In the analysis of engaging with a Mendelssohn string octet, Morrison (2007) seeks to identify different modes of engaging. In the citation below, the author refers to the aesthetic experience of listening to music. In general terms, this musical realm may help us understand different modes of engaging. I will, however, stay true to the way it is worded by Morrison, even if I propose that his attempt to differentiate modes of engaging can also be applied to fields other than just music: On one level, ‘modes of engagement’ can be thought of as the various realms within which we [i] aurally and cognitively construct patterns, lines of continuity, formal relationships; [ii] accord significance in other realms such as the emotional, associational, religious, even therapeutic; and [iii] recognize, even construct from musical raw materials or attribute to the

325

Ibid, p. 537.

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aforementioned patterns and formal elements, aesthetic properties (...). That is, modes of engagement define the various parameters within which significance can be established, the various parameters within which the engaged find the engaging to be meaningful.326 In the above quotation, Morrison refers to ‘one level’; consequently, he sees modes of engaging as being of different levels. This is much in line with what was said about research on learning, the question of activity, or action, is seen as constitutive of another level.

Morrison therefore continues: But on another level, the modes must also be considered as active processes on the part of the listener, as the verbs ‘construct’, ‘accord’, ‘recognize’, ‘attribute’ from the foregoing explanation suggest. Insofar as a particular mode of engagement is an active process undertaken by the listener, it is itself also an aspect of the broader musical experience: to construct, accord, recognize, and attribute are to engage; to engage is to experience.327 According to Morrison, listening to music is an active process of constructing and generating meaningful experiences by different modes of engaging. He suggests four modes of engaging, but they are not meant to be exhaustive as others may well be involved: a default mode (quasi-listening), a music-theoretical, an aesthetic, and an associational mode. By the default mode of engaging, we attend to the immediate present, and follow that in which we are engaged as it unfolds. This is voluntary, directly perceptual and immediate.

Engaging in a theoretical mode usually requires profound experience and often training. This mode is to construct various formal and interpretative patterns through feelings, perception and cognition from the ‘raw’ materials of engaging and to do so over time. To engage aesthetically with something, feelings and senses of factors such as symmetry, balance, unity and proportions, as well as some

326 327

Morrison 2007, p. 404.

Ibid.

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counteracting, are part of the engaging. It is, however, important to note that the richness of this mode of engaging follows when we simultaneously enter into some of the other modes, according to Morrison. In addition, this simultaneity generates a mode that is best described as a web of interwoven engagings. In the associational mode, the engagings trigger an association beyond the actual engaging. Attention may be drawn to some details that again may lead to associations, personal or otherwise. It is important to note that according to Morrison this is not a detour or distraction as the associational mode embraces the engaging for its associational significance as related to the fields of engaging.

DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES There are many differences between these studies in terms of their conceptual framing, methodological approach, empirical data, purposes and domains so an actual comparison would make little sense. However, some similarities have appeared despite the differences. I will start by discussing some of the differences, then point out consistencies before finally concluding my understanding.

D OMAINS OF STUDY The domains of study are different as are the situations and contexts studied. There are significant differences between engaging with an interactive artwork and the engagement of students in the educational context of a classroom. Likewise, even if engaging with interactive artworks and video gaming, online shopping, educational software and web searching are all activities mediated by computers, the differences in their content are conspicuous. These differences influence the understandings of what engagement is and how it is experienced. An example that exemplifies this is the question about how uncertainty can influence the felt experience of being engaged.

In the study of interactive artworks, the likeliness of reaching high levels of engagement is associated with intended interaction combined with felt uncertainty. Conversely, in the educational setting, uncertainty may be a source of anxiety, for example if challenges and skills are misaligned. The differences exemplify how the context and situation tend to influence the felt experience and engagement.

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M ETHODS OF STUDY The methodologies and methods as applied to the studies are also different. The studies of, respectively, engagement in educational contexts and interaction with different online systems are based on comprehensive collections of data worked through statistical methods and quantitative analyses. The production of data ranges from randomly beeping students over a week to ask them to fill out surveys about their current situation (educational); retrospective memories and self-report in semi-structured interviews and largescale surveys (online systems); contextual audience observations, qualitative analyses of audience verbal reports, interviews over a three-year period (interactive artworks) and analytical reflections about experiential qualities (music and aesthetics).

It is important that the qualities, attributes and factors of the statistical methods applied predominantly rely on data produced by individual respondents and interviewees. Thus, this method does not take into account social factors, which are often downgraded and given a lower priority. This is a very general statement, which needs some modification, as in the educational case some of the context-related survey data concern whether the student is engaged in lectures or group work. Yet, these data are not utilised to answer questions about social construction of situations of engagement, but to evaluate the individual experience of self-control in these contexts. In the study of engaging with online systems, the awareness of others’ presence in the systems is only briefly mentioned, even if in their conclusion of the second study, the authors are aware of this limitation as they suggest making it a subject for further research. In the artworks study, it is difficult to distinguish the audience from the individual, as it seems they are mixed in a way that is not adequately accounted for. However, the intention of this study is to observe and understand the audiences’ experience with the artworks thus studied.

These are some of the differences that appear when reviewing the four chosen studies, which have all contributed valuable knowledge about engagement as experienced. Despite the many differences, there are also some similarities, which I will synthesise in the

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following themes: processes and temporal patterns, experiential qualities and modes of acting and interaction.

T EMPORAL PATTERNS In studies 2, 3 and 4 (see table 6), the authors point out that process and temporal patterns are of importance to the experience of engagement even if there are different understandings of these patterns. In Table 6 (I) below, the concurrent results about temporal aspects are synthesised and subdivided to identify some of the main differences between a sequential, iterative and experiential understanding of the temporal patterns identified. In their study, O’Brian and Toms emphasise that engagement is a process and as shown in Table 6 (I), this is a mutual understanding despite the differences.

E XPERIENTIAL QUALITIES Concerning the experiential qualities, there are also some similarities found. In Table 6 (II), the conditions and qualities of study 1, and the attributes and factors of study 2, are mapped. Some of these are identical: interest, motivation and challenges; some are comparable: concentration / intensity / focussed attention / perceived time, and moreover: affect / mood / esteem, while others are mentioned only in one of the studies: enjoyment (study 1), aesthetics, novelty, control and feedback (study 3). Two of these qualities are contextual as control and feedback are associated with the use of computer systems. I will now broadly summarise these experiential qualities of engagement and point out the following qualities as being of significance: focussed attention, felt involvement, flow, aesthetics, perceived usability, novelty and endurability.

M ODES OF ACTING AND INTERACTING Modes of acting and interacting are dealt with in study 3 and 4, see Table 6 (III). These studies emphasise the interrelations of engagement and action as they are exemplified by the verbs: construct, accord, recognise and attribute and they share the domain of aesthetics and arts. However, there are so many differences between the approaches of their studies that it makes no sense to mutually translate their proposed modes. In Bilda & Edmunds’ study,

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the authors conclude that the modes of intended/ uncertain and unexpected interactions hold the highest potential for creative engagement as transformative dialogues are found in these modes.

This finding is of particular interest to the study of actors’ engaging with virtual world-making, as is the conclusion reached by Morrison that the experiential modes are best understood as a web of modes of engaging that are distinguishable interwoven modes of wholeness which is not reducible to a set of components. In Morrison’s view, all of the four modes mentioned co-occur in the experience of engagement as do temporal patterns. According to Morrison, in the associational mode, the many movements of mind and body go beyond the immediate present but as earlier mentioned this cooccurrence deepens rather than disturbs experienced aesthetic or theoretical engaging.

T ABLE 6 . Four studies of engagement organised by three themes: a process with temporal patterns, experiential qualities, and modes of action and interaction. (See Appendices, Table 6)

U NDERSTANDING ENGAGEMENT Based on the synthesis and mapping of recent research on engagement, it can be understood in this way:

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1) Engagement is built on active processes of dynamic transformative dialogues and experiential qualities of focused attention, felt involvement, flow, aesthetics and endurability; 2) it is realised by active processes referred to by verbs such as constructing, according, recognising, attributing, and 3) engagement has transformations, qualities and processes assembled and organised by temporal patterns.

According to Morrison’s analysis, time profoundly influences the experience of engaging. The immediate present, beyond the present, and emergence over time are different and influential modes of timing. In his analysis, modes are closely related to situations and affordances. When we are engaging with the immediate present, then emotions, senses and aesthetic qualities are some of the dynamics of engaging; in semiotic terms these engagements can be seen as firstnesses. These dynamics are, however, interrelated with the movements of the bodily mind that go beyond the immediate present and experience. Realising these qualities involves cognitive dynamics of formal relationships and theoretical understanding as well as active processes of construction, recognition, interpretation and sense-making. Thus, in secondnesses, these qualities and potentialities are realised by interpretation of the metaphors and sign relations involved, the interpretants (thirdnesses). To experience the immediate present always takes place in interplay with associations of what is beyond and enacted in dynamics that evolve over time.

The dynamics of experiencing in and associating beyond the immediate present only make sense if we can associate and refer to emergence over time.

NARRATIVES OF ENGAGEMENT To empirically follow these dynamics, I will now analyse some of the narratives as told by the actors’ of this study with reference to the understanding of engagement.

In Star Wars Galaxies (Narrative 1), Martin talks about his experience with the game, in particular about some of the different characters and social events as experienced. In this game he has met musicians,

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dancers and performers and the immediate fascination of this experience shines through in Martin's account: Music and dance represent rest, you relax, and then your body regenerates faster. You are looking for them and go with them as a kind of minstrel. Invite them to cities, restaurants to get some entertainment. An entertainer can cure an entire room filled with people.—Martin In his narrative, Martin expresses an immediate sense of presence and relaxation—a sense of being entertained due to the aesthetic qualities of certain performances. These senses are, however, also part of his reflections on emerging patterns of in-world social relationships. These relationships are part of references that go beyond the present to what emerges over time. Together, these dynamics generate a web of interrelated temporal patterns of engagement.

In An evil landlord (Narrative 2), we follow Helle in Second Life where her immediate fascination inspires her to purchase land. Very quickly, however, she is confronted with questions of trust and distrust in virtual world-making because she has to follow the rules of the world. In this case, the rules are set by her landlord who owns the land. She has to move off her piece of land, even though she has purchased it, due to many bad experiences with the site’s landlord.

I was a novice in the ways they did things in here so when I logged on, a message just said that the owner had reclaimed my land! My land taken away from me! It was 8,000 square metres [of] land which had just been taken (...) I was ‘banned’ from it. Of course, I wrote to him, but he was very rude. What happened? I had simply not complied with the rules so he was entitled to take back the land. It turned out that it was because he was sent home by my security bot. I had to apologise and [I] was then allowed to buy it back for a very simple sum of money.—Helle Helle’s narrative recounting these early experiences is still loaded with feelings of anger and frustration. Following an immediate

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fascination, she tries out as many facets as possible of world-making in Second Life, not knowing about rules and pitfalls of the world. In the narrative she reflects on the future to figure out how to prevent similar situations, if her virtual world suddenly disappears because it is removed. Knowledge and experience with the world emerge over time, together with the immediate sense of aesthetic qualities and fascination. These qualities and dynamics drive Helle’s engagement—even if, as in the Evil Landlord narrative, there is a clash between the dynamics of the immediate present, beyond the present, and over time.

Sia recounts her hectic life as the shaman Gelinu in A busy shaman (Narrative 3). Gelinu’s magical abilities place severe demands on her leadership, responsibility, skills and monitoring. To get to the necessary level of skills and abilities has been a steep learning curve for her, and she has spent many hours figuring out how to manage and master the game. (...) I can throw a curse every six seconds, giving 440 in damage and doing it in 30 seconds. It will be pulled from the life of the mobs... And, I can throw four at once. So every six seconds, Gelinu can give more than a thousand in damage.–Sia To generate the sense of pride and mastery that comes from being indispensible is not easy and cannot be achieved quickly. Over time, Sia’s mastery of the game enables the organisation of a large game guild, even if she is also forced to reduce her leadership role due to her overwhelming responsibilities. The emergence of leadership, knowledge about the game, and the ability to perform are some of the qualities that help generate the dynamics of immediate joy when playing the game and building up teams of gamers.

In Fighting mobs that drop valuables (Narrative 4), we get a glimpse of teamwork based on the strict coordination and timing needed to raid in a game like EverQuest. This requires a detailed knowledge about the playing style and standing of each of the participating characters and avatars.

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Janus: Okay, I’m going to, yep; I’m moving back a little; be careful out there, go back, I’m moving on a bit, oh yeah, move it fast, okay, resisted.

Sia: ‘I’m casting again, dragon is slowed, calling a spell, you need a spell.

J: Enough, yeah.

S: I’ll throw a few dots on it.

J: Damn it! Just calling: it hit me. I’m over here; thank you! (...)

I think you have to remind me not to attack too early. –Sia, Janus The immediate experience of this dangerous situation on a raid with the guild Draconic Guardians is loaded with emotions and a sense of excitement. As the fight with the monsters turns out to be unsuccessful, Janus immediately draws a conclusion that extends beyond the situation and over time about what to do in future situations when they go on a raid.

In the narrative about a Creative ‘Media Maker’ (Narrative 6), one of the weekly meetings with the Literary team is described. The meeting is professional in purpose, but when an avatar outside the project’s circle of professionals joins the meeting, she attracts the group's attention by juggling many kinds of animated design and media. She donates media and performs spectacular animated shows. The meeting proves to be a display in communication by means of designed virtual objects.

I have to find out where she purchased the shoes. Her shoes!

Noooo! I’ve got a red dress. Yes! See! I’ve got a dress for L $5.

That is sooo cheap! I want to know if she is here for professional reasons. I would like to know if she is joining our meeting, or if she just wants company.—Janne The visiting avatar Sipps Pall, the main character of this narrative, generates a true sense of immediate joy and surprise during this meeting. Her juggling media and animated objects attracts the

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attention of the group and almost distracts from the serious and professional purpose of the meeting. Her modes of communication generate intense feelings by her use of the affordances of the world; affordances that help her create spectacular aesthetic experiences.

However, in the narrative, members of the Literary team also associate beyond the immediate fascination to figure out who is Sipps Pall: Is she Danish? What is her intention? In this way, Mads and Janne draw on their emergent knowledge and experience with the affordances and relationships of the Second Life world.

Martin talks about his fascination in the narrative Fascination (Narrative 7). The immediate fascination of being able to launch large collaborative projects goes hand in hand with a sense of belonging because the same character can be played and developed over a long period of time. Compared with other chat environments, the large online role-playing games, as he sees them, provide gamers with common experiences and tasks over time, which gives them something meaningful to chat about: In the multi-user online role-playing games you have an entire world in which to freely run around; a whole world where you live and breathe and build a world together with up to 20,000 other people! There is an inherent fascination that makes the game more meaningful than shooting and action games. It makes more sense. It is one thing to play an online game for about an hour; it is quite another to play a multi-user online role-playing game where you play the same role, character and avatar with the same account for as long as six months and really build something out of it. –Martin Martin explicitly points out the long period of time when he talks about making sense of the many different virtual world-makings with which he engages. Engaging over time generates quite different experiences when playing a multi-user online role-playing game than when playing one of the many shooting computer games. The emergence of close relationships, a sense of belonging, and feelings of pride when achieving great results – whether that is building castles or organising giant missions – all of this calls for a different kind of feeling and experience. It would seem that these immediate

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feelings only come from the achievements that have been made over time.

Janne’s fascination with the immediate, exotic, odd and almost psychedelic out-of-body experiences makes up the content of the narrative about Spacy Bubbles (Narrative 8): And in fact, in the first life, there are plenty of things that we now offer that work really well [public service], but there are also many things that need be improved. In Second Life, however, quite different things can happen. Some completely different things may work well (...) I think something like the meditation bubbles are fun. In one way or another, they convey an experience.—Janne Immediate feelings of fun and joy, extraordinary experiences, aesthetic enjoyment, and surprises are themes and threads of Janne’s narrative. The spontaneous excitement goes hand in hand with reflections on how to, over time, develop new experiences as part of the services provided by her work place, the public institution.

Despite the fact that Jan prefers to play solo, when he plays with his avatar Gnossiz, he still experiences the concern that one of his fellow players might pull out of the game. In the narrative Living and playing together, (Narrative 9), he provides insight into how difficult it can be to be ‘allowed’ to stop playing—even if, in his case, playing together is not organised by a guild but develops more casually. Despite this, a history of playing together has gradually emerged: We will invite him [Jens, who is about to leave EverQuest] to dinner and then talk him into playing again. In this way, we will try to lure him back. It is so strange that he is not in here any longer. We know each other so well. –Jan The strange feeling and sense of being let down by his virtual friend stands out in Jan’s narrative. Referring to an emergent friendship and a common history developed over time, in the immediate present, Jan seeks some strategies for how to ‘lure’ back his virtual friend.

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In A salesman's experience, (Narrative 11), Thomas talks about the affordances, requirements and new skills and tasks that he has to deal with in his effort to start as a private entrepreneur in Second Life.

I have a sales speech to convince my customers that they should stay on the island when the probationary period or the lease expires. I spend much time doing this to get better and better. The more experience I get, the faster I can come up with some good arguments. So I get the feeling of becoming even more experienced in selling services in here. But there is a long way to go—that is for sure.–Thomas A sense of humility towards the many difficulties and requirements of starting up a business shines through Thomas’s narrative. He is fully aware that his immediate online presence entirely relies on his capacity to learn, know and master the affordances as provided by the world chosen. With a pioneering spirit and an immediate fascination with the idea of making a living in Second Life, Thomas starts his engagement with the virtual world, but to make it a reality, he has to face an intense learning curve and investment of his time to build up a business in a new and unknown environment.

Furthermore, he has no prior knowledge of how to run a business.

The feelings of partaking in something new, creating new forms of business, and opening up new opportunities emerge over time as he climbs the steep learning curve.

SITUATIONS OF ENGAGING In this brief analysis of some of the case study narratives, I have pointed out only a very few aspects. In future research, I suggest that we explicitly seek to identify and understand situations of engaging.

As shown by the semiotic analysis of avatars, the personal mediators have proven to be a good starting point, which will help guide us to the visions and mediating programs of actors’ engagement with their worlds. With a background in such semiotic analysis, we can identify and contribute a new understanding of situations of engaging. In this way, the player typologies as developed by Richard Bartle (2004) and the analysis of large collections of data about players’/users’

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motivations as published by Williams et al. (2008) can be supplemented with studies of the sense-making and agency of situations of actors’ engaging with virtual world-making. Such analysis and understanding will contribute valuable knowledge to broaden as well as deepen our understanding of the dynamics of engaging with virtual world-making.

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12. CONCLUSION At the time when I decided to follow up on my early experience with the 3D Agora-world to pursue studies of EverQuest and Second Life, the media coverage of the games and user-generated virtual worlds was at its peak. In the media, virtual worlds were portrayed as the new frontier and stories of pioneers and gold rush fever in Second Life appeared daily in the newspapers. These stories were accompanied by concerns about how these new media would influence our culture, literacy and society and their possible negative influence was a recurring theme and subject of public debate.

Concerns included addiction, time-consumption, loss of the sense of reality, alienation of human relationships, impoverishment of culture, confusion of identities and gender to mention just a few.

However, what I met during my study was hard work, creative engagement, binding relationships, joy of exploration, playful and extraordinary experiences alongside distrust, manipulation, deception, unscrupulous exploitation and projects subject to headwind. In other words, the virtual worlds were very similar to what we know from our daily life. Moreover, the picture of a young male teenager with social problems was about to dissolve as research on who played the games and inhabited the worlds showed a different picture.328 It appeared that the age range is much wider than previously assumed; youngsters are playing and engaging in virtual world-making alongside grandparents, families with small children, businessmen and women and public service workers. Gradually, the nuances of multiplicities emerged.

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Thoroughly researched by Williams et al. 2008.

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ANALYTICAL METAPHORS It convinced me that we need to know more about the dynamics of these diversities. I wanted to understand some of these dynamics not only based on generalisation and typology but also in qualitative studies. To do this I have followed actors of the worlds as they engaged with their chosen worlds and I have pursued open questions about how come and in what ways they make sense of their virtual world-making. In other words: simple questions that allow us to see and understand the uniquenesses of personal involvement and the multiplicities of the history of their involvement. These are the research aims and questions, which I have pursued and seek to answer in the empirical analysis of this study. I have used a composition of sensitising metaphors to guide the analysis by a combination of: the sense-making triangle (Appendix, Figure 7) that visualises the gap-bridging agency of sense-making with an actornetwork diagram (Appendix, Figure 6) that holds together substitution (translation) and diffusion of programs and anti-programs. This diagram visualises tensions, gapinesses and steps taken in gapbridging agency and innovative practices.

Guided by the metaphors of the triangle and the diagram and their grounding theories, participatory observations and video interviews have been the main research methods that allowed me to follow actors in their many agencies of virtual world-making. The research was carried out over time from the beginning to the end of the actors’ engagement.

OBSERVATIONS AND VIDEO INTERVIEWS In online and participatory observations from early 2006 to March 2008 communities, single players, businesses and projects were followed to qualify the selection of the actors who would participate in the in situ and in-depth open video interviews. Working the video data of hours of video interviews by processes of reversed storyboarding (see Chapter 4), 76 single video keyframes of particular analytical relevance were selected.

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These keyframes refer to the analytical foci of the study: the choice of world, the choice of avatar, the relationships with other actors and avatars, the expression of self, and the navigation of daily life situations including the engagement with virtual world-making. The metaphorical video keyframes thus visualise and designate the empirical analysis of the diversity of sense-makings and engagements as crystallised by working the video data.

DRIVING VISIONS When we follow the participating actors over time it appears that a recurring motif is their eagerness to realise some visions. Although the content of these visions is quite different, and often difficult if not impossible, in every case they have guided the steps taken by the actors to realise them. The actors see themselves as actively involved with a breakthrough having a window of opportunity to try out something new. They use that chance to explore different ways to realise new potentials and qualities.

As has been shown in the empirical analysis, the guild in EverQuest is driven by a vision of a community of high ideals and a communal spirit. To realise this ideal they explore the boundaries of solidarity and organise their missions and raids as a team working across national borders spanning England, the Netherlands and Denmark. It requires participation, effort, skills and know-how to plan and organise the activity of the team. In situations of engaging, they explore collaboration, organisation, leadership and teamwork, training and experimenting with the realisation of these tasks, which enable mutual and immediate evaluation by virtual world-making.

The single-player of EverQuest continuously asks how best to dissect and circumvent the design of the world in situations of engaging as he seeks to gain in-world recognition. Showing other gamers how to deal with problems and solve quests are acts of empowerment driven by his visions of proving capable. Learning, dissecting and circumventing systems are steps taken to gain recognition and knowhow in the virtual world, where immediate responses show whether or not his efforts are successful.

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In the Second Life cases the actors all see themselves as innovating.329 In one case, the potential of running a start up business includes a digital design of an entire virtual island environment. In situations of engaging, the business start-up feels like a new beginning capitalising on opportunities to run a business in new ways. The pioneering spirit is apparent. Learning how to design an entire business environment with a town, island and places for socialising and event-making, running a business and making sales speeches and gaining know-how, despite no former experience, are agencies seen by the initiator as potential new forms and qualities of business.

Another start-up business is driven by a vision to experiment with and use the innovative potential of the virtual world as an extension of an offline business. Once again, the pioneering spirit is apparent.

This business is a virtual branch of an existing international company and the services of this company are based on initiating and keeping up contacts in business networks of employers and employees. In situations of engaging, the innovative potential of new forms of meetings between employer and job seekers is the content of this exploration. Building knowledge networks, learning about how to set up new forms of meeting with a kind of ‘quasi’-anonymity and doing so with an international audience and network is seen as potential new forms and qualities of networking.

To challenge the traditions of a public service institution is the aim of a project team driven by a vision of realising and changing their profession and reaching out to their traditional and new audiences in new ways. In situations of engaging, the innovative potentials of world-making are explored using professional meetings in which questions about their professional practices are debated and by arranging events in new ways. The project experiments with making cultural content available in new ways and with the co-creation of potential new forms and qualities of content.

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Studies of avatar-based innovation have been conducted by Kohler 2009, Teigland 2010.

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MANY HINDRANCES Undoubtedly, the participating actors of this study see themselves as innovating and taking part in projects, which they seek to realise through virtual world-making as a new means of innovation.

Whether their visions, initiatives and projects are actually innovative is not for me to judge. The projects have all been closed as they were confronted with problems and hindrances. Some of these are the usual hindrances that are to be expected in almost any start-up and entrepreneurial business and project. In particular, they involve a lack of understanding of the agency and media involved in the projects. This includes a lack of knowledge and interest from audiences, customers and potential participants; a lack of financial means and support; cutback and workforce reductions targeting peripheral organisational activity in times of crisis; lack of knowledge and know-how from the entrepreneurs and project initiators; and time pressures from experimenting. These are some of the experiences and hindrances which the participating actors have met.

Undoubtedly the media coverage of virtual worlds with the wellknown hype and anti-hype discourses has increased these pressures and problems. Stories such as addiction to multi-user online roleplaying games, businesses and projects closing down, and desolate places in the world of Second Life have influenced the Second Life cases, in particular, and the chances of surviving and running these businesses and projects in the virtual worlds.

UNIQUENESSES From day one, the engagement and the diversities of world-making have been striking. I have met actors engaged with many different ideas regarding places, events, missions, business, fighting, crafting, design and animations to mention just a few examples of the diversities. The uniqueness of the personal engagement and the ways in which actors engage when followed in micro-moments of sensemaking and over time has helped me give flesh and blood to some of the typologies of existing research on actors’ engagement with games and worlds. The empirical analyses show us some realities of virtual world-making, which are as unique as the offline world. There is no

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easy shortcut to capturing this diversity. Only continuous research can help us understand the realities of virtual world-making as enacted and interpreted by the actors.

To exemplify these diversities, let us look at the dichotomy of winning and losing in gaming. The design of the worlds of games can be described by the dichotomy of winning / losing. This is a very simple difference, which generates the dynamics of oppositions.

However, if we add to this the difference of simple qualities such as fighting for the good or the bad side of the game, it increases the complexity as do the skills and abilities of the characters of the games and not least the scarcity of resources. These are some of the basics of an online role-playing game, which help generate a diversity of extraordinary experiences, such as fighting severe dangers and threats to survive and win, or to lose and die. The simplicity hides the complexities that come with the many different ways in which the difference of oppositions of winning or losing can be dealt with and the many forms of collaboration and competition generated. When observed from a distance, the game is seen as competition and collaboration organised by challenges and rewards that lead to the gains of winning or the loss of losing. However, if we approach the micro-moments of gaming with a zoom-in optic, then the many intermediary steps of the difference of oppositions become visible. Then simplicity appears to be unique instances of engaging.

When Jan with his companion avatar Gnossiz solves the many quests of EverQuest he fights the designers of the game. He utilises the dichotomy and dynamics as inscribed in the game by the designers to explore, examine and challenge his personal capacities of learning, analysing and manipulating. In doing so, a diversity of personal instances is enacted in micro-moments of sense-making.

The ways in which he challenges his capacities are instances of uniqueness. Going solo, in four days he manages to get a little oriental carpet. This involves dissecting and analysing the design of the game to learn about how it is made and how best to get around the design challenges in order to prove himself capable of winning the fight against the system and the game designers to gain in-game recognition.

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A diversity of uniquenesses thus emerges from the simple dynamics of the quests and oppositions of the game. Multiplicities evolve from simple dynamics as also expressed by the young high school student Martin in his accounts about how the freedom to act and experience make sense to his engaging with virtual worlds. This sense of freedom and uniqueness generates strong feelings, learning, new ideas and the building of new forms of social relationships.

TRANSFORMATIVE DIALOGUES The driving dynamics of visions and emotional engagement, cognitive efforts and learning as enacted do not only lead to adaptation to the worlds but also to transformative dialogues as suggested by the research of Bilda & Edmunds’ (2008). To briefly recap, according to the authors, the way actors deal with an unconventional and unexpected situation is key to seeing new paths for interaction and understanding.330 Moreover, the authors see these paths as potentially transformative in the sense that following new paths requires a shift in thinking and this shift in return initiates new paths. The shifting paths are conceived transformative dialogues between creative engagement and, in the authors’ cases, interactive artworks. 331 In their study, Bilda & Edmunds suggest a model to inform engagement that identifies five modes of interaction with interactive artworks and installations. In the first two steps, broadly speaking, the actors start out with situations of uncertainty to then adapt to the artworks by learning and experience. When as a next step they start to anticipate what will happen if engaging, then questions of how to enact purposes, choices and intended agency are explored. Furthermore, these modes of anticipation involve the question of how to use and make sense of the artworks given certain choices and agencies. To reach what Bilda & Edmunds see as a deeper understanding,332 the participants’ anticipations about how to engage with the artworks are characterised by uncertainty only now

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Bilda & Edmunds, p. 537.

See p. 539.

332 The idea of a deeper understanding may be translated to ever richer and denser actor-networks.

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in a different way when compared to the initial modes of adaptation.

In anticipatory modes, actors will seek to enact certain intended actions even if they do not know what to expect and what the outcome of their action will be. By realising the intended actions, although with a sense of uncertainty, the actors may see new paths of interaction and sense-making thus reaching what Bilda & Edmund see as a deeper understanding. The part which they ascribe to uncertainty and to the unexpected is of particular interest to the study of virtual world-making. In their view, the creative and transformative potential of engaging is not primarily a matter of mastering and controlling the system and artwork; but the transformative dialogues evolve in the intended but uncertain and unexpected situations of sense-making and creative engagement.

Thus, they emphasise that interactive artworks should trigger and generate such situations of creative engagement and uncertainty.

The analysis of transformative dialogues has many parallels in the cases of virtual world-making of this study. The analysis conducted shows a diversity of creative engagements. The initial uncertainty about the chosen worlds and the processes of adaptation is a thread in the participating actors’ narratives. Their adaptation helps support the hard work they have invested in enacting their visions, whether they are building a community based on certain ideals, starting new forms of business or revitalising and innovating existing practices and professions. The transformative dialogues are enacted in many different ways: taking a leadership role of a guild not knowing what to expect, uncertain of how to handle this new path of sense-making; building businesses uncertain of whether it will provide a living or how to run a business in the virtual world; or starting projects aimed at public audiences but being uncertain of whether they will generate public interest.

In each case, the diverse and transformative dialogues are part of a personal history of transformations. With his range of avatars as personal mediators, Martin, a high school student, sees himself as transforming into a systematic researcher and expert when he explores many different online role-playing games. Jan, a benefit claimant, sees himself as transforming into an empowered, cunning

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and knowledgeable actor of the world when he enters EverQuest with his metaphorical avatar Gnossiz the gnome as a personal mediator. Janus, a student teacher, sees himself as transforming into an organiser and ideologist when he enters the world of EverQuest with his avatar Krongh the troll as his personal mediator. Sia, a disability pensioner, sees herself as transforming into a highly regarded and high-level leader when she plays with the shaman Gelinu as her personal mediator. Thomas, a programmer, sees himself as transforming into a real estate agent, business entrepreneur, salesman and virtual entrepreneur with DC Aspen as his personal mediator in Second Life. Helle, a human-resource employee, transforms into a business manager, experimental entrepreneur and a knowledge network builder, when she is present with her avatar Helle as her personal mediator in Second Life. Mads, an academic, sees himself as transforming into an in-world designer and debater challenging the traditions of his actual profession when he is present with his avatar Rob as his personal mediator in Second Life. When Alice is her personal mediator, Janne, a public service employee, sees herself as transforming into a joyful child and experience designer, a debater and explorer, who challenges the traditions of her actual profession.

The transformative potentials as shown by the cases involved may be seen as part of a breakthrough and window of opportunity but to realise these potentials requires hard work and learning; there is no easy path. Spectacular success stories from the virtual worlds are few and far between. Hopefully, the early experience and knowledge gained by the hard-working entrepreneurs, project initiators and skilled gamers of this study can provide a means for reflection on the conditions, visions and many problems of following new paths of creative engagement with virtual world-making.

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SUMMARY OF CONTRIBUTIONS ACTORS’ SENSE-MAKING The dissertation “Ways of Virtual World-making” contributes an interpretive, constructivist and semiotic understanding of the virtual worlds of EverQuest and Second Life. The study is aimed at empirical analysis of different ways of engaging with virtual worlds, which means that the actors’ sense-making over time is at the very centre of analytical interest. The overall question of analysis is: In what ways do actors make sense of situations of engagement with virtual worlds? In other words, the study is not primarily about the worlds with which the participating actors engage but about their engagement. The prevailing methods of the empirical analysis are participatory observation and open-ended in situ video interviews.

WORLD-MAKING AND METAPHORS To support the study’s analytical aims, several actants of theory have been mobilised even if the study does not apply an overall theoretical framework to the empirical analysis. Inspired by ethnomethodological, ethnographic and grounded theory methodologies, theory has been mobilised in order to interpret the empirical data as the analytical process has developed. The interpretation of what is a world – be it real or virtual – serves to exemplify this: one of the analytical points that developed out of the empirical analysis was the question about how to understand the dynamics of engagement with the virtual worlds. To answer this, reference is made to the pragmatist and philosophical understanding as expressed by the notion of world-making, an understanding suggested by the American philosopher Nelson Goodman (1978).

This reference to philosophy and pragmatism was not part of an a priori overall theoretical framework applied to the empirical analysis but it grew out of this. The title of this dissertation is a reference to

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one of Nelson Goodman’s works “Ways of World-making” It indicates the importance ascribed to his philosophy of world-making.

In line with this, a metaphorical understanding of virtual worldmaking was actualised by the philosophical conception of virtual world-making as well as by the empirical studies. The metaphorical interpretation mainly refers to the work of the American philosopher Mark Johnson (1987) “The Body in the Mind”. In the present study it is suggested that virtual worlds may be seen as multi-user nonlinguistic and digital realisations of metaphors and semiotic references by world-making.

ACTOR-NETWORK THEORY AND SENSE-MAKING METAPHOR Two other actants of theory should be mentioned here. One is the analytical and metaphorical figure of a diagram which refers to actornetwork theory and the French sociologist and anthropologist Bruno Latour’s (1991, 1998, 2005) analysis of innovation. In actor-network theory the interrelatedness of humans and non-humans is emphasised and the diagram serves to continuously focus attention on these aspects of connectedness. The triangle is another analytical figure of importance to the analysis of actors’ sense-making.

Metaphorically it depicts the understanding of sense-making processes as developed by communication researcher Brenda Dervin (2003).

Together the diagram and the triangle shape and focus the empirical analysis of 19 ways of engagement. These analyses and narratives do not aim to generate typologies or suggest models whereas the qualitative study seeks to flesh out and understand the uniquenesses, particularities and diversity of the actors’ engagement. The 19 compositions are at the core of the empirical analysis. They contribute to the overall question as introduced above and do so by addressing five foci of analysis: the actors’ choices of worlds and avatars, their building of social relationships and expressions of self, and the navigation of everyday life comprising their engagement with virtual world-making.

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DIVERSITY OF ENGAGEMENTS In this way the study contributes detailed studies of a diversity of engagements. One of the main points made is that the diversity of the virtual worlds – within and between the worlds – is so extensive that generalisation allows us to say very little about engagement.

Consequently, detailed, qualitative and empirical studies are required if we are to understand the many ways of engaging with virtual world-making. Although the aim of the study is not to build typologies and models, the analysis and narratives of the participating actors can easily be referred to some of the existing typologies about motivations as substantiated by Williams et al.’s (2008) research. As such the qualitative study contributes to fleshing out some of the typologies about gamer types and motivations even if it does not use these typologies as an analytical matrix.

AVATARS’ SEMIOSIS AND COMPANIONSHIP As the study gradually progressed, questions about how to understand the engagement and attachment between actor and avatar came to the foreground of analytical interest as the prevailing understanding of avatars as figures of identity and representation of the actors in front of the screen increasingly appeared to delimit rather than deepen our understanding. No doubt the focus on avatars as a means of identity-making and self-construal has made important contributions to our understanding but we also run the risk of missing important points. Therefore a shift of focus to supplement the many studies concerned with identity is suggested with reference to semiotic theory. The conclusion of a semiotic analysis of avatars suggests that we may also see the avatars as companions. With reference to Sherry Turkle’s notion of companionate objects (2006, 2011), this idea of a companionship between actor and avatar seems to be a promising analytical understanding, which needs to be subject to further empirical study.

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ENGAGEMENT THEORY Engagement is thoroughly emphasised as important to our understanding of virtual world-making. However, I did not realise until late in the analytical process that this notion and concept should also be subject to theoretical analysis. The notion of engagement was almost taken for granted even if it proved of analytical importance. This awareness grew out of questions about how to understand the participating actors’ deep felt involvement with their world-making. The widely held understanding of this as a sense of immersion was questioned as it appeared to be a notion and understanding which underemphasised the active and participatory aspects of the actor’s involvement. Engagement is therefore investigated from a theoretical point of view in this dissertation and it is part of the concluding reflections as are the semiotic analysis of avatars.

WAYS OF SEEING Finally, the empirical analysis exemplifies a method of video analysis which I denote reversed storyboarding. From many hours of open and in situ video interviews, thousands upon thousands of single videoframes have been selected in a process of deconstruction and visual description. In several analytical steps, series of snapshots have been generated, decomposed and “re”-composed into storyboards. From these storyboards only a few video keyframes of particular analytical importance have been selected and they are the building blocks of the analytical inscriptions composed of the actornetwork diagram and the sense-making triangle. To study virtual world-making I suggest that we need to further develop and refine video analytical methods. It is as important to know how to see as it is to know how to ask questions in traditional interviews. Ways of seeing is therefore a research subject of importance to our further studies of virtual world-making.

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DANSK RESUMÉ ENGAGEMENT OVER TID Afhandlingen ”Ways of Virtual World-making” handler om nogle af de mange valg, der får mennesker til at engagere sig i virtuelle verdener, fx online masserollespil som EverQuest og World of Warcraft eller brugerdrevne sociale verdener som Active Worlds og Second Life. Det er valg, som har indflydelse på menneskers daglige kommunikation og i nogle tilfælde også på deres arbejde.

Menneskelige valg, som giver mening for de, der foretager dem. Det er disse valg, og den mening og betydning de tilskrives, der er afhandlingens anliggende. Det primære sigte er ikke at beskrive systemer og platforme, verdener og spil i sig selv, men at undersøge hvad der giver mening, og hvordan det giver mening for mennesker, der aktivt vælger at engagere sig i oplevelser, sociale relationer, forpligtelser, venskaber, arbejdspladser eller missioner som en del af det hverdagsliv, de blandt andet lever i en eller flere virtuelle verdener. Der er med andre ord truffet et valg, som indebærer, at afhandlingens fokus er på deltagende aktører og informanter, der ser engagementet i virtuelle verdener som meningsgivende.

Ethvert valg er også et fravalg. De mange, der ikke finder det meningsfuldt at engagere sig på denne måde, er udeladt. Ikke fordi det er uinteressant eller uvæsentligt at undersøge sådanne valg, men fordi det ikke er denne afhandlings anliggende. Der er tale om et dybtgående og kvalitativt studie, som følger de deltagende aktører og cases over tid for at studere aktiviteter og relationer, som de udvikler sig og tilskrives mening af de involverede. Det indebærer naturligvis også et indblik i det, som ikke giver mening for deltagerne og i sidste ende det, som fører til at engagementet ophører. I nogle tilfælde efter kortere tid men i andre efter en årrække.

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EN FORHISTORIE Engagementet i virtuelle verdener er ikke et fænomen af ny dato men det gennembrud, som gør det til et massefænomen, kommer i slutningen af 1990erne og ikke mindst i det første årti af det 21. århundrede. Forud går en længerevarende udvikling, der strækker sig tilbage til slutningen af 1970erne med udviklingen af de første MUDs (Multi-User Dungeons). Det er tekstbaserede spilverdener og universer, hvor fællesskaber af dedikerede spillere mødes. Online systemer og fællesskaber, der er med til at udvikle nye former for kommunikation baseret på computermediet. Som sådan er de en del af det afgørende paradigmeskift, hvor vores forståelse ændres fra primært at se computerteknologier som informationslagring og beregning til også at rumme muligheder for kommunikation – et nyt medie som blandt andet medvirker til at skabe et gennembrud for mange–til–mange kommunikation.

Der er med andre ord en lang forhistorie, og mange erfaringer ligger til grund, da de tidlige ”massively multi-user online role-playing games” som Ultima Online, Lineage og EverQuest introduceres på markedet fra 1997 og frem. Rollespillet World of Warcraft gennemløber en udvikling fra starten i 2004, som illustrerer massegennembruddet. I løbet af det første år efter introduktionen på markedet runder antallet af aktive abonnementer 10 millioner. På tilsvarende vis har de brugerdrevne sociale verdener som Active Worlds og Second Life en forhistorie i form af MUs. I løbet af 1980erne er der en sand underskov af MUDs og MUs, hvor to hovedtendenser aftegner sig. På den ene side de spilorienterede MUDs og på den anden de tekst-baserede ”communities” og sociale MUs. World of Warcraft betegner et massegennembrud for de avancerede online masserollespil og noget tilsvarende gælder for Second Life og de sociale verdener. Den brugerdrevne sociale verden Second Life introduceres i 2003, og den har siden tiltrukket sig millioner af abonnenters opmærksomhed.

Når valget i denne afhandling er faldet på de to verdener EverQuest og Second Life, så er det i tråd med den forhistorie, der har skabt en erfaringsbase og en historisk udvikling i det første årti af det 21. århundrede, hvor millioner og atter millioner af mennesker vælger at

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bruge de nye former for kommunikation og medier. En udvikling som økonomen Edward Castronova (2007) sammenfatter i titlen på hans seneste bog ”Exodus to the Virtual Worlds.”

NYT FORSKNINGSFELT Mange studier er naturligt nok fulgt i kølvandet på denne udvikling, og der er ved at tegne sig omrids af nye forskningsfelter, der allerede har sine klassikere og hvor forskellige forståelser tager udgangspunkt i de kulturelle, økonomiske, psykologiske, sociologiske, kommunikative og teknologiske aspekter, der knytter sig til de nye fænomener. Og de kritiske diskussioner af forskellige forståelser er ved at finde deres fora ikke mindst i form af tidsskrifter som ”Journal of Virtual Worlds Research,” ”Journal of Gaming and Virtual Worlds” og bloggen ”Terra Nova”.

Drivkraften bag denne afhandling er derfor et ønske om at bidrage til denne udvikling og de diskussioner – teoretiske og empiriske – der er en del heraf. Det efterfølgende resumé belyser de teoretiske og metodologiske referencer for studiet, de valgte forskningstemaer, deltagere og cases, de valgte metoder og skitserer kort de empiriske analyser, der er afhandlingens tyngde.

TEORETISKE REFERENCER DET UNIKKE OG VARIATION Studiet er empirisk og stræber ikke efter at udvikle ny teori men snarere at anvende teori på en ny måde i studiet af personlige oplevelser af betydningsdannelse og meningstilskrivning i virtuelle verdener, som bæres af kommunikation, oplevelser og menneskelig aktivitet. Som sådan er afhandlingens anskuelser inspireret af en interesse for personlige valg, visioner, intentioner og oplevelser, og den tilstræber en forståelse, der tager udgangspunkt i den enkelte om end i samspil med de mange sociale relationer, der altid er en del af at skabe og udvikle den enkelte såvel som det fælles. Set på denne måde hælder afhandlingens tilgang mod en humanistisk-filosofisk forståelsesramme snarere end en sociologisk-socialpsykologisk inspireret tilgang til studiet af virtuelle verdener. Interessen samler sig i højere grad om variation, det partikulære og unikke frem for det

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typiske. Det indebærer blandt andet, at der afstås fra at udpege typologier eller tegne modeller, som er umiddelbart generaliserbare.

I valget af deltagende aktører er der lagt vægt på variation som kriterium. Det er tilstræbt at flere forskellige variationer over menneskeligt engagement i virtuelle verdener er repræsenteret. Ikke som et repræsentativt sample der kan danne basis for generalisering, men som variationer der gensidigt kan kaste lys over det fælles og det forskellige i og med forskelle. Variation skaber på den måde grundlag for studiet af det unikke, det fælles og det forskellige i og med sammenligninger.

AKTØRNETVÆRKSTEORI Det gennemgående metodologiske valg i afhandlingen er at følge aktørerne – ”following the actors.” I en meget enkel form sammenfatter vidensociolog og antropolog Bruno Latour (1987, 2005) på denne måde sin version af en af aktørnetværksteoriens væsentlige metoder i empiriske studier. En metode som er påvirket af etnografiske studier. Aktører er i denne sammenhæng ikke blot menneskelige aktører. Der er tale om et aktørbegreb, som adskiller sig fra det sociologiske, idet der refereres til både mennesker og artefakter, ting, genstande og teknologier, der alle anskues som aktivt deltagende i meningsskabende processer. Ikke-menneskelige aktører er ikke blot ”døde” genstande, men de indgår som aktive medskabere af de mange forbindelser mellem menneskelige og ikkemenneskelige aktører i aktørnetværk. Set på denne måde er mennesker og teknologier ikke repræsentanter for en dikotomi mellem natur og kultur, men der er tale om forskellige former for stabilisering af relationer og forbindelser, fx sociale relationer, i kæder af forbundne netværk. Det metodologiske valg at følge aktørerne omfatter således også ikke-menneskelige aktører for eksempel i form af avatarer i en virtuel verden. Mere konkret indebærer det, at vi følger de valg, der træffes, og de ikkemenneskelige aktører, der har betydning for at engagementet giver mening.

Valget af en verden er et første og afgørende skridt, som alle deltagere står overfor, når de engagerer sig i en virtuel verden. Set

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med aktørnetværksteoriens optik er det en af de afgørende forbindelser, der skabes mellem menneskelige og ikke-menneskelige aktører. Og begge parter spiller en aktiv rolle i skabelsen af disse forbindelser. Den valgte verden tilbyder en række potentialer i form af en digital tekst – et computerprogram – der kan anskues som en stabilisering af programmørers, udvikleres og designeres mange valg og visioner. I teknologiens form og indhold stabiliseres de mange valg, der er truffet, og forbindelser, der er skabt og manifesteret i en digital tekst, der kan aktualisere en metaforisk verden. Det muliggør, at mange forbindelser kan opstå, når denne tekst og den pågældende verden aktualiseres gennem de mange valg, der træffes i kraft af menneskelige aktørers engagement. Den digitale tekst og verden, og med den de mange teknologier der muliggør aktualiseringen, agerer som ikke-menneskelige aktører. Set på denne måde kan teknologien ses som midlertidigt stabiliserende mellemformer, der manifesterer mening skabt gennem valg og visioner, mens de på samme tid rummer et aktualiseringens potentiale for at ny mening kan skabes gennem nye valg og meningstilskrivning.

Den ”hårde” teknologi, der kan have form som en bærbar computer, møder os som en samlet enhed, der bærer dette stabilitetens præg.

Den manifesterer menneskelige meningstilskrivende valg og skaber betydning ved at give form til råstoffer som olie, silicium og kobber samt energi ved at lede elektricitet på bestemte måder og videre til deres formgivning ved hjælp af et utal af forskellige digitale tekster.

Den samlede enhed er med andre ord en flerhed, som træder tydeligt frem, når computeren ikke virker. Enhed og flerhed er lige så lidt modsætninger som den hårde teknologi er den ene side af en dikotomi, der har de bløde menneskelige valg og intentioner som den anden. De er forbindelser i aktørnetværk, hvor teknologi og menneskelig mening kobler sig og skaber de midlertidige stabiliseringer, som samtidig rummer aktualiseringens potentialer for at skabe ny mening. Det betyder, at dikotomier som fx teknologi versus menneske, faktisk versus fiktivt, virtuelt versus realt anskues med en sådan aktørnetværkenes optik. I det aktuelle studie har det blandt andet betydning for forståelsen af forholdet mellem det virtuelle og det reale – en forståelse der behandles nærmere i et efterfølgende afsnit af dette resumé.

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Den teoretiske optik peger med andre ord i retning af metoder, der fokuserer på menneskelige valg, potentialer og begrænsninger, som de optræder i forbindelser og forhold mellem menneskelige og ikkemenneskelige aktører. Og det empiriske materiale er fyldt med sådanne eksempler, der fremstår i en visualiseret form, så det er muligt at fastholde et blik på, hvordan disse samspil udfolder sig. Det mest oplagte eksempel er forbindelsen mellem aktører – indbyggere eller spillere – og deres avatarer. Afhandlingens videoanalytiske metode betyder, at visualiseringer hjælper med til at fastholde de mange forbindelser mellem fx aktør og avatar. Men der er også mange andre eksempler. Alle valg, visioner og intentioner fordrer således også i en virtuel verden, at aktører skaber sådanne forbindelser. Når en virtuel forretning bliver opbygget i og med design af en hel virtuel ø, så udgør designet en måde hvorpå et tænkt businesspotentiale aktualiseres i og med de mange forbindelser, der bliver skabt i aktørnetværk.

De mange forbindelser gør det nødvendigt at foretage en analytisk selektion, der kan give blikket en retning mod nogle forbindelser frem for andre. Det er opgaven for enhver metode. Men de valgte forbindelser skal tillige behandles på en given måde og fremstå i en særlig form. I denne afhandling formgives analysen ved hjælp af figuren et diagram (Appendiks, Figur 6). Den er en aktør, som forbinder udforskningen med forskeren. Og figuren bidrager tillige til at visualisere de mange forbindelser mellem deltagerne og deres aktiviteter, så ikke-menneskelige aktører bevarer deres plads i de billeder, der tegnes via empiriske analyser. Diagrammet er en analytisk inskription, der har direkte reference til Latour’s (1991) analyse af innovationsprocesser. Konkret anvender den empiriske analyse diagrammet som analytisk inskription, der har videoframes fra mange timers video interviews som byggesten. Den opbygges af enkelte snapshots, der forbindes i dekonstruerede storyboards og på basis heraf udpeges analysens keyframes. De er enkelte videoframes, som tilskrives analytisk betydning i og med de forbindelser, der opstår og visualiseres ved hjælp af diagrammet.

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SENSE-MAKING METAFOR En anden aktør i de empiriske analyser er trianglen (Appendiks, Figur 7). Den refererer til Brenda Dervin’s (2003) metaforiske skitse af meningstilskrivende sense-making processer. Skitsen viser i symbolsk form et triangulært mønster, der opererer med en triade af forbindelser mellem det levede liv i konkrete situationer, hvorved meningstilskrivninger, som kan give mening eller ikke give mening, aktualiseres samt de udfald heraf, som henholdsvis befordrer eller hæmmer en videre bevægelse i levet erfaring og historik. Det triangulære mønster hviler på en grundlæggende opfattelse, der sammenfattes i tesen om diskontinuitet. Ifølge denne tese er en konstant vekslen mellem kaos og orden et livsvilkår. Det, der fremtræder ordnet på et givet tidspunkt, kan i næste sekund vise sig kaotisk. Det triadiske mønsters meningstilskrivninger er derfor stillet overfor et vilkår, hvor der konstant opstår ”gaps”, som hindrer realisering af mening. ”Gapinesses” er sådanne forhindringer, som fordrer, at vi som mennesker finder veje til at overkomme gaps. ”Gap-bridging” er det begreb og den metafor, Dervin anvender til at betegne de meningstilskrivende aktiviteter, hvormed vi søger at håndtere diskontinuitet. Den metaforiske skitse i form af trianglen er anvendt som en analytisk inskription, der supplerer diagrammet, og sigtet med den er at skærpe opmærksomheden på de mange ”gapinesses”, der kan fremanalyseres i de empiriske studier.

”WORLD-MAKING” Forholdet mellem det virtuelle og fiktive og det såkaldt reale har været og er fortsat genstand for filosofisk diskussion. Da sigtet med afhandlingen er analytisk-empirisk bliver denne filosofiske diskussion ikke gjort til analytisk genstand som sådan. Da dikotomien imidlertid optræder hyppigt i både begrebsbrug, mediedækning og i akademiske tekster, er forståelsen af dette forhold gjort eksplicit gennem filosofisk reference. Det virtuelle og det reale anskues ofte som væsensforskellige – næsten som parallelle verdener – i vores sprogbrug og i vurderinger af, hvilken betydning det har, og kan få, at så mange mennesker vælger virtuelle verdener som en form for kommunikation og samvær. Begrebet real life – forkortet som ”rl” i gængs virtuelle verdeners sprogbrug – er det konkrete udtryk herfor.

Det virtuelle opfattes som det uvirkelige, dét, der ikke er en del af

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den reale verden, når det reale forstås som den fysiske verden, der anskues som det oprindelige, det autentiske og det virkelige. Denne forståelse af forholdet mellem det virtuelle og det reale problematiseres i afhandlingen både med udgangspunkt i umiddelbar empirisk observation og med reference til pragmatismens filosofiske refleksion og analyse.

Som kilde til nærmere at belyse dette forhold inddrages en af pragmatismens filosoffer, Nelson Goodman. I bogen ”Ways of World-making” (1978) introducerer og diskuterer han begrebet ”world-making” som udgangspunkt for at forstå modstillingen mellem forskellige verdener som fx den fysiske verden og æstetikkens verden. Æstetikkens verden kan synes lige så uvirkelig som det virtuelle versus det reale, ligesom kunstens verden kan anskues som uvirkelig i forhold til den fysiske verden. Disse opfattelser af det virkelige og uvirkelige problematiserer Goodman og diskuterer kritisk det filosofiske synspunkt, at den eneste reale verden er den fysiske.

Den reduktionistiske realisme anerkender, ifølge Goodman, kun den fysiske verden som real og dermed anskues symbolsk betydningsdannelse og meningstilskrivende valg som mindre virkelige og som en modsætning til den fysiske realisme. ”Worldmaking” begrebet er den vej ud af problemet, han foreslår. Det rummer i sig et skabende element og dermed et udsagn om, at verden er en konstant skabende proces, og at mange mulige verdener kan skabes. Med begrebet argumenterer han for en pluralistisk forståelse af verdensbegrebet og af hvilke verdener, der er reale. For at modvirke den rendyrkede relativisme, som disse opfattelser risikerer at føre til, introducerer han tillige et begreb om ”rightnesses”, der er en reference, som muliggør vurdering i forhold til en given referenceramme. En beskrivelse og forståelse af reale men fysiske verdener må forholde sig til et sæt af rightnesses – ikke alle beskrivelser og forståelser er lige gode. På tilsvarende vis må en beskrivelse og forståelse af reale men symbolske verdener, fx i æstetikken og kunsten, forholde sig til et sæt af rightnesses. Men de er tillige under skabende forandring. I bogen ”Fact, Fiction and Forecast” (1954) stiller Goodman sagen på spidsen. En given handling eller et udsagn kan anskues som et faktum men rummer i sig forestillingen om andre potentielle handlinger eller udsagn –

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fiktionens potentiale – og ikke mindst et forudsigelsens element. Kun i og med forudsigelsens symbolske potentialer er det muligt at handle i en form, der rækker ud over umiddelbare reaktioner uden tidsperspektiv. På den måde er det faktiske, det fiktive og forudsigelser alle en del af vores realiteter.

Som sagt er afhandlingens form og sigte et empirisk studie af forskellige former for engagement i virtuelle verdener, så en kritisk undersøgelse af den filosofiske diskussion af ”world-making” begrebet er ikke i sig selv et anliggende, men det giver grundlag for at forstå forholdet mellem det virtuelle og det såkaldt reale, og afhandlingens titel er da også en direkte refererence til Goodmans begreb og essay; det er centralt for den forståelse, der bærer studierne af de deltagende aktørers engagement og meningstilskrivende aktiviteter i virtuelle verdener.

METAFORIK De betydningspotentialer, som den grundlæggende digitale tekst (et computerprogram skrevet i det binære alfabet) manifesterer i form af en virtuel verden, aktualiseres i betydeligt omfang af metaforik, som er aktivt skabende symbolske og semiotiske figurer i deltagernes meningstilskrivende fortolkninger og aktiviteter. World-making har blandt andet metaforikkens form både begrebsligt, visuelt og spatialt.

For at manifestere et betydningspotentiale af fx ”worldlinesses” bringes metaforer i spil, som gør det muligt at forstå de(n) digitale tekst(er) som verdener men også at udnytte metaforikkens nyskabende potentialer. Når vi søger at forstå digitale tekster ved hjælp af vores begreb og forestilling om en verden, opstår der en fortolkningens reference, som muliggør, at der kan skabes ny forståelse af tekstens manifestationer. Metaforik spiller på den måde en aktiv rolle, når nye betydninger opstår, og virtuelle verdener myldrer med metaforer, hvorfor Mark Johnsons (1980) bidrag til vores forståelse heraf i og med værket ”The Body in the Mind” er en del af afhandlingens teoretiske referencer.

Vores begreb og forestilling om et landkort er et blandt mange mulige eksempler. Ved at fortolke en digitale tekst og dens placering på forskellige servere med visuel reference til et landkort skabes en

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forestilling om de tekstlige og teknologiske manifestationer som et potentiale for ”worldlinesses”. Serverplads fortolkes som øer i Second Life og som zoner af kontinenter og øer med vidt forskellige landskaber i EverQuest. Landkortets begrebslige og visuelle metaforik betjener sig af semiotiske referencer og aktualiserer de mange meningstilskrivende fortolkninger, som skaber en ny forståelse af den digitale tekst og dens teknologiske manifestationer. De giver blandt andet den ny forståelse form som en verden.

Det er således forestillingen om ”rl” som det reale, og det virtuelle som det fiktive og uvirkelige, der problematiseres; forestillingen om et parallelunivers ”ude i cyberspace” omgivet af en mytologi, der blander science fiction genrens forestillinger om andre planeter og universer befolket af cyborgs med dystopier om autensitetens og det naturliges undergang i og med narcissismens konstante optagethed af selvdesign, selviscenesættelse og identitet. Forestillingen om et ”second life”, en parallelverden, der er uvirkelig og fiktiv, finder kun i ringe grad genklang i afhandlingens empiriske studier. Det gør fiktionen derimod – vel at mærke forstået i Goodmans termer som symbolsk betydningsdannelse og meningsskabende aktivitet i æstetikkens og kunstens verden. Men virtuelle verdeners fiktion er som anden fiktion kombineret med ganske jordnære problemer, forpligtelser, opgaver og arbejde og en god del følt og konkret engagement, sjov og fornøjelser.

Forhåbentlig bidrager afhandlingens dybtgående empiriske studie til at nuancere vores forståelse af virtuelle verdener som nye former for kommunikation, aktivitet og medier. Drivkraften bag de empiriske studier skal findes her. Ganske jordnært følger vi de deltagende aktører i deres valg af verden, men ikke mindst i den måde hvorpå de formgiver og skaber deres verden i de mange processer, der er en del af world-making.

AVATARENS SEMIOSIS Mange valg og konkret formgivning skaber også avatarer. De kan anskues som visuelle metaforer, der gennem indeksikalsk reference – i en semiotisk betydning – skaber en fortolkning af fænomenet tilstedeværelse. Den visuelle ikonografi, som er en del af

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metaforikkens betydningstilskrivning, varierer. Den kan tage form af en grøn prik på et landkort, et rumskib eller som en prinsesse i en fabelagtig balkjole. I alle tilfælde er de tegn på tilstedeværelse.

Denne fortolkning af avatarer og deres betydnings- og meningstilskrivende potentiale har en anderledes accentuering sammenlignet med den fremherskende diskurs, der ser avatarer som et identitetsprojekt, som en repræsentant for den person der sidder ”bag” avataren i ”ly” af skærmen. I værket ”Designing Virtual Worlds” sammenfatter spildesigneren Richard Bartle (2004) sin mangeårige erfaring med MUDs og MUs og sidenhen de virtuelle verdener i udsagnet ”Its all about identity.” Denne opfattelse sættes til diskussion i afhandlingen. Den udbredte opfattelse af avataren som et identitetsprojekt diskuteres, idet den social-psykologiske og sociologiske forståelse anskues som en blandt mange andre, hvor avataren refererer til en fortolkning af tilstedeværelse anskuet ud fra en semiotisk optik. Set på denne måde kan en avatar indgå i mange forskellige former for tilstedeværelse, hvor konteksten ikke primært eller nødvendigvis er et identitetsprojekt.

I de empiriske studier er der flere eksempler på at tilstedeværelsen kan have til formål at drive en virksomhed eller at eksperimentere med nye former for kommunikation. Og i mange tilfælde forstås avataren i sammenhæng med de visioner, formål, intentioner og projekter, som tilstedeværelsen er en del af. Identitetsprojekter kan naturligvis anskues som en del af enhver menneskelig aktivitet lige fra køb af spisestuemøblement til valg af frisure og derfor også som en del af valg og formgivning af avatarer. Men de nævnte aktiviteter er tillige en del af andre aktiviteter og fortolkninger, intentioner og formål. Lidt paradoksalt giver den meget brede identitetsopfattelse kun mulighed for en begrænset forståelse. I afhandlingen er semiotikken derfor inddraget som et teoretisk potentiale til at forstå avatarer på en måde, der i højere grad ser disse som en del af betydningsdannelse og meningstilskrivning. Avatarens semiosis diskuteres således med udgangspunkt i en fænomenologisk fortolkning inspireret af Charles S. Peirce’s (1907) begreber om firstness (førstehed), secondness (andethed) og thirdness (tredjehed).

Også andre bidrag til en semiotisk fortolkning er inddraget; det drejer

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sig især om Winfried Nöths (2009) seneste artikel om semiotik og intelligente maskiner.

Den semiotiske forståelse af avatarer anvendes som udgangspunkt for at analysere aktiviteter set i relation til valg af avatarer, og de empiriske analyser af valg af verden, avatar, sociale relationer og personligt udtryk afsøger forbindelser mellem engagementets umiddelbare kvaliteter som fx følelser og sansekvaliteter (firstnesses), de dynamikker af bestræbelse og modstand, som er led i instantiering af kvaliteter i form af aktualisering (secondnesses), og endelig de unikke referencer som realiserer disse aktualiseringer (thirdnesses). I sådanne analyser anskues avataren derfor som en interpretant, der skaber tredjehedens partikularitet, det unikke, gennem referencer til førstehedens sansekvaliteter og perception, tillige med andethedens instantieringer, der aktualiserer disse gennem bestræbelse og modstand. Set på denne måde er avataren en ikke-menneskelig aktør i semiosens kompleks af forbindelser og fortolkninger i aktørnetværk.

I afhandlingen bliver den semiotiske forståelse af avatarens triadiske tegnrelationer systematisk gennemført på alle de deltagende aktører, avatarer og de valgte cases.

Denne fortolkning af avataren som semiosens interpretant fører ikke til at den tætte tilknytning mellem person og avatar negligeres men foreslår, at identitetsrelationen suppleres med en relation, der anskuer avataren som en ledsager, en ven, en følgesvend (companion) – en relation, der er baseret på et ”companionship”.

Den tætte tilknytning mellem person og avatar kan på den måde ses som andet end en spejling og udforskning af identitet, hvad enten det er en spejling baseret på lighed eller forskel. Companionship fortolkningen har sin parallel i Sherry Turkle’s (2006) begreb ”companionate object,” der bygger på hendes forskning i relationer mellem mennesker og robotter som formidlet i hendes seneste publikationer, bl.a. i bogen om intelligente robotter og sociale medier (2011). Hun sammenfatter sin forståelse i udsagnet: ”We attach to what we nurture.” Hvis avataren forstås som en ledsager, en ”companion”, der er skabt og formgivet gennem mange valg og meningstilskrivninger, så er den analytiske psykologis tilknytningsteorier en nærliggende reference. Denne forståelse er ikke

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yderligere forfulgt inden for rammerne af denne afhandling, men den er et oplagt emne for videre teoretisk og empirisk udforskning.

I analyserne viser der sig en tendens til, at avatarerne gennemløber en proces af selvstændiggørelse, som blandt andet bunder i en udviklingshistorik. Over tid får avataren en egenbetydning, der bl.a. refererer til de relationer, kulturer, projekter og formål, som udvikler sig med tiden. Med avataren DC Aspen som sin ledsager kan en af det empiriske studies aktører, Thomas, agere som forretningsmand, og som sådan må han tilpasse sig den kultur, de normer, de relationer, der skaber potentialet for DC Aspens handlinger; han må blandt andet opretholde et godt omdømme og renommé. Set på denne måde er relationen mellem person og avatar, mellem Thomas og DC Aspen, gensidigt, idet DC Aspen virker tilbage på Thomas på en sådan måde, at det bliver muligt at aktualisere en vision om at skabe sig et levebrød i Second Life. Avataren bliver med andre ord en agent for forandring.

Men hvilken betydning har det, om vi forstår en avatar som et identitetsprojekt, som en ven og personlig ledsager eller som en forandringsagent?

Vores forståelse har indflydelse på de potentialer, der kan aktualiseres.

Hvis engagementet primært fortolkes som identitetsprojekter, er det nærliggende at anskue det som et ungdomsfænomen; måske endda som et lidt umodent engagement.

Det mister til en vis grad sin seriøsitet. Sådanne fortolkninger spiller med andre ord ind på, hvordan aktører, der fx søger at etablere en virksomhed, ser sig selv, men ikke mindst, hvordan de opfattes af andre.

EPIRISKE ANALYSER DELTAGENDE AKTØRER OG CASES De empiriske studier, som behandles i afhandlingen, strækker sig over perioden 2005 til 2009, og der er tale om kvalitative studier af få men nøje udvalgt deltagende aktører, som det har været muligt at følge over tid for at iagttage, hvorledes deres engagement udvikler sig, om og hvordan det ophører. De anvendte metoder spænder fra

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observation af websteder for dedikerede online communities, litteraturstudier, etnografisk inspireret deltagende observation, video interviews samt samarbejde med deltagerne i konkrete projekter.

Studierne af EverQuest starter i 2005 og 2006 og Second Life kommer til som empirisk felt i slutningen af 2006. Deltagerne i henholdsvis EverQuest og Second Life studierne er valgt ved brug af forskellige fremgangsmåder. For EverQuests vedkommende har undersøgelser på nettet af de fællesskaber, der udvikler sig i tilknytning til spillene kombineret med litteraturstudier, ført til, at 4 cases er valgt ud fra et ønske om at skabe variation i eksemplerne.

Der er en ung ”ekspert,” Martin, en dedikeret rollespiller, som browser mellem masserollespillene, som bliver i det samme spil nogle måneder – længe nok til at være med i store projekter, missioner og guilds for derefter at begive sig videre nærmest som på en opdagelsesrejse. Han åbner det vanskeligt overskuelige felt af masserollespil for mig og giver en nøgle til de mange websteder og blogs, der ellers kan være vanskelige at forstå for en ”udenforstående.” Eksperten Martin er en del af de empiriske studier i peroden 2005 og 2006.

I 2004 publiceres et survey-studie af spillere i masserollespillet Lineage. Det identificerer forskelle i spille- og livsstil. En hovedforskel synes at gå mellem single- og fællesskabsorienterede spillere og denne forskel bliver afgørende for de videre valg. I løbet af 2006 og 2007 lykkes det at få aftaler i stand med en EverQuest spiller, der er en udpræget singlespiller, og et par, der er fællesskabsorienterede spillere i guildet Draconic Guardians, men de har vidt forskellig spillestil. På den måde kan flere forskellige aspekter indgå i Draconic Guardians case studiet – fællesskabsorienteret spille- og livsstil, der er vidt forskellige.

Deltagerne er fulgt i åbne, kvalitative video interviews in situ på de steder og tider, hvor de plejer at spille, og mens de er engagerede i EverQuest aktiviteter så som quests, missioner, kampe mod frygtelige monstre, produktion af fødevarer, bagning og fremstilling af medicinflasker, gift og bryg samt handel på EverQuest basaren. Men også i de forhold til hinanden og andre spillere der udvikler sig i kraft

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af de længerevarende engagementer, det fordrer at blive en kyndig spiller i et masserollespil som EverQuest.

I Second Life har udvælgelsen formet sig anderledes. Fra januar 2007 til marts 2008 er aktiviteter i Second Life blevet fulgt gennem etnografisk inspirerede deltagende observationsstudier. I løbet af perioden ændrer studiets forskerrolle sig fra observatør til engageret deltager i projekter, aktiviteter, design og fornøjelser. Og det lykkes herigennem at identificere cases af relevans for de empiriske studier.

Det drejer sig om tre cases: de to virksomheder Wonder DK og Times samt public service projektet Literary. De er alle danske, et valg der er begrundet i praktiske muligheder for at gennemføre opfølgende video interviews, men også fordi Second Life er en verden med så vidt forskellige steder og projekter, visioner og formål, at det kan være nødvendigt at afgrænse feltet for bedre at kunne vurdere forskelle. Motivationen er således ikke primært national, men afgrænsningen har en praktisk og systematisk begrundelse. Mange andre internationale steder og projekter har da også været en del af observationerne, og flere af disse har tillige indebåret deltagelse i deres aktiviteter. Det gælder fx Metanomics og Second Life Shakespeare Company, som begge er fulgt især i 2008.

Gennem de indledende feltstudier er tre vidt forskellige former for engagement i Second Life blevet udvalgt som en del af analyserne og video interviews. Det drejer sig om ”nybygger”øen og virksomheden Wonder DK, ”nomade”-virksomheden Times og ”debat”-projektet Literary. Alle cases er blevet fulgt over tid fra start til deres afslutning.

ANALYTISKE FOKI Video interviewene er produceret og analyseret med sigte på fem foki: ”Co-construction”, ”Mediators”, ”Relationships”, ”Expressions of self” og ”Navigation.” Deltagernes valg af verden er allerede omtalt som et væsentligt analytisk felt, og det gælder tillige for valget af avatar. I EverQuest analyserne følges især gnomen Gnossiz, shamanen Gelinu og trolden Krongh, og i Second Life gælder det forretningsmanden DC Aspen, den omrejsende reklameplakat og maskot Helle, designeren Rob og kommunikatøren Alice. Forholdet til andre aktører – mennesker og avatarer – er også et væsentligt

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fokus: I virksomheden Wonder DK er konkurrencen med andre Second Life virksomheder et tema af betydning, mens ”networking” er gennemgående for Times. I Literary udvikler projektet sig til at være et mødested for kritiske debatter om virtuelle verdener som nye medier; debatter mellem deltagere der alle er fra den samme profession. Analysen af selvopfattelser viser, hvordan deltagernes engagement i virtuelle verdener og deres avatarer skaber personlige forandringer, som både har betydning for deres selvopfattelse og for deres virkefelter. Spørgsmålet om, hvordan deltagernes engagement i de virtuelle verdener integreres og bliver en del af deres dagligdag, hvordan de navigerer mellem de mange forskellige situationer og aktiviteter i hverdagslivet, er tillige et fokus. Herunder ikke mindst spørgsmålet om, hvad der får deltagerne til at ophøre med deres engagement.

”REVERSED STORYBOARDING” Den tekstlige fremstilling af de empiriske analyser er suppleret med visuelle beskrivelser. De er en del af det analytiske arbejde og tjener ikke blot som illustrationer. Forskningsfeltets karakter kan kun vanskeligt analyseres uden andre kildetyper end tekstlige. De visuelle data har derfor været afgørende kilder til analyserne. De mange videooptagelser fra interviewene er bearbejdet med annotationer, således at det samlede materiale er annoteret. Der er ikke udvalgt enkelte sekvenser, uden at den samlede sammenhæng er annoteret og visuelt beskrevet. Disse visuelle beskrivelser er tilvejebragt gennem ”reversed storyboarding.” Denne metode vender den almindelige brug af storyboards på hovedet i den forstand, at materialet beskrives og analyseres, således at storyboards dekomponeres og ”re”komponeres ud fra videooptagelserne. De består af enkelte video keyframes og snapshots.

Bearbejdningen er foregået i fire processer: Først er snapshots blevet genereret automatisk med et interval på 500 millisekunder. Ud fra dette materiale er alle de enkelte videoframes gennemgået og et systematisk sample af snapshots er udvalgt på en sådan måde, at det repræsenterer videooptagelserne som helhed. Derved opstår en ”beskrivelse”, som gør det muligt at få et visuelt overblik og helhedsbillede af videomatarialet. Som det tredje skridt er sekvenser

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og situationer af særlig relevans for den empiriske analyse identificeret, hvorefter de tilknyttede snapshots er udvalgt og sammensat i 76 storyboards, der belyser de analytiske foki: ”coconstruction”, ”mediators” og ”relationships”. Af hensyn til respekten for deltagernes anonymitet er det fjerde og femte fokus ”expression of self” og ”navigation” præsenteret uden den visuelle beskrivelse i storyboards. Endelig er der udvalgt et keyframe fra hvert storyboard.

Disse keyframes er kildematerialet til 19 analytiske inskriptioner, der er baseret på aktørenetværksteoriens diagram og sense-making metodologiens triangel (se ovenfor) og dermed er de grundlag for de empiriske analyser.

Den beskrevne metode har Grounded Theory Method som sin inspiration, men den søger at fortolke denne i forhold til video som analytisk kildemateriale. ”Reversed storyboarding” er meget arbejdsintensiv, men metoden er båret af ideen om at gøre videomaterialet analytisk og ikke blot illustrativt aktivt. Selektion er en forudsætning for empirisk analyse, men det er væsentligt, at selektionen metodisk kan følges og dokumenteres. De arbejdsintensive og noget omstændelige processer, der er beskrevet ovenfor, imødekommer disse krav til metode.

19 BERETNINGER I og med grafiske figurer, der sammenfatter de valgte video keyframes fra analysens storyboards, fortælles 19 historier om de deltagende aktørers engagement i virtuelle verdener. Historierne visualiserer deltagernes personlige erfaringer, og de viser forandringspotentiale og meningstilskrivning, som forbinder de menneskelige aktører med deres avatarer i sociale relationer og netværk, men nok så væsentligt viser de også, hvordan avataren virker tilbage på sin menneskelige ledsager og ejer. Historierne beretter således om personlig historik, som er unik, men med konkrete eksempler på forandringspotentiale og meningstilskrivning i engagementet med de valgte virtuelle verdener. Men de omhandler også de mange barrierer, der i sidste ende fører til, at engagement og projekter må ophøre.

Martin undersøger nysgerrigt mange forskellige online masserollespil og verdener og sætter en ære i at opbygge ekspertviden. Han har

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ikke en fast avatar men forbliver i de enkelte spil længe nok til at deltage i opbygning af store kongeriger, venskaber, status, og til at opleve følelsen af frihed til at udføre store bedrifter, som ellers ikke ligger indenfor det muliges rækkevidde. De mange verdener og de valgte avatarer forandrer Martin fra gymnasieelev til ekspert. Jan er en single-spiller, som sætter en ære i at klare sig på egen hånd, som en ’loner’ der er god til at overleve alene i kraft af sin duelighed, smartness og intelligens. Det manifesterer sig i og med avataren Gnossiz, som aktualiserer Jans potentiale til at forandre sig fra bistandsmodtager, der lever på samfundets marginaler, til en klog, intelligent og vidende aktør og avatar, der kan brillere ved at hjælpe andre spillere med at dechifrere spillet og dets quests. Janus og Sia er fællesskabsorienterede spillere, der organiserer og leder et lille ’familie’guild Draconic Guardians. De har begge en idealistisk vision om at skabe et solidarisk fællesskab, hvor alle deles om goder og værdier og tager gensidigt ansvar. Men deres spillestil er meget forskellig. Avataren Krongh, der skal spilles med ’finesse’, gør det muligt for Janus at indleve sig i fantasiens verden men også at forandre sig fra lærerstuderende til organisator og planlægger af missioner. Shamanen Gelinu forbinder Sia med guildet Draconic Guardians som dets leder, der varetager de overordnede ledelsesopgaver med sigte på værdier som solidaritet og lighed.

Second Life projektet Wonder DK er en virtuel ejendomsmæglerforretning, der udlejer butikker. Den er formet som en mini-verden med en provinsby, der blandt andet remedierer byen Korsbæk fra TV-serien Matador, et landligt landskab, marker, en havn og meget andet. Ejendomsmægleren DC Aspen er Thomas’ avatar, der giver ham mulighed for at forsøge sig som iværksætter og entrepreneur med en vision om at kunne leve af den virtuelle virksomhed. DC Aspen aktualiserer på denne måde en forandring fra Thomas tidligere arbejde som programmør til nu at drive egen virksomhed og arbejde som sælger. Virksomheden Times er en virtuel afdeling af en eksisterende international virksomhed, der arbejder med rekruttering og vikararbejde. Den virtuelle afdeling er startet af en af HR-konsulenterne for at eksperimentere med nye former for rekruttering. Avataren Helle, der er en sjov og opsigtsvækkende figur, aktualiserer Helles (avatarnavn og eget navn

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er identiske) potentiale for at opbygge udbredte netværk med sigte på videndeling – endog sammen med virksomhedens konkurrenter. Med hjælp fra sin avatar driver hun en egen virksomhed og kan forfølge egne ideer, værdier og indfald. Literary er et projekt i en offetlig institution. Det bygger på en vision om at gøre de virtuelle verdener tilgængelige for en bred offentlighed. Derfor eksperimenterer Mads og Janne med at skabe og designe et virtuelt sted sammen med andre interesserede. Det viser sig vanskeligere end forventet, og projektet tager derfor en drejning. I stedet bliver det et ugentligt mødested for avatarer af den samme profession, som benytter møderne til kritiske diskussioner om, hvorvidt det giver mening at bruge de virtuelle verdener med professionelt sigte og i givet fald hvordan. Avataren Rob giver Mads mulighed for at forsøge sig som designer og debattør, mens Alice forbinder Janne med projektet Literary som en kommunikatør, der søger ekstraordinære og psykedeliske oplevelser.

ENGAGEMENTETS TEORI De mange måneders intensive arbejde med video interviewenes enorme antal videoframes og snapshots betyder, at deltagerne, deres aktiviteter, udsagn og omgivelser, står meget klart for et indre blik – som indre billeder. Timerne i selskab med snapshots af deltagernes ansigtsudtryk, udstråling, gestik, følelser og omgivelser betyder, at nye analytiske temaer er opstået undervejs i processen. Temaer som ikke oprindeligt var en del af forskningsdesignet. Det gælder i særlig grad for fænomenet engagement. De indre billeder af kildematerialet viser igen og igen de mange følelser, der er involveret, og det engagement der præger deltagerne. Engagementets teori og fænomenologi er derfor et analytisk tema, som er vokset ud af videoanalyserne. Spørgsmålet om, hvordan oplevelsen af engagement kan beskrives og forstås, er derfor også gjort til genstand for en kort analyse i afhandlingen, men det er et forskningstema, som kalder på videre empirisk udforskning. Alle deltagerne i de empiriske studier er båret af visioner og dermed et stort engagement i deres projekter, hvad enten det drejer sig om at skabe et guild baseret på høje idealer eller drive en iværksættervirksomhed. Og et stort engagement rummer i sig et forandringspotentiale.

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ENGLISH SUMMARY OVERALL QUESTION One of the first lessons learned in my study of virtual worlds from 2002 to 2009 was that the stereotypes of the actors, the gamers of the advanced role-playing games like EverQuest and World of Warcraft or the residents of the social worlds like Second Life or Active Worlds, are precisely that—stereotypes. The gamers and residents are not predominantly young and socially isolated men, nor are the residents friendless adults who are addicted to the games as public discussions would lead us to believe. Instead during my research I met youngsters, married couples and grandparents, often well educated, in work, and with a predominance of women in a social world like Second Life. 333 It is difficult to find exact information about the number of the inworld gamers and residents in social worlds, but with reference to the studies done so far, it is reasonable to say that living a life in an online world attracts a broad range of age groups, professions and educational backgrounds from both sexes. The actors enter the worlds with a diversity of motivations including the desire to build social relationships, create and design digital environments and artefacts, experience and have fun, run a business, conquer other worlds and form new kingdoms, organise music events, fight dangers and threats, and lead and manage other actors.334

333

Fetscherin & Latteman 2007, Griffiths et al. 2003, Schroeder 2002, Steinkuehler 2006, Whang & Chang 2004, Williams et al.2008, Yee 2006.

Analyses of early MMORPGs such as EverQuest and Lineage have inspired not only the content of my studies, but also the selection of my cases.

334 See the Daedalus project.

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As the diversities of these engagements emerged through my initial studies, a simple question gradually became a recurring motif and question: In what ways do actors make sense of engaging with virtual worlds? This is the overall question which I have set out to answer.

To do so, I have met actors with their avatars and followed them to see what they are doing and to learn about why it makes sense to engage the way they do. With my video camera, I have sat next to the actors and video recorded them while discussing their online activities in the virtual worlds.335 The video interviews took place in several steps while actors engaged with their chosen worlds. Later on while studying the thousands of micro-moments of my video recordings, images and experiences from the virtual worlds became the images of my mind as well as the data of my study.

In selecting worlds to study I was influenced by the work of my fellow researchers in their studies of the massively multi-user online role-playing game of EverQuest. 336 Despite the amount of research already published I decided to study actors’ engagements with this world: first, EverQuest was chosen at an early stage of study in 2005, because it was one of the first large online role-playing games introduced to the market, which meant that communities of committed gamers had already evolved. To enter these communities and to follow some of their actors and gamers over time helped me select cases for further study. Second, the aim of study is to follow the actors in micro-moment studies of sense-making rather than to study the game itself. Third, other researchers have contributed knowledge about quite different aspects of the world of EverQuest, which my study could then supplement. My early study of virtual worlds from 2002 to 2004 was centred on the 3D Agora-world in Active Worlds. This social world is built of user-generated content and aimed at social relationships, in a similar way to Second Life. By choosing to study EverQuest, I could study engagement with a different kind of online world.

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In chapter 3 I will deal with this method in more detail.

See e.g. Castronova 2001, 2005, Delwiche 2006, Griffiths et al. 2004a, 2004b, Taylor 2002, 2006; Yee, 2006b.

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Alongside the studies of EverQuest my interest increasingly turned to the world of Second Life. In Denmark in the autumn of 2006 and the beginning of 2007, there was a public breakthrough in the awareness of Second Life. The press coverage—often media hype followed by anti-hype—had encouraged entrepreneurs, big businesses and public institutions to enter the world. It was almost unavoidable for me not to do the same. I had to follow this development and entered Second Life in late 2006,337 with a view to studying that world.

INTERPRETIVE UNDERSTANDING In 2005, when the decision was made to continue my ongoing research on virtual worlds, a knowledge base already existed and major research projects like Nick Yee’s Daedalus project338 had been initiated. It had been shown that the virtual worlds could exist over time and not merely as popular phenomena for a short period.

Already then, the game designers’ strategies had developed in such a way as to maintain the players’ and participants’ interest over long periods of time. With this development, a historical approach became relevant with reference to interpretive methodology, constructivist epistemology and actor-network theory. The actornetwork theory has a focus of interest on the relations between actors, who are the human agents of history, and technologies and artefacts, which are seen as the non-human actors of such developments. Thus, this analytical strategy emphasises that technology and artefacts are not just passive conditions of human agency to be manipulated but they also act as agents and stabilisers of agency and transformation. They are active agents and actants, which affect historical development.

With this approach some outlines of the research field can be drawn.

Taking an interpretive stance means that the questions asked deal with the participating actors’ experience and understanding of their engagement with the worlds. In particular, the sense-making triangle

337

The early history of Second Life and the Linden Lab firm is dealt with by Au 2008 and Malaby 2009.

338 www. Nickyee.com/index-daedalus.html, retrieved 010711.

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metaphor makes the interpretive approach operational. 339 Also, the metaphor of a diagram has guided the analysis of connections between human and non-human actors in the actor-networks of human agency. 340 This diagrammatic inscription is one of the analytical stabilisers of the many translations that make the connections of actor networks tangible and visible. These analytical inscriptions act as the stabilisers of the empirical analyses and they represent a temporary metaphorical stabilisation.

To exemplify this, let me further introduce the diagram. The content of the diagrammatic inscription is the fluidity of human intentions, visions, relations, expectations and aims of the engagement with virtual worlds supported by the non-human actors and actants that help stabilise this fluidity. In the diagram the fluidity of human interpretation and the non-human stabilisers hereof are denoted programs. 341 But programs always involve many counteracting programs, such as barriers, gapinesses and hindrances, which are denoted anti-programs. The actors meet these anti-programs while acting in and with actor-networks. These fluid processes are in a constant flow and connections are formed and continuously dissolved, translated and transformed such as the expectations and forms of engagement with an online world like EverQuest. The world of EverQuest itself also changes and so does the way in which actors engage with it, the relationships, which they form in groups and guilds and the agency they enact. In order to deal with this fluidity, flux and flow, as human actors we reach out for support as provided by non-human actors and actants, be they the words that communicate, the emoticons that show feelings in a chat, the avatars 342 that refer to online presence, the monsters of EverQuest which enforce on us dangers to be dealt with or the many game quests to be solved. They are intermediary stabilisers, which enable

339

Dervin 2003, p. 238.

Latour 1998, p. 255.

341 Latour 1998/1991. This notion of “program” is inspired by structural semantics and A. J. Greimas concept “narrative program.”

342 From an actor-network theoretical perspective, the avatar may be seen as an active agent or actant that helps stabilise the fluidity of the social relations in virtual worlds like EverQuest and Second Life.

340

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our human agency and the relationships of the many connections that drive the dynamics of actor-networks. The diagrammatic inscription is one such stabiliser that draws on earlier semiotic inscriptions as it refers to syntagmatic and paradigmatic analyses343 only now translated into an actor-network analysis. This inscription and metaphor therefore enable an interpretation of how visions, ideas and programs of the engagement with virtual worlds and the counteracting hindrances and anti-programs are connected by the actor-networks that make the human actors’ agency and engagement.

Together the diagram and the triangle shape and focus the empirical analysis of 19 ways of engaging with virtual worlds. These analyses and narratives do not aim to generate typologies or suggest models whereas the qualitative study seeks to flesh out and understand the uniquenesses, particularities and diversity of the actors’ engagement.

The 19 compositions are at the core of the empirical analysis. They contribute to the overall question as introduced above and do so by addressing five foci of analysis: the actors’ choices of worlds and avatars, their building of social relationships and expressions of self, and the navigation of everyday life comprising their engagement with virtual world-making.

As the study gradually progressed, questions about how to understand the engagement and attachment between actor and avatar came to the foreground of analytical interest as the prevailing understanding of avatars as figures of identity and representation of the actors in front of the screen increasingly appeared to delimit rather than deepen our understanding. No doubt the focus on avatars as a means of identity-making and self-construal has made important contributions to our understanding but we also run the risk of missing important points. Therefore a shift of focus to supplement the many studies concerned with identity is suggested with reference to semiotic theory. The conclusion of a semiotic analysis of avatars suggests that we may also see the avatars as companions. With reference to Sherry Turkle’s notion of companionate objects (2006,

343

Latour 1991, p. 110.

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2011), this idea of a companionship between actor and avatar seems to be a promising analytical understanding, which needs to be subject to further empirical study.

In the empirical analysis engagement is thoroughly emphasised as important to our understanding of virtual world-making. However, I did not realise until late in the analytical process that this notion and concept should also be subject to theoretical analysis. The notion of engagement was almost taken for granted even if it proved of analytical importance. This awareness grew out of questions about how to understand the participating actors’ deep felt involvement with their world-making. The widely held understanding of this as a sense of immersion was questioned as it appeared to be a notion and understanding which underemphasised the active and participatory aspects of the actor’s involvement. Engagement is therefore investigated from a theoretical point of view in this dissertation and it is part of the concluding reflections as are the semiotic analysis of avatars.

MULTIPLICITIES AND UNIQUENESSES The historical and interpretive approach also entails an analytical interest in the diversities and the multiplicities of these engagements.

From a historical point of view, specific and situated enactments are at the centre of interest. Thus, I have not primarily looked for generalisable factors and common threads rather it has been my ambition to describe and understand in-depth the way chosen actors’ engagements are enacted over time.

The main trend of research conducted so far aims to understand the relatively new phenomena of virtual worlds with respect to covering the field of research as generalisable as possible.344 Nick Yee’s factor analysis (2006, 2008) of motivations is one such example. In general, the statistical generalisation of his analysis should enable us to understand some of the motivations of actors’ engagement but it does not in-depth address particularities and uniquenesses. From his 344

Taylor’s research from 2006 is an example of a different and ethnographic approach.

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research we can learn a lot about the distribution of a few factors. In return these few factors help us to see a generalisable distribution covering a large population. Often, such analysis can be compared to a still picture, metaphorically speaking, allowing us to see a picture at a certain point in time. Motivations, expectations, sensemakings, ideas, agency and enactments, however, change and transform over time. To cover some of these changes, in the present qualitative study the actors’ engagement with their virtual worlds is followed over time for the EverQuest as well as the Second Life cases. In iterations of qualitative video interviews online and offline, participatory observation, follow up talks and collaboration with some of the actors of the cases, in-depth studies show almost literally, the diversities, particularities and uniquenesses of the actors’ engagement.

In this way, I hope to contribute in-depth studies with a historical view to supplement the quantitative studies that have contributed valuable knowledge to our understanding of the new phenomena.

Yet qualitative in-depth studies like these can only cover a small sample. However, this sample enables us to see myriads of instances of social relationships, communication, advanced technologies, economic agency, educational projects and cultural events, all of which are instances that contribute to our understanding of the lives as lived and the associations and cultures as enacted in the virtual worlds in the early years of the 21st century.

Moreover, with the in-depth views of micro-moments of lived experience345 and being, I also hope to contribute examples of the personal history of actors with their avatars, not mainly from a psychological viewpoint but with reference to theories of metaphors, semiosis and communication theory. One of the consequences of this approach is that specific places and projects have been chosen for the case studies. I do not think of my studies in terms of covering EverQuest and Second Life as such but rather as instances and examples of human engagement with virtual worlds. Within the

345

Dervin 2003, p. 241. Micro-moments are described as Time-Line steps taken in a course of action and sense-making.

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same world, there are profound differences between the ways in which actors have chosen to engage, to enact their presence and projects, and to design their places. As I see it, covering the worlds per se makes no sense as I seek to understand some of the diversities and particularities.

VIDEO ANALYSIS To conduct the in-depth case studies, a video analytical approach and method has been chosen. This approach and method has been developed over time and originates from the early technology studies at Xerox Parc Palo Alto, 346 which were inspired by ethnomethodology. With this approach, social interaction is seen as organised by humans as well as by artefacts. The analytical points made are that the arrangements of rooms, places and the use of artefacts, such as furniture, structure and organise the way we interact and relate. From this video analytical viewpoint, the reorganisation of rooms, artefacts and technologies can be seen as signifiers of reorganisations made in human relations. When seen in this way, patterns of social interaction and dialogue, such as turntakings and the start and ending of situations, are very often followed or initiated by the reorganisation of artefacts and technology, which is why such reorganisations are of analytical interest. Of equal interest are breakdown situations, when things, technology, interaction and dialogue no longer works.

Over the years, the video analytical approach and method has been further developed through my studies of networked communication and learning and in studies of knowledge sharing among IT system developers and programmers. 347 One of the most important contributions to this further development comes from visual anthropology and ethnography, in particular the emphasis on ways of seeing,348 which has inspired my practice. Just as we are trained to conduct interviews as researchers likewise it is important to be able

346

Jordan & Henderson 1994.

Jensen 2005.

348 Grimshaw 2001, 2005.

347

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to produce video data which entails understanding how to see and not only how to ask. I have not yet found the way to do it so this study experiments with the further development of video analysis.

One such experiment is the selection of the visual metaphors of video keyframes. In the empirical analysis, the steps taken by the actors to realise their visions and programs of engagement with virtual worlds are referred to and pinpointed by single video frames.

The important point is that they help visualise the non-human actors and actants. The video keyframes do not only serve the purpose of illustration but the identification, selection and choice of these keyframes are the stepping stones for the analysis.

Thousands upon thousands of images and snapshots have been selected and the analysis is enacted in a process of reversed storyboarding, which means using the video recordings to create storyboards by decomposition of the video recordings. This leads to the selection of a few video keyframes. In the reversed storyboarding and selection of video keyframes, the analysis is inspired by the sense-making triangle, the actor-network diagram and also by the foci of ethnomethodology as mentioned. Thus the video keyframes have helped me realise my ambition of contributing an interpretive understanding of virtual worlds without losing track of the nonhuman actors and actants that stabilise and organise the many ways of engaging with virtual worlds like EverQuest and Second Life.

ORGANISATION OF THE DISSERTATION I begin the analysis with reflections on what is a world and how I understand the virtual worlds as such in chapter 2: Virtual worldmaking. This understanding has gradually crystallised in the process of working intensely with the data from video interviews. The concentrate of these processes is expressed by the notions of worldmaking and metaphoricity.

In chapter 3: Engaging with research, the methodology and the two inscriptions, the metaphors of the triangle and the diagram, are introduced. The empirical approach and the video analytical method address different ways of seeing with an oligoptic and panoptic

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vantage point and questions about singularity and multiplicities as relevant to the analysis These methodological reflections are then followed by chapter 4: Production of data in which the composition of the empirical field, the questions asked, the cases chosen and a timeline are introduced.

Following this, the method of participatory observations is presented together with the findings from these observations in the shape of 37 tableaux. In this way, the method as applied is discussed alongside the presentation of the findings. Also, in this chapter, the video analytical method of video interviews is introduced and the chapter is closed with some reflections on method.

Chapter 5: Co-construction is the first of five chapters which cover the empirical analysis. In this chapter, EverQuest and similar games are briefly dealt with as seen through the eyes of some of the actors. I also examine the choices they have made to co-construct and make sense of their being in the virtual worlds of EverQuest and Second Life through description and analysis. The description is documented by quotes from the video interviews whereas the analysis is organised around selected video keyframes. In each of the chapters the analysis begins with the actors’ interpretation of situations of engaging with the EverQuest world followed by the Second Life cases. Some narratives have also been chosen for each of the chapters covering the empirical analysis. The narrative of chapter 5 is: 1. Star Wars Galaxies, 2. An Evil Landlord.

In chapter 6: Mediators, the many choices that the actors have made in the sense-making processes of creating and developing their avatars are described and analysed. The outline of this chapter follows the same organisation of content as in the previous chapter.

The narrative of this chapter is: 3. A Busy Shaman.

In EverQuest the relationships between actors and their avatars are organised around guilds and missions, and in Second Life the cases chosen are about the relationships formed as part of projects and businesses. These are some of the many agencies followed in chapter 7: Relationships. Again the outline of the chapter follows the two previous chapters of empirical analysis. In this chapter the narratives

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are: 4. Fighting Mobs, 5. Pioneering Spirit, and 6. Creative Media Maker.

The analysis in chapter 8: Expressions of self differs from the previous three in the sense that it respects the participating actors’ basic need for privacy. This means that only few video keyframes are selected to make the analysis. Therefore, it mainly relies on the reflections as verbally expressed in the video interviews. In this chapter, the actors express the way they see themselves as part of the chosen worlds and in relation to other actors with their avatars. The narratives are: 7.

Fascination, and 8. Spacy Bubbles.

Chapter 9: Navigation deals with the way in which actors navigate their everyday life including the part of it as enacted in their chosen virtual worlds. The need to respect the actors’ privacy again means that video keyframes have been omitted from the presentation of the analysis. The narratives of this chapter are: 9. Living and Playing Together, 10. A Magic Avatar, and 11. A Salesman’s Experience.

In chapter 10 Synthesis of the analysis, the analysis of the previous five chapters are synthesised with respect to some of the similarities and differences.

With an outset in this synthesis, in chapter 11: Avatars and engagement the phenomena of avatars and engagement are subject to further theoretical analysis. In the first case, a brief overview of research on avatars is followed by a semiotic interpretation, which is then used to analyse the avatars chosen by the actors of the present study. In the analysis of engagement, four studies about the experiential aspects are reviewed. This review leads to an understanding of the phenomenon, which then guides the analyses of some of the many narratives of the empirical analysis.

Finally, in chapter 12: Conclusion, some conclusions about visions, hindrances, diversities and transformations are suggested.

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479

INDEX A a busy shaman, 207 A magic avatar, 325 actants of theory, 50, 52, 54, 55, 56, 59, 68, 71, 85 Active Worlds, 9, 11 actor-network, 28, 52, 56, 70, 72, 75 actor-network diagram, 32, 79 actor-network theory, 27, 34, 41, 52, 53, 68, 74, 75, 81, 83 addiction, 364, 373 advanced gestures, 121 advanced scripting, 114 Advene, 128 advertisement pillar, 381 aesthetic, 390, 391, 395, 397, 398, 401 aesthetic experience, 206, 240, 406 Aftenshowet, 100 Agora-world, 9 Alice, 220, 229, 238, 274, 318, 319 American Sociology Association, 108 An evil landlord, 189 analytical strategy, 27, 75, 148 animated chair, 98 animating, 108 animations, 121 annotation type, 136 annotations, 136 anti-program, 28, 76, 77, 79, 80, 82, 84 appearance, 277, 281 art, 390, 391, 395, 402 artwork, 391, 396, 399, 401, 417 associational mode, 399 attention, 103, 246, 266, 269, 272, 273, 276, 282 attitude, 250 attract attention, 184, 185 attraction, 269, 276, 328

480

audience, 98, 120 authentic relationships, 374 avatar, 359, 361, 362, 364, 370, 372, 374, 375, 376, 379, 381, 382 avatar design, 120, 222, 224, 226, 229, 234, 288 avatar studies, 361, 363, 365, 367, 369, 375, 386 Axelsson, 367

B Bailenson, 368 baking, 156 Baldur’s Gate, 160 Baldur’s Gate 2, 168 balloon-like avatar, 194, 234 ballrooms, 276 Bartle, 19, 21 Bartle’s typology, 22 bazaar, 168 bazaar slave, 209, 256 behaviour, 21, 364, 366, 367, 370 Beta Space, 396 Bilda, 391, 395 Biocca, 365 blogging, 279 body design, 367 Boellstorff, 25, 367 brewing, 255 bridgings, 79 business, 112, 181, 240, 266, 269, 272, 273, 281 business relationships, 272 business strategy, 268, 270, 273 business-like avatar, 220, 225 businessman, 220, 232

C camping, 178 camping chairs, 266

carnival, 103 castle, 183 Castronova, 16, 25, 26 Chang, 366 chaotic design, 182 chatting, 108 Chenet Shan, 125 Christmas, 116 Christmas music, 117 city guides, 266, 268 cleric, 210 co-authoring, 169 co-construction, 76, 83, 84 co-designing, 191 co-leader, 204, 249, 253 collaborative project, 100 community, 300, 306 community-oriented player, 92, 366 companion, 360, 361, 382, 386, 422 companionate objects, 422 companionship, 422 competition, 240, 248, 255, 266, 272, 333 compositional, 393 concert, 115 conflict, 97 continents, 164 control, 182 conventions, 185 cooperation, 240, 244, 245, 248, 251, 253 cosy environment, 180 Counterstrike, 158 crafting, 151, 344 crafts, 208 Creative ‘media maker’, 282 creative engagement, 391 currency, 178 cyberspace, 363, 366, 373, 374 cyborg, 373, 374

D Daedalus Project, 23

dance partner, 277 dance venues, 276 dances, 277 dancing, 108, 121, 277, 278 Danish companies, 122 Dark Ages of Camelot, 63, 161 Day of Research, 187 DC Aspen, 181, 220, 224, 232, 286, 314, 315 debate, 275, 279, 285 deception, 373 default mode of engaging, 399 Dervin, 55, 69, 73, 74, 79, 421, 430 diffusion, 77, 78, 79, 412 discontinuity thesis, 80 disembodied, 373 disembodied identities, 373 disengagement, 393 distrust, 262 division of labour, 146, 253 DOOM, 20 Downs, 369 Draconic Guardians, 93, 144, 145, 146, 151, 175, 176, 241, 243, 245, 249, 250, 263, 265 druid, 205, 210 dwarf, 166 dyad, 379, 380, 381 dystopian version, 373

E Edmunds, 391, 395 educational software, 393 electoral campaign, 112 embodiment, 367 emotional, 387, 393, 398, 417 enchanter, 210 enjoy, 111, 120, 170, 176, 204, 255, 270, 277, 318, 335, 351, 388, 391, 392, 401, 406 ethics, 251, 252 ethnomethodology, 30, 32 events, 103, 108, 120

481

EverQuest, 14, 17, 28, 29, 36, 37, 40, 43, 45, 49, 53, 62, 63, 86, 146, 150, 151, 164, 167 EverQuest II, 63, 163, 164, 165 experience of engagement, 388, 391, 393, 401, 402 experienced avatar, 221 experiential qualities, 401 exploring, 188

F facial expression, 142, 229, 388 Fafai, 368 family, 250, 251, 265, 302, 306, 324, 326, 327 Farmer, 362 Fascination, 297 Feldon, 368 fictional town, 178 fields of tension, 148 fighting mobs, 241 fighting skills, 166 Filiciak, 366 finesse, 204, 214, 305 firstness, 379, 380, 383 five factors, 23 five foci, 88, 128, 137 flow theory, 391, 392 flying carpet, 201 Food to secure strength, 152, 155 four modes of engaging, 398 Fox, 368 fragmentation, 373 friend, 249, 260, 272, 285, 298, 299, 323, 326, 327 friendship, 252, 254, 258, 270, 278 fun, 16, 25, 90, 105, 108, 147, 159, 169, 180, 184, 186, 188, 195, 197, 203, 204, 205, 220, 222, 234, 255, 261, 273, 281, 295 funny, 114, 210, 225, 226, 229, 235, 352, 353 funny tricks, 114 furry woman, 117

482

G game cultures, 367 gap-bridgings, 70, 79, 84 gapinesses, 28, 69, 80, 82 Gelinu, 152, 155, 156, 206, 208, 209, 216, 217, 218, 308 generosity, 251, 255 global e-bank, 103 Globe Theatre, 123 gnome, 201, 202, 204, 212 Gnossiz, 134, 201, 203, 204, 212, 214, 247, 258, 261, 304, 305 going solo, 202 Goodman, 36, 47, 48, 421, 431 gossip, 275 greed, 248, 299 grounded theory method, 50, 420, 440 group, 242, 243, 244, 246, 247, 248, 251, 253, 254, 270, 274, 275, 281, 282 group size, 103 groups, 272 guild, 241, 242, 243, 244, 249, 250, 251, 253 guild hall, 167, 174, 345 guild leader, 167 guild members, 243 guilds, 167 Gunkel, 376

H Habitat, 20 Hamlet, 123 Heat concert, 115 Helle, 111, 122, 183, 184, 186, 189, 191, 194, 195, 196, 225, 226, 234, 236, 272, 273, 277, 316 high ideals, 261, 262 high level, 203, 206, 208, 254 high-level, 156, 217, 259, 330, 419 Horton, 368 House of Horizon, 99 House of Youth, 96 human emotion, 364

humanoid avatar design, 367

I identification, 369 identity, 21, 361, 363, 364, 365, 366, 370, 374, 375, 422 ideologist, 306 inexperienced newbie, 221 Info Island DK, 116 inscription, 27, 28, 42, 51, 68, 73, 76, 79, 83 intellectual, 388 interaction modes, 396 interactive art, 396 interactive experience, 391 intermediaries, 81, 360 intermediary, 59, 65 intermediary stabiliser, 28 interpretant, 361, 363, 380, 381, 382 interview shows, 120 intimacy, 180 islands, 177

J Jader, 210 Jan, 93, 132, 201, 212, 214, 305 Janne, 94, 188, 220, 229, 230, 238, 239, 274, 275, 280, 314, 318 Janus, 151, 152, 174, 176, 204, 205, 214, 306 Jin, 368 job fair, 112, 122 Johnson, 36, 38, 421, 432 Juicy, 210

K Kasper, 158 knowledge sharing, 253, 266, 288 Kolko, 366 KorsbĂŚk, 104, 178, 179 Koster, 18 KĂśvecses, 36

Krongh, 152, 204, 214, 216, 243, 261, 305, 306

L laboratory, 26 Lakoff, 36, 38 LambdaMOO, 21 larger guild, 244, 249, 251, 253 Latour, 55, 61, 74, 421, 427 leadership, 253, 307 Levy, 365 liberating potentials, 373 libraries, 116 Ligorio, 366 Lim, 368 Linden $, 178 Lineage, 15, 16, 17, 63, 87, 93, 365, 366, 425, 437, 489 linear story, 168 Literary, 97, 187 literary meetings, 116 Literary project, 94, 102, 109, 189, 191, 197, 199, 227, 228, 275, 278, 282, 285, 290, 313, 314, 317, 318, 337, 340 Living and playing together, 321 living circus, 282 living lab, 396 loner, 203, 212, 214 low level, 205, 344 low-level, 250, 254 luxurious dining room, 184

M Mads, 94, 187, 188, 220, 228, 236, 237, 317 magic carpet, 201 magical abilities, 166 magician, 166, 205 mainland, 177, 182 manipulation, 373 manufacturing, 255, 256 map of zones, 164 Martin, 92, 158, 304

483

master, 221 Matador, 104 McCarty, 393 measuring engagement, 394 media juggler, 282 media project, 98, 100 mediator, 81, 360, 361, 363, 377, 382 meditating, 187 meditation bubbles, 187 meeting circle, 98 meeting place, 188 Mefisto, 204, 205 Mendelssohn string octet, 397 Metanomics, 119 metaphor, 30, 36, 38 metaphorical maps, 43 metaphorical world-making, 46 mini-conference, 108 Ministry of Innovation and Research, 102 Ministry of Taxation, 122 missions, 242, 261, 263, 303 mistrust, 301 Mitchell, 18 mobs, 167 model of engagement, 391, 393, 396, 397 modes of acting and interacting, 402 modes of engagement, 13, 391 monad, 379, 380 monitoring, 263 monk, 245 Morningstar, 362 Morrison, 391, 397 motivation, 21, 22, 23, 24, 29, 364, 387, 390, 401, 410 MUD communities, 17 MUD1, 19 MUD2, 19 MUDs, 18 multiple identities, 370, 372 music, 117, 120, 187 musical listening, 391

484

N navigation, 164 Neocron, 161 networking, 112, 240, 266, 285, 289, 290, 316 networking business strategy, 316 networking manager, 316 new playground, 373 New Year, 117 newcomers, 221 newspaper Politiken, 106 Night shift, 152, 157 nomadic, 289, 290 norm, 274, 275, 278, 281, 286 NĂśth, 378

O O’Brian, 391 obligation, 251, 322, 323, 324 obstruction, 97 officer, 249, 253 Old Garden, 120 oligopticon, 57, 58, 65, 67, 73 online presence, 380, 381, 382 online shopping, 393 online systems, 393, 395, 400 organiser, 303, 306 organising, 261, 306 Ortony, 36 ownership, 104

P panopticon, 57, 67 parasocial interaction, 368 Park, 368 participatory observations, 29, 50, 90, 94 Path of Ascension, 21 period of engagement, 393 personal contact, 186, 273, 274 personal mediator, 65, 66, 76, 166, 304, 351, 352, 360, 382, 383, 387, 410

Phials with poison, 152 Pierce, 378 pioneering atmosphere, 272 pioneering spirit, 271 playing style, 200 point of engagement, 393 political comments, 108 political meeting, 112 possible worlds, 46 pre-fab package, 183 presence, 185 program, 28, 76, 77, 79, 80, 82, 84 projection, 370 promote contact, 184 provincial town, 107 public institution, 187, 238 public interest, 292 public meeting, 106 public project, 97

R raids, 242, 249, 251, 263 Ralf, 245 ranger, 205, 210 real estate agent, 224, 233, 315 real life emulation, 99 reciprocity, 164, 255 reconstructions, 151, 345 recruitment, 112 reengagement, 393 Reeves, 368 refugee, 165 regulations, 182, 183 Reid, 365 reputation, 249, 288 Research Shop, 104 resident, 185 reversed storyboarding, 31, 84, 135, 140, 141 Ridiculous Writer, 106 rightnesses, 49, 386 Rob, 119, 220, 236, 237, 317 Roskilde University, 104

RuneScape, 63

S salesman’s experience, 332 sand-box, 113, 121, 122 sandbox, 181 Saxo Bank, 103 Schroeder, 366 search engine, 267 seasons, 116 Second Life, 15, 18, 25, 29, 36, 37, 40, 43, 44, 49, 53, 87, 90, 94, 95, 177, 183, 186 secondness, 378, 380, 381, 383 self-construal, 368 self-esteem, 254 self-experiments, 373 selfishness, 249, 262, 299 selflessness, 248 self-presence, 368 self-reflection, 371 self-related processes, 369 semioses of avatars, 361 semiosis, 30, 377, 378, 379, 380, 382, 435 semiotic inscription, 28 semiotic theory, 361, 381, 383, 387, 422 sense-making, 29, 37, 41, 50, 55, 65, 68, 69, 70, 74, 76, 82, 127 sense-making metaphor, 68, 69, 71, 73, 75, 80, 82, 84 sense-making program, 77, 78 sense-making theory, 53, 75 sense-making triangle, 27, 32, 67, 68, 76, 79, 83, 84, 412 sensitising metaphors, 50, 51, 52, 54, 76, 412 sensual, 393 settling down, 104 sexual advances, 278 sexual receptivity, 367 sexy girl, 117 shadow knight, 204

485

Shakespeare Company Second Life, 123 shaman, 166, 206, 207, 208, 216 shared avatar, 227, 237 shared bank, 155, 209, 256 Shernoff, 391 Sia, 151, 155, 167, 168, 174, 176, 206, 210, 216, 308 situation movement states, 70, 79, 82 small-chat, 113 social identities, 366 social interaction, 364, 366, 367, 370, 372, 375 social relationships, 52, 76, 151, 286, 374, 375, 388 Sour, 210 Spacey bubbles, 319 spatial metaphors, 40 spatiotemporal, 393 Star Wars Galaxies, 63, 159, 162 status, 259, 260, 277, 296, 303 street performer, 114 Strong, 210 studies of engagement, 389, 390, 392 stylish shoes, 220, 230 substitution, 77, 78, 79, 412 Sweet, 210

T tableaux, 95 Talamo, 366 Taylor, 24, 25, 367 team, 210, 246, 262 team members, 258 team speak, 168, 241, 330 team spirit, 262 teamwork, 254, 258, 261, 262 temporal patterns, 401 Test of Gamer Psychology, 23 Themes form., 136 theoretical mode, 399 There, 365 thirdness, 378, 379, 380

Thistlefinger, 152, 204, 205 Thomas, 178, 180, 182, 190, 192, 194, 220, 223, 224, 232, 234, 315 Times project, 94, 124, 194, 196, 234, 288, 340, 348, 352, 358 timing, 246 TinyMUD, 20 Toldo, 152 Tom, 245 Toms, 391 town square, 107, 113, 117, 118 trade, 209 trade skills, 153, 168, 208, 209, 255 trader, 154, 155, 156, 209 traffic, 177, 268, 270, 276 traffic figure, 178 traffic measurements, 266 Transcript form, 135 transformative dialogues, 397, 402, 403, 417, 418 transparent design, 183 Trepte, 368 triad, 378, 379, 381, 382, 386 triadic processes, 378 triadic sign relations, 378 troll, 166, 204, 214 trust, 250, 251, 254, 261, 301, 302, 306 Turkle, 21, 365, 422, 435 TV2 News, 98 TV2 Ă˜st, 112 TV-series, 104 TV-series Matador, 178 types of behaviours, 21 types of players, 22

U Ultima Online, 63, 160 UNA game, 115 unauthentic being, 373 University of Southern Denmark, 99

V valuables, 208, 244, 307

486

verbings, 69, 71, 74, 82, 83 video games, 393 video interviews, 29, 50, 87, 90, 127, 129, 131 video keyframe, 31, 79, 84, 170 virtual bomb, 106 virtual friendships, 113 virtual harassment, 106 virtual money, 168, 204, 209 virtual places, 177 virtual properties, 183, 269 virtual reality, 19 virtual world, 14, 15, 16, 22, 23, 26, 28, 29, 30, 36, 37, 39, 43, 45, 49 virtual world-making, 37, 39, 46, 50, 51, 54, 84 visions, 151, 175, 197, 211, 216, 234, 236, 238, 239, 299, 351, 352, 357, 358 visual ethnography, 31 visual metaphors, 31, 168 voice-chat, 168

warrior, 166 ways of seeing, 31, 32, 50, 57 web of interwoven engagings, 399 web searching, 393 Webb, 366 Wohl, 368 Wonder DK, 94, 104, 105, 177, 178, 181, 190, 191, 193, 268, 270, 286, 288, 310, 331, 332 Wonder DK friends, 181 workshop, 110 World of Warcraft, 17, 146, 253 world-making, 36, 38, 42, 43, 44, 46, 47 Wright, 393

Y Yee, 23

Z Zizek, 376

W Wang, 366

487

APPENDICES N ARRATIVES 1. Star Wars Galaxies 2. An Evil Landlord 3. A Busy Shaman 4. Fighting Mobs 5. Pioneering Spirit 6. Creative Media Maker 7. Fascination 8. Spacy Bubbles 9. Living and Playing Together 10. A Magic Avatar 11. A Salesman’s Experience

T ABLES 1. Questions 2. Timeline 3. Keyframe Inscription 3. Avatar Studies (I) 4. Avatar Studies (II) 5. Engagement

T ABLEAUX 1. The House of Youth 2. Meeting Circle 3. TV2 News Media 4. University SDU 5. House of Horizon 6. Aftenshowet, TV 7. In-world Lecture 8. Carnival 9. Research Shop

488

10. Relaxation 11. Public Meeting 12. Interview 13. Virtual Harassment 14. Tibetan Demonstration 15. Mini-conference 16. Workshop 17. Workshop Students 18. First Job Fair 19. Political Meeting 20. Small-Chat 21. Romance 22. Day and Night Time 23. Street Performer 24. UNA Game 25. Heat concert 26. Literary meeting 27. Christmas Snow 28. Christmas Music 29. New Years Eve 2008 30. Metanomics Interview 31. Avatar Design 32. Old Garden Music 33. Dancing With Hearts 34. Draconian Outfits 35. Virtual Experiments 36. Second Job Fair 37. The Globe Hamlet Act 1 38. Two Snapshots

F IGURES 1. Cube & Meeting Place 2. Avatars’ Vantage Point 3. Indexical Green Dots 4. Detailed map 5. Triangle and Diagram 6. Diagram of Tensions 7. Sense-Making Triangle

489

8. Web-View General Description 9. Web-View Annotations 10. Web-View Annotation Types 11. Web-View with Snapshots 12. Co-Construction, Martin 13. Co-Construction, Gnossiz the Gnome 14. Co-Construction, Draconic Guardians 15. Co-Construction, Wonder DK 16. Co-Construction, Times 17. Co-Construction, Literary 18. Mediator, Gnossiz the Gnome 19. Mediator, Krongh the troubletroll 20. Mediator, Gelinu the Shaman 21. Mediator, DC Aspen 22. Mediator, Helle 23. Mediator, Rob 24. Mediator, Alice 25. Relationships, Gnossiz the Gnome 26. Relationships, Krongh the Troubletroll 27. Relationships, Gelinu the Shaman 28. Relationships, Wonder DK 29. Relationships, Times 30. Relationships, Literary 31. Martin’s Many Worlds 32. Jan’s Loner 33. Janus’s Funny Troll 34. Sia’s Leader Shaman 35. Thomas’ Businessman 36. Helle’s Advertising Pillar 37. Mads’ Workplace Avatar 38. Janne’s Explorer

490