•
Athlete area spacing
•
Temp. range of -‐25°C to +5°C
•
Location of event
•
Staging area exposure
•
Distance of course from chair/lodge
•
Infrequency of heating tent
•
Ability to get from bottom to top
•
Clothing (warmth vs. perf. vs. style)
•
Start area spacing
•
Culture of the sport
•
Need to be in staging area 5-‐10 min
•
Athletes sitting in snow
•
Delays (event and individual run)
•
Distractions (social vs. performance)
Figure 1 again highlights the influence that such issues can have on the physiological responses achieved through warming up. If, for example, the time between warming up and performance is extended for a significant period then muscle temperature will return to baseline values. These results suggest that this can occur within 20-30 minutes in the environment in which the data was collected.
Table 3. Barriers to achieving optimal warm-up in various winter sports.
by excessive elevation of core temperature during warm-up. It is important that the warm up duration and intensity are tailored to minimize this effect. Different warm-up strategies should therefore be adopted when changes in conditions occur. Dramatic changes are not necessarily required, with simple tweaks to warm-up structure generally sufficient. Examples of a modification would include increasing the duration and reducing the recovery time of a warm-up in a cold environment. Care should always be taken when adjusting warm-up intensity and duration in response to environmental challenges to ensure the desired results are achieved.
Logistical issues
Logistical considerations are factors affecting warm-up effectiveness that are related to the activity or competition. Some examples from select winter sports are included in Table 3. Issues such as these can be encountered regularly during competition and will influence the physiological condition that an athlete will begin performance.
References: 1. Hajoglou A, Foster C, De Koning JJ, Lucia A, Kernozek TW, Porcari JP. Effect of warm-up on cycle time trial performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2005 Sep;37(9):1608-14. 2. Bishop D. Warm up I: potential mechanisms and the effects of passive warm up on exercise performance. Sports Med. 2003;33(6):439-54. 3. Racinais S, Oksa J. Temperature and neuromuscular function. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2010 Oct;20 Suppl 3:1-18. 4. Skof B, Strojnik V. The effect of two warm-up protocols on some biomechanical parameters of the neuromuscular system of middle distance runners. J Strength Cond Res. 2007 May;21(2):394-9. 5. Brunner-Ziegler S, Strasser B, Haber P. Comparison of metabolic and biomechanic responses to active vs. passive warm-up procedures before physical exercise. J Strength Cond Res. 2011 Apr;25(4):909-14. 6. Jones AM, Koppo K, Burnley M. Effects of prior exercise on metabolic and gas exchange responses to
Dr Ben Sporer is an applied sport physiologist working in high performance sport in Canada for the last 13 years. He is currently a consultant and has held positions of Senior Physiologist and Lead of Performance Preparation with the Canadian Sport Centre Pacific over the last 10 years. Ben is also a partner physiologist with the Own the Podium Top Secret program focusing on warm up optimization.
www.sirc.ca
Situations such as these should be planned for prior to competition, with strategies utilised to lessen their impact. One such strategy is the use of ‘micro’ warm-ups which involve quick bursts of activity with the intention of sustaining the physiological responses achieved through the initial warm-up. Our experience has found that techniques such as these are very useful in improving the perceptions of performance readiness in athletes immediately before performance.
Summary
It is clear that a warm-up appropriate to the activity being undertaken can improve performance. To maximise the responses, a warm-up should be structured according to a sound physiological rationale10 in addition to previous experiences. The primary focus in short-term performance should be on increasing muscle temperature whilst allowing energy store restoration. Warm-up’s for intermediate and long-term performance should increase oxygen consumption but minimise energy store usage, whilst warming up for long-term performance should also attempt to avoid unnecessary core temperature increases. By understanding the physiological bases behind warming up in your activity and structuring the warm-up accordingly the chances of an athlete beginning performance in an optimal state can be improved dramatically. ∆
exercise. Sports Med. 2003;33(13):949-71. 7. Layec G, Bringard A, Le Fur Y, Vilmen C, Micallef JP, Perrey S, Cozzone PJ, Bendahan D. Effects of a prior high-intensity knee-extension exercise on muscle recruitment and energy cost: a combined local and global investigation in humans. Exp Physiol. 2009;94(6):704-19. 8. Esformes JI, Cameron N, Bampouras TM. Postactivation potentiation following different modes of exercise. J Strength Cond Res. 2010 Jul;24(7):1911-6. 9. DeRenne C. Effects of Postactivation Potentiation Warm-up in Male and Female Sport Performances: A Brief Review. Strength and Conditioning Journal. 2010;32(6):58-64. 10. Bishop D. Warm up II: performance changes following active warm up and how to structure the warm up. Sports Med. 2003;33(7):483-98. 11. Bishop D, Bonetti D, Dawson B. The influence of three different warm up intensities on sprint kayak performance in trained athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001;33(6):1026-32
Rob Gathercole is a PhD student in Exercise Physiology at the University of Victoria, BC. Prior to arriving in Canada, he completed his BSc (Hons) in Sport and Exercise Science and MSc in Sport and Exercise Nutrition at Leeds Metropolitan University, UK. Alongside his studies, Rob is also involved with both the Canadian Sport Centre Pacific and the Sport Innovation Centre.
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SIRCuit Volume 2 (1) Fall / automne 2011