GRADUATE PORTFOLIO

GRADUATE PORTFOLIO SHREYAS GANGURDE

DESC9014

SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY

C O N T E N T S 01. INTRODUCTION 02. PROJECT DESCRIPTION 03. CLIMATE ANALYSIS 04. MATERIAL AND BUILDING SUBSYSTEMS IDENTIFICATION

GROUP 18 SID: 530233763 SID: 530798066 SID: 520283853 SID: 530235664

05. CONSTRUCTION PHASE | NEALE PEREIRA | A PA R A N TA G O D E | S H R E YA S G A N G U R D E | TA N YA M AT H U R

06. CONSTRUCTION DETAILS 07. BASE CASE 08. APPROACH TO IMPROVISATION 09. IMPROVEMENT STRATEGIES 10. IMPROVED CASE 01 11. IMPROVEMENT STRATEGIES 12. IMPROVED CASE 02 RESULTS 13. ILLUSTRATIONS OF ECO CASE 14. OPERATIONAL ENERGY 15. OPERATIONAL WATER 16. ABOVE AND BEYOND 17. DISCUSSIONS 18. LIMITATIONS 19. CONCLUSION 20. REFERENCES 21. APPENDIX

Source: Archdaily, 2017

01.INTRODUCTION

02.PROJECT DESCRIPTION

1.1.AIM

Building Type: Residential

The objective of this study is to examine the impact of different materials, structural designs, and construction methodologies on the carbon footprint of a small-scale residential building in Australia. The investigation utilizes "The Footprint Calculator" as a tool to assess the carbon emissions associated with varying building configurations. By altering materials and construction technologies, the study seeks to evaluate the carbon output and identify strategies for reducing environmental impact in residential construction practices.

1.2.OBJECTIVES • Selection of a residential building project spanning approximately 150 square meters, completed within recent years, and compliant with Australian National Construction Codes (NCC).

• Comprehensive examination of the project encompasses analysis of its contextual setting, prevailing climatic conditions, project overview, material identification, construction specifics, technical specifications, and visual representations depicting both interior and exterior aspects.

• Assessment of the building's environmental footprint will be conducted utilizing the Footprint Calculator, employing three distinct methodologies: • Evaluation of total carbon emissions, quantified in terms of Global Warming Potential (GWP).

• Assessment of water footprint.

• Analysis of operational energy consumption.

Location: 2 Plowman Street, North Bondi, NSW Architect: Scale Architecture Area: 237 m² Year: 2017

Stories: G+1 The Cricket Pitch House, designed and built with care by Scale Architects, is a building that defies convention by seamlessly combining longevity, aesthetic appeal, and practicality.

Ground Floor 1. Living room 2. Kitchen 3. Study 4. Garage 5. Powder Room 6. Entertainment Room

First Floor 7. Bedroom x 5 8. Bathroom x 2

3 . 1 . L O C AT I O N

The LCA can be carried out for Cradle to Grave ie. A1-A5, B1-B7, C1-C4 and D, but for this assessment the product stage and construction stage are to be considered ie Cradle to grave A1-A5. These stages of assessment consider the embodied carbon of materials and the process of construction. For sake of understanding the operational carbon B6 – operational energy and B7 – Operational water was also calculated.

1.4.METHODOLOGY ➢ Selection of Site and Climate Analysis

The project site, situated in Sydney, is categorized within climate zone 5, characterized by a Warm Temperate climate. This climate exhibits four distinct seasons, featuring mild winters characterized by low humidity, juxtaposed with hot to very hot summers accompanied by moderate humidity. Both summer and winter conditions may occasionally exceed human comfort thresholds, rendering spring and autumn as more favorable seasons for human comfort and wellbeing.(Weatherspark,2023)

• The construction materials of the structure were identified and analyzed in depth as per the NCC compliance. The phases of building, ranging from excavation to roof casting, have also been examined.

➢ Analysis and Improvisation of Operational Energy Fig 3.1.2: Annual Temperature Range Diagram | (Source: Climatool,2024).

3.3.HUMIDITY

➢ Discussion/ Conclusion/ Future Recommendations

• After a through analysis and comparison of the results of all the three cases, an depth conclusion was developed highlighting the important findings and suggestions for future scopes

Fig 2.1.1: Ground Floor Plan Source: Archdaily ,

7 8

7

7

7

7 8

Fig 2.1.2: First Floor Plan Source: Archdaily

3 . 4 . S U N PAT H

Winter Solstice

Summer Solstice

.

The winter season predominant winds are noted to be high-speed and humid, coming from the west. In summer, the predominant winds are from the northeast and south with high humidity levels. Throughout the year, Sydney's average hourly wind speed stays relatively constant, ranging from 0.7 to 12.5 kilometres per hour.(Weatherspark,2023)

3 . 2 . T E M P E R AT U R E R A N G E

• The strategies incorporated to improve carbon output were analysed and basis which the following scenarios were generated• Improved Case 1- Altering the building materials of the structure • Improved Case 2- Altering the Structural members and Building envelope

• There have been some recommendations made regarding new materials and designs that could lower the final cost. Additionally, innovative technologies have been analysed and introduced to reduce energy consumption and reduce costs.

2

3 . 5 . W I N D A N A LY S I S

Fig 3.1.1: Australian Climatic Zones | (Source: csiro.au,2024).

➢ Enhancement of strategies to improve Carbon Output

➢ Cost reduction analysis

1

5

6

External Walls - Exposed Clay brick cavity wall - Concrete Wall Internal Walls - Painted timber and plasterboard wall partition Roof - Colourbond steel Roof Cladding over Hardwood Timber Floor - General Areas – Polished Concrete Tiles Washrooms – Glazed Ceramic Tiles Ceiling - Painted Plasterboard Windows - Double Glazing with Aluminum Frame

The sun's higher path angle during the summer causes shorter shadows. In contrast, the winter months cause the building itself to cast longer shadows because of the sun's lower angle, especially on the southern side. Because of this, the southern side of the building might get less light in the winter than the other sides. The north facade should have the most openings because it gets the most sunlight during the winter and is easily shaded by the roof's eaves during the summer..

➢ Material Assemblies and Construction Methodology (Base Case)

• The operational energy and water have been estimated and strategies to reduce it has been applied through use of conventional methods.

3

Fig 3.1.4: Solar . Analysis I Source: (Author,2024).

• The building has been selected on the basis of its variety of materials, location and the availability of data.

• The quantity of the materials has been determined and the carbon output of the building has been analyzed through the Footprint calculator.

4

0 3 . C L I M AT E A N A LY S I S

1.3.SCOPE

➢ Development of Base case and identification of carbon output through Footprint Calculator

M AT E R I A L S

Building Selection Criteria The assessment of the embodied carbon of materials is done by the LCA for materials A1 through A5. It could be a challenge to lower the carbon footprint of the final face finish assemblies because the cricket pitch house has a very minimalistic type of design.

Fig 3.1.3: Annual humidity Range Diagram | Source: (Climatool,2024).

The annual average mean temperature is 17°C, the average high temperature is 22°C, and the average low temperature is 14°C, according to the temperature range graph. In order to minimize heat transfer, high R-value insulation in the walls, floors, and roofs of the building envelope is necessary to achieve indoor thermal comfort.

(Source: Climatool).

Fig 3.1.5 : Wind Rose Diagram | (Source: Climatool, 2024).

3 . 6 . R A I N FA L L

The graph shows that in most months of the year, the relative humidity is higher than the comfort range (30–70%). Design techniques such as the use of vapour barriers and breathable materials like clay, stone, and wood are used to combat this high humidity. .

Sydney's monthly rainfall exhibits considerable variation throughout the seasons. February stands out as the month with the highest precipitation, boasting an average of 101 mm of rainfall. In contrast, September experiences the least amount of rainfall in Sydney, with an average precipitation level of 46 mm.

Fig 3.1.6: Rainfall Chart| Source: (weatherspark,2024).

1

0 4 . M AT E R I A L A N D B U I L D I N G S U B - S Y S T E M S I D E N T I F I C AT I O N 4.1 E W1: External Wall 1 Clay brick (110mm) Air Space (35mm) Clay brick (110mm) Plasterboard (15mm)

4 . 5 R o o f Polyurethane Waterproofing The structure's subsystems, including the walls, roof, and flooring, are in compliance with NCC standards.

Co2e/unit Brick layer 1 0.107 Brick layer 2 0.107 Plasterboard 0.002

Air Space (20mm) Plasterboar d (15mm)

R

/Unit

0.033

Co2e/unit Mpa Concrete 0.406 Steel Reinforcement 2.9 Plasterboard 0.002

Timber Flooring

EW1

Timber Stud Frame (70X35mm) Glasswool Insulation (100mm) Plasterboard (15mm) Paint Finish

F1

TCO2 e/unit

0.017

e/unit

3.308

Plasterboard (15mm)

Co2e/unit Timber frame 0.008 Plasterboard 0.002 Paint 0.003

IW 2

FIRST FLOOR

F2

0.013

Grout (3mm)

Co2e/unit Ceramic Tiles 0.093 Mpa Concrete 0.406

TCO2 e/unit

IW 1

0.499 Waterproofing Fig 4.1.7: Ceramic Tile Flooring Source: (Author,2024).

Damp proofing Membrane

Gravel

4.8 Flooring 3 Co2e/unit Brick layer 1 0.107 Plasterboard 0.002

F3

TCO2e /unit

Fig 4..1.4: Clay brick wall (110mm) Source: (Author,2024).

Plaster board Ceiling

EW2

4.4 IW2:Internal Wall 2

Air Space (20mm)

Fig 4.1.6: Timber Flooring Source: (Author.2024).

Ceramic Tiles

e/unit

Clay brick (110mm)

Polyurethane

4.7 Flooring 2

TCO2 Fig 4.1.3 : Timber Stud wall (105mm) Source: (Author.2024).

Plywood 12mm

Co2e/unit Timber boards 0.017 Plasterboard 0.002

4.3 IW1:Internal Wall 1

Plasterboard (13mm)

Fig 4.1.5: Colourbond steel Roof Cladding over Hardwood Timber I Source: (Author,2024).

4.6 Flooring 1

TCO2 Fig 4.1.2 : In-situ Concrete wall (150mm) Source: (Author,2024).

Plaster Board Ceiling

e/unit

0.216

4.2 E W2:External Wall 2 Steel Reinforcements Reinforced Concrete Shear wall

Glasswool Insulation (100mm) Wooden Studs

Metal Cladding

TCO2

TCO2e Fig 4.1.1:Double skin clay brick wall (270mm) Source:( Author,2024).

Co2e/unit Aluminium 0.029 Glass wool 0.015 Plasterboard 0.002

GROUND FLOOR

0.109

Co2e/unit Concrete Tiles 0.14 Mpa Concrete 0.406

Underlay (3mm)

Concrete 25Mpa with Steel Reinforcement

TCO2 e/Unit

0.54 Fig 4..1.9: Exploded Axonometric

Polished Concrete Tiles

Fig 4.1.8: Polished Concrete Gravel Flooring Damp proofing Membrane Source: (Author,2024).

2

0 6 . C O N S T R U C T I O N D E TA I L S

05.CONSTRUCTION PHASE Formwork construction

Substructure: Foundation

Excavation

Cavity Brickwall Construction

Aluminum Metal Roofing with Glass Wool insulation

12mm Plasterboard With cement paint finish

Folded Metal Plate with silicon sealant Metal Capping Parapet

1 Image5.1.1: Excavation, Source: (Financial Benefits of Solar Energy.gov.au,2024).

2 Image5.1.2: Footings, Source: (Desk. 2024)

Superstructure: Concrete Shear Wall

Suspended slab (FFL)

Exposed Cement Flooring as/spec

270mm Double Brick wall with Insulation Air space

4

3

270mm Double Brick wall with Insulation Air space

for

Image5.1.3: Formwork, Source:(Column Formwork,2024).

Image5.1.4 Brickwork, Source: (Cavity Walls and the Benefits of Insulating Them – TheGreenAge,2024).

Aluminum Framework to support Gypsum board Ceiling

Internal Timber walls with plasterboard

Metal Decking Roof

Gypsum board Ceiling with Glasswool Insulation

RCC Beam with slab at ground floor level

Fig 6.1.2: Ground floor slab to wall Junction Source: Author, 2024

Fig 6.1.1: Parapet wall Capping junction with Metal Roofing Source: Author, 2024

270mm Double Brick wall with Insulation Air space

Exposed 270mm Double Brick wall with Insulation Air space

5 Image5.1.5: Shear wall, Source: (Engineering Science: Shear Wall and Pile Foundation, 2024)

6 Image5.1.6: Footings, Source:THERMAL / ACOUSTIC FLOOR SLABS PRECAST CONCRETE SOLUTIONS, 2024

7 Image5.1.7: Footings, Source: (Residential Plasterboard SHEETROCK® ONE | Knauf AU,2024)

• • • • • • •

In 2017, this building was granted development approval in Sydney. And in 2017, the building was constructed, in accordance with the 2019 National Construction Code. And as such all wall, floor and roof assemblies are in alignment with Section 3.12.1.4 & 3.12.1.5 of the NCC. Since the building was constructed in 2017, analysis of data for climate, operational carbon, and costing is based on the 2016-17 year.

Certain Materials that are not present in the Footprint Calculator are checked through the Epic Database for their embodied carbon and relevant values were used for the materials’ absolute carbon emissions.

Epic database was used to compare the embodied water and embodied greenhouse gases of various materials.

The construction method assumed is based on the prevalent methodology of construction in Sydney, NSW. The material quantities are derived based on Architectural drawings and material specifications were considered as per standards set by NCC. Operational energy and water are calculated through use of several sets of data of over 100 households in NSW during 2017-18 in alignment with the NCC 2019, Australian Government Climate, Australian Energy Regulator, Nathers and BASIX.

6mm Reinforcements RCC First Floor slab

Single Glazed Window with Black Aluminum Frame

The materials used in the design and construction of The Cricket Pitch House have been strategically selected to ensure that they are suitable and efficient in fulfilling the project's particular requirements.

Since they prioritize longevity, sustainability, and aesthetic appeal, these materials have been used in a way that balances their complementing the conceptual design with addressing the climatic challenges.

In addition to improving the project's sustainability credentials, using sustainably obtained timber for structural framing gives the interior spaces a comfortable, distinctive feel.

270mm Double Brick wall with Insulation Air space

12mm Plasterboard with paint as/spec

Fig 6.1.4: First Floor floor slab to wall Junction (Source: Author, 2024)

Aluminum Metal Roofing As/spec Aluminum Gutter

1st Floor Reinforced RCC Slab 6mm Reinforcements for RCC First Floor slab

Timber Beams to support metal roof

12MM Steel Bended Anchor Bolt with Sealant

Aluminum Corrugated Sheet to support insulation Glasswool Insulation for roofing

10MM Thick Baseplate for Column 100mm Steel I-Section Column

Gypsum Board Ceiling with Glasswool Insulation Fig 6.1.5: Roof-Gutter Junction with False celling Detail Source: Author, 2024

for

L-Angle Steel Support for Brickwork

38mm Hardwood Reveal

Fig 6.1.3: Window Wall Junction with Boxing Detail (Source: Author, 2024)

Finish

Cement Screeding

Timber Batten Screen

Image5.1.8: Roofing, Source: (Residential Roofing,2024).

5.1.ASSUMPTIONS

Exposed Cement Flooring as/spec

10mm Steel Surround for Window Shade

8

Finish

Fig 6.1.6: Steel Column to RC Slab Fixing detail Source: Author, 2024

3

07.BASE CASE

0 8 . A P P R O A C H T O I M P R O V I S AT I O N

7 . 1 B A S E C A S E R E S U LT S

7.2 BY ELEMENTS FLOOR FINISHES INTERNAL WALLS

1

Base Case

EXTERNAL WALLS STAIRS

Establishing the current materiality, structure, façade, and interior works and benchmarks of: • Absolute carbon, • GWP • Total Embodied carbon

Reduce Absolute Carbon through operational and material changes

UPPER FLOOR

Operational Energy & Operation Water

SUBSTRUCTURE

Materiality Approach : examining changes in materiality of project to more low carbon materials while maintaining aesthetic and integrality of the building

Examining major carbon contributing factors of both operation and testing alternate solutions to improve overall operation carbon

Fig 7.1.2:Upfront Carbon by Element (Base Case) Source: (Author,2024).

7 . 3 B Y M AT E R I A L Carbon Contributor

UPPER FLOOR INTERNAL WALL STAIRS

2

1st CONCRETE

Accepting material strategy as 1 Scenario

EXTERNAL WALLS 2nd CLAY BRICKS

SUBSTRUCTURE EXTERNAL WALLS

Improved Case

3

improvement

Improved Case 01

Improving the building further by dabbing into building design

Keeping material/ operational improvisations

Improved Case 02: Building Design

Altering 3 important elements that make up the building

Fig 7.1.3:Upfront Carbon by Material (Base Case) Source: (Author,2024).

Comparing the Carbon distribution charts by elements and materials we can see that the major contributors are Concrete in Upper Floor, Internal Walls and Sub-structure and second contributor is Clay bricks in External walls. So, targeting these materials would help in improving the carbon cost of the project. Next areas to look at would be Ceiling finishes, insulation in internal walls and HVAC.

Fig 7.1.1:Upfront Carbon (Base Case) Source: (Author,2024

4

7.4 BENCHMARK

Fig 7.1.4: Comparison with Benchmark (Base Case) Source: (Author,2024).

6093.8 Absolute

20.66 /m2 GFA

24.38 /m2 NFA

5 2974.22 Absolute

10.08 /m2 GFA

Façade Design

Structural Design

Interior Design

Utilizing façade design and Altering it interms of Window wall ratio, Backing, etc to reduce existing embodied carbon generated through the facade

Improvisation to existing structure design by reducing the use of high carbon output designs like RCC framework systems and replacing with lower carbon emissive systems like steel, timber frameworks.

Suggesting alternate meterials and assemblies to the existing design and improvising interior finishes without hampering the interior aesthetic of the building

Improved Case 01: Building Materiality

Final Cases

Improved Case 02: Building Design

11.9 /m2 NFA

4

0 9 . I M P R O V E M E N T S T R AT E G I E S

10.IMPROVED CASE 01

9 . 1 . A LT E R N AT I V E M AT E R I A L S

1 0 . 1 A LT E R I N G M AT E R I A L S

CONCRETE 32 MPa

• • • •

100% GEO POLYMER REPLACEMENT

1

CONCRETE GENERAL OPC

30% FLYASH

Carbon Intensity Absolute Carbon Embodied Water Global Warming Potential

0.478 T CO2-e / U 48.34 T CO2 4300 L/unit 416 kgCO₂e/unit

0.364 T CO2-e / unit 36.76 T CO2 4066 L/unit 314 kgCO₂e/unit

0.12 T CO2-e / unit 12.12 T CO2

CARBON REDUCTION 75%

Geopolymer concrete is a groundbreaking material that diverges from conventional cement by utilizing alternative binders such as fly ash or slag. This substitution not only reduces water content but also minimizes embodied energy, making it more environmentally friendly. Moreover, as the strength of geopolymer concrete increases with the use of slag or ash, it not only offers potential savings on global warming impacts but also becomes increasingly economically viable, presenting a promising solution for sustainable construction practices. (Source: Oyebisi et

The first approach considered is to use recycled materials or materials containing recycled elements. This is helpful in material procurement without altering the design or construction technologies. As eco conscious materials come at a premium cost using all of them is not feasible in any project so this analysis gives an idea of which materials would have what percentage of impact and does it make an economical sense to use these materials.

10.2 BY ELEMENTS 40%

INTERNAL WALLS

al.,2022)

EXTERNAL WALLS

65%

UPPER FLOOR

CLAY BRICKS (PRESSED)

2

• • • •

CLAY BRICKS PRESSED

Carbon Intensity Absolute Carbon Embodied Water Global Warming Potential

0.107 T CO2-e / unit 23.65 T CO2 1.8 L/unit 0.32 kgCO₂e/unit

RECYCLED CONTENT 0.76 T CO2-e / unit 18.47 T CO2

CARBON REDUCTION 22%

ACC has better ACC BLOCKS performa nce but worst 0.391 T CO2-e / unit embodied 9.5 T CO2 Green 55.4 L/unit 4.7 kgCO₂e/unit house gas and CARBON embodied REDUCTION 60% water.

HEMPCRETE 0.307 T CO2-e / unit 7.46 T CO2

(Jami and Kumar, 2017)

CARBON REDUCTION 68.5%

SUBSTRUCTURE 75%

Fig 101.1: Upfront Carbon by Element (Improved Case 01) Source: (Author,2024).

42%

1 0 . 3 B Y M AT E R I A L S

31%

EXTERNAL WALL EXTERNAL WALL

25%

WALL FINISHES & CLADDING EXTERNAL WINDOWS

For improved case 1 the look and feel of the project must be maintained so bricks with recycled materials have been chosen for this case.

•

FLOOR FINISH

Polished tiles and ceramic HARDWOOD tiles have low BAMBOO POLISHED GLAZED 3 TIMBER carbon but COMPRESS CONCRETE CERAMIC BOARDS due to the ED BOARD TILE TILES VIRGIN less quantity • Carbon Intensity 0.14 T CO2-e / unit 0.093 T CO2-e /unit of this item 0.017 T CO2-e / unit 0.004 T CO2-e / unit • Absolute Carbon 14.98 T CO2 1.21 T CO2 replacing this 1.87 T CO2 0.44 T CO2 • Embodied Water 5.7 L/unit 15.2 L/unit 19110 L/unit material • Global Warming 0.39 kgCO₂e/unit 1.3 kgCO₂e/unit CARBON doesn’t have 944 kgCO₂e/unit Potential REDUCTION 76% a big impact •

Using Compressed Bamboo flooring significantly reduces the carbon footprint of the flooring.

WINDOW FRAME

4

• • • •

Hempcrete, or hemp lime, combines hemp hurds with lime, sand, or pozzolans, forming a bio composite material.

Despite its advantages, hempcrete faces challenges including curing time, skilled labor needs, standardization issues, and supply chain constraints.

Carbon Intensity Absolute Carbon Embodied Water Global Warming Potential

INSULATION ALUMINIUM FRAME VIRGIN

TIMBER

15 T CO2-e / unit 7.5 T CO2 244 L/unit 32.7 kgCO₂e/unit

0 .032 T CO2-e /unit 0.96 T CO2 23,083 L/unit 1777 kgCO₂e/unit

Timber frames have low carbon, but the embodied water and greenhouse gases are extremely high.

CARBON REDUCTION 87%

5

• • • •

Carbon Intensity Absolute Carbon Embodied Water Global Warming Potential

GLASSWOO L FOIL FACED R2.0 VIRGIN

GLASSWOOL FOIL FACED R2.0 65% RECYCLED

0.011 T CO2-e / unit 0.003 T CO2-e / unit 0.4 T CO2 1.45 T CO2 81.4 L/unit 8.0 kgCO₂e/unit

Glass wool insulation with recycled content gives the same performance while reducing the carbon impact by 72%.

CARBON REDUCTION 72%

REINFORCEMENT

6

Fig 101.2: Upfront Carbon by Material (Improved Case 01) Source: (Author,2024).

10.4 BENCHMARK BAR REINFORCEMENT - GENERIC Carbon Intensity 2.895TCO2-e/unit Absolute Carbon 3.33 T CO2 Embodied Water 32.9 L/unit Global Warming 2.6 kgCO₂e/unit Potential

The project is minimalist and has face finished materials, due to this the proportion of walls is more in comparison with benchmark cases.

Fig 101.3: Upfront Carbon Overall Building (Improved Case 01) Source: (Author,2024).

Fig 101.4: Benchmark comparison Improved Case 01 Source: (Author,2024).

1 0 . 5 E C O M AT E R I A L S

BAR REINFORCEMENT – OVER 65% RECYCLED CONTENT Carbon Intensity 1.97 TCO2-e /unit Absolute Carbon 2.27 T CO2

CARBON REDUCTION 32%

Clay bricks with recycled content

Glass wool Insulation65% Recycled Content Concrete - 100% Geopolymer Replacement

Fig 101.5: Alternative Materials Source: (Author,2024).

Compressed Bamboo Flooring Reinforcement Over 65% Recycled Content

Just by changing the materials there was an improvement of 2 star in the rating. But we can still see that the clay bricks still have a significant contribution in comparison to other materials due to the quantity of this material. The Eco materials need specialized labor to execute. They are not readily available so sourcing them on time would become a challenge. So, to improve the carbon rating of the project while accounting for the procurement and execution alterations in the assemblies and alternate constructions must be considered.

Wherever possible elimination or reduction of materials must be considered as well.

5

1 1 . I M P R O V E M E N T S T R AT E G I E S 4

11.1 | STRUCTURAL SOLUTIONS

Steel Foundation

To maintain a single structural system throughout, The existing RCC Footings are replaced with Steel Tertiary Beams steel footings which are increased in depth.

The Existing footings showed a high absolute carbon of nearly Glasswool Insulation 36.68TCO2 which was then reduced by 21% post simulation of the proposed design.

The current building design is a composite construction of steel and concrete. The existing concrete construction showed high levels of GWP, which was structurally extensive and can be simplified through more efficient use of steel construction and eliminate concrete for most portions of the house.

1 Garage Envelope

3

First Floor Slab

Steel Column Timber Framework Plasterboard Steel Column

Primary Steel Beams

Fig 11.1.2: Building section highlighting staircase | Source: Architecture Practice

Fig 11.1.1: Building section highlighting staircase | Source: Architecture Practice

The existing slab consists of a Reinforced Concrete slab with beams resting a steel columns. The existing design showed high GWP and embodied carbon due its extensive concrete implications for a smaller-span structure.

The existing garage showed a complete reinforced concrete envelope (walls & slab) of 30Mpa Concrete 6mm Dia Steel Reinforcements with no habitable floor above. .

The proposed design involved replacing the concrete walls and slabs with Steel framework, backed with plasterboard and a steel decking slab Material

Type

Quantity

Absolute TCO2

32 Mpa Concrete

Wall + Slab

101 m3

48.34

Wall + Slab

Generic Reinforcements (A1-A5) Plywood Formwork Including Propping / Bracing

Wall + Slab

1.52 T

129.9 m

Total Galavanised Steel with upto 20% recycled content

4.41

2.59 55.34

Slab

1.48 T

4.4

The proposed design involves replacing the existing slab with a steel decking slab and Steel I sections to reduce the overall carbon output drastically.

The Overall replacement of concrete with a complete steel framework showed to have a 35.06% in the overall carbon reduction process and proved to be an effective strategy.

Type

Quantity

Absolute TCO2/m

32 Mpa Concrete

Wall + Slab

35 m3

28.42

Generic Reinforcements (A1-A5)

Wall + Slab

0.8 T

2.32

Plywood Formwork Including Propping / Bracing

Wall + Slab

75 m

5.1

Total

35.84

Steel universal beam – Unpainted with 150 UB – 150 X 75

Beams

35m

4.4

Primary/Universal Steel Sections – Galvanised Steel

Slab

1.48 T

1.92

Total

Steel universal beam – Unpainted with 150 UB – 150 X 75

Beams

Steel, Universal Column (Ub), Structural Section, 150Ub -150 x 75

Column

35m

80 Lm

Total

1.92

4.38

6.32

CARBON REDUCTION

80.66%

10.7

On replacing the existing concrete slab with a steel decking slab, the carbon overall reduction was nearly 33%.

The replacement of concrete with steel though being an effective strategy, has significant economic cost implications. Concrete tends to be cheaper which is why its most preferred.

The current beams proposed to support the stairs showed traces of high Embodied carbon and can easily be replaced. The proposed solution involves replacing these beams with steel beams which reduce carbon output drastically.

Primary Steel Beams

Fig 11.1.4: Staircase 3d view | Source: Author,2024.

Material

Fig11.1.3: Building section highlighting staircase | Source: Architecture Practice Material

Type

Quantity

Absolute TCO2

32 Mpa Concrete with steel mesh

Footing + Slab

28.8 m2

23.39

Bar Reinforcement - Generic (A1-A5)

Wall + Slab

2.86 T

8.29

Plywood Formwork Including Propping / Bracing - Class 2 (2 Uses)

Wall + Slab

250m

5

Total

36.68

Steel, Universal Column (Uc), Structural Section, Unpainted

Column

30.24 Lm

5.36

Plain Cement Concrete for Steel Foundation

Column Base

6 m3

2.44

Total

7.88

Table 11.1.3: Building section highlighting staircase | Source: Author 2024.

11.2 BUILDING ENVELOPE / DESIGN The current Building envelope consists of 4 Glazed panels on the northeast side corner with a sliding glass door entry. The glass is bifurcated and a simple wooden door with a solid wall is provided with a window above for light entry.

The Aluminum Frame also replaced with a wooden frame to reduce the absolute carbon of the glazing.

CARBON REDUCTION

82.3%

Type

Quan tity

Absolute TCO2

25 Mpa Concrete

Beams

28m3

20.3

Cross Laminated Timber – 85mm

Beams

70m2

3.01

Table 11.1.4:: Building section highlighting staircase | Source: Author 2024.

CARBON REDUCTION

85.2%

Fig 1: Ground Floor Plan | Source: Architecture Practice Material Toughened Glass – 6mm thick with Aluminium Frame

Staircase Beams

Primary Steel Beams

21%

Table 11.1.2: Building section highlighting staircase | Source: Author 2024.

Table 11.1.1: Building section highlighting staircase | Source: Author 2024.

2

Material

CARBON REDUCTI ON

Case

Absolute TCO2

Basecase

340.27

Improved Case 02

163.57

Table 11.1.5: Building section highlighting staircase | Source: Author 2024.

Toughened Glass – 6mm thick with Laminated Timber Frame

Type Facade

Quantity

Absolute TCO2/m

Glass 13.17 m2 Frame – 30 m2

7.45

Fig 11.1.6: Ground Floor Plan | Source: Author 2024.

The addition of a wall and door proved to have a significant reduction in terms of Absolute and total carbon output by almost 81%

OVERALL, CARBON REDUCTION

51.9%

1.4

CARBON REDUCTION

81.4%

Though this Design change proved to be effective in carbon reduction, changing the aesthetic can compromise, the overall functionality of the space and client perspective.

6

1 2 . I M P R O V E D C A S E 0 2 R E S U LT S :

1 3 . I L L U S T R AT I O N O F E C O C A S E I M P R O V E M E N T S BASE CASE

IMPROVED CASE 1

IMPROVED CASE 2

RATING

2

4

5

UPFRONT CARBON

1.34

0.9

0.63

ALTERING FINISHES

Generic glass wool Insulation at Roof level and internal walls

Glass wool (Recycled) insulation at roof level and in internal walls

Glass wool (Recycled) insulation at roof level and in internal walls

Window system with Aluminium Frames

Window system with Aluminium Frames

• Reduced Window wall ratio to reduce glass • Replacing alumnium frame with timber in windows

Garage comprises of retaining wall & concrete slab.

Double clay brick for external walls

• Garage comprises of retaining wall & concrete slab.

• External brickwork changed to clay bricks with recycled content

• Retaining wall and RCC Roof slab for garage is replaced with insulated Steel columns wall 150x75mm and with metal decking slab respectively.

SUPER STRUCTURE

• Staircase-25 Mpa Concrete - Generic OPC • First floor slab consists of reinforced Concrete

• Staircase- 25 Mpa Concrete – 100% Geopolymer replacement • First floor slab- 32 Mpa Concrete – 100% Geopolymer replacement

• Staircase beams are now 85mm thk CrossLaminated Timber Panel • First floor slab is replaced with a glasswool insulated Steel decking slab.

SUB STRUCTURE

• 32 Mpa Concrete 32 Mpa with steel fibermesh

• 32 Mpa Concrete – Geopolymer replacement

• I-Section Steel universal column foundation

1 2 . 1 B Y M AT E R I A L S

ALTERING DESIGN

• ALTERING STRUCTURE

Fig:12.1.1.Top 5 Materilas for Upfront Carbon for Improved Case 02 in TCO2. (Source: Author,2024).

•

After deploying the strategies mentioned above and mitigating most of the concrete , we were able to attain a Five Star rating.

The chart displays that Brick accounts for 15.1% of carbon upfront, Ceramic Tile accounts for 12.1%, and the remaining materials account for 55.1% as the top five materials of the building.

Fig:12.1.2. Breakdown for Upfront Carbon for Improved Case 02 in TCO2. (Source: Author,2024).

Fig13.1.1: Axonometric view highlighting the improvements I Source; Author,2024

Table 13.1.1 Showing Details & Changes Implemented in Base case, Improved case 1, Improved case 2, Source: Author, 2024.

12.2 BENCHMARK

Geopolymer Concrete is cost effective due to use of industrial byproducts

Reduction in window to wall ratio optimize daylight Material eliminatio n and reduced quantities

Reduction in energy bills by use of PV Panels

Base Case

Improved Case 01

Improved Case 02

180 156.37

160 140 120

TCO2

12.3 COST REDUCTION SOLUTIONS

Figure 13.1.2 illustrates the Total carbon emissions for the Base Case, Improved Case 01, and Improved Case 02. The base case employs a high carbon content in its substructure, superstructure, architectural elements, and operational energy.

Another strategy to enhance was Improved Case 01 aiming to lower carbon levels by improving the materials used in the system. Thereafter in Improved Case 02 we focused on implementing certain modifications to the structure, which had a significant effect on reducing carbon emissions by 51.9%, resulting in the attainment of a five-star rating for the building.

UPFRONT CARBON

95.84

100

82.02

75.04

80 60

38.43

40 20

22.84 7.25

6.54

1.92

33.29

30.5 13.71

10.21 9.72

0

25.25 6.16 3.49 0.22

0.92

1.22 1.12

FOOTPRINT ASPECTS Fig 13.1.2: Graph showing Upfront Carbon for Base Case, Improved Case 01 & Improved 02 in TCO2, Source: Author ,2024.

Fig:12.1.3. Cost Reduction Solutions. (Source: Author,2024).

Note: Values for Operational Energy is rounded off in thousands TCO2 for visual representation of reduction.

7

1 4 . O P E R AT I O N A L E N E R G Y

1 5 . O P E R AT I O N A L W AT E R

1 4 . 1 . B E N C H M A R K I N G F O R O P E R AT I O N A L E N E R G Y

1 5 . 1 . B E N C H M A R K I N G F O R O P E R AT I O N A L WAT E R :

The benchmarking was conducted to analyze the per person usage within a household. The building is currently occupied by 10 occupants and has a total of 5 bedrooms. To get the data for household energy consumption, we have considered the report provided by the Australian Energy Regulator.

Energy consumption for residential house with 5 bedroom (base case): STATE

TYPE

CONSUMPTION(KWH)

TOTAL ANNUAL OPERATION ENERGY(TCO2)Absolute

NSW

ELECTRICITY

9008

1189.06

NSW

GAS

8000

1336

TOTAL

220L/day per person 0.88 TCO2

40KL Swimming Pool 0.04 TCO2

15KL Rainwater Tank 0.07 TCO2

TOTAL OPERATIONAL WATER

1.12 TCO2

Note: The values mentioned are referenced from the NSW Health Article.

1 5 . 2 . S T R AT E G I E S TO R E D U C E P OTA B L E WAT E R C O N S U M P T I O N

2525.06

Table14.1.1: Breakdown for Upfront Carbon for Improved Case 02 in TCO2, (Source: Author 2024).

1 4 . 2 . S T R AT E G I E S TO R E D U C E O P E R AT I O N A L E N E R G Y 1

SOLAR POWER GENERATION

Grey Water Generated

7KWh •

20 panels – 50% roof coverage

•

28 panels – 65% roof coverage

•

Power generated - 3285 KWh/Yr

•

•

Electric Bill Savings - $ 1445/yr

•

Break even period (without

Power generated - 4692 KWh/Yr

Kitchen 0.99 KL/yr

Treated Water

Landscaping 2.8 KL/yr

•

Electric Bill Savings - $ 2065/yr

11.84 KL/yr

11.9 KL/yr

•

Break even period (without

50% water recovered

Shower 10.85 KL/yr

5.9 KL/yr

Toilet 9.1 KL/yr

•

rebate) – 5.6 yrs

Break even period (with rebate)

•

– 4.15 yrs •

TOTAL OPERATIONAL WATER

1.22 TCO2*

Rainwater 50%

Break even period (with rebate) – 4.0 yrs

Energy bill savings 10yrs - $6366

•

Energy bill savings 10yrs - $9091

CARBON REDUCTIO N

CARBON REDUCTIO N

755 TCO2 36.5%

2

Recycled Water 50%

10KWh

rebate) – 5.6 yrs By adopting solar energy for operating home or office appliances, you can reduce your reliance on purchasing electricity from the electricity vendor. (Financial Benefits of Solar | Energy.gov.au,2024).

Recycled Water Demand

570 TCO2 52%

1 5 . 3 . A LT E R N AT E S T R AT E G I E S TO R E D U C E WAT E R C O N S U M P T I O N

PHASING OUT GAS

Due to Drastic effects of climate change, significant strategies are currently being explored by governments to phase out the use of gas for heating and cooking purposes and eventually be completely removed from households. Gas proved to have a high global warming potential due to its productions processes and has become a concern for safety in most households because of its flammable properties.

Through the process of on-site recycling of greywater, 2 uses of water i.e. the landscapes and toilets are replenished by treatment of grey water, however in the reduction of the use of grid-based water, the operational carbon increases by 0.1 TCO2 due to the treatment process. Increased Processes of on-site recycling though may increase carbon output prove to be more beneficial as overall water consumption is reduced drastically.

•

Assuming : 1 KWhr Of Electricity = 3 KWh of gas

•

Therefore, Total Gas Consumption = 2666 KWhr of electricity per year

•

Total Electricity consumed: 11674 kWh

Since Electricity consumption is : 11674 kWh

Using Solar panel system of 10kWh, total electricity generated by Solar panels = 4692 kWh

GRID ELECTRICITY REDUCTION

59%

TOTAL CARBON

921 TCO2

OVERALLL CARBON REDUCTION

63%

7 Minute Shower

Fix leaky taps (Sensor Tap)

Run Full load of Clothes

Drip Irrigation

Total Grid Based Electricity Consumed : 6982 kWh

8

16.DISCUSSIONS • •

•

•

•

•

•

•

1 7 . 1 F O OT P R I N T C A L C U L ATO R

The use of recycled materials and waste are subject to availability and proximity to site.

•

The use of low carbon materials are tentatively always associated with less material requirements.

Replacing a large quantity of material with low carbon alternatives cannot guarantee an improved building performance in terms of lower carbon output.

•

•

Operational water efficiency can be improved through the use of efficient water fixtures.

•

The effects of recycled materials on Indoor environment quality is not calculated effectively .

New technologies are not standardized and not tested for benchmarks, making it cumbersome for building approvals.

• •

Location of plot is not specific, and virgin materials maybe less carbon emissive than recycled materials-based material availability.

1 7 . L I M I T AT I O N S •

19.REFERENCES

Cost of the Assemblies are subjective to supplier and are not completely accurate.

Quantification is executed based on drawings and need not accurately represent the actual structural requirements of the building.

The LCA Assessment does not account for circular economy of materials that are readily available which can have drastic effects on carbon emissions

The carbon emissions of materials present are calculated unanimously through an average of the countries output. Location specific data and the use of locally sourced materials can not be calculated easily as the approach is very standardized.

Certain construction assemblies are not present which are heavily used, and addition of any new materials follows a very tedious process.

Bifurcation of materials based on building element for quantification is not very detailed in certain categories and addition of more categories is cumbersome.

Unit quantification of certain materials don’t match the standardized measurement unit of materials in the market often making it challenging to quantify especially when a bill of quantities for the building is outsourced from an alternate consultancy.

Assessments of the same building can't be compared through the website, unless exported.

Brand specific building materials don’t have the same carbon output as a non-branded ones. Having the same material with a brand not specified in the calculator can show incorrect carbon outputs.

18.CONCLUSIONS •

• •

• •

•

There are no benchmarks and ratings for Operational energy and water to compare with.

Merely substituting materials does not suffice to enhance the sustainability of construction assemblies; rather, there is a need for comprehensive updates in their composition. This entails a judicious selection and utilization of materials to optimize their environmental impact.

Natural materials, while exhibiting low carbon emissions, often present challenges in quantifying their overall sustainability due to their relatively high embodied water content.

The transition away from gas-based energy sources and the adoption of on-site renewable energy generation, particularly through solar photovoltaic systems, represent proactive measures toward reducing carbon emissions.

Furthermore, the recycling of water, although an energy-intensive process, contributes to a diminished reliance on water from external sources, thereby mitigating pressure on the grid.

However, it is important to acknowledge that this process may entail an increase in carbon footprint, underscoring the necessity for a balanced evaluation of environmental trade-offs.

1.

Archdaily. (2017, December 9). Cricket Pitch House / Scale https://www.archdaily.com/885145/cricket-pitch-house-scale-architecture

2.

CSIRO. (n.d.). States and Territories. Australian Housing Data. Retrieved April 28, 2024, from https://ahd.csiro.au/dashboards/energy-rating/states/

3.

Foster, R., & Harrington, L. (2022). With assistance from IT Power Renewable Energy Consulting. https://www.abcb.gov.au/sites/default/files/resources/2022/Whole-of-home-component-final.pdf

4.

Frontier Economics.

(2020).

Residential energy consumption benchmarks. https://www.aer.gov.au/system/files/Residential%20energy%20consumption%20benchmarks%20%209%20December%202020_0.pdf

5.

Jami, T., & Kumar, S. (2017, September). (PDF) Assessment of Carbon Sequestration of Hemp Concrete.

ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320058537_Assessment_of_Carbon_Sequestration_of_Hem p_Concrete

6.

National Construction Code. (n.d.). Specification J1.5 Wall Construction | NCC. Ncc.abcb.gov.au.

Retrieved 2024, from https://ncc.abcb.gov.au/editions/2016/ncc-2016-volume-one/section-j-energyefficiency/specification-j15-wall-construction

7.

Nguyen, co-authored by G. B., Federico Tartarini, Clima.cbe.berkeley.edu. https://clima.cbe.berkeley.edu/

8.

NSW Health.

(2000).

Greywater Reuse in Sewered Single Domestic Premises. https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/environment/domesticwastewater/Documents/greywater-reusepolicy.pdf

9.

NSW State of EnvironmentNSW State of Environment. (2024). Urban Water Supply | NSW State of the Environment.

Www.soe.epa.nsw.gov.au. https://www.soe.epa.nsw.gov.au/all-themes/humansettlement/urban-water-supply

10.

Oyebisi, S., Olutoge, F., Kathirvel, P., Oyaotuderekumor, I., Lawanson, D., Nwani, J., Ede, A., & Kaze, R. (2022). Sustainability assessment of geopolymer concrete synthesized by slag and corncob ash. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 17, e01665. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2022.e01665

11.

solarcalculator. (2024). SunSPoT. Solarcalculator.sunspot.org.au. https://solarcalculator.sunspot.org.au

12.

Sydney Water.

(2024).

Water efficiency targets.

Www.sydneywater.com.au. https://www.sydneywater.com.au/your-home/saving-water-at-home/water-efficiency-targets.html

13.

Weatherspark. (2023). Average Weather in Sydney, Australia, Year Round - Weather Spark.

Weatherspark.com. https://weatherspark.com/y/144544/Average-Weather-in-Sydney-Australia-YearRound

Christine.

Architecture.

(2021).

CBE

ArchDaily.

Clima

Tool.

19.1 IMAGE REFERENCES: 1.

Cavity walls and the benefits of insulating them - TheGreenAge. (2013, August 11). TheGreenAge - the Home of Energy Saving. https://www.thegreenage.co.uk/cavity-walls-and-benefits-of-insulatingthem/#google_vignette

2.

Column formwork. (n.d.).

123RF. Retrieved https://www.123rf.com/photo_37890270_column-formwork.html

3.

Desk, H. N. (2023, April 5). Footing: Meaning, role, types, and common problems. Housing News. https://housing.com/news/footing/

4.

Engineering Science: Shear Wall and Pile Foundation. (2015, March 7). Engineering Science. http://engineeringgravity.blogspot.com/2015/03/shear-wall-and-pile-foundation.html

5.

Financial benefits of solar | energy.gov.au. https://www.energy.gov.au/solar/financial-benefits-solar

6.

Nancie. (2021, February 26). Foundation Excavation Cost: 7 Important Factors. EXCAVATION CHANTHIER. https://excavationchanthier.ca/en/blog/what-factors-influence-the-cost-of-excavation-for-foundations/

7.

Residential Plasterboard - SHEETROCK® ONE | Knauf AU. (n.d.).

Knauf Australia. https://www.knaufapac.com/en_au/products/interior-linings/sheetrock-plasterboard/sheetrock-one.html

8.

Residential Roofing. (n.d.).

Metal Deck. https://www.metaldeck.com.au/install/residential-roofing/

2024,

from

9.

THERMAL / ACOUSTIC FLOOR SLABS PRECAST CONCRETE SOLUTIONS. https://oreillyconcrete.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Thermal-Flooring-Properties.pdf

(n.d.).

Retrieved

April

28,

(2024).

April

28,

2024,

from

Energy.gov.au.

The inclusion of a life cycle assessment needs to be considered during the early design stage to optimally choose construction technologies of the project.

9

22.APPENDIX

Table22.1.1: Australia Energy Regulator Electricity consumption in KWH/yr

Table22.1.5. Solar System Summary

Table22.1.2: Australia Energy Regulator Gas consumption in KWH/yr

Table22.1.6: NCC Costing for PV without rebate

Table22.1.3 :Wastewater Generated in Domestic Household in Australia, NSW Health.

Table22.1.7: NCC Costing for PV with rebate Table22.1.4: Comparison of Solar and Non solar consumed..

10

MATERIALS

PASSIVE STRATEGIES TIMBER

GALVANIZED METAL SHEETS

GLAZING AND LEADLIGHTS TURBINE VENTILATOR WITH HINGED DAMPER

PRISM

CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS DIAGONALBRACES - GANG NAIL PLATES TIMBER FRAMING

Fig 20. Roof crown (Janina Gosseye, 2018)

In this system, diagonal braces made of timber are connected to vertical or horizontal framing members using Gangnail plates. The plates are pressed into the timber members, creating a strong and durable connection that helps to distribute loads effectively throughout the structure.

Benefits:

Fig 16. Timber framing (Janina Gosseye, 2018)

bin e

In Carpenter Hall House, glazing incorporates colored glass to add vibrancy, while leadlights offer intricate patterns, both making up for almost 30% glazing ratio. Both elements enhance the aesthetic appeal and character of the house, while allowing natural light.

Due to low thermal insulation and high cost, Low-e glazed glass with decorative printings, can be a preferable option in today’s context.

tur

Carpenter Hall House uses a lot of galvanised metal sheets, which are an aesthetically pleasing and durable material. These include the conical roofing and the butterfly panels on the elevation which reduce solar gains. Presenting high maintenance cost in the current context, nonetheless. Although 3 times cheaper than shingles, and 2 times cheaper than typical concrete slab in today’s context.

into

Carpenter Hall House extensively incorporates local timber such as Queensland maple, silky oak, Cedar, brush box throughout its design, utilizing the material’s natural thermal performance, versatility, and sustainability as compared to typical materials such as brick/concrete.

Timber is utilized in structural framing, single-skin wall construction, and various aspects of the interior and exterior finishes. Modern substitutes like glued laminated wood (glulam) or laminated veneer lumber (LVL) can be used to counter the risk of fire and high maintenance requirements.

Fig 15. Leadlight (Source Author)

Stale air

using wind ca rotation

Suc tion

Fig 13. Timber (Source Author)

Fig 14. Galvanized sheet (Source Author)

In the turbine ventilator with hinged damper, as wind passes over the roof, it causes the ventilator to rotate, creating suction and drawing stale air and moisture out of the building. It provides passive ventilation, promoting airflow and reducing the need for mechanical cooling systems. As the studio, is surrounded by the landscape and land, the lower region gets colder and upper region is warmer due to warm air surrounding and passing through the structure, thus creating the natural stacking effect which is enhanced by turbine ventilator.

The prism installed on the rooftop of Carpenter Hall House optimizes the convergence and reflection of light in the shaft. The prism not only allows for abundant natural light, but it can also aid in passive solar heating during colder months, enhancing thermal comfort and lowering the need for heating. However, it may cause issues in the summer by increasing solar gains.

CONICAL TOP

LIGHTNING ROD

The conical cap is a cap that is positioned on top of the turbine ventilator. It provides protection for the ventilator system from weather conditions while yet allowing for optimal airflow.

The lightning rod finial is an aesthetic and functional feature that is mounted at the highest point of the roof. Its purpose is to safeguard the structure from lightning strikes by establishing a conduit for electrical discharge to the ground.

Benefits:

Gang-nail plated timber framing provides a strong and stable structural performance by offering lateral stability and effectively resisting external forces like wind or seismic stresses.

Efficiency: The utilization of gang-nail plates facilitates the construction process by enabling rapid and efficient assembly at the construction site.

Cost-Effectiveness: Gang-nail plating timber framing is more cost-effective than traditional joinery methods, as it reduces both labor and material expenses.

Ventilation: The turbine ventilator aids in natural ventilation, enhancing air circulation and decreasing heat accumulation in the attic area. This can contribute to enhance comfort and indoor air quality.

Aesthetic: The aesthetic qualities of the building are enhanced by the roof crown components, such as the prism, conical cap, and lightning rod finial, which contribute to its architectural character and visual appeal, so improving its overall design.

Function: The lightning rod finial serves a crucial purpose by offering vital protection from lightning strikes, ensuring the safety of the building and its inhabitants by preventing potential damage or harm.

Drawbacks:

Drawbacks:

Reliance on Manufacturer: The accessibility and caliber of Gang-nail plates are contingent upon manufacturers, thereby impacting project schedules and expenses.

Corrosion Vulnerability: Although contemporary Gang-nail plates are usually coated to withstand corrosion, prolonged contact with moisture or external elements might still be a potential hazard.

Fig 17. Axometric (Author, 2024)

Regular maintenance: iIt is necessary to preserve the optimal performance of the turbine ventilator and hinged damper, as well as to inspect and upkeep the lightning rod finial.

Expense: The inclusion of roof crown elements, including the turbine ventilator and lightning rod system, may contribute to the overall cost of constructing the building.

SINGLE SKIN WALL SYSTEM

GALVANIZED METAL-SHEET FINS

A single-skin wall framing system consists of timber framing members that are placed to provide the structure of the outside walls, without the inclusion of extra layers like as insulation or cladding. It is probable that it enhances the building’s character by displaying the inherent attractiveness of timber while also providing an economical construction Fig 18. Single skin wall system (Janina Gosseye, 2018) option in 1970’s.

Benefits:

Benefits:

Cost-Effectiveness: The system’s simplicity reduced construction expenses, made it an appealing choice for projects with financial limitations in the era of 1970’s.

Accelerated and efficient Construction: Single-skin wall framing, due to its simplified structure, would have been expedite construction schedules, potentially leading to shorter project durations. Single-skin wall frame offers a straightforward construction process, needing less materials and semi-skilled manpower when compared to multi-layered wall systems.

Solar Shading: The inclined metallic fins efficiently obstruct direct sunlight, thereby diminishing solar heat absorption and glare within the residence.

Aesthetic: The addition of fins to the building’s front enhances its architectural appeal by introducing visual interest and a modern aesthetic.

Durability: The galvanized metal-sheet fins possess a high level of resilience and are resistant to weathering, enabling them to endure harsh environmental conditions for an extended period.

Energy eficient: The fins enhance energy efficiency by lowering solar heat gain, hence decreasing the need for cooling during warmer months.

Drawbacks:

Drawbacks: Inadequate Thermal Performance: The lack of insulation in single-skin wall frame can cause insufficient thermal insulation, resulting in higher expenses for heating and cooling in extreme summers and mild winters and potential discomfort.

Moisture: Exposed timber framing is prone to moisture infiltration and deterioration, which can undermine the structural stability of the walls over a period of time.

Maintenance Requirements: Consistent maintenance or treating the wooden structure, is essential to prevent problems caused by dampness, deterioration, and insect infestation.

Alternative:

Fig 18. Single skin wall system (Janina Gosseye, 2018)

Wide, galvanized metal-sheet fins are installed around the exterior walls of Carpenter Hall House, positioned at angles to shield the building from the low-angle sunlight during sunrise and sunset. These fins create a dynamic architectural feature while serving a practical purpose of mitigating solar heat gain and glare. Although the intensity of the overhead solar gain is reduced during the summer, the lower angle light in winter will also be obstructed, perhaps impeding the desired passive solar gains.

Moreover, the overly broad extension of the sheets may not provide significant protection from solar gains for the walls and can lead to unnecessary use of additional materials.

Expense: The incorporation of galvanized metal-sheet fins during installation may result in higher building expenses in comparison to more basic facade treatments.

Maintenance: Although the fins are long-lasting, they may need regular cleaning and upkeep to maintain their beauty and effectiveness.

Design Constraints: The inclusion of angled fins in the facade design may present difficulties in creating architectural coherence and seamless interaction with other design components.

Alternatives to single-skin wall framing include double-skin wall systems with added insulation and cladding layers for improved thermal performance and durability.

Alternative -

LIMITATIONS

DISCUSSION

CONCLUSION

Although our analysis is thorough, it is constrained by certain constraints. The availability of comprehensive data on the materials and construction methods used in Carpenter Hall House may be limited, which could impact the thoroughness of our evaluation. Moreover, the assessment of sustainability in the 1970s and 2024 is founded on overarching patterns rather than precise information pertaining to Carpenter Hall House. Moreover, the extent of our analysis is limited by the reSsources now at our disposal, which requires additional research and on-site examination in order to achieve a thorough understanding.

Our study of Carpenter Hall House reveals its comprehensive commitment to sustainability and architectural ingenuity. The use of natural materials like timber and stone demonstrates a dedication to environmental sustainability, while passive design techniques enhance energy efficiency and occupant comfort. The progression of sustainability concerns from the 1970s to 2024 underscores the growing imperative to tackle climate change in the constructed environment.

Upgrading ancient buildings such as Carpenter Hall House poses difficulties and possibilities in adhering to contemporary sustainability criteria while safeguarding architectural legacy. Carpenter Hall House provides unique insights into the junction of tradition, innovation, and environmental stewardship in architectural practice by examining its materials, building techniques, passive strategies, and sustainability trends.

Ultimately, Carpenter Hall House functions as a significant example in the realm of sustainable design and the conservation of architectural heritage. Although the use of natural materials and passive solutions in this context is in line with principles of environmental responsibility, there are issues that need to be addressed, such as improving thermal performance and energy efficiency through retrofitting and adaptation. The incorporation of cutting-edge construction methods in the house emphasizes a fusion of conventional and modern approaches in architectural design.

•Kibert, C. J. (2022). Sustainable Construction: Green Building Design and Delivery (Fifth edition). Wiley-Blackwell.

•Communications. (2015, June 9). Carpenter Hall House | Environment, land and water. Apps.des.qld.gov.au. https://apps.des.qld.gov. au/heritage-register/detail/?id=650272​ •The State of Queensland, T. S. of Q. (2015, June 9). Carpenter Hall House | Environment, land and water. Apps.des.qld.gov.au. https:// apps.des.qld.gov.au/heritage-register/detail/?id=650272​ •De Gruchy, Architecture in Brisbane, p.38-45; Wallace and Stutchbury, Place Makers, pp.54-75, 118-131, 246-255.

•Timothy O’Donnell, The Fassifern Connection: Russell Hall and the Exposed Stud Frame, Bachelor of Architecture Thesis, University of Queensland, 1987, Chapter 3, Russell Hall’s Use of the Exposed Frame’, p.35.​

•Allenby Et al, Eight Great Houses, p.144.

•Donald Watson, 2012, ‘A House of Sticks: A History of Queenslander Houses in Maryborough’, Queensland Review, Vol.19, June 2012, p.52, cited in Entry on the Queensland Heritage Register, North Pine Presbyterian Church (former) (QHR 600767).​ •The Royal Australian Institute of Architects Queensland Chapter, 2021, Queensland Heritage Register application, Carpenter Hall House, information from application.​ •Russell Hall Architects Website, Promotional Material, https://russellhallarchitects.com.au/wall-frame-system-1/ Accessed 15 July 2021; this document refers to the house as ‘Lambert Tower House’; De Gruchy, Architecture in Brisbane, p.44.​

May include adjustable louvers, operable shading devices, or dynamic facade systems.

Carpenter Hall House provides instruction and motivation for implementing sustainable retrofitting and preserving historical heritage. By utilizing breakthroughs in construction technologies and sustainable design principles, we may improve the durability and efficiency of current structures while maintaining their architectural authenticity. Carpenter Hall House exemplifies the lasting significance of sustainable design and the necessity of harmonizing tradition with innovation in the quest for ecologically conscious building. By doing ongoing research, fostering cooperation, and using proven strategies, we have the ability to construct structures that not only honor historical significance but also embrace the future of environmentally conscious living.

REFERENCES

DESC9169 | Daylight in Buildings

DAYLIGHT ANALYSIS OF INDOOR SPACES STUDENT ID : 530784232, 530798066, 520283853, 530609511

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 INTRODUCTION 1.2 STUDY AIM AND OBJECTIVES 1.3 STUDY METHODOLOGY 1.4 LOCATION : THE UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY, CAMPERDOWN/DARLINGTON CAMPUS 1.5 CLIMATE STUDY : SYDNEY

2. SPACE 1 : 336 Geosciences Petrology & Geophysics laboratory, Madsen Building 2.1 SPATIAL GEOMETRY AND UTILIZATION 2.2 SUN AND SHADING 3.1 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS 3.2 QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS 4.1. CASE STUDIES 4.2. STANDARDS/ TARGET PERFORMANCE- LABORATORIES 4.3. DAYLIGHT EVALUATION- OPERATING CONDITIONS 4.4. KEY INFERENCES- CASE STUDY

5. SPACE 2 : CLASSROOM, WILKINSON BUILDING 5.1. SPATIAL GEOMETRY AND UTILIZATION 5.2. SUN AND SHADING 5.3. MATERIAL COMPOSITION AND SURFACE REFLECTANCES 6.1. QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS 6.2. QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS 7.1 CASE STUDIES 7.2. STANDARDS/ TARGET PERFORMANCE- CLASSROOMS 7.3. DAYLIGHT EVALUATION- OPERATING CONDITIONS 7.4 KEY INFERENCES- CASE STUDIES 8. ANALYSIS 8.1. AVERAGE DAYLIGHT FACTOR FOR BOTH SPACES 8.2. CRITICAL DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 9.1. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS FOR DATA COLLECTION 9.2. ASSUMPTIONS AND LIMITATIONS 9.3. CONCLUSION 9.4. REFERENCES 10. APPENDIX

Page no: 1

DESC9169 | Daylight in Buildings

Daylight Analysis of Indoor Spaces

1.4 LOCATION : THE UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY, CAMPERDOWN/DARLINGTON CAMPUS

1.1 INTRODUCTION Primarily, lighting dominates a significant section of the blueprint of energy consumption for building operations. This is why emphasis is perpetually laid on maximizing daylight utilization for enabling visual comfort, uplifting work productivity and reinforcing wellbeing.

Daylighting, as described by the Whole Building Design Guide (WBDG) is "the controlled admission of direct sunlight and diffused skylight into a building to reduce electric lighting and saving energy." (The University of Sydney - Sign In, 2024) A well thought integration of systems, technologies and architecture can help to realize this endeavor. This assessment approaches daylight evaluation in a space from a comprehensive perspective of empirical data plus considerations for neighboring context, room utility, material characteristics, design interventions and others.

The selected spaces are located within the campus of the University of Sydney. Two different typologies of learning spaces were selected, due to their functional differences.

Space 1: Petrology lab at Madsen Building

1.2 STUDY AIM AND OBJECTIVES This study is purposed towards understanding Daylight as a significant characteristic for performing activities in a space. It attempts this through an analytical, case- study approach of two discrete academic spaces within The University of Sydney to cumulate learnings from observations, quantitative on-site measurements/ numeric data and a diligent study of precedent studies.

Space 2: Seminar room at Wilkinson Building

Assimilating information from literature sources and case studies, this study aspires to-

Assess the visual comfort in spaces that is essentially promoted through daylight design interventions Grasp technicalities of lighting such as- lux, luminance levels, transmittance, reflectance etc. to optimize design solutions Evaluate the effectiveness of strategies to achieve occupant comfort and energy efficiency Propose solutions to amend the daylight performance by suggesting appropriate adjustments for daylight factor (DF), brightness levels, and such other aspects

Fig 1.2: Annotated Maps and images showing the site location (Author, 2024; The University of Sydney, 2024)

1.5 CLIMATE STUDY : SYDNEY Sunlight and shading patterns are variable, with the altitude angles reaching 700 in summer and 200 in winter. The illuminance chart shows that lux levels are highest in summer and lowest in winter. Illuminance levels above 30000 lux are likely to cause glare in indoor spaces (Johnsen et al., 2006). Hence it becomes vital to include control strategies that cater to visual comfort without compromising on thermal comfort.

1.3 STUDY METHODOLOGY As illustrated alongside, this report pursues a due diligence of on-site observations, insitu numeric data and precedent studies for daylight analysis to propose effective improvements.

Space Selection & Data Collection Seminar Room

Petrology Lab Madsen Building

Data Analysis

Wilkinson Building

Fig 1.3: Illuminance range Chart (Climate Consultant)

(Qualitative & Quantitative)

Fig. 1.1: Study Methodology Source: Author, 2024

Information Integration

Interpretation & Propositions

(Learnings from data analysis + case studies)

(Key Findings, Critical Summary, Conclusions)

Fig 1.4: Sun path Diagram, Sydney; (CBE Clima, 2024; Marsh, 2023)

The sky cover data further reinforces the possibility of excessive glare in summers due to cloud conditions; the combination of sunlight and skylight(dispersed light from clouds) are of high magnitude. During winters, the sky is clear, suggesting lower effects of dispersed skylight.

Fig 1.5: Sky Cover Chart; (CBE Clima, 2024)

Page no: 2

DESC9169 | Daylight in Buildings

Daylight Analysis of Indoor Spaces

SPACE 1 : 336 Geosciences Petrology & Geophysics laboratory, Madsen Building 2.1 SPATIAL GEOMETRY AND UTILIZATION The room measures 17.3m l X 5.4m w X 3.5m h (figure 5- 10). There are windows located on the northern side, which are made up of different types of glazing (figure 7); these are of 2.5m height and 1m sill levels. The working plane is at a height of 0.7m (laboratory desk level). The activities and occupancy are detailed in figure x and y.

Fig 2.8: Images of the lab demarcated with material composition (Author, 2024) VISUAL TASKS: 1. Rock sample analysis (H) 2. Lectures (V) 3. Laptop use (V) 4. Reading (H) 5. Writing (H)

V- Vertical, H- Horizontal

Fig 2.9: Weekly occupancy profile (Author, 2024) Fig 2.1: Floor plan annotated with measurement grid (1m X 1m) (Author, 2024)

2.2 SUN AND SHADING 31/0709:00

MADSEN BUILDING

MADSEN BUILDING

Fig 2.2: Interior Elevation annotated with light measurement grid (Author, 2024)

31/0715:00

Fig 2.6: Axonometric view (Author, 2024) 15/0209:00

MADSEN BUILDING

15/0215:00

MADSEN BUILDING

The space gets sunlight from the north, but the nearby chemistry building, 15 meters away, shades it during winter, leaving the space dark during the mornings (figure 15 and 16). In contrast, as analysed on DesignBuilder, during the summer, the building doesn’t block the sun due to the higher angle, resulting in excessive sunlight in the space (figure 14). A significant amount of glare was seen in the periphery during the observation periods (post noon)

Fig 2.10: Summer and Winter conditions, during the commencement of academic sessions (Author, 2024)

Fig 2.3: Window-side elevation marked with glazing types (Author, 2024)

Fig 2.4: Back Elevation (Author, 2024)

Fig 2.5: Front Elevation (Author, 2024)

Fig 2.7: Petrology Lab activities (Author, 2024)

Fig 2.11: Shadow of the adjacent building falling on the windows (taken at 11:45 pm) (Author, 2024)

Fig 2.12: Interior condition while the space is in shade (11:45 pm) (Author, 2024)

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DESC9169 | Daylight in Buildings

Daylight Analysis of Indoor Spaces

SPACE 1 : 336 Geosciences Petrology & Geophysics laboratory, Madsen Building 3.1 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

3.2 QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS 4. Illuminance Distribution

Static Assessment of Daylight Metrics

1. Glazing Transmittance (VLT)- (Internal/ External) X 100 %

AVERAGE ILLUMINANCE DISTRIBUTION (LUX)

Visible Light Transmittance (VLT)

Glazing Type

External (lux)

Internal (lux)

VLT

Single, Clear glass

3250

3990

81.45%

Frosted glass, with tint

1188

3460

34.33%

Frosted glass, without tint

3410

4830

70.60%

Patterned glass

2260

3370

67.06%

5000 4500

4000 3500 3000

Fig 3.1: Glazing visual light transmittance (Author, 2024)

2500

2. Room reflectance

TYPE

2000 1500

TOTAL AVERAGE SURFACE REFLECTANCE ROOM REFLECTAN OF SURFACE (A REFLECTANC SOURCE FOR FINISH MATERIAL AREA (A) CE (SR) X SR) E (R) SR VALUES sq m

fraction

sq m

1000 500 A

0 1

2 A

fraction

3 B

C

C

B

E

D

G

F

I

H

J

K

L

M

O

N

4 D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

Fig 3.3: Average illuminance distribution (Author,2024)

WALL (SIDES+BACK)

White paint

95.02

0.8

76.016

FRONT WALL

Teal Paint

14.38

0.2

2.876

CEILING

White Ceiling tile (glossy)

102.6

0.7

71.82

FLOOR

Coloured Rubber Flooring (Teal)

102.6

0.2

20.52

TABLE TOP

PVC Light Gray

55.35

0.45

24.9075

WHITEBOARD

White Glossy

4.52

0.9

4.068

PINBOARD

Grey SUM

9.6 384.07

0.45

4.32

AS/NZS 1680.1 : 2006

0.53

The average illuminance near the windows is high because there is direct sunlight near the windows in the mornings and the evenings.

The illuminance level is not constant near the windows because of the varying VLT. ILLUMINANCE DISTRUBITION

(Decrolux, 2018) AS/NZS 1680.1 : 2006

204.5275

Fig 3.2: Surface Reflectance (Author, 2024) The front wall and floor had a teal-coloured paint finish that did not effectively reflect any of the light to the interiors. The rest of the room still had a comparatively lit appearance

26000 25000 24000 23000 22000 21000 20000 19000 18000 17000 16000 15000 14000 13000 12000 11000 10000 9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0

Comfortable range 320 lux – 800 lux 0 1

3. Daylight Factor Illuminance inside the space X 100 DF = Outside Illuminance It was observed that the daylight factor values are higher with proximity towards the window, with the areas in proximity to non-tinted glass, whereas the DF is extremely poor away from windows. The surface reflectance also greatly affects the DF levels as the front area had the least DF values (due to the teal-coloured wall with low reflectance).

Average Daylight Factor = 7.2%

2 2

3

4

4 1

2

3

6 4

1

2

8 3

4

1

10 2

3

4

12 1

2

3

14 4

1

2

16 3

4

Fig 3.4 : Plot of all the illuminance levels (Author,2024)

Analysis Criteria

UDI (Area in Range) Lower Limit

Upper limit

Min required for circulation AS/NZS 1680.1:2006 (Minimum requirement)

100

3000

320

3000

Assumed Comfortable range

320

800

% 74% 42% 29% Page no: 4

DESC9169 | Daylight in Buildings

Daylight Analysis of Indoor Spaces B. EDUCATIONAL AND OFFICE SPACES DESIGN FEATURES

4.1. CASE STUDIES

1. ENLIGHTENING SPACES- Window Wall Ratio & Material Reflectance

Integrated Daylight Design of Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, New York

Fig. 4.3: Clerestory Window Design Strategy Source: Cornell University, 2024 and Author, 2024

Fig. 4.1: Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology Source: Wikipedia Contributors, 2024

Laboratory settings usually have intensive energy consumption, high indoor environment quality and visual environment requirements (Hua et al., 2011). According to Koppen Climate Classification, New York is a humid, subtropical climate zone experiencing hot, humid summers, moderately cold and partially snowy winters,

2. SHAPING THE FACADE The lower storey of this 4- storey building is offset by roughly 3-ft., which facilitates horizontal self- shading for the lower floor.

A. BUILDING DESIGN- ATRIUM Daylight design is a major architectural influence on the performance of the building.

Educational facilities at the Weill Institute are organized around a central atrium space, which has skylights. It is the spine enabling transition between laboratory and office spaces and facilitates passive ventilation. Learning from the model of a Roman house, to give an increased feel of spaces that support social interaction (such as the atrium in this case), the top part should be made brighter to mimic the sky, varied in height from other spaces and be finished in light colors to allow for daylight penetration.

Primary task plane- working horizontal plane at desk height Secondary task plane- black/ whiteboards, softboard walls • Apropos AS/NZS 1680.2.3:2008 recommendations for Educational and Training Facilities- Maintained Illuminance in laboratories = 320 lx.

- Minimum Glare Index (UGR)= 19 • Increasing illuminance on the plane increases perceived quality of light until about 800 lx.

• High reflectance of surfaces facilitates interreflections, and promotes effective use of daylight

3. EXTERNAL SHADING DEVICES Since large windows flank the façade wall, they need to be supported with external shading devices to mitigate the consequences of harsh sunlight. Both East and West directions have vertical shading devices, however, the East has them shaped more like triangular wedges as compared to the more rectangular fins on the West façade (Hua et al., 2011)

Fig. 4.4: Design Interventions for Daylight Design Source: Redrawn by Author, 2024 from Cornell University , 2024

4.2. STANDARDS/ TARGET PERFORMANCE- LABORATORIES •

(both for offices & labs) has VLT of 0.7.

Majority of the interior surfaces have high reflectance properties since they are finished in white or light colors (Hua et al., 2011)

and ample rainfall. This implies that the facade of large buildings are tightly sealed and made HVAC dependent as a usual practice; which challenges daylight.

Fig. 4.2: Use of skylights as a Daylight Design Strategy for transition spaces Source: Cornell University , 2024

The window to wall ratio is diligently adjusted to incorporate clerestory windows, which is a very efficient way to penetrate daylight deeper within a space. The glazing

• • • •

4.3. DAYLIGHT EVALUATION- OPERATING CONDITIONS

4.4. KEY INFERENCES- CASE STUDY

Majority of the façade facing East & West- laboratories located to the West, office spaces located to the East.

Weather conditions on days of field study- full sun, partly overcast, fully overcast (Hua et al., 2011) Illuminance levels were measured at three locations- computer screen, keyboard, and primary work surface as identified by the occupant (Hua et al., 2011) Data was measured approx. every 2 hours on days of field study. Exterior horizontal surface- 5340 to 73,200 lux (unobstructed sun) & 2562 to 10,090 lux (shaded by clouds)

• •

•

Efficient Daylight Design is a cumulative of many considerationsbuilding design & function, nature and color of surface finishes, sun path, context, orientation The location of openings influences the pattern of daylight penetration, the direction of light, interior design. Extent of interaction with outside has psychological influence on the users of space (Standards Australia & Standards New Zealand, 2006) An integrated daylight system (fenestration, shading, skylights, redirection devices, etc.) gives flexibility to manipulate daylight penetration

Page no: 5

DESC9169 | Daylight in Buildings

Daylight Analysis of Indoor Spaces

SPACE 2 : CLASSROOM, WILKINSON BUILDING 5.1. SPATIAL GEOMETRY AND UTILIZATION

5.2. SUN AND SHADING

The classroom selected for the daylight study is Urban design studio situated on level 5, at the Wilkinson’s Building, The University of Sydney . It is occupied from mornings to late afternoons every week. The functionality of the room majorly engages with learning activity and group discussion The classroom is 10.6m X 7.2m, 10.6M TEACHING (WHITEBOARD AND PROJECTION)

F E

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES

7.5M

D C

READING & TAKING NOTES

GROUP WORK

Fig 5.5 : External context analysis for sun ingress (Author using google earth pro, 2024) DRAFTING

B A PANEL PRESENTATION

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

W

E

STUDYING USING SELF-LIT DEVICES

As the orientation of the façade doesn’t align with the cardinal directions a mixed type of shading device is used which has sloping overhang with louvers in the front.

This shading device plays a crucial role in the quality of daylight inside the space.

Fig 5.4 : Classroom Lab activities (Author, 2024)

9

Fig 5.1 : Floor plan annotated with measurement grid (1m X 1m) (Author, 2024) 10.6M

Fig 5.6 : Shading devices (Author, 2024)

5.3. MATERIAL COMPOSITION AND SURFACE REFLECTANCES PLASTIC WHITEBOARD =16cd/m2

GREY PINBOARD PANELLING =12cd/m2

LIGHT GREY PAINT =14cd/m2

MATT BLACK PLASTIC CHAIR =2cd/m2

SINGLE GLAZED CLEAR WINDOWS =35cd/m2

MATT BLACK CARPET =2cd/m2

WHITE MATT FINISH DESKS =15cd/m2

3.0M

VERTICAL MEASUREMNET GRID

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Fig 5.2 : Interior Elevation annotated with the measurement grid (Author, 2024) 7.5M

As per the fig generated using fusion optix software the surface reflectance of various surfaces is gauged.

The matt white table surface helps in reflecting the light while the dark floors and chairs do not aid in the distribution of daylight in the space. The walls are light in colour so they make the room bright but don’t cause glare by being matt.

3.0M

VERTICAL MEASUREMNET GRID

The south-west façade is obstructed by another building, that is approximately 20m away. This blocks the direct sunlight entering the windows, but this reduces the illuminance in the room especially in winters.

WHITE PAINT =16cd/m2

F

E

D

C

B

A

Fig 5.3 : Window-side elevation (Author, 2024)

Fig 5.7 : Surface Materials of the Classroom (Author, 2024)

Fig 5.8 : Surface Reflectance (Author using Fusion Optix Software, 2024)

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DESC9169 | Daylight in Buildings

Daylight Analysis of Indoor Spaces

SPACE 2 : CLASSROOM, WILKINSON BUILDING: CRITICAL AND NUMERICAL ANALYSES 6.1. QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

6.2. QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS 324 measurements were taken at 54 grid points in the space, for 3 different times on 2 days. Each grid point covers approximately 1 sqm. The following observations were made:

Static Assessment of Daylight Metrics 1. Glazing Transmittance (VLT)- (Internal/ External) X 100 %

Unified Daylight Index / Useful Daylight Illuminance (UDI) Visible Light Transmittance (VLT)

It is a metric used to evaluate how effectively daylighting contributes to the illumination of indoor spaces. UDI represents the amount of daylight that falls within a range of illuminance levels that are considered useful for indoor activities, typically between 300 and 3000 lux.

Lower Limit

Upper limit

%

Min required for circulation (Assumed)

100

3000

82%

AS/NZS 1680.1:2006 (Minimum requirement)

240

3000

36%

Assumed Comfortable range

240

700

32%

AVERAGE ILLUMINANCE DISTRIBUTION (LUX)

800 600

400

F

0 2

3

4

5 A

6 B

C

7 D

E

8

E

D

C

B

A

9

F

1400 1350 1300 1250 1200 1150 1100 1050 1000 950 900 850 800 750 700 650 600 550 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0

Fig 6.1 : Average measured Illuminance distribution measured at different grid points, Source: Author, 2023

Daylight Factor is defined as the ratio of the illuminance level inside a building (or a specific point within the building) to the illuminance level outside, expressed as a percentage under overcast sky conditions.

Illuminance inside the space Outside Illuminance

X 100

550

435

79.09%

Since it is not possible to obtain perfect overcast conditions, the calculations varies at different times of the day. It was observed that the DF were high on the Eastern side during the mornings and High on western side during the evening due to the influence of the sun’s location (Refer to appendix for DF distribution)

0

1

2

3 B

C

4 D

E

5 F

A

6 B

C

7 D

E

8

9

10

F

Fig 6.2 : Plot showing the distribution of Illuminance between the 2 windows.

• •

(%)

Average Daylight Factor = 1.23%

VLT

Comfortable range 240 lux – 700 lux

A

Daylight Factor (DF)

DF =

Internal (lux)

ILLUMINANCE DISTRUBITION

Only 36% of the points complies with AS/NZS standards

200

External (lux)

Single, Clear glass

UDI (Area in Range)

Analysis Criteria

1

Glazing Type

•

The area near the windows receives a higher range of light based on the outdoor conditions. This area has high risk of glare.

The middle range generally has lower illuminance range. All the points are below 300lux. The average Illuminance in this area does not comply with AS/NZS Standards.

The space has poor daylight distribution and extremely low uniformity Uniformity =

Minimum Illuminance observed X 100 (%) Average Illuminance

Uniformity = 6% Page no: 7

DESC9169 | Daylight in Buildings

Daylight Analysis of Indoor Spaces

7.1 CASE STUDIES Assessment of daylight performance of Advanced Daylighting Strategies in Large University Classroom: Case Study Classrooms at (JUST):

Case Study: Light Shelves at The Melbourne School of Design (MSD), University of Melbourne Overview:

Jordan University of Science and Technology LOCATION: IRBID CITY, JORDAN

The building selected for the case study is new addition to the campus due to high influx of students in the university. Total Area is about 15,900 sqm. In includes Classroom, Theater rooms, computer labs, administrative offices and other service areas. (Freewan & Al Dalala, 2020)

The classroom selected is 10.55m long and 12.91m wide, sizing 136sqm. The Occupancy of the room is from 8 A.M to 5 P.M during days throughout weekdays.

ISSUES FACED IN CLASSROOM: Due to excessive glazing on the façade caused issues like glare, low daylight, uneven daylight.

Also, a coating layer on glazing was used to cater illuminance issues in the classroom. It helped in minimizing the need of artificial light and avoid glare to some extent.

(Freewan & Al Dalala, 2020)

One of the best example institutional building that efficiently uses light shelves to maximize daylighting is the Melbourne School of Design (MSD) at the University of Melbourne.

Architect

John Wardle Architect & NADAAA

Location

Parkville Campus, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.

Awards

2015 Australian Institute of Architects’ National Architecture Award for Sustainable Architecture.

Key Features of the Light Shelves at MSD:

To capture direct Sunlight

Techniques Used to optimize Daylight : Anidolic System:

Introduced indirect daylight

Anidolic system was used to effectively capture and evenly distribute the daylight in the classroom for uniform daylight penetration instead of relying on direct sunlight.

Light shelves for daylight penetration

Fig 7.3: (SPIE - the International Society for Optics and Photonics, 2024)

Primary task plane- working horizontal plane at desk height Secondary task plane- black/ whiteboards, softboard walls • Apropos AS/NZS 1680.2.3:2008 recommendations for Educational and Training Facilities- Maintained Illuminance in Classrooms = 240 lx.

- Minimum Glare Index (UGR)= 19 • While for detailed tasks such as reading or writing the illuminance levels is high which is about 32-400 lux.

• Maintaining lighting uniformity helps avoid high contrast (Source: Standards Australia & Standards New Zealand, 2006))

Thermal Comfort: It helps to retain cooler indoor temperature by reflecting sunlight also help in reducing demand for HVAC. (Wright, 2022) Fig 7.4: Fins Design (Wright, 2022).

Fig 7.2: (Freewan & Al Dalala, 2020)

7.2. STANDARDS/ TARGET PERFORMANCE- CLASSROOMS

Internal and External Light shelves: The MSD building combines exterior and inside light shelves. These are positioned on the windows facing north (in the Southern Hemisphere, north-facing façades get the most consistent and desired natural light across the day). The internal shelves spread the light across the ceiling; the external shelves bounce light upward through the window. (Wright, 2022) Minimizing Glare: Lights shelves helps avoiding direct sunlight entering the building and providing comfort throughout. (Wright, 2022)

Two primary strategies that were applied: changing the north wall with exterior reflectors and translucent materials and moving or reflecting direct sunlight from the southern wall through adjacent corridors to the classroom. (Freewan & Al Dalala, 2020)

•

2014

Fig 7.4: MSD, University of Melbourne (Wright, 2022).

Fig 7.1Jordan University of Science and Technology. Source (Youtube.com)

External Reflectors:

Date of Completion

7.3. DAYLIGHT EVALUATION- OPERATING CONDITIONS •

• •

The analysis was conducted on three main dates: March 21st, June 21st, and December 21st, at noon time (12:00 pm) to analyze the seasonal variations impacting the results and to represent the longest and shortest days in the year. (Freewan & Al Dalala, 2020).

Illuminance levels were measured at desk level and working plane considered was 0.85m. (Freewan & Al Dalala, 2020).

The experiments were conducted to measure the illuminance level, using the Extech HD: 450 data logging light meter.

(Freewan & Al Dalala, 2020).

7.4 KEY INFERENCES- CASE STUDIES • •

•

Simulation shows that design strategies help increase the illumination levels and minimize effect of direct sunlight.

(Freewan & Al Dalala, 2020) Particularly, the anabolic system, external reflectors, translucent material help increase improve uniform daylight in the space.

To summarize light shelves helped in occupant comfort, contributing indirect penetration of daylight into the space and help reducing the energy consumption for the building. (Wright, 2022)

Page no: 8

8.1. AVERAGE DAYLIGHT FACTOR FOR BOTH SPACES 10.6M

0.4% 0.5% 0.5%

0.6%

0.5%

0.5%

1.1%

1%

0.9%

E

1.5%

0.9% 0.8%

0.7%

0.6%

0.5%

0.9%

1.1%

1.6%

D

2.4% 1.7%

0.9%

0.7%

0.6%

0.7%

1%

1.5%

2.0%

C

3.3% 1.7% 1.1%

0.7%

0.7%

0.8% 1.1% 1.8%

3.2%

B

2.8%

1.5% 1.0%

0.8%

0.7%

0.8% 1.3%

1.7%

3.1%

A

2.2%

1.5% 0.9%

0.7%

0.6%

0.7% 1.0%

1.8%

3%

7.5M

F

Fig 8.2: Average Daylight factor for Madsen Building, (Source: Author,2024).

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Fig 8.1: Average Daylight factor for Wilkinson Building, (Source: Author,2024).

8.2. CRITICAL DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS An inference of the qualitative and numeric analysis improving Daylight Design through the following meas

suggests

Illuminance Uniformity The uniformity (in space) of illuminance on a plane is crucial for task performance (The University of Sydney - Sign In, 2024). Both- subjective and numeric analysis of the lab suggest uneven distribution of daylight which is criticized and possibly causes hinderances for the designated activity in the space.

(a) Glazing Properties Three different types of glass panes are observed. Having variable properties and specifications may be a potential reason for inconsistent values. The glazing system can thus be replaced to introduce• Double glazed windows with aluminum frames with VLT- 70%; low SHGC and U-values • Tinted glass- for view windows • Clear glass- for DF windows

(b) Lighting Systems To decrease the difference between the daylight received near and farther away from the windows, a light shelf can be added at the height between the view windows and clerestory windows

DF, clear glass

View, tinted glass

Fig. 8.3: Sectional Sketch of Clerestory Window Source:DESC9015 Assignment01, Author 2024

Fig. 8.4: Sectional Sketch of Light Shelf Source:DESC9015 Assignment01, Author 2024

Fig. 8.5: Light Shelf view Source:DESC9147 Assignment 2, Author 2024

Fig. 8.6: External shading Source:DESC9015 Assignment01, Author 2024

Page no: 9

DESC9169 | Daylight in Buildings

Daylight Analysis of Indoor Spaces

9.1. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS FOR DATA COLLECTION

9.3. CONCLUSION

DESCRIPTION

QUALITATIVE

QUANTITATIVE

DATA

Subjective

Numerical

METHODOLOGY

Based on polls and actual experience

Onsite Measurement using light meter and calculated manually

LIMITATIONS

User Specific and low accuracy

Manual errors may occur during measurement and calculations

RELIABILITY

Not very reliable as Relatively reliable due to responses are subjective the measured and different , good to analyse perceptions

Daylight is fundamentally an integration of all direct (sunlight) and indirect (skylight) originating from the sun during daytime (The University of Sydney - Sign In, 2024). It is an inherent attribute that illuminates spaces through openings or by being reflected from surfaces (Standards Australia & Standards New Zealand, 2006); and is particularly significant in institutional infrastructure to facilitate better learning.

The perception of daylight received is, in effect, a cumulative of many parameters. This survey of two distinct learning spaces at the University of Sydney identifies similarities as well as some gaps in the results of quantitative analysis against qualitative observations. Whilst the calculated average DF for space 1 (Petrology laboratory) highlights some issues for glare, a subjective evaluation suggests both glare and non-uniform distribution of daylight as potential reasons for visual discomfort. Similarly, for space 2 (Wilkinson seminar room), the average DF is lower than prescribed by standards, which aligns with the feedback received from the users of the space.

While the envelope is foremost crucial for daylight penetration, the surface finishes and reflectance, spatial configuration, orientation are equally responsible to facilitate its perception.

An important inference of this study therefore recognizes DF as an inconsistent indicator of good daylight. However, it is a good starting point for designing since designing for a static metric of assessment is relatively easier than for dynamic metrics of assessment like UDI and others.

9.2. ASSUMPTIONS AND LIMITATIONS

9.4. REFERENCES

• The external illuminance levels for each time of the day was measured only a few times and average was considered. Measuring illuminance levels of internal points takes time during which the external daylight condition keeps on changing. Due to the dynamic nature of external conditions, some discrepancies in DF calculations can be expected.

Cornell University , S. C. (2024). Weill Hall | Sustainable Campus. Cornell.edu. https://sustainablecampus.cornell.edu/buildings-energy/greenbuildings/weill-hall Daylighting Pattern Guide.

(2021).

Advancedbuildings.net. https://patternguide.advancedbuildings.net/patternslideshow/Pattern%2018_%20Fixed%20Building%20Shading%20(Fixed%20Classroom%20Shading).html Decrolux. (2018, July 25). Approximate Reflectance Values of Typical Building Finishes. Decrolux. https://decrolux.com.au/learningcentre/2018/approximate-reflectance-values-of-typical-building-finishes Freewan, A. A. Y., & Al Dalala, J. A. (2020). Assessment of daylight performance of Advanced Daylighting Strategies in Large University Classrooms; Case Study Classrooms at JUST. Alexandria Engineering Journal, 59(2), 791–802. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2019.12.049 Hua, Y., Oswald, A., & Yang, X. (2011). Effectiveness of daylighting design and occupant visual satisfaction in a LEED Gold laboratory building. Building and Environment, 46(1), 54–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2010.06.016 Johnsen, K., Dubois, M.-C., & Karl Grau Sørensen. (2006). Assessment of daylight quality in simple rooms: Impact of three window configurations on daylight conditions, Phase 2. https://www.iea-shc.org/data/sites/1/publications/task31-Assessment_of_Daylight_Quality_in_Simple_Rooms.pdf Lee, H., Seo, J., & Choi, C. (2019). Preliminary Study on the Performance Evaluation of a Light Shelf Based on Reflector Curvature. Energies, 12(22), 4295. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12224295 Lyons, P., Hockings, B., Reardon, C., & Reidy, C. (2013). Glazing. YourHome; Australian Government. https://www.yourhome.gov.au/passivedesign/glazing Marsh, A. (2023). PD: 3D Sun-Path. Andrewmarsh.com. https://andrewmarsh.com/apps/staging/sunpath3d.html SPIE - the international society for optics and photonics. (2024). Spie.org. https://www.spie.org/news/1743-splitting-up-anidolic-daylightingsystems#_=_ Standards Australia , & Standards New Zealand. (2006). Interior and workplace lighting. Part 1: General principles and recommendations. Standards Australia ; Wellington [N.Z. The University of Sydney. (2024). MazeMaps. Maps.sydney.edu.au. https://maps.sydney.edu.au/ The University of Sydney - Sign In. (2024). Sydney.edu.au. https://canvas.sydney.edu.au/courses/60334/pages/week-4-20-august-day1?module_item_id=2411130 Wikipedia Contributors. (2024, May 10). Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology. Wikipedia; Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weill_Institute_for_Cell_and_Molecular_Biology Wright, T. P. (2022, April 13). Melbourne School of Design. Melbourne School of Design. https://msd.unimelb.edu.au/

• Ideally DF values for any given point should be constant, but due to these shortcomings of the measurement methodology and human error the DF value fluctuate for each point in the space.

• DF assumes an overcast sky which can only be simulated and cannot be measured for spaces that are receiving direct sunlight.

• The most reliable output is obtained with a larger dataset, as the information collected might produce results with limited accuracy

Page no: 10

DESC9169 | Daylight in Buildings

Daylight Analysis of Indoor Spaces

APPENDIX – DATA COLLECTION AND CALCULATIONS

Img.7. Specific Recommendations for educational and training facilities (Source: AS/NZS 1680.2.3:2008) Standards Australia (Organization, & Standards New Zealand. (2008). Interior and workplace lighting. Part 2.3, Specific applications : educational and training facilities. Standards Australia ; Wellington [N.Z.

Base Case results for JUST Case Study

Wilkinson Room 526- Daylight Simulation, DesignBuilder Improved Case results for JUST Case Study

Madsen Room 336- Daylight Simulation, DesignBuilder

Page no: 10

DESC9169 | Daylight in Buildings

Daylight Analysis of Indoor Spaces

APPENDIX – MADSON BUILDING LABORATORY LUX LEVEL MEASUREMENTS DAY 1 TIME:9AM, EXTERNAL LUX LEVEL: LUX A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) 1 240 280 320 450 520 380 290 340 420 380 450 380 400 480 460 2 140 130 160 200 220 180 170 180 220 230 240 260 280 240 230 3 80 75 90 100 120 110 115 105 140 145 125 130 125 90 95 4 65 70 95 80 105 90 100 85 105 110 100 95 90 70 65 TIME:12PM, EXTERNAL LUX LEVEL: LUX A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) 1 160 166 154 247 328 171 100 161 211 167 212 172 178 274 256 2 88 88 88 107 115 94 88 90 109 115 113 126 136 119 116 3 53 50 57 61 71 67 72 65 83 85 74 75 73 52 55 4 42 46 61 48 67 56 65 55 66 68 64 60 56 44 43 TIME:3PM, EXTERNAL LUX LEVEL: LUX A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) 1 112 83 159 432 507 435 270 565 1217 697 624 1043 747 623 625 2 87 67 178 483 437 446 492 1105 706 571 1070 738 493 386 412 3 70 64 155 318 433 651 312 363 654 436 382 269 267 204 223 4 54 54 283 267 482 463 235 245 422 251 272 216 216 176 183 DAY 2 TIME:9AM, EXTERNAL LUX LEVEL: LUX A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) 1 1900 3830 15201 1330 23911 625 760 19501 21100 1105 14700 18500 2550 8180 11530 2 420 370 950 753 791 692 604 1750 3980 2125 1180 9702 8330 1380 2300 3 256 365 445 440 450 500 460 612 1010 640 723 820 754 600 600 4 213 260 338 359 380 430 400 452 530 493 561 570 540 601 410 TIME:12PM, EXTERNAL LUX LEVEL: LUX A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) 1 252 179 208 403 268 368 1267 848 392 658 1775 1053 300 380 262 2 89 67 102 126 164 775 3453 10100 380 1903 9100 1640 312 249 115 3 52 58 94 103 129 315 545 393 278 338 428 262 158 118 90 4 42 51 78 85 107 174 228 242 227 210 234 163 132 94 75 TIME:3PM, EXTERNAL LUX LEVEL: LUX A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum Int Illum (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) (lux) 1 218 260 5732 684 2705 3917 854 1200 6324 2864 740 3021 6065 1759 870 2 212 14101 483 2822 1279 1346 1468 4802 1806 1027 2426 2241 2026 483 602 3 251 679 1546 684 919 1351 1531 1371 1377 1316 833 438 381 271 355 4 284 486 520 540 623 990 757 743 741 411 400 250 312 230 235

5.6% 1 2 3 4 AVERAGE

3.8% 1 2 3 4 AVERAGE

8.1% 1 2 3 4 AVERAGE

10.8% 1 2 3 4 AVERAGE

4.7% 1 2 3 4 AVERAGE

8.6% 1 2 3 4 AVERAGE

A DF (%h) 6.9% 4.0% 2.3% 1.9% 3.8%

B DF (%h) 8.0% 3.7% 2.1% 2.0% 4.0%

C DF (%h) 9.1% 4.6% 2.6% 2.7% 4.8%

D DF (%h) 12.9% 5.7% 2.9% 2.3% 5.9%

E DF (%h) 14.9% 6.3% 3.4% 3.0% 6.9%

DAYLIGHT FACTOR - MADSON BUILDING DAY 1 TIME:9AM, EXTERNAL LUX LEVEL: LUX F G H I DF DF DF DF (%h) (%h) (%h) (%h) 10.9% 8.3% 9.7% 12.0% 5.1% 4.9% 5.1% 6.3% 3.1% 3.3% 3.0% 4.0% 2.6% 2.9% 2.4% 3.0% 5.4% 4.8% 5.1% 6.3%

A DF (%h) 5.7% 3.1% 1.9% 1.5% 3.1%

B DF (%h) 5.9% 3.1% 1.8% 1.6% 3.1%

C DF (%h) 5.5% 3.1% 2.0% 2.2% 3.2%

D DF (%h) 8.8% 3.8% 2.2% 1.7% 4.1%

E DF (%h) 11.7% 4.1% 2.5% 2.4% 5.2%

TIME:12PM, EXTERNAL LUX LEVEL: LUX F G H I DF DF DF DF (%h) (%h) (%h) (%h) 6.1% 3.6% 5.8% 7.5% 3.4% 3.1% 3.2% 3.9% 2.4% 2.6% 2.3% 3.0% 2.0% 2.3% 2.0% 2.4% 3.5% 2.9% 3.3% 4.2%

J DF (%h) 6.0% 4.1% 3.0% 2.4% 3.9%

K DF (%h) 7.6% 4.0% 2.6% 2.3% 4.1%

L DF (%h) 6.1% 4.5% 2.7% 2.1% 3.9%

M DF (%h) 6.4% 4.9% 2.6% 2.0% 4.0%

N DF (%h) 9.8% 4.3% 1.9% 1.6% 4.4%

O DF (%h) 9.1% 4.1% 2.0% 1.5% 4.2%

E DF (%h) 10.1% 8.7% 8.7% 9.6% 9.3%

TIME:3PM, EXTERNAL LUX LEVEL: LUX F G H I DF DF DF DF (%h) (%h) (%h) (%h) 8.7% 5.4% 11.3% 24.3% 8.9% 9.8% 22.1% 14.1% 13.0% 6.2% 7.3% 13.1% 9.3% 4.7% 4.9% 8.4% 10.0% 6.5% 11.4% 15.0%

J DF (%h) 13.9% 11.4% 8.7% 5.0% 9.8%

K DF (%h) 12.5% 21.4% 7.6% 5.4% 11.7%

L DF (%h) 20.9% 14.8% 5.4% 4.3% 11.3%

M DF (%h) 14.9% 9.9% 5.3% 4.3% 8.6%

N DF (%h) 12.5% 7.7% 4.1% 3.5% 6.9%

O DF (%h) 12.5% 8.2% 4.5% 3.7% 7.2%

J DF (%h) 3.7% 7.1% 2.1% 1.6% 3.6%

K DF (%h) 49.0% 3.9% 2.4% 1.9% 14.3%

L DF (%h) 61.7% 32.3% 2.7% 1.9% 24.7%

M DF (%h) 8.5% 27.8% 2.5% 1.8% 10.1%

N DF (%h) 27.3% 4.6% 2.0% 2.0% 9.0%

O DF (%h) 38.4% 7.7% 2.0% 1.4% 12.4%

A DF (%h) 2.2% 1.7% 1.4% 1.1% 1.6%

B DF (%h) 1.7% 1.3% 1.3% 1.1% 1.3%

C DF (%h) 3.2% 3.6% 3.1% 5.7% 3.9%

D DF (%h) 8.6% 9.7% 6.4% 5.3% 7.5%

J DF (%h) 10.9% 6.6% 4.1% 3.1% 6.2%

K DF (%h) 12.9% 6.9% 3.6% 2.9% 6.5%

L DF (%h) 10.9% 7.4% 3.7% 2.7% 6.2%

M DF (%h) 11.4% 8.0% 3.6% 2.6% 6.4%

N DF (%h) 13.7% 6.9% 2.6% 2.0% 6.3%

O DF (%h) 13.1% 6.6% 2.7% 1.9% 6.1%

A DF (%h) 6.3% 1.4% 0.9% 0.7% 2.3%

B DF (%h) 12.8% 1.2% 1.2% 0.9% 4.0%

C DF (%h) 50.7% 3.2% 1.5% 1.1% 14.1%

D DF (%h) 4.4% 2.5% 1.5% 1.2% 2.4%

E DF (%h) 79.7% 2.6% 1.5% 1.3% 21.3%

DAY 2 TIME:9AM, EXTERNAL LUX LEVEL: LUX F G H I DF DF DF DF (%h) (%h) (%h) (%h) 2.1% 2.5% 65.0% 70.3% 2.3% 2.0% 5.8% 13.3% 1.7% 1.5% 2.0% 3.4% 1.4% 1.3% 1.5% 1.8% 1.9% 1.9% 18.6% 22.2%

A DF (%h) 1.7% 0.6% 0.3% 0.3% 0.7%

B DF (%h) 1.2% 0.4% 0.4% 0.3% 0.6%

C DF (%h) 1.4% 0.7% 0.6% 0.5% 0.8%

D DF (%h) 2.7% 0.8% 0.7% 0.6% 1.2%

E DF (%h) 1.8% 1.1% 0.9% 0.7% 1.1%

TIME:12PM, EXTERNAL LUX LEVEL: LUX F G H I DF DF DF DF (%h) (%h) (%h) (%h) 2.5% 8.4% 5.7% 2.6% 5.2% 23.0% 67.3% 2.5% 2.1% 3.6% 2.6% 1.9% 1.2% 1.5% 1.6% 1.5% 2.7% 9.2% 19.3% 2.1%

J DF (%h) 4.4% 12.7% 2.3% 1.4% 5.2%

K DF (%h) 11.8% 60.7% 2.9% 1.6% 19.2%

L DF (%h) 7.0% 10.9% 1.7% 1.1% 5.2%

M DF (%h) 2.0% 2.1% 1.1% 0.9% 1.5%

N DF (%h) 2.5% 1.7% 0.8% 0.6% 1.4%

O DF (%h) 1.7% 0.8% 0.6% 0.5% 0.9%

A DF (%h) 1.2% 1.1% 1.4% 1.5% 1.3%

B DF (%h) 1.4% 76.2% 3.7% 2.6% 21.0%

C DF (%h) 31.0% 2.6% 8.4% 2.8% 11.2%

D DF (%h) 3.7% 15.3% 3.7% 2.9% 6.4%

E DF (%h) 14.6% 6.9% 5.0% 3.4% 7.5%

TIME:3PM, EXTERNAL LUX LEVEL: LUX F G H I DF DF DF DF (%h) (%h) (%h) (%h) 21.2% 4.6% 6.5% 34.2% 7.3% 7.9% 26.0% 9.8% 7.3% 8.3% 7.4% 7.4% 5.4% 4.1% 4.0% 4.0% 10.3% 6.2% 11.0% 13.8%

J DF (%h) 15.5% 5.6% 7.1% 2.2% 7.6%

K DF (%h) 4.0% 13.1% 4.5% 2.2% 5.9%

L DF (%h) 16.3% 12.1% 2.4% 1.4% 8.0%

M DF (%h) 32.8% 11.0% 2.1% 1.7% 11.9%

N DF (%h) 9.5% 2.6% 1.5% 1.2% 3.7%

O DF (%h) 4.7% 3.3% 1.9% 1.3% 2.8%

Page no: 10

DESC9169 | Daylight in Buildings

Daylight Analysis of Indoor Spaces

APPENDIX – WILKINSON CLASSROOM DATA INTERNAL ILLUMINANCE- WILKINSON BUILDING DAY 1 TIME:09AM, EXTERNAL ILLUMINANCE LEVEL: 19320 LUX A B C D E 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

277 263 163 108 166 224 364 620 570

330 284 218 170 173 234 408 352 1010

475 317 190 183 183 227 391 629 1012

390 261 162 116 175 176 300 504 802

241 164 156 138 152 136 317 388 487

TIME:12 PM, EXTERNAL ILLUMINANCE LEVEL: 15730 LUX A B C D E 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

325 226 140 101 116 110 153 220 350

330 216 180 106 112 125 223 293 352

390 216 191 121 133 134 163 296 380

330 275 148 130 110 120 146 269 294

197 136 148 125 113 86 120 187 275

TIME:3PM, EXTERNAL ILLUMINANCE LEVEL: 9110 LUX A B C D E 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

241 143 68 75 42 53 45 101 214

343 130 64 86 48 60 73.6 112 262

414 166 80.6 50.2 43 48.2 80 112 290

238 158 69.2 41.1 30 46.8 82.5 100.8 155

95 40.7 28.9 40 29 38 83.7 81.1 110

DAY 2 TIME:09AM, EXTERNAL ILLUMINANCE LEVEL: 22730 LUX A B C D E

F 59.8 71.3 53 92 118 156 170 135 123

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

F 33.2 15.7 16.18 53 25.4 34 44.5 35 19.6

581 401 253 223 145 172 266 627 1331

808 411 262 201 153 148 288 534 773

754 496 287 203 181 172.2 192 334 575

620 470 293 209 178 149.8 160 172 149.2

692 440 372 208 166.9 120 118 160 224

TIME:12 PM, EXTERNAL ILLUMINANCE LEVEL: 29320 LUX A B C D E

F 63 86 107 95 87 91 145 119 71

DAYLIGHT FACTOR - WILKINSON BUILDING

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

603 435 272 187 205 201 279 407 649

617 407 332 197 213 242 418 539 667

725 407 347 228 249 261 302 549 712

617 512 274 235 207 221 279 507 545

F 175.4 221 175.2 121.1 137.3 108.7 693 701 793

F

364 249 268 237 218 167 231 337 512

115 159 195 176 157 184 289 235 135

TIME:3PM, EXTERNAL ILLUMINANCE LEVEL: 24500 LUX A B C D E 634 903 1121 627 232 374 342 437 412 101 172 181 213 175 74 202 224 124 102 112 105 131 127 91 65 147 152 117 123 98 114 173 211 212 217 262 312 295 253 224 565 701 777 423 284

F 74 35 37 131 72 93 113 96 63

1.49% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 AVERAGE

1.15% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 AVERAGE

1.05% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 AVERAGE

DAY 1 TIME:09AM, EXTERNAL ILLUMINANCE LEVEL: 19320 LUX A B C D E DF DF DF DF DF (%h) (%h) (%h) (%h) (%h) 1.4% 1.7% 2.5% 2.0% 1.2% 1.4% 1.5% 1.6% 1.4% 0.8% 0.8% 1.1% 1.0% 0.8% 0.8% 0.6% 0.9% 0.9% 0.6% 0.7% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.8% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 0.9% 0.7% 1.9% 2.1% 2.0% 1.6% 1.6% 3.2% 1.8% 3.3% 2.6% 2.0% 3.0% 5.2% 5.2% 4.2% 2.5% 1.6% 1.8% 2.1% 1.7% 1.3% TIME:12 PM, EXTERNAL ILLUMINANCE LEVEL: 15730 LUX A B C D E DF DF DF DF DF (%h) (%h) (%h) (%h) (%h) 2.1% 2.1% 2.5% 2.1% 1.3% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.7% 0.9% 0.9% 1.1% 1.2% 0.9% 0.9% 0.6% 0.7% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.7% 0.7% 0.8% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.8% 0.9% 0.8% 0.5% 1.0% 1.4% 1.0% 0.9% 0.8% 1.4% 1.9% 1.9% 1.7% 1.2% 2.2% 2.2% 2.4% 1.9% 1.7% 1.2% 1.4% 1.4% 1.3% 1.0% TIME:3PM, EXTERNAL ILLUMINANCE LEVEL: 9110 LUX A B C D E DF DF DF DF DF (%h) (%h) (%h) (%h) (%h) 2.6% 3.8% 4.5% 2.6% 1.0% 1.6% 1.4% 1.8% 1.7% 0.4% 0.7% 0.7% 0.9% 0.8% 0.3% 0.8% 0.9% 0.6% 0.5% 0.4% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.3% 0.3% 0.6% 0.7% 0.5% 0.5% 0.4% 0.5% 0.8% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 1.1% 1.2% 1.2% 1.1% 0.9% 2.3% 2.9% 3.2% 1.7% 1.2% 1.2% 1.4% 1.6% 1.1% 0.7%

F DF (%h) 0.3% 0.4% 0.3% 0.5% 0.6% 0.8% 0.9% 0.7% 0.6% 0.6% F DF (%h) 0.4% 0.5% 0.7% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.9% 0.8% 0.5% 0.6% F DF (%h) 0.4% 0.2% 0.2% 0.6% 0.3% 0.4% 0.5% 0.4% 0.2% 0.3%

1.53% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 AVERAGE

1.15% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 AVERAGE

1.03% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 AVERAGE

DAY 2 TIME:09AM, EXTERNAL ILLUMINANCE LEVEL: 22730 LUX A B C D E DF DF DF DF DF (%h) (%h) (%h) (%h) (%h) 2.6% 3.6% 3.3% 2.7% 3.0% 1.8% 1.8% 2.2% 2.1% 1.9% 1.1% 1.2% 1.3% 1.3% 1.6% 1.0% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.6% 0.7% 0.8% 0.8% 0.7% 0.8% 0.7% 0.8% 0.7% 0.5% 1.2% 1.3% 0.8% 0.7% 0.5% 2.8% 2.3% 1.5% 0.8% 0.7% 5.9% 3.4% 2.5% 0.7% 1.0% 2.0% 1.7% 1.6% 1.2% 1.2% TIME:12 PM, EXTERNAL ILLUMINANCE LEVEL: 29320 LUX A B C D E DF DF DF DF DF (%h) (%h) (%h) (%h) (%h) 2.1% 2.1% 2.5% 2.1% 1.2% 1.5% 1.4% 1.4% 1.7% 0.8% 0.9% 1.1% 1.2% 0.9% 0.9% 0.6% 0.7% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.7% 0.7% 0.8% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.8% 0.9% 0.8% 0.6% 1.0% 1.4% 1.0% 1.0% 0.8% 1.4% 1.8% 1.9% 1.7% 1.1% 2.2% 2.3% 2.4% 1.9% 1.7% 1.2% 1.4% 1.4% 1.3% 1.0% TIME:3PM, EXTERNAL ILLUMINANCE LEVEL: 24500 LUX A B C D E DF DF DF DF DF (%h) (%h) (%h) (%h) (%h) 2.6% 3.7% 4.6% 2.6% 0.9% 1.5% 1.4% 1.8% 1.7% 0.4% 0.7% 0.7% 0.9% 0.7% 0.3% 0.8% 0.9% 0.5% 0.4% 0.5% 0.4% 0.5% 0.5% 0.4% 0.3% 0.6% 0.6% 0.5% 0.5% 0.4% 0.5% 0.7% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 1.1% 1.3% 1.2% 1.0% 0.9% 2.3% 2.9% 3.2% 1.7% 1.2% 1.2% 1.4% 1.6% 1.1% 0.6%

F DF (%h) 0.8% 1.0% 0.8% 0.5% 0.6% 0.5% 3.0% 3.1% 3.5% 1.5% F DF (%h) 0.4% 0.5% 0.7% 0.6% 0.5% 0.6% 1.0% 0.8% 0.5% 0.6% F DF (%h) 0.3% 0.1% 0.2% 0.5% 0.3% 0.4% 0.5% 0.4% 0.3% 0.3%

Page no: 10

DESC9015 - BUILDING ENERGY ANALYSIS ASSIGNMENT 01

SHREYAS GANGURDE

- 520283853

PRANIT GHODKHANDE - 530723806

01. AIM & OBJECTIVE

05. SITE DESCRIPTION

This assignment is to undertake an in-depth research on the daylighting performance of a building envelope using the DesignBuilder software program. This report presents the approach, analysis, and outcomes of the sensitivity analysis performed on a specific building design in two separate locations: Cooma and Cairns City. The objective is to assess the daylighting performance and provide possible enhancements for improved energy efficiency and occupant comfort in various climatic regions, through the use of integrated design, modeling, and analysis methods.

02. METHODOLOGY: * Climatic analysis of Cooma and Cairns City. * Conducting daylighting, Solar heat gairn, Sun-path and shadow, UDI performance analysis using DesignBuilder for both locations. * Modeling the selected design and specifying relevant design features for daylighting performance analysis in Cooma and Cairns City.

Fig 01. Ground floor plan (“E.ON 2016 Research House - the University of Nottingham”,n.d.)

Fig 02. First floor plan (“E.ON 2016 Research House - the University of Nottingham”,n.d.)

The E.ON 2016 Research House, located at the University of Nottingham campus in the United Kingdom, is the main subject of analysis for this project. The findings from this analysis are then applied to locations in Cairns and Cooma, Australia. This residential structure has both shared and individual spaces, with the ground floor designated for common amenities and the upper story accommodating private spaces, all under a unique sloping roof. The research house, covering a total area of 162 square meters, has an exterior plant room added further to the building’s utility, but it does not have internal access. This distinctive combination of utility, and architectural design provides the foundation for a thorough examination of building performance and environmental adaptability in various climatic situations in Australia.

03. IMPORTANCE OF INTEGRATED DESIGN: Integrated design plays a crucial role in optimizing building performance, particularly in diverse climatic conditions. By considering various design aspects holistically, including building orientation, envelope design, and daylighting strategies tailored to specific climates, it becomes possible to create more efficient and comfortable built environments. This assignment emphasizes the significance of integrating these design elements and conducting comprehensive analysis to inform decision-making processes tailored to the unique characteristics of Cooma and Cairns City.

Fig 03. South elevation (“E.ON 2016 Research House - the University of Nottingham”,n.d.)

Fig 04. South-west elevation (“E.ON 2016 Research House - the University of Nottingham”,n.d.)

.

04. LOCATIONS – CAIRNS & COOMA: CAIRNS -

Fig 05. North elevation (“E.ON 2016 Research House - the University of Nottingham”,n.d.)

COOMA -

•Cairns is a bustling city that can be found in the tropical region of North Queensland, Australia.

•The town of Cooma is a picturesque community that may be found in the Snowy Mountains of New South Wales, Australia.

•The city of Cairns, which is famous for its breathtaking beaches, verdant rainforests, and the world-famous Great Barrier Reef, is blessed with a tropical environment that is defined by high temperatures and an abundance of sunshine throughout the whole year.

•The city of Cooma, which is well-known for its attractive scenery and temperate climate, has notable seasonal fluctuations, with winters that are below freezing and summers that are pleasant.

As a result of the city’s exceptional proximity to natural treasures that are known all over the world, it is a popular destination not just among tourists but also among locals.

Fig 06. Map of Australia (Source: Author, 2024)

.

•The allure of the town is enhanced by its exceptional geographical location, which results in it being surrounded by natural beauty and experiencing snowfall on occasion throughout the winter months.

06. BUILDING GEOMETRY

08. CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS The selection of construction materials has a substantial effect on the distribution of daylight and its effects on the well-being of occupants and energy consumption. Transparent materials, such as glass, enable the entry of natural light, which decreases the need for artificial lighting. However, the quality of daylight can be influenced by factors such as the kind of material and its coatings.

Materials with low transparency, such as concrete, control the reflection and absorption of light, which affects the amount of light in the interior space. Transparent materials have a direct impact on the distribution of illuminance in UDI analysis, resulting in higher levels of illuminance near windows. By taking into account the optical and thermal qualities of materials, designers may enhance daylighting, energy efficiency, and comfort.

For this analysis, we have chosen a residential building design with fundamental characteristics that are appropriate for both Cooma and Cairns City. The chosen architectural design comprises an approximate floor area of 162m² and does not incorporate any subterranean areas, such as a basement. The selection of this design was based on its ability to effectively assess the performance of daylighting in various climatic situations. The model was created using the Design Builder software.​ It was created using two planes: Ground and first floor as shown below: FIRST FLOOR FIRST FLOOR

Consists of personal spaces like three bedrooms and a water closet and bathroom.

Fig 08.Plan (Author, 2024)

Shingles roofing system is used throughout the building.

Galvanised iron sheets are used for the roofing system in plant room.

GROUND FLOOR Consists of communal and shared spaces like Living, Kitchen, Dining, Hall, store room and pantry.

Fig 10. South-east` elevation (“E.ON 2016 Research House - the University of Nottingham”,n.d.)

GROUND FLOOR

Fig 07.Axo (Author, 2024)

Plant room is made using timber stud wall.

Fig 09.Plan (Author, 2024)

07. EXISTING CONDITION: The chosen building is a housing development located on the University of Nottingham campus. Surrounded by similar residential buildings, its local environment has a considerable impact on its daylighting and natural ventilation, hence influencing the overall indoor environmental conditions within the building. Understanding these dynamics is critical for evaluating building performance and suggesting appropriate design options to improve occupant comfort and energy efficiency.

The overall structure is implied with conventional brickwork for overall wall systems.

Fig 12. North elevation (“E.ON 2016 Research House - the University of Nottingham”,n.d.)

Fig 11.Axo (Author, 2024)

Single glazed windows are used for window systems.

09. CLIMATE ANALYSIS: Cairns, Queensland, Australia: An exceptional characteristic of Cairns is its close vicinity to the Great Barrier Reef and tropical rainforests, which have a significant impact on the local weather patterns and wildlife.

Cairns has a discernible wet season from November to April, which is marked by substantial rainfall and elevated humidity. This presents difficulties for building design in terms of effectively managing moisture, preventing mold growth, and ensuring long-lasting durability.

In addition, Cairns is prone to tropical cyclones during the wet season, necessitating construction designs that can endure strong winds and severe weather conditions.

09.1 Temperature Range:

Fig 13. Radiation range graph for Cairns

09.5 Interference for Cairns climate:

•The city of Cairns has a tropical climate, which means it has consistently mild temperatures all year round with very little change between seasons.

•The average maximum temperatures range from around 29°C to 31°C consistently throughout the year, while the average minimum temperatures range from 20°C to 23°C. •The temperature range that is considered comfortable is usually higher, falling between 24°C and 28°C for indoor areas. This requires the use of cooling methods like air conditioning for a significant portion of the year.

09.2 Sky Cover Range:

Fig 14. Temperature range graph for Cairns

•The climate in Cairns City is mostly sunny, with a significant number of clear days.

•Typically, around 70% to 80% of days have clear to partially overcast skies, which means there is plenty of sunlight and daylight entering structures.

•Nevertheless, intermittent tropical storms and substantial precipitation, particularly in the wet season (November to April), can lead to extended periods of cloudy weather and diminished sunshine exposure.

Fig 15. Sky cover range graph for Cairns

09.4 Sun Shading and Sun Angles: •Sun shading is crucial in Cairns City to reduce solar heat intake and prevent excessive heating, especially in the warmer months.

•Cairns’ proximity to the equator results in stable solar elevation and azimuth angles throughout the year, as seen by the analysis of sun angles.

•Cairns experiences a tropical environment with consistently mild temperatures throughout the year and little difference between seasons.

•The city has a mostly sunny climate, with intermittent tropical storms and heavy rainfall occurring throughout the wet season.

•The illumination levels are typically elevated, particularly when the sky is clear, which results in abundant natural light for the interiors of buildings.

•Ensuring effective sun shade is crucial in order to avoid excessive heat and glare, especially in the warmer months.

•The close proximity to the Great Barrier Reef and tropical rainforests has a significant impact on weather patterns and biodiversity, which presents difficulties when it comes to designing buildings during the wet season.

Impact on design of buildings

09.3 Illumination Range: •The hourly levels of illumination on vertical and horizontal surfaces fluctuate according on the location of the sun, the amount of cloud cover, and the orientation of the building.

•Under clear sky conditions, the hours of peak daylight offer a substantial amount of light, ranging from 2000 to 3000 lux on flat surfaces, making it suitable for daylighting purposes.

•Vertical surfaces experience uniform illumination, guaranteeing adequate daylight infiltration into indoor areas.

Fig 17. Sun shading and sun angles graph for Cairns.

Fig 16. Illumination range graph for Cairns

Given Cairns’ tropical environment characterized by consistent warm temperatures and enough sunlight throughout the year, it is essential for building design to prioritize passive cooling techniques, effective moisture control, and the ability to withstand extreme weather conditions. Maximizing natural ventilation is crucial for enhancing airflow and minimizing dependence on mechanical cooling systems, achieved by strategically designing building orientation and layout to harness prevailing breezes. Sun shading devices such as overhangs, louvers, and plants are crucial for reducing solar heat gain and preventing overheating, especially in the warmer months. This is crucial for maintaining durability and guaranteeing good indoor air quality, especially in humid situations.

10. CLIMATE ANALYSIS: Cooma, NSW, Australia: Cooma is distinguished by its close proximity to the Snowy Mountains, resulting in a notable influence on local weather patterns, particularly in the winter season.

Cooma may occasionally receive snowfall and have cooler temperatures than its neighboring regions. Therefore, it is necessary to take into account special factors in building design to handle probable snow loads, meet thermal insulation standards, and implement winterization measures.

This distinctive feature enhances the distinctiveness and attractiveness of the area, while also presenting difficulties and possibilities for sustainable architectural design and energy-efficient methods.

Fig 18. Radiation range graph for Cooma

10.1 Temperature Range:

10.5 Interference for Cooma climate:

•The city of Cairns has a tropical climate, which means it has consistently mild temperatures all year round with very little change between seasons.

•The average maximum temperatures range from around 29°C to 31°C consistently throughout the year, while the average minimum temperatures range from 20°C to 23°C. •The temperature range that is considered comfortable is usually higher, falling between 24°C and 28°C for indoor areas. This requires the use of cooling methods like air conditioning for a significant portion of the year.

10.2 Sky Cover Range:

Fig19. Temperature range graph for Cooma

•The climate in Cairns City is mostly sunny, with a significant number of clear days.

•Typically, around 70% to 80% of days have clear to partially overcast skies, which means there is plenty of sunlight and daylight entering structures.

•Nevertheless, intermittent tropical storms and substantial precipitation, particularly in the wet season (November to April), can lead to extended periods of cloudy weather and diminished sunshine exposure.

Fig 20. Sky cover range graph for Cooma

10.4 Sun Shading and Sun Angles: •Sun shading is crucial in Cairns City to reduce solar heat intake and prevent excessive heating, especially in the warmer months.

•Cairns’ proximity to the equator results in stable solar elevation and azimuth angles throughout the year, as seen by the analysis of sun angles.

•Cooma has a moderate climate characterized by notable seasonal temperature fluctuations, ranging from warm summers to cold winters.

•The city experiences a significant proportion of overcast days, especially in the winter season, which affects the amount of direct sunlight that is available.

•The degree of illumination fluctuates based on the atmospheric conditions, resulting in lower levels on vertical surfaces in comparison to horizontal surfaces.

•Utilizing sun shade is crucial for reducing solar heat gain and minimizing glare, particularly in the hotter months.

The climate’s distinctiveness is enhanced by its close proximity to the Snowy Mountains, resulting in occasional snowfall throughout winter.

Impact on design of buildings

10.3 Illumination Range: •The hourly levels of illumination on vertical and horizontal surfaces fluctuate according on the location of the sun, the amount of cloud cover, and the orientation of the building.

•Under clear sky conditions, the hours of peak daylight offer a substantial amount of light, ranging from 2000 to 3000 lux on flat surfaces, making it suitable for daylighting purposes.

•Vertical surfaces experience uniform illumination, guaranteeing adequate daylight infiltration into indoor areas.

Fig 22. Sun shading and sun angles graph for Cooma.

Fig 21. Illumination range graph for Cooma

In Cooma, the climate is temperate, meaning it experiences seasonal changes in temperature and a higher number of cloudy days. Therefore, while designing buildings in this area, it is important to address both thermal comfort and energy efficiency. In order to reduce heat loss during harsh winters, it is advisable for buildings to include strong insulation, high-quality windows, and efficient heating systems. In addition, the strategic positioning of windows and sun shading devices can maximize the use of natural light while reducing the amount of heat from the sun during hotter months. Considering snow load is crucial because of intermittent snowfall, which requires structural design elements capable of withstanding increased roof loads.

Additionally, implementing winterization techniques such as sealing against weather and installing thermal barriers are essential for preserving interior comfort and maximizing energy efficiency during colder seasons.

11. SUNPATH AND SHADOW, SOLAR GAIN ANALYSIS: 11.1 Cairns, Queensland: March 21(Equinox)

Solar Gain (Cairns)

December 21(Summer Solstice)

June 21(Winter Solstice)

March 21(Equinox)

9 AM

June 21(Winter Solstice)

9 AM

December 21(Summer Solstice)

11.2 Cooma, NSW:

December 21(Summer Solstice)

12 PM

12 PM

December 21(Summer Solstice)

3 PM

June 21(Winter Solstice)

3 PM

June 21(Winter Solstice)

Fig 23.Sunpath and Shadow analysis (Author, 2024)

March 21(Equinox) March 21(Equinox) Fig 24.Solar gains colour map (Author, 2024)

Sunpath and shadow analysis are essential methods for assessing the accessibility and dispersion of natural light within a structure. Designers can maximize daylighting methods and Useful Daylight Illuminance (UDI) levels by monitoring the sun’s movement throughout the day and how it interacts with surrounding barriers. Sunpath analysis offers valuable information on the extent of direct sunlight exposure, aiding in the reduction of glare and heat accumulation. Shadow analysis, on the other hand, indicates regions that are susceptible to shade, which in turn influences the positioning of windows and the design of outdoor amenities.

Solar gain analysis entails assessing the quantity of solar radiation that is absorbed by the various surfaces of a building, such as walls, roofs, and windows. This analysis is essential for comprehending the impact of solar energy on indoor thermal comfort, energy usage, and building performance. Through the evaluation of solar gain, designers can strategically optimize building design techniques to limit heat accumulation in hotter regions and maximize heat preservation in cooler regions.

For Cairns North-facing facades in Cairns are sought after due to it’s ability to receive steady and uniform daylight throughout the day. This allows for adequate natural light without excessive heat buildup. These building exteriors are ideal for maximizing the use of natural light while also ensuring a comfortable indoor temperature. In contrast, facades that face east and west are less desirable since they are exposed to intense direct sunlight (Global horizontal), resulting in glare and higher cooling requirements. These orientations may need the implementation of efficient shading techniques to reduce heat absorption and maximize the effectiveness of natural lighting. South-facing facades may also receive abundant natural light, but shading may be necessary to regulate heat absorption during the sun’s strongest hours. However, south-facing orientations are often more preferable than east and west-facing orientations.

For Cooma Cooma’s temperate environment makes south-facing facades desirable due to their ability to provide steady and homogeneous daylighting year-round, which is great for optimizing the penetration of natural light. These building exteriors provide an ideal opportunity for maximizing natural light while minimizing the negative effects of excessive heat and glare. The facades that face east and west may be exposed to intense sunlight, especially in the summer months, resulting in glare and higher cooling requirements. Strategic shading is essential for maximizing the use of natural light while decreasing the amount of heat that enters in these specific orientations. North-facing facades receive minimal direct sunshine but nevertheless provide sufficient light levels without excessive heat, making them acceptable for daylighting applications with proper design considerations.

12. DAYLIGHT PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS (DAYLIGHT FACTOR):

Fig 25 .Ground floor DF -Cairns (Author, 2024)

Fig 29 .DF calculatons -Cairn(Author, 2024)

Fig 26 .First floor DF -Cairns(Author, 2024)

Fig 27 .Ground floor DF - Cooma (Author, 2024)

Fig 28 .First floor DF - Cooma (Author, 2024)

Fig 30 .DF - Cooma(Author, 2024)

The Daylight Factor (DF) It quantifies the ratio of the amount of daylight present inside a place to the amount of daylight present outside, assuming overcast sky conditions. The calculation involves dividing the illuminance level within a given place by the illuminance level outside, and expressing the result as a percentage. DF values quantify the efficacy of daylighting in supplying adequate illumination for indoor tasks while minimizing the need for artificial lighting during daylight hours. Daylight Factor analysis is essential for building design since it directly affects occupant welfare, energy consumption, and building efficiency. Sufficient illumination from natural light stimulates the visual well-being, uplifts the emotional state, and boosts the efficiency of individuals occupying the space. In addition, efficient daylighting decreases the necessity for artificial lighting, resulting in energy conservation and environmental advantages. Architects may enhance the health and sustainability of built environments by maximizing daylighting design methods, including the placement, size, and use of shading devices for windows. Although in both different locations, there’s slight change in DF as can be seen from above table and graph, but the strategies for mitigation in different locatin has to be different as suggested below.

Interference and recommendations For Cairns - To achieve a balanced Daylight Factor of 2%- 5% in Cairns, where there is plenty of sunlight, in order to optimally utilize natural light while reducing glare and heat buildup. Design methods would be prioritizixing maximizing the amount of natural light that enters a room in order to achieve optimal illumination levels throughout the day, especially in areas that faces north. Efficient shading and glazing solutions are essential for managing sunshine levels and avoiding excessive heat, particularly in east and west facades.

For Cooma - Ensuring sufficient Daylight Factor levels is essential in Cooma’s moderate environment to optimize the use of natural light and minimize the impact of seasonal changes in sunshine availability. During the winter months, south-facing spaces may need less artificial lighting. However, in the summer, they may suffer from excessive glare and heat gain. Effective utilization of shading techniques and optimal window design are essential for maintaining a harmonious balance of daylighting performance across all seasons, thereby guaranteeing occupant comfort and maximizing energy efficiency.

13. DAYLIGHT PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS (UNIFORM DAYLIGHT INSULATION):

Fig 31 .Ground floor UDI- Cairns (Author, 2024)

Fig 32 .First floor UDI-Cairns (Author, 2024)

Fig 33 .Ground floor UDI - Cooma (Author, 2024)

Fig 34 .First floor UDI - Cooma (Author, 2024)

Fig 35 .UDI calculatons -Cairns(Author, 2024) Fig 36 .UDI calculations - Cooma (Author, 2024)

UDI Uniform Daylight Illuminance (UDI) is a quantitative measure employed to assess the uniformity of daylight levels in a given area throughout a specific period. The purpose of this assessment is to determine the proportion of time during which the illuminance values fall within a specific range, usually between 100 and 3000 lux. it has a direct impact on occupant comfort, visual performance, and energy consumption. An equitable allocation of natural light intensity levels fosters visual satisfaction, boosts efficiency, and diminishes dependence on artificial illumination, resulting in energy conservation and ecological advantages.

Interference and recommendations For Cairns - It is crucial to have a balanced UDI in order to optimally utilize natural light while reducing glare and heat gain. Design techniques should prioritize maximizing the amount of natural light that enters a room in order to maintain appropriate levels of illumination throughout the day, especially in areas facing north. Efficient shading and glazing solutions are essential for managing ilumination levels and avoiding excessive heat, particularly in east and west facades.

For Cooma - During the winter months, south-facing spaces may need less artificial lighting. However, in the summer, they may suffer from excessive glare and heat gain. Effective utilization of shading strategies and optimal window design are essential for maintaining a consistent level of User Defined Index (UDI).

14. SUGGESTIONS / IMPROVED CASE - CAIRNS: The shadow screen The shadow screen is positioned on the top and sides of the windows on the north and west sides of the building to reduce the intensity of daylight and ensure a uniform distribution of light in Bedroom 1 and the Dining area. These spaces are used for vital activities.

Skylight The primary function of the skylight is to offer light in both the hallway and the landing 1 area. Due to the daylight factor falling below the desired threshold and the UDI reaching 56%, we have installed skylights to ensure enough daylighting.

Glass floor The glass floor has been installed in the hallway ceiling to optimize the skylight’s effectiveness and allow natural sunshine to illuminate the passageway. Therefore, achieving a favorable indoor environment by significantly exceeding the UDI threshold of 92% and increasing the daylight factor from 1.2 in the base case to 2.4. (Mike Foti, 2019).

Fig 37 .DF calculations- Cairns (Author, 2024)

Fig 39 .Ground floor DF- Cairns (Author, 2024)

The wooden boards protruding out to act as the sun-screen on top and sides, protecting from solar heat gains and providing extra thermal insulation. As CLT boards have high r-value and proved durable in this hot climate.

Skylight made up of low e transmission glass, with wooden frame and polyurethene sealant.

Fig 43 .Strategies (Author, 2024) Fig 38 .UDI calculations - Cairns (Author, 2024)

Fig 40 .First floor DF-Cairns (Author, 2024)

Fig 41 .Ground floor UDI - Cairns (Author, 2024)

Laminated and tempered flat glass, with non-skid top layer and transparent properties.

Fig 42 .First floor UDI - Cairns (Author, 2024)

15. SUGGESTIONS / IMPROVED CASE - COOMA: Light shelf A light shelf was used to address two issues related to excessive daylight in the area near the window. The daylight factor exceeded the desired limit of 20+ DF, and the UDI was below 18. The light shelf effectively shaded the window edge and redirected the excess light towards the dining zone, resulting in a daylight factor of 3.4 and a UDI of 90.

Skylight The skylight’s main purpose is to provide illumination in both the hallway and the landing 1 area. As the daylight factor fell below the necessary level and the UDI reached 57%, we have added skylights to guarantee sufficient daylighting. (Mike Foti, 2019) Vertical fins Vertical fins were implemented to reduce the high UDI value of 63% caused by excessive glare and intense daylight. This glare could potentially disrupt daily operations and movement in the area.

Highly reflective Galvanized metal sheets have been used to create the light shelf to reflect the light towards inside.

High thermal mass, cross laminated timber fins have been to avoid excessive daylight.

Fig 45 .Strategies (Author, 2024) Fig 46 .UDI calculations - Cooma (Author, 2024)

Fig 44 .DF calculations- Cooma (Author, 2024)

Fig 47.Ground floor DF- Cooma (Author, 2024)

Skylight made up of low e transmission glass, with wooden frame and polyurethene sealant.

Fig 48 .First floor DF-Cooma (Author, 2024)

Fig 49 .Ground floor UDI - Cooma (Author, 2024)

Fig 50 .First floor UDI - Cooma(Author, 2024)

16. DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION:

17. LIMITATIONS:

Overall, the incorporation of daylighting and Uniform Daylight Illuminance (UDI) methods has greatly improved the overall efficiency of the buildings in both Cairns and Cooma. These buildings have achieved enhanced occupant comfort, energy efficiency, and environmental sustainability by giving priority to natural light and optimizing illuminance levels.

•The use of DesignBuilder software for daylighting and environmental analysis has been crucial in revealing insights into building performance.

The implementation of daylighting tactics, such as strategically adjusting the window wall ratio, additio of extra glazing, incorporating shading devices, and utilizing certain glazing solutions, has led to an indoor atmosphere that is well-illuminated and visually comfortable. The original file contained DF values below 1.3 for the hall and kitchen in both Cairns and Cooma. These values have been improved and replaced with new values of 2.3 and 3.5 DF for the hall and kitchen, respectively. This achievement was not easy to obtain. Sufficient natural illumination not only decreases the need for artificial lighting but also improves the well-being, productivity, and contentment of the people in the constructed space.

•Moreover, the differences in the selected building’s placement, building materials, and adherence to Australian regulations and weather conditions present notable obstacles.

In addition, the adoption of UDI analysis has guaranteed an even spread of daylight illuminance levels throughout the day, ensuring consistent lighting conditions for different tasks and activities. The original file contained UDI values below 56 and 72 for the hall and dining areas in Cairns and Cooma, respectively. These values have been reduced and replaced with new values of 91 and 92 for the hall and dining areas, respectively. This achievement was not easy to obtain. The overall disparity between the base and enhanced scenarios was 14% for Cairns and 16% for Cooma.

This kind of daylighting adopts a well-proportioned strategy that enhances visual comfort, diminishes glare, and decreases the amount of energy used by lighting systems.

•However, it is crucial to acknowledge the inherent limits of the software, including simplifications in modeling parameters and probable discrepancies in weather data inputs, which can impact the accuracy of analysis results.

Fig 51 .DF comparison chart (Author, 2024)

•Although the current building layout meets performance criteria, significant retrofitting may be necessary to adapt it to the Australian climate and topography. This process may involve challenges such as financial limitations, logistical complexities, and interruptions to occupants.

17. REFERENCES: Australian building code board. (2019). National construction code (Queensland climate zone map). https://ncc.abcb.gov.au/sites/default/files/reso urces/2020/ClimateZoneMapQLD Australian government. (n.d.). Australian climate zones | YourHome. http://www.yourhome.gov.au

Fig 52 .UDI comparison- Cairns(Author, 2024)

Green Building council Australia. (n.d.). Green star home submission guidelines draft for consultation, https://gbea- web.s3.amazonaws.com/media/ documents/gr een-star-homes-standard-draft-for-consultation DesignBuilder. (n.d.) DesignBuilder V7 https://designbuilder.co.uk/ helpv7.0/index.htm

In summary, the effective utilization of daylighting, UDI, and solar gain methodologies highlights the significance of comprehensive design approaches in improving building performance. By giving priority to natural light, regulating the degrees of brightness, and efficiently controlling solar radiation, these buildings not only enhance the comfort and well-being of occupants but also promote energy conservation, environmental sustainability, and long-term building efficiency. In the future, it will be crucial to place continuous importance on the design and study of daylighting in order to create healthier and more sustainable built environments that emphasize the requirements of occupants and environmental responsibility.

E.ON 2016 Research House - the University of Nottingham.” Www.nottingham.ac.uk, www.nottingham.ac.uk/creative-energy-homes/houses/eonhouse/eon-house.aspx.

Foti, Mike. “A Step by Step Guide to Select a Glass Floor or Bridge.” Innovate Building Solutions Blog - Home Remodeling, Design Ideas & Advice, 11 Oct. 2015, blog.innovatebuildingsolutions.com/2015/10/11/step-stepguide-select-glass-floor-bridge/. Accessed 8 Apr. 2024.

Climate Consultant. (n.d.) “Climate Consultant. Get the Software Safely and Easily.” Software Informer, climate-consultant.informer.com/6.0/.

Fig 53 .UDI comparison - Cooma(Author, 2024)

DESC 9015 BUILDING ENERGY ANALYSIS Assignment 2: Indoor Thermal and Visual Comfort Analysis

Contents: • INTRODUCTION • CLIMATE ANALYSIS • DEVELOPING BASE CASE • BASE CASE ANALYSIS • IMPROVED CASE STRATEGIES • IMPROVED CASE FINAL • DAYLIGHT FACTOR AND UDI ANALYSIS FOR IMPROVED CASE • DISCUSSION • LIMITATIONS • CONCLUSION • REFERENCES

Shreyas Vilas Gangurde SID- 520283853.

01. INTRODUCTION: 1.1. AIM & OBJECTIVE:

1.3. Project Description:

The objective of the assignment is to examine and assess the thermal and visual comfort of a residential building and suggest passive strategies to achieve a minimum of 50% decrease in the number of hours of discomfort experienced annually, in comparison to the original or base case, by using natural ventilation in the building.

1.2. Methodology:

Existing Building

Climate Analysis

Fig 1.1. Ground Floor plan (E.ON 2016 Research, n.d.)

Developing Base Case

Strategies to Improve Thermal Comfort

Strategies to Improve Visual Comfort

Fig 1.2.First floor plan(E.ON 2016 Research House, n.d.)

The chosen site is situated on the University of Nottingham campus in the United Kingdom. E.ON 2016 Research House has a total area of 162 square meters. The house is a three-bedroom property with living, kitchen, dining, and pantry rooms located on the ground floor. The first floor consists of three bedrooms, a WC, and a bathroom. Additionally, there is a separate plant room, however it does not have internal access to the building.

1.5. Thermal Zoning:

Alternative/ Improved Case

Conclusion 1.4. Relocating to Australia:

Fig 1.3 Map of Australia, (Source: Author,2024).

Location: Cooma, New South Wales Australia: To study the sensitivity analysis for the E.ON 2016 Research House the building is shifted to Australia.

Cooma, New South Wales, was selected for analyzing the building performance for thermal and visual comfort. Cooma comes under climate zone 7- cool temperate. Therefore, it is crucial to understand the climate and its effect on building on envelope.

Fig 1.4 Thermal zoning for ground floor(Source: Author,2024).

Fig 1.5.Thermal zoning for first floor (Source: Author,2024).

Two daytime zones and three nighttime zones was selected for the thermal and visual comfort analysis. The daytime zone selected on ground floor comprising Living & Dining spaces, Meanwhile all the berdrooms on the first floor was selected as nighttime zone for the analysis.

02. CLIMATE ANALYSIS: 2.1. TEMPERATURE RANGE:

Fig 1.7.Monthly Annual Temperature range for Cooma.(Source: Climatool,2024).

Fig 2.3. Annual Heatmap range for Cooma.(Source: Climatool,2024).

9 AM

Fig 2.1..Annual Temperature range for Cooma.(Source: Climatool,2024).

Average yearly temperature: 11.5 °C Hottest yearly temperature (99%): 28.6 °C Coldest yearly temperature (1%): -1.1 °C The temperature range graph indicates that while the temperature is generally comfortable during the summer, it frequently falls below the comfort range during the winter. To maintain a comfortable indoor environment during this time, it is important to have proper insulation and make optimal use of natural daylight during the day. Additionally, closing windows at night can help prevent heat loss.

2.2. Heatmap: The heatmap indicates that the temperature ranges from 20 °C to 30 °C between 9 am and 8 evening. During the winter months of April, May, and June, there are instances where the temperature falls inside the comfortable range from 12pm to 4pm. It is essential to maximize the utilization of those range in order to attain optimal comfort throughout the peak winter periods.

2.3. Wind Analysis : It appears that wind patterns remain consistent throughout the year, with the northwestern sides being the most favorable during summer when temperatures rise above the comfortable range. This helps achieve indoor comfort. Similarly, blocking these winds during peak winters can help achieve indoor thermal comfort.

2.4. Sun Shading Chart : Sun shading charts shows shading is required during peak summer on North facing zone during the afternoon hours as it may lead to discomfort and glare issues also it is crucial to utilise those sunlight during winters by optimising window to open during afternoon to provide some comfort during that period.

2.5. Sun Path & Solar Analysis: The sun's angle is lower during winter compared to summer. Measures should be taken to adjust window operation for both seasons. In particular, the north side tends to heat up due to solar gain. Keeping natural ventilation on throughout summer can help improve comfort in those zones.

December 21 June 21 March 21 Solar Gain

12 PM

(Summer Solistice)

Fig 2.5.Dec-Jun Sun shading chart cooma..(Source: Climate consultant,2024).

(Equinox)

3 PM

Fig 2.4. Annual wind rose for cooma..(Source: Climatool,2024).

(Winter Solistice) Fig 2.7. Sun path and shadow analysis(Source: Author,2024).

Fig 2.6. Jun-Dec Sun shading chart cooma.(Source: Climate consultant,2024).

Fig 2.8. Solar gain (Source: Author,2024).

3.1. CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS:

3.7. HVAC:

3.6. SCHEDULES:

03. DEVELOPING BASE CASE:

Natural ventilation with no heating and cooling was considered for the bas case analysis. Since the analysis for thermal comfort was set to be done only through natural ventilation.

3.2. Wall Assembly: Uninsulated Lightweight wall assembly was used for the base case comprising of Lightweight metal cladding, Air gap and plasterboard at inside.

3.8. OCCUPANCY: Three nighttime spaces and two daytime spaces were selected for the analysis. Dining and living was considered to daytime, while all the three bedrooms considered as nighttime spaces. The figure 3.8 & 3.9 below shows detailed scheduled for Night and daytime space with occupancy as 4 persons

3.9.Equipment: Fig 3.11 depicts detailed schedule used for equipment loads with power density of 3W/m2.

Fig 3.1External wall(Source: Design Builder,2024).

3.10. Lighting: 3.3. Floors:

Fig 3.7.HVAC template (Source: Design Builder,2024).

Fig 3.12 & 3.13 shows schedule used for day and nighttime zones for lighting with power density of 4W/m2.

The floor was incorporated with dense cast concrete without insulation to examine the effect of thermal comfort for the building.

Fig 3.2.Floor (Source: Design Builder,2024).

3.4. Roof System: For roofing uninsulated lightweight roof system comprising Asphalt at the outer and Plaster inner side with 100mm of air gap in between these two layers.

Fig 3.8.occupancy schedule for day (Source: Design Builder,2024).

Fig 3.3.Roof (Source: Design Builder,2024).

Fig 3.9.occupancy schedule for night (Source: Design Builder,2024).

3.5. Window System: Single glazed having aluminium frame with no thermal break was considered. The U- value for the whole window is 5.881W/m2K.

Fig 3.4.Glazing template (Source: Design Builder,2024).

Fig 3.5.Glazing template (Source: Design Builder,2024).

Fig 3.10.Activity schedule Source: Design Builder,2024).

Fig 3.6.U-value for window (Source: Design Builder,2024).

Fig 3.11. Equipment schedule Source: Design Builder,2024).

Fig 3.12. Light schedule for day Source: Design Fig 3.13. Light schedule for night Source: Design Builder,2024).

Builder,2024).

04. BASE CASE ANALYSIS: BASE CASE SCENARIO GROUNDFLOOR:DINING

COMFORT HOURS TOTAL HOURS DISCOMFORT HOURS % DISCOMFORT HOURS

1885 4745 2860 60.27

GROUNDFLOOR:LIVING

COMFORT HOURS TOTAL HOURS DISCOMFORT HOURS % DISCOMFORT HOURS

1433.5 4745 3311.5 69.79

FIRSTFLOOR:BEDROOM1

COMFORT HOURS TOTAL HOURS DISCOMFORT HOURS % DISCOMFORT HOURS

1238 4015 2777 69.17

FIRSTFLOOR:BEDROOM2

COMFORT HOURS TOTAL HOURS DISCOMFORT HOURS % DISCOMFORT HOURS

1388.5 4015 2626.5 65.42

FIRSTFLOOR:BEDROOM3

COMFORT HOURS TOTAL HOURS DISCOMFORT HOURS % DISCOMFORT HOURS

Table 4.1. Base Case Result. (Source: Author,2024).

SUMMER

1404 4015 2611 65.03

4.1. Base Case Results: As observed maximum discomfort hours is seen in Bedroom 1 spaces has high level to solar gain causing discomfort with 69.17% Also Living space has surrounding building causing shadow effects on the zone making lesser direct contact with sunlight making it most discomfortable of about 69.79% throughout the year. Also, Dining is North facing which on ground floor has 60.27% of discomfort. While Bedroom 2 and 3 has same level of discomfort as 65.03. Further strategies will be need to reduce the discomfort for about 50% by utilizing various strategies while keeping the visual comfort in mind.

4.2. Inferences on Base Case:

Fig 4.2.Graph for winter. (Source: Design builder,2024).

The graph represents variations between Site Outdoor Air dry bullb temperature with Mean air temperature of all five zones as seen if Fig 4.3, most of the time of the year temperature are within comfort range during summer periods, Although winters are more severe, and strategies are to be focused on winters and try to achieve comfort levels during some time in winters by insulation and thermal mass.

WINTER

COMFORT RANGE 19 °C -26 °C

Fig 4.3.Annual Graph for Zone mean air. Temperature for all zone and outside temperature.(Source: Design builder,2024).

SUMMER

05. IMPROVEMENT STRATEGIES: 5.1 Improved Case 01 : Glass wool Insulation: Glass wool (200mm) was used for insulation in roof and wall system to help trap heat inside the building.

External wall Brickwork: Brick masonry was selected because of its high thermal conductivity that would help store internal heat during night time.

Reduced WWR: The discomfort level was high in north facing zones Dining & Bedroom 1 as result approach was to reduce the air intake by reducing WWR.

Glass wool Insulation for External walls and roof systems

Implementation of Brickwork to external walls

Reducing Window wall ratio on North facing windows

5.4. Approach:

Fig 5.2.Model. (Source: Design builder,2024).

Fig 5.4.U-value for external wall. (Source: Design builder,2024).

Fig 5.1.External wall. (Source: Design builder,2024).

Fig 5.3.Roof. (Source: Design builder,2024).

5.2. Improved case 01 Results: IMPROVED CASE SCENARIO 01 % CHANGE GROUNDFLOOR:DINING

GROUNDFLOOR:LIVING

FIRSTFLOOR:BEDROOM1

FIRSTFLOOR:BEDROOM2

FIRSTFLOOR:BEDROOM3

COMFORT HOURS TOTAL HOURS DISCOMFORT HOURS % DISCOMFORT HOURS

2356.5 4745 2388.5 50.34

COMFORT HOURS TOTAL HOURS DISCOMFORT HOURS % DISCOMFORT HOURS

1852 4745 2893 60.97

COMFORT HOURS TOTAL HOURS DISCOMFORT HOURS % DISCOMFORT HOURS

2443.5 4015 1571.5 39.14

COMFORT HOURS TOTAL HOURS DISCOMFORT HOURS % DISCOMFORT HOURS

2416.5 4015 1598.5 39.81

COMFORT HOURS TOTAL HOURS DISCOMFORT HOURS % DISCOMFORT HOURS

2681 4015 1334 33.23

16.49

12.64

43.41

5.3.Inferences on Improved case 01 :

Fig 5.5.U-value for Roof. (Source: Design builder,2024).

Improvement approach was to introduce heavy construction to improve internal heat gain and provide insulation in exterior walls to retain maximum heat gain in the building during winters to provide indoor thermal comfort for extreme cold weather. Also glasswool was selected for wall and roof insulation as it is an excellent insulating material having good conduction to heat . Also to avoid discomfort caused by large window on North façade making it uncomfortable during peak summer and winters, hence reducing the window wall ratio was introduced to see the impact of wind and sunlight on the building.

After implementing the strategies discussed above helped in reducing the discomfort for all the zones. As observed Bedroom 3 has the maximum impact of 48.91% while Living and Dining Space had the least of 12.64%. Therefore. reducing the window all ratio may not affect the impact on the building envelope.

Hence further strategies needed to implement for further improvements.

39.14

Fig 5.6.Annual graph for improved case 01. (Source: Design builder,2024).

48.91

Table 5.6.Improved case 01 results. (Source: Design builder,2024).

The graph shows thermal mass appears to helps in holding the temperature for zones, except Dining and Living spaces. Therefore further approach should focus on these spaces.

5.5.Improved Case 02:

5.9. Improved Case 03:

To induce more heat retention in the building mass concrete was implemented on slabs and floors levels also increasing the window wall ratio was the approach for improvement in this strategy.

As observed due to lack of daylight and impacts of surrounding buildings it was obvious approach to apply schedule for window operation to control the air intake inside the structure. Hence further strategy was to improve thermal comfort for Living and also actions needed to improve visual comfort for the Fig 5.8.Specification of VACUMAX VIG glass. (Source: Vitro Architectural Glass., n.d) Fig 5.9. VACUMAX VIG glass. (Source: Vitro building.

Mass Concrete at Slabs and floor levels

Fig 5.7.Construction template. (Source: Design builder,2024).

Architectural Glass., n.d)

Providing Schedule for window operation

Increased Window wall ratio

5.6.Suggestions: Inclusion of Mass concrete: To optimise more thermal mass and maintaining heat retention hence concrete was implemented at floors and slabs levels to store maximum heat during winters.

Increased Window wall ratio: As reduced window wall ratio affected thermal comfort of the building, Therefore approach was to provide optimal WWR. 5.7. Improved Case 02 Results:

Improved Glazing performance

5.10. Suggestions: • Schedule for window operation:

IMPROVED CASE SCENARIO 02 % CHANGE GROUNDFLOOR:DINING COMFORT HOURS 3118 TOTAL HOURS 4745 DISCOMFORT HOURS 1627 % DISCOMFORT HOURS 34.28872 GROUNDFLOOR:LIVING COMFORT HOURS 1802 TOTAL HOURS 4745 DISCOMFORT HOURS 2943 % DISCOMFORT HOURS 62.02318 FIRSTFLOOR:BEDROOM1 COMFORT HOURS TOTAL HOURS DISCOMFORT HOURS % DISCOMFORT HOURS

3355.5 4015 659.5 16.4259

FIRSTFLOOR:BEDROOM2 COMFORT HOURS TOTAL HOURS DISCOMFORT HOURS % DISCOMFORT HOURS

2998.5 4015 1016.5 25.318

FIRSTFLOOR:BEDROOM3 COMFORT HOURS TOTAL HOURS DISCOMFORT HOURS % DISCOMFORT HOURS

2814 4015 1201 29.91

43.11

11.13

76.25

61.30

54.00

5.8.Inferences on Improved case 02 : Introducing Concrete at Floors, slabs and increased window wall ratio at zone level helped increased some comfort as compared to base case scenario effective improvisation was seen on zones such as Bedroom 1 & 2 as well as dining spaces.

Although a decline in comfort hours was also seen in Living space. Since Living room is south facing and shadows from surrounding buildings affects the zone directly which makes it difficult to achieve thermal comfort through natural ventialtion. Hence further efforts was taken to improve the indoor thermal performance.

Providing Light Shelf & Shading devices

It is important to control window activity during high winters to avoid external air entering the building, hence providing a different schedules for Summers and winter to North facing and South facing windows.

• Inroducing VACUMAX VIG glass: Since glazing affects the thermal performance of the building to increase the comfort glazing with better U Values was considered hence VacuMax vacuum insulating glass (VIG) by Vitro Architectural Glass was considered for glazing having a U Value of 0.05 (Vitro Architectural Glass., n.d.)

• Providing Light Shelfs and Shading devices: To improve visual performance, it was crucial to penetrate daylight in the building, And also maintaining thermal performance by controlling window operation with schedule for window openings.

Fig 5.8.Glazing template. (Source: Design builder,2024).

Fig 5.11.Soth Window Schedule. (Source: Design builder,2024).

Fig 5.10.North Window Schedule. (Source: Design builder,2024).

5.11. Improved case 03 Results:

6.2. Improved Case Results:

IMPROVED CASE SCENARIO 03 % CHANGE GROUNDFLOOR:DINING COMFORT HOURS TOTAL HOURS DISCOMFORT HOURS % DISCOMFORT HOURS

3274 4745 1471 31.00

GROUNDFLOOR:LIVING COMFORT HOURS TOTAL HOURS DISCOMFORT HOURS % DISCOMFORT HOURS

2503.5 4745 2241.5 47.24

FIRSTFLOOR:BEDROOM1 COMFORT HOURS TOTAL HOURS DISCOMFORT HOURS % DISCOMFORT HOURS

3550.5 4015 464.5 11.57

FIRSTFLOOR:BEDROOM2 COMFORT HOURS TOTAL HOURS DISCOMFORT HOURS % DISCOMFORT HOURS

2647.5 4015 1367.5 34.06

FIRSTFLOOR:BEDROOM3 COMFORT HOURS TOTAL HOURS DISCOMFORT HOURS % DISCOMFORT HOURS

3266.5 4015 748.5 18.64

48.57

32.31

5.12.Inferences on Improved case 03 : The results shows the impact of windows schedule and VACUMAX glass having low U values helped achieve thermal comfort in Living space.

Although further strategies needed to improvise the indoor comfort for Living space.

83.27

47.93

71.33

IMPROVED CASE FINAL % CHANGE GROUNDFLOOR:DINING

GROUNDFLOOR:LIVING

FIRSTFLOOR:BEDROOM1

FIRSTFLOOR:BEDROOM2

FIRSTFLOOR:BEDROOM3

COMFORT HOURS TOTAL HOURS DISCOMFORT HOURS % DISCOMFORT HOURS

3913.5 4745 831.5 17.52

COMFORT HOURS TOTAL HOURS DISCOMFORT HOURS % DISCOMFORT HOURS

3164.5 4745 1580.5 33.31

COMFORT HOURS TOTAL HOURS DISCOMFORT HOURS % DISCOMFORT HOURS

3947 4015 68 1.69

COMFORT HOURS TOTAL HOURS DISCOMFORT HOURS % DISCOMFORT HOURS

2727.6 4015 1287.4 32.06

COMFORT HOURS TOTAL HOURS DISCOMFORT HOURS % DISCOMFORT HOURS

3282 4015 733 18.26

70.93

52.27

97.55

6.3.Inferences on Improved case Final : Thus, implementation of heavyweight brickwork for walls acts as heat storage for the building and helps in achieving more thermal comfort throughout the year for cold climate and maintain indoor thermal comfort throughout the year.

As seen in graph 6.2, some part of winters are also seen in the comfort range by helping the over comfort for the building

50.98

71.93

06. Improved Case Final: The final strategy for reducing discomfort in the living area involved including large insulation and a high thermal mass. As chances of changing the glazing or window operation may not help achieve the comfort for living space.

6.1. Suggestions: • Glass wool insulation: The inclusion of Glass wool layer (300mm) to both the internal and external wall system aids to enhance heat retention within the structure, hence increasing the duration of comfort throughout the year.

• Aerated Brickwork: To enhance the insulation effect aerated brickwork is implemented through external and internal wall system an approach to achieve maximum heat retention during cold weather and by reducing the U values of the walls by 0.098.

Fig 5.7.Externl wall. (Source: Design builder,2024).

Fig 6.2 Annual Graph for Living room Improved Case Final. (Source: Design builder,2024).

Fig 6.1.U-valure of Externl wall. (Source: Design builder,2024).

6.4. Improved Case Final Result:

Fig 6.3 Annual Graph for All the zones Improved Case Final. (Source: Design builder,2024).

6.5. Critical Observations & Inferences: The graph 6.3, displays the mean air temperature for all five zones, together with the outside dry bulb temperature . It has been noted that nearly all of the zones are within the comfortable temperature range of 19 °C - 26 °C. The insulation and thermal mass contribute to maintaining a comfortable temperature range, even when the outside dry bulb temperature drops below 5 °C. Bedroom 1 consistently maintained a high level of comfort, with an overall comfort range of 97% for the entire year. Compared to the base case, we achieved approximately 68% of the total comfortable hours for all zones.

COMPARISON OF ALL CASES DISCOMFORT HOURS 80.00 70.00

Fig 6.4.Winter Graph for All the zones Improved Case Final. (Source: Design builder,2024).

The figure above (Fig 6.4) displays the average air temperature for all zones during the winter season. It is seen that all zones fall within the comfort range, even during the coldest period of winter. This indicates that the strategies being implemented are effective in maintaining comfort during cold weather conditions and ensuring thermal comfort during winters.

% DISCOMFORT HOURS

60.00 50.00 40.00 30.00 20.00 10.00 0.00 BASE CASE

IMPROVED CASE 01

IMPROVED CASE 02

IMPROVED CASE 03

SCENARIOS DINING

LIVING

BEDROOM1

BEDROOM2

BEDROOM3

Fig 6.5.Comparison of discomfort hours all cases. (Source: Design builder,2024).

IMPROVED CASE FINAL

07. DAYLIGHT FACTOR AND UDI ANALYSIS FOR IMPROVED CASE: 7.2. Useful Daylight Illuminance (UDI):

7.1.Daylight Factor:

• Critical observation and Inference for Daylight factor: Almost all the five zones falls under the range of 2-5% of daylight as per Nation construction Code (NCC) Section F4 of Light and ventilation. Hence building was able to achieve optimal use of daylight during daytime hours by saving the demand for energy use while maintaining the thermal comfort. (National Construction Code, n.d.)

• Critical observation and Inference for UDI: The UDI map as given below has evenly distributed daylight through the zones having thermal comfort. Although the range for UDI is about 75% since all the zones are meeting the required UDI except Dining since improving UDI affects thermal comfort hence thermal comfort is more important when it comes to energy saving therefore all others zones satisfactory for UDI performance.

Fig 7.1.Daylight Factor for Ground floor. (Source: Design builder,2024).

Fig 7.3.UDI map for Ground floor. (Source: Design builder,2024).

Fig 7.2.Daylight Factor for First floor. (Source: Design builder,2024).

Fig 7.4.UDI map for First floor. (Source: Design builder,2024).

08. DISCUSSION:

10. CONCLUSION: While most zones meet the standards for visual & thermal comfort. Thermal comfort is considered more crucial for indoor environment quality. However, there may be some zones that might influence visual comfort. However, the daylight factor for all zones complies with the standards set by NCC & Greenstar Homes with minimum of 2% in each.

After thorough analysis and evaluation of the climate and site conditions, the following techniques have been identified as key factors in ensuring the building's sustainability in respect to its impact on the climate: • The key aspects of considerate material selection and assembly effectiveness for cold climates, such as Cooma, are the inclusion of robust building assemblies that optimize the utilization of thermal mass to maximize heat gain.

• Therefore, using brickwork and glasswool insulation in the walls and roofing system serves as a highly effective insulating agent for the building, effectively combating extremely cold condition.

The effectiveness of strategies is influenced by the surroundings and site conditions, although their practical implications may differ from the displayed • Concrete was considered as best assembly for slabs and flooring contributing by trapping heat during daytime and providing comfort at night times. results due to the influence of climate change.

• The use of Vacumax VIG glass by Vitro Architectural Glass, in addition with optimizing the window to wall ratio and glazing, effectively mitigated the glare and discomfort produced by the sun's angles. This resulted in improved thermal and visual comfort within.

The recommended solutions are supposed to be conceptual in nature, and • The implementation of window schedule effectively regulates the airflow within the building, their implications may provide varying results depending on the location and reducing the discomfort caused by cold and severe winds and optimizing natural ventilation in environment. the summer.

• Implementing strategies to incorporate light shelves and shading devices on the north and south sides of the building effectively utilized natural daylight and enhanced visual comfort.

The successful implementation of the strategies mentioned above contributed to the achievement of The cost of assemblies depends upon by factors such as the location, supplier, optimum thermal and visual comfort for Cooma. These strategies complied to the construction availability, and proximity to the site location. techniques outlined in the National Construction Code (NCC).

09. LIMITATION: The results obtained with Design Builder are purely for analytical purposes and should not be considered as factual.

The recommended wall assembly is dependent on the location and environment, but it may not account for the credibility of the outcome.

Quantification is performed using drawings and does not need to precisely depict the actual structural specifications of the building project.

11. REFERNCES: • Design Builder. (n.d.). Home -. Designbuilder.com.au. https://designbuilder.com.au/ • E.ON 2016 Research House - The University of Nottingham. (n.d.). Www.nottingham.ac.uk. https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/creative-energy-homes/houses/eon-house/eon-house.aspx • Green Star. (2015). Green Star Daylight and Views Hand Calculation Guide. https://www.gbca.org.au/uploads/79/35919/Green%20Star_Daylight%20and%20Views%20H and%20Calculation%20Guide%20May%202015%20RELEASE.pdf • National Construction Code. (n.d.). Part F4 Light and ventilation | NCC. Ncc.abcb.gov.au.

Retrieved June 4, 2024, from https://ncc.abcb.gov.au/editions/2019/ncc-2019-volumeone/section-f-health-and-amenity/part-f4-light-and-ventilation#idae823dc3-cac5-4dd9-93db96a588a2f9cfNguyen, co-authored by G. B., Federico Tartarini, Christine. (2021).

• CBE Clima Tool. Clima.cbe.berkeley.edu. https://clima.cbe.berkeley.edu/ • Vitro Architectural Glass. (n.d.). VacuMax Vacuum Insulating Glass | Vitro Architectural Glass.

Www.vitroglazings.com. Retrieved June 4, 2024, from https://www.vitroglazings.com/products/specialty-glass-applications/vacumax-vacuuminsulating-glass/

DESC9014 Sustainable Construction Technology Assignment 2 Smart Technical Report • Contents • Introduction • Geopolymer Concrete • History of Concrete • Manufacturing of GPC • Performance Aspects • SWOT Analysis of GPC • Life Cycle Analysis and Impact of Cost • Comparative Analysis • Regulations • Key Issues of GPC • Field Applications of GPC • Future Scope • Discussion • Limitations • Conclusion • References

Shreyas Vilas Gangurde (520283853)

01. INTRODUCTION: 1.1. AIM:

02. GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE: 2.1. Geopolymer Concrete:

This study analyzes a construction material or assembly. Examine traditional Concrete plays an important role, in construction due to its cost construction materials and how they improve building performance. Also, effectiveness, durability and versatility. As discussed in this paper by (Singh et Comparison of selected method with traditional methods and life cycle al., 2020). The worldwide output of Portland cement its binding agent is analysis of material, environmental, and future impacts. increasing by 9% each year leading to the creation of 4 billion tons.

However, this growth raises worries because of the CO2 and greenhouse 1.2. OBJECTIVES: gas emissions it generates accounting for 7-8% of total emissions, from The object of the report is to examine how a construction material or various industries worldwide. Geopolymer cement (GPC) is a very promising assembly affects upfront carbon. Underpinning its A1-A5 Life Cycle study substitute for Portland cement, as it effectively decreases greenhouse gas with cost and environmental consequences. Performing a SWOT analysis and emissions, energy consumption, and the usage of raw resources. Initially examine the material's possible impact on environment and how it applies introduced by French scholar Joseph Davidovits during the 1970s, to Australian standards.

Geopolymer Concrete (GPC) employs discarded materials from industries and agriculture that include aluminosilicate. These materials are then 1.3. QUESTIONNAIRES: treated with alkali and silicate. It achieves an 80% reduction in CO2 emissions and offers more cost-effectiveness, utilizing industrial and ➢ How will it replace the conventional methods of construction? agricultural waste as well. GPC gained popularity in the building sector because of its adaptability. Nevertheless, the lack of standards and rules ➢ What is the effect on the carbon footprint? restricts the commercial implementation of this technology. (Singh et al., 2020) ➢ What will be the impact on the cost compared to traditional materials?

➢

What are the current regulations for the use of the system?

Selection of the Construction Material:

High Fire Resistance

➢

Comparative analysis with traditional material:

Comparison with industry material and environmental impact and cost affects with improved material ➢

Application for Australian standards:

Understanding the Australian standards and application the material selected. ➢

Aggregate

Sand

Mix design aggregates and sand

Fig 2.1. Geopolymer Concrete (Source: Austroads,2018)

LOW CARBON EMISSION

Conduct LCA and its environmental impact:

A brief information about manufacturing and production of the material selected. ➢

Alkaline Source

Sodium Hydroxide

Conclusion:

Sodium Silicate

Alkaline Solution

Perform a SWOT Analysis for the material:

Identify SWOT for the selected material and analyze its impact ➢

Use any one of this materials

High Durability

Understanding the Manufacturing Process and Performance :

A brief information about manufacturing and performance of the selected material.

GGBs

Low Carbon

History of Concrete:

Discuss history of concrete, uses in assembly and its impact on the environment. ➢

Metakaolin

Fly Ash

High Compressive Strength

Brief introduction of the construction and its properties. ➢

Alumina and Silica containing solid precursor

Properties of Geopolymer Concrete(GPC):

1.4. METHODOLOGY: ➢

2.2. Production of Geopolymer :

HIGH LIFE CYCLE COST SAVING

LONG SERVICE LIFE

GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE

HIGH LIFE CYCLE COST SAVING

Mix and Curing in Oven/ Ambient

LOW GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL

LESS USE OF VIRGIN MATERIALS

A thorough conclusion was formulated, emphasizing the significant findings and providing for future implications of selected material.

Geopolymer Concrete.

Usefulness of Geopolymer Concrete (GPC)

3.3. Key Applications in Construction Assembly:

03. HISTORY OF CONCRETE: •

3.1. Early Structures:

•

The actual history of the invention of concrete is dependent upon the interpretation of the term "concrete." Primitive cements were produced in ancient times through the process of crushing and burning gypsum or limestone. Lime can also denote pulverized and calcined limestone.

By combining sand and water with these cements, they transformed into mortar, a substance like plaster that was employed to bond stones together. Over thousands of years, these materials underwent modifications, amalgamations with various substances, and ultimately transformed into contemporary concrete.. (Gromicko & Shepard, 2011)

•

•

3.4. Impact on the Environment:

Country Co2%

The very first constructions resembling concrete were constructed by the Nabataea traders or Bedouins, who inhabited and dominated a chain of oasis, establishing a minor empire in the southern areas of Syria and northern Jordan approximately 6500 BC. (Gromicko & Shepard, 2011).

In the 19th century, concrete was mostly utilized for industrial structures. Due to aesthetic concerns, it considered socially unsuitable as a construction material. Between 1850 and 1880, the Frenchman Francois Coignet introduced Portland cement in home construction in England and France. Coignet incorporated steel rods to prevent the outside walls from expanding and eventually utilized them as flexural elements. The very first constructions resembling concrete were constructed by the Nabataea traders or Bedouins, who inhabited and dominated a chain of oasis, establishing a minor empire in the southern areas of Syria and northern Jordan approximately 6500 BC. (Gromicko & Shepard, 2011).

Reinforced Concrete Footing • Distributes loads from column to soil/strata.

• Mass Concrete is used.

• Resist moisture below ground.

Japan 5%

India 8%

China 36%

Russia 9%

OtherMIC's 13%

Reinforced Concrete Column • Distributes loads from Beams to Footing.

• Mass Concrete is used.

• Resist Compressive Force.

European Union 19%

Other HIC's 10% China

European Union

Other HIC's

OtherMIC's

Russia

India

Japan Fig 3.2 Countries Co2 Percentage (Source: Auhor,2024).

Reinforced Concrete Beams • Distributes loads from Slabs to Columns.

• Flexibility • Resist bending.

Sectorwise Co2 % 6% 10% 20%

42%

3.2. Evolution of Concrete : By 200 BC, the Romans were efficiently constructing structures using concrete, although it differed from the concrete used in modern day.

6%

Approximately, 3000 BC the ancient Egyptians utilized a combination of mud and straw to create bricks.

Adobe is equivalent to mud mixed with straw than concrete.

In the late 19th century, the development of steel-reinforced concrete began simultaneously by a German innovators.

The first concrete-like structures developed in the regions of southern Syria and northern Jordan in around 6500 BC.

By approximately 5600 BC, in the region of the former country of Yugoslavia along the Danube River, houses were constructed with flooring made of a particular kind of concrete.

In 1891, George Bartholomew laid the first-ever concrete street in the United States, which remains intact to this day.

Fig 3.1. Reproduced by (Author, 2024).

Source:(Gromicko & Shepard, 2011).

Reinforced Concrete Slab • Distributed loads on floor to Beams.

• Enhance Tensile Strength.

• Resist Shear Force.

Reinforced Concrete Shear wall • Transfer lateral loads to the foundation • Handle both compression and tension forces

Reinforced Concrete Stairs • Helps circulation between levels • Resist cracking or deflection

16%

Residential

Energy

Road Transport

Other Transport

Industries

Other Sector

Fig 3.3. Sector wise Co2 Percentage (Source: Author,2024).

The chart labeled 1.1 & 1.2 illustrates the country and sector-specific carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. China and the European Union are significant contributors to carbon emissions due to their highly developed cities and substantial usage of mass concrete in construction. Figure 1.2 illustrates that the Energy, Industrial, and Residential sectors have the biggest contribution to CO2 emissions. This highlights the growing importance of using low carbon, sustainable materials and renewable energy sources. Additional steps must be taken to construct materials for the future that are low in carbon emissions and more environmentally sustainable.

The process of concrete production and its impact on the environment: • There is an abundance of water, sand, gravel, and crushed stone that is used in the manufacturing process of concrete.

• The distance and quality of raw materials have an impact on the amount of energy used for transportation, the amount of water used, and the formation of dust.

• Certain aggregates used in the manufacturing of concrete have the potential to release radon gas.

The usage of uranium mine tailings as concrete material worsened the existing problems.

• Certain types of natural stone also release radon gas. (Babor et al., n.d.)

04. MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF GPC:

05. PERFORMANCE ASPECTS:

4.1. Manufacturing Phases: Quarrying from Nature

Sand Aggregates

Laboratory Methods

Recycled Materials

Fly Ash From Coal Combustion

Slag From Steel Residue

CONSTRUCTION SITE Since the process is not carbon-intensive and mixing can be conducted under normal conditions, either onsite or in a factory if prefabricated.

Alkaline Solution

Thermal resistance: Geopolymer exhibits good thermal stability up to a temperature of 400°C. However, above this point, there is a noticeable decline in its stability,.

At higher temperatures, shrinking may occur. Geopolymer mortars exhibit excellent stability at somewhat high temperatures.

Acid resistance: Geopolymer concrete has a more compact microstructure and residual alkaline activator, which makes it more resistant to acid attacks compared to cement-based concrete. (Zhang, 2024) Freeze Resistance: Geopolymer concrete, especially highcalcium concrete, resists freeze-thaw better than cement-based concrete. Denser interface microstructure and reduced porosity reduce internal expansion stress and microcracks. In salt frost, geopolymer concrete's mechanical properties matter.

(Zhang, 2024).

Salt Resistance: Geopolymer concrete exhibits superior resistance to salt attacks compared to cement-based concrete because of its denser microstructures, improved pore structures, and stabilized hydration products (Zhang, 2024).

Abrasion Resistance: Abrasion due to mechanical scraping, wearing, or skidding of things on concrete is a crucial factor in concrete durability .

Geopolymer concrete's abrasion resistance is due to its compressive strength, aggregate toughness, and binder hardness.

Geopolymer concrete's abrasion resistance can be determined by its weight loss from surface abrasion and wear depth.

Anti Corrosion : Geopolymers perform better than Portland cement-based products in anticorrosion, and steel-based reinforcement bars perform well (Zhang, 2024).

06. SWOT ANALYSIS OF GPC: APPLICATION Casting is similar to the process of making concrete, is used to create structural elements such as foundations, columns, slabs, and walls.

STRENGTHS

WEAKNESS

Low Co2

Initial Cost is High

Use of Recycled Materials

Limited long-term performance

Super Resistant to High Temperatures

GPC CURING

Heat Curing: Around 24

hours at temperatures ranging from 60°C to 90°C,

Ambient curing:

Approximately 24 to 48 hours, and its strength continues to increase over a period of 7 to 28 days

Full strength: 7 to 28 days

OPPORTUNITIES Increasing environmental regulations Technological advances may lower production costs.

Recycling innovation potential.

THREATS Regulatory and standardization challenge Variability in raw material quality

07. LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS AND IMPACT OF COST : 7.1. Life Cycle Analysis: A2

Raw Materials Processing– A1

A3

A4

Manufacturing

Transportation

A5

Transportation

To Plant

Application

Curing

To Site

Demolding

Sand

Aggregate

Sodium Hydroxide

Slag

Fly Ash

7.2. Environment and Cost Impact of GPC:

Sodium Silicate Mixing

Carbon Emission Factor for Transportation

Materials

Carbon Emission Factor

Units

Fine aggregates

2.820 × 10−3

Kg CO2/kg

Coarse aggregates

2.440 × 10−3

Kg CO2/kg

Water

1.891 × 10−4

Kg CO2/kg

Sodium silicate

1.247

Kg CO2/kg

Sodium hydroxide

1.448

Kg CO2/kg

OPC (average markets of China)

7.310 × 10−1

Kg CO2/kg

Concrete reducing water agent

3

Kg CO2/kg

OPC 15%

Fine aggregates 14%

Coarse aggregates 14%

Sodium silicate 21%

Fly ash 15% Sodium hydroxide Fine aggregates 21% Coarse aggregates

Fly ash

Sodium hydroxide

OPC

Sodium silicate

Fig 7.1: Example of geopolymer paste mixes (wt % without added water. (Source: Autor,2024).

Material Mix 1

Mix 2

Mix 3

Mix 4

Fly Ash

84

91

85.2

78

NaOH

11

7.2

7.6

11

Sodium Silicate

0

1.8

7.2

0

Silica Fume

5

0

0

9

Gibbsite 0

0

0

2

Table 7.3: Example of geopolymer paste mixes (wt % without added water, (Source: Lay, 2014).

Table7.1. Emission factors of raw materials (Source: Author,2024).

The European Directive deemed fly ash a byproduct, not waste. Fly ash has an environmental effect allocation coefficient of 2.280 × 10−2 kg CO2/m3.

Products

Economic Value Allocation Procedure (Allocation Coefficients)

Mass

The LCA "cradle to gate" model only compares GPC production to OPC and incorporates environmental effect beyond the gate. GPC emits less CO2 than OPC concrete at certain compressive strengths, according to studies. Most quantitative studies ignore environmental impact and focus on one compressive strength. (Shi et al., 2021) Fig 7.3 shows Geopolymer Mixes Comparison: Geopolymers can vary in terms of their cost and effectiveness in terms of greenhouse gas emissions.

• Significantly lower costs and a significant 97% decrease in greenhouse gas emissions when compared to ordinary Portland cement (OPC) mixtures.

• Geopolymer exhibits superior performance in terms of greenhouse gas emissions and is also more cost-effective when considering production only.

• The advantages of using geopolymer in transportation are not well-defined.

• Short distances have a positive effect, while large distances have a negative effect. (Lay, 2014).

• Table 1.1 Geopolymers shown a potential improvement over Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) in terms of carbon, with costs ranging from 7% lower to 39% higher than OPC. This suggests that geopolymers are likely to be a bit high in terms of price performance, given the current pricing structures and in the absence of a carbon price. (Lay, 2014) • Although the initial cost may be bit high in comparison to OPC the overall lifecycle cost is very low and acts a sustainable for future demands.

GWP CO2-eq (kg/t binder)

Mix1

Mix 2

Mix 3

Mix 4

404

271

310

425

OPC CO2-eq (kg/t binder)

Electricity (major product)

1 kWh

97%

COST ($/t binder)

Fly ash (byproduct)

0.109 kg

3%

OPC Cost ($/t binder)

760 152

118

140

176

120

7.2. Allocation procedure of fly ash. (Source: Author,2024).

Fig 7.2: Comparison for Co2 emissions & Cost for OPC & GPC. (Source:Lay, 2014).

Table 7.4: Typical greenhouse gas emissions and costs for four geopolymer mixes compared with OPC (Source:Lay, 2014).

7.3. Environmental Impact of GPC: GPC concrete has a lower global warming potential (GWP) than OPC concrete. he Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change confirmed that confirmed that GPCs with various binders have much lower GWP than OPC concrete. NaOH alternatives like solar salt reduce GWP by 64%. A Colombian study found that GPC had 44.7 percent less global warming potential than OPC concrete. GPC and reactive powder concrete structures have less GWP but other environmental impacts like freshwater ecotoxicity, aquatic toxicity, abiotic degradation, and eutrophication. These results depend on binder and activator choice. (Farooq et al., 2021)

Fig7.3. The analogy of GPC binders with OPC concrete in relation to the environmental effects.(Source: Farooq et al., 2021)

Table 7.4: Calculations on reference geopolymer and OPC concrete mixes (Source:Lay, 2014).

Fig7.4GPC binders with OPC concrete in relation to the other environmental effects..(Source: Farooq et al., 2021)

In the above table 1.1 shows that the different study evaluates carbon and cost aspects OF geopolymer and OPC concrete literature mixtures. It found that geopolymers require comparable cement or geopolymer paste, have low carbon and cost contributions, and consume less water. Transport contributes 521% of total CO2 emissions for OPC concrete and 41-43% for geopolymer concrete due to larger feedstock distances. Only the binder reduces transport impact to 1- 10% for OPC and 40-45% for geopolymer paste.

Geopolymers will be affected more than OPC concretes due to transport effects, but their longer lengths may be more accurate. The analysis ignores the 10–20% of imported cement that has entered the Australian market.

(Lay, 2014)

7.4. Environmental Impact Factors of GPC: IMPACT CATERGOTY

GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE (GPC)

CO2 EMISSION

Significantly low as compared to OPC

Energy Consumption

Lower than OPC

Resources

Utilise Waste materials

Waste Management

Reduces Industrial waste

Water Usage

Lower

Durability

High

Toxicity

Low risk

Table7.5GPC Showing Categorial Impact of GPC..(Source: Author, 2024)

08. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS: 8.1. Ordinary Portland Concrete Vs Geopolymer Concrete:

8.3. Environmental Impact GPC

CO2 emissions

800-900 kg/ton

150-200 kg/ton

Embodied Energy

4000-440 MJ/ton

220-2400 MJ/ton

ORDINARY PORTLAND CONCRETE

CONSISTS OF

CLAY

AGGREGATE

HIGH CO2 EMISSION

PORTLAND CEMENT (BINDER)

Water requirement

B

C

A

OPC

B

C

GPC

NO OF SAMPLES 7 DAYS

28DAYS

Compressive Strength of OPC & GPC (Dewada et al., n.d.)

What is an EPD? Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) are standardized documents that reveal the impact of a product, throughout its life cycle. They are guided by the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and international standards like ISO 14025 and EN 15804 for construction products. EPDs undergo verification by a party to ensure accuracy and reliability sharing information on a product's environmental performance with consumers, businesses and stakeholders.

Various products such as construction materials, consumer goods and industrial products can have EPDs that cover aspects like raw material extraction, manufacturing, transportation, usage and disposal or recycling at the end of their life cycle. The presence of EPDs contributes to enhancing awareness differentiating products in the market ensuring compliance and facilitating decision making processes. For instance, EPDs related to concrete in the construction sector detail activities from raw material extraction to production, transportation, usage phase to end of life considerations.

In conclusion having an EPD is crucial, for promoting market sustainability and transparency. These documents assist consumers, businesses and policymakers in making informed decisions regarding the impact of products by providing them with comprehensive and standardized information.

The following tables 1/1 and 1.2 show OPC and GPC upfront carbon analysis. In summary, GPC appears to be more sustainable in terms of upfront carbon, GHG emission, and future concrete alternative.

1 Tonne of Cement generates 1 tonne of

RECYCLED MATERIAL

SAND

GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE

ALUMINO SILICATE (BINDER)

CONSISTS OF

NO CO2

ALUMINO SILICATE (BINDER)

FLY ASH SLAG METAKAOLIN GGBs

AGGREGATE

ALKALI ACTIVATOR

Geopolymer Concrete (GPC): • •

Use of Recycled Materials • Low Carbon Less use of Virgin Materials

OPC

GPC

Setting Time

30-300 mins

10- 60 mins

Compressive Strength

33-53 Mpa after 28 days

30-120 Mpa after 7 days

Durability

A

8.4. EPD COMPARISON: Ordinary Portland Concrete (OPC):

8.2. Mechanical Properties:

450 Liters/ton

50 40 30 20 10 0

GPC

CEMENT CLINKER

LIMESTONE

600 liters/ton

COMPESSIVE STRENGTH N/MM2

PORTLAND CEMENT (BINDER)

CHEMICAL ADMIXTURE

WATER

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

HEAT (1300°C)

SAND

WATER

OPC

Moderate

More Durable than Portland Cement.

Material

Unit

Energy(MJ /Unit)

Water (L/Unit)

GHG emission (KgCo2e/Unit)

Material

Unit

Energy(MJ Water /Unit) (L/Unit)

GHG emission (KgCo2e/Unit)

OPC 20 MPa

m3

2404

4154

328

GPC 20 MPa

m3

1397

4111

95.5

OPC 25 MPa

m3

2691

4227

368

GPC 25 MPa

m3

1500

4153

105

OPC 32MPa

m3

3015

4300

416

GPC 32MPa

m3

1752

4256

121

OPC 40 MPa

m3

3746

4355

497

GPC 40 MPa

m3

2020

4310

145

OPC 50 MPa

m3

4247

4625

626

GPC 50 MPa

m3

2323

4320

175

Table 8.1. Overall upfront Carbon for OPC. (Crawford et al., 2024)

Table 8.2. Overall upfront Carbon for GPC. (Crawford et al., 2024)

09. REGULATIONS :

11. FIELD APPLICTION OF GPC :

9.1: What are the Standards for GPC in Australia?

Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads : TMR and Wagners Concrete installed two geopolymer precast wall panels next to OPC panels in the Eastern Busway project as a research trial (Figure 1.1). The proposed mix design specified 40 MPa concrete strength and 180mm slump for the 5250 mm x 2380 mm x 200mm and 4465 mm x 2380 mm x 200mm panels (TMR Drawing EB2-11964-ST-DG-TU721). Panels were cast in December 2010 and installed in 2011. Seven test cylinders were taken during casting, and a monitoring program was created to compare panel performance to OPC panels. The inspection regime and future coring requirements are included. Panel performance is being verified. (Pape & Dickson, 2016).

Standards Australia: Standards Australia published SA TS 199:2023, Geopolymer and alkali-activated binder concrete structure design. The document provides design and construction guidelines for GPC and AABC building structures, highlighting their advantages over OPC. Unlike traditional OPC, GPC and AABC are made by reacting aluminosilicate materials with an alkali activator. An alkali aluminosilicate gel or calcium silicate hydrate results. (Standards Australia, 2023).

SA TS 199 raises engineering awareness and develops and maintains standards to foster GPC and AABC use in construction. GPC and AABC benefits include sustainability, low shrinkage, heat of hydration, high tensile strength, and easy batching with traditional concrete batching facilities. Consumers, industry, and manufacturers may save money, especially where carbon taxes apply.

(Standards Australia, 2023).

Fig 11.1: Placement of the geopolymer concrete suspended precast panels at the new Global Change Institute building (Source: Pape & Dickson, 2016).

(Standards Australia, 2023).

Austroads project:

Wellcamp Airport in Toowoomba, Queensland, and two pedestrian bridges in Cowies Creek at Deppeler Park in Geelong, Victoria, have used GPC and AABC. Strength, serviceability, earthquake actions, robustness, durability, fire resistance, and strength are covered in the document. (Standards Australia, 2023)

Geopolymer concrete wall: M80 Western Ring Road

Ash development Association of Australia (AdAA): Australian Standard AS3582.1 allows fly ash in concrete and mortar. Pulverized coal boiler flue gases produce fly ash. Two fly ash grades exist: Normal and Special. AS3583 tests determine classification criteria, including fineness, loss on ignition, moisture, and SO3 content. Ultrafine fly ashes, or special grade fly ashes, must comply with 105% relative strength. Fly ash can be blended into (Ash development Association of Australia, 2009) Normal or Special Class Concrete or added directly at a batch production facility. (Ash development AssociatIon of Australia, 2009) National Construction Code(NCC): With similar properties to concrete but stronger, it meets NCC requirements. In NCC 2019, Volume Part 3.2, explanatory information allows alternative materials that meet structural strength, damp proofing, and weatherproofing requirements. (NCC, 2019) (NCC, 2019)

10. KEY ISSUES OF GPC : 10.1.Key Issues for Adaptation of GPC: CATEGORY

ISUUES

REMARKS

TECHNICAL CHALLENGES

Consistency and standardization

Standard mix design and GPC guidelines needed. Avoid raw material variations.

ECONOMIC CHALLENGES

Cost of alkaline activators

Alkaline activators cost is High

REGULATIONS

Building Codes and Standards

Lack of region-specific codes and regulations.

AWARENESS

Knowledge and adaptation

There is gap of knowledge for GPC properties and Standards

DEMAND AND SUPPLY

Availability of raw materials

Ensure reliable supply of Fly Ash, Slag and Alkaline activators

Table 10.1. Key Issues for Adapting GPC. (Australasian (iron & steel) Slag Association, 2023)

Fig 10.2. Images of Geopolymer Concrete wall . (Andrews-Phaedonos et al., 2014).

Australia's first major in-situ infrastructure project, completed in mid-2012, features a near vertical 450meter "chevron" landscape retaining wall that also serves as raised planter beds.

The wall's structural elements complement the road network, challenge geopolymer concrete conventions, and promote new materials. After successfully monitoring the 2009 trial structural applications of landscape retaining walls and footway panels, VicRoads' structural walls are the first major in-situ construction on a major infrastructure project in Australia.(Andrews-Phaedonos et al., 2014).

Austroads project: Geo polymer Structural Concrete wall at Dudley Street Railway Bridge: Construction of structural reinforced soil and post panel walls at Dudley Street Railway Bridge in Melbourne, part of regional rail link works, followed VicRoads' concrete mix design registration procedures for compliance with section 610.

These panels' geopolymer concrete mix design was based on Section 610's necessary equivalent to VR400/40 concrete. These structural works were confidently undertaken after VicRoads' successful use at Swan Street Bridge M80 Western Ring Road, Salmon Bridge, and geopolymer concrete into their standard requirements.

Two thirds of the two-metre-wide precast panels have a Fig 10.3. Images of Geopolymer Concrete wall . (Andrews-Phaedonos et al., 2014). rough texture, while the rest have a flat surface. Their height ranges from two to four meters.The panels meet section 610 requirements for concrete manufacturing, handling, placing, compaction, finishing, and curing. The lifting of finished products from molds, storage, shipping, and on-site handling and construction are similar to ordinary concrete. (Andrews-Phaedonos et al., 2014)

12. FUTURE SCOPE: Fly ash and slag are used in GPC, which has a lower carbon footprint than Portland cement. It encourages waste reuse, following circular economy principles.

Improved mix designs, ambient curing, durability, and cost reduction are technological advances.

Demand for sustainable building materials, green building certifications, and infrastructure development will boost the GPC market.

GPC adoption will depend on government policies promoting sustainable construction and reducing carbon emissions.

Education and training construction professionals about GPC's benefits and application methods will help bridge the knowledge gap and overcome resistance to new materials.

13. DISCUSSION: To verify GPC's durability and longevity, ambient curing techniques are being developed and long-term performance data is needed.

Standardization and consistency in GPC application are technical challenges because raw material variability can affect performance.

Regulatory issues include building standards, certification, acceptance, awareness, and training. Because raw material variability affects performance, GPC standardization and consistency are technical challenges.

Alkaline activators are expensive and GPC production is inefficient. Adoption requires global alignment of GPC standards with building codes. Building GPC promotion requires awareness and training.

Logistics, infrastructure, and raw material availability are supply chain issues. GPC can replace concrete and greener the built environment by overcoming these challenges.

14. LIMITATIONS: Geopolymer concrete (GPC) has many advantages over Portland cement (OPC), but it has technical and economic drawbacks.

Specific curing conditions, material variability, and strong alkaline activators limit technical capabilities.

Higher initial costs, production scale, and regulatory and standardization issues limit economic growth.

GPC is produced less than OPC, increasing production costs. Lack of standards, certification, and approval processes can also slow adoption.

GPC's properties and application methods are unfamiliar to construction professionals, which presents practical and implementation challenges.

Geographical variations in raw material availability can complicate supply chain issues.

15. CONCLUSION: Construction accounts for 45% of worldwide greenhouse gas emissions, and cement production is the most carbon-intensive sector. Carbon mitigation is essential. Therefore, alternatives for cement should be considered for construction industry.

• Geopolymer concrete (GPC) is a viable alternative to Portland cement concrete (OPC) due to its environmental and economic benefits. OPC accounts for 8% of worldwide CO2 emissions, but GPC can reduce these greatly.

• Fly ash and slag, which do not require high-temperature processing, reduce GPC's concrete production carbon footprint.

• Due to its 90% lower CO2 emissions than OPC, GPC promotes a circular economy and reduces pollution.

• GPC may cost more because to alkaline activators and curing requirements. These initial costs may be outweighed by long-term economic benefits.

• Using fly ash and slag, GPC's composition and production process reduce upfront carbon emissions.

• GPC's durability and inexpensive maintenance provide environmental benefits throughout its existence.

• In Conclusion, GPC is a sustainable, durable, and potentially cost-effective alternative to ordinary concrete, supporting global climate change initiatives and sustainable construction development.

16. REFERNCES: • Andrews-Phaedonos, F., Vicroads, & Australia. (2014). SPECIFICATION AND USE OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE. https://railknowledgebank.com/Presto/content/GetDoc.axd?ctID=MjE1ZTI4YzctZjc1YS00MzQ4LTkyY2UtMDJmNTgxYjg2ZDA5&rID=NTI5O A==&pID=MTQ3Ng==&attchmnt=True&uSesDM=False&rIdx=MTI2MzI=&rCFU= • Australasian (iron & steel) Slag Association. (2023, November 30). Challenges & Future Directions of Geopolymer Concrete. ASA. https://www.asa-inc.org.au/blog/2023/11/challenges-and-future-directions-of-geopolymer-concrete • Austroads. (2018, May 1). Webinar: Geopolymer Concrete and its Applications. Austroads.com.au. https://austroads.com.au/publications/bridges/web-gpc-18 • Babor, D., Plian, D., & Judele, L. (n.d.). ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF CONCRETE. https://www.bipcons.ce.tuiasi.ro/Archive/161.pdf • Crawford, R., Stephan, A., & Prideaux, F. (2024). EPiC Database. In figshare.unimelb.edu.au. The University of Melbourne. https://figshare.unimelb.edu.au/articles/book/EPiC_Database/10257728?file=45966801 • Dewada, D., Chouhan, H., Parmar, M., Hanfee, U., Tripathi, A., & Student. (n.d.). ANALYSIS OF CONCRETE BY REPLACING CEMENT WITH GEOPOLYMER. In International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering Technology and Science (pp. 2582–5208). PeerReviewed, Open Access. https://www.irjmets.com/uploadedfiles/paper/issue_5_may_2023/38084/final/fin_irjmets1683643379.pdf • Farooq, F., Jin, X., Faisal Javed, M., Akbar, A., Izhar Shah, M., Aslam, F., & Alyousef, R. (2021). Geopolymer concrete as sustainable material: A state of the art review. Construction and Building Materials, 306, 124762. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.124762 • Geopolymer Concrete and its Applications. (2018). https://austroads.com.au/resources/documents/supportingdocuments/webinars/Austroads_Webinar-Geopolymer_Concrete_and_its_Applications.pdf • Gromicko, N., & Shepard, K. (2011). The History of Concrete - InterNACHI. Nachi.org. https://www.nachi.org/history-of-concrete.htm • Imtiaz, L., Kashif-ur-Rehman, S., Alaloul, W. S., Nazir, K., Javed, M. F., Aslam, F., & Musarat, M. A. (2021). Life Cycle Impact Assessment of Recycled Aggregate Concrete, Geopolymer Concrete, and Recycled Aggregate-Based Geopolymer Concrete. Sustainability, 13(24), 13515. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132413515 • Lay, J. (2014). in comparison to Ordinary Portland Cement. Www.academia.edu. https://www.academia.edu/87234242/in_comparison_to_Ordinary_Portland_Cement • NCC. (2019). Part 3.2.5 Footing and slab construction | NCC. Ncc.abcb.gov.au. https://ncc.abcb.gov.au/editions/2019-a1/ncc-2019volume-two-amendment-1/part-32-footings-and-slabs/part-325-footing-and • Pape, T. P., & Dickson, J. (2016). S19 Geopolymer Concrete Performance Review . FINAL REPORT S19 Geopolymer Concrete Performance Review , 16(4). https://nacoe.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/010574_S19_Geopolymer-Concrete-Review_Y1_1_FINAL-REPORT.pdf • Shi, X., Zhang, C., Liang, Y., Luo, J., Wang, X., Feng, Y., Li, Y., Wang, Q., & Abomohra, A. E.-F. (2021). Life Cycle Assessment and Impact Correlation Analysis of Fly Ash Geopolymer Concrete. Materials, 14(23), 7375. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14237375 • Singh, N. B., Kumar, M., & Rai, S. (2020). Geopolymer cement and concrete: Properties. Materials Today: Proceedings, 29, 743–748. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.04.513 • Standards Australia. (2023, July 11). Geopolymer and alkali-activated binder concrete: A new Standard in sustainable construction practices. Building Connection. https://buildingconnection.com.au/2023/07/11/geopolymer-and-alkali-activated-binder-concrete-a-newstandard-in-sustainable-construction-practices/ • Zhang, B. (2024). Durability of low-carbon geopolymer concrete: A critical review. Sustainable Materials and Technologies, 40, e00882. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susmat.2024.e00882

Sustainable Practice Design Report ASSIGNMENT 2

Contents

• Introduction • Project Description • Climate Analysis • BASIX Evaluation • Example for best Practice • Daylight Analysis • Life Cycle Analysis • Cost Comparison • Discussion • Limitaion • Conclusion • References

Source: ArchDaily, 2017.

Shreyas Vilas Gangurde SID: 520283853

Source: Design Builder, 2024.

01.INTRODUCTION: 1.1. AIM& OBJECTIVE:

The aim of the report is to examine and assess the Firm's project by analyzing its carbon footprint, daylight and BASIX evaluation to determine its sustainability and propose strategies for enhancing to meet high standards. Further, conducting Daylight analysis of the building and a Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) of the project to enhance the overall carbon footprint and daylight performance of the building. Also discuss how it affects the impact on overall cost for the building.

1.2. METHODOLOGY: ➢ Selection of firm’s project: One of the newly constructed project was select for the performance analysis and critical review for the report. ➢ Project Description: Understanding site plans, orientation for the selected project. ➢ Climate Analysis: Understanding the local climate and how it affects the building envelope ➢ BASIC Evaluation: Examine BASIX framework and how it accesses the building, discussing future changes and strategies to achieve high BASIX standards for the building. ➢ Example of Award-winning Practice in Sustainability: Review the best practice in Australia, understanding passive strategies used by the practice. Identification of construction material and best possible solution for passive house design. ➢ Daylight analysis for the Selected Project: Conducting a daylight simulation and analysing the daylight factor Useful Daylight Illuminance(UDI) for the building and suggesting strategies to improve the daylight factor and UDI. ➢ Life Cycle Analysis for the Selected Project: Conduct an in depth LCA for embodied carbon footprint by developing an initial/ base case of the building, Identifying high carbon factors at structural levels. ➢ Improved Case Scenario for LCA: Suggesting alternative strategy to improve carbon impact of the building and comparing the overall performance for base and improved case scenario and how it help achieve high standards. ➢ Discussion: Discuss on the strategies implemented for the building and how will it affect the dwelling. ➢ Limitations: Discuss any limitation for the Strategies implemented, Software limitations etc. ➢ Conclusion: A thorough conclusion was developed for the selected project based on the analysis and performance.

1.3. SCOPE:

As discussed in previous assignment after thorough examining of the firm’s project and its approach for sustainable construction techniques the following recommendations that were to be implemented to increase the performance of buildings are: ➢ Understanding BASIX and measures to improve the BASIX standards. ➢ Increasing the daylight performance for the project for energy saving measures by optimal use of natural light. Analysis for daylight was conducted with the help of Design builder Software. ➢ Conducting in depth LCA for the project for mitigation of Upfront carbon (A1-A5). Provide alternative strategies to improve the overall Carbon Star Rating. The footprint calculator by The footprint company was used for LCA.

1.4. ABOUT THE PROJECT: House at Ben Buckler: A New Residential Dwelling.

•

The selected project is a 2-storey building, with split-level house offers stunning views of the Pacific Ocean and Bondi Beach.

•

It has a basement comprising a garage, laundry, bathroom and storage spaces.

Ground floor has 2 Bedrooms, bathroom, powder room, pantry, kitchen & dining spaces.

•

First floor has Living room and 2 Master Bedroom.

•

The house is designed to be naturally conditioned, providing year-round thermal comfort, obviating the need for costly, energy-intensive air conditioning.

•

The house is future-proofed with 6.1kW roof-mounted photovoltaic panels.

Source: (Archdaily,2017).

Fig1.1. Source: ArchDaily, 2017.

Location: Bondi, New South Wales, Australia.

Total Floor Area: 268sq.m.

Construction type: Composite construction.

Year of construction: 2017.

02. PROJECT DESCRIPTION:

03.CLIMATE ANALYSIS:

Site Plans:

Temperature Range: The average mean temperature yearly is 17.9°C. Average mean high temperature is around 28.3 °C. Average mean low temperature is around 7.8 °C. LOWER GROUND FLOOR: • Garage • Laundry • Basement Storage • Bathroom • Driveway • Store

Relative Humidity: Humidity is almost 50% to 60% throughout the year which is in comfort zone.

Wind Analysis: Wind Graph shows mostly wind blows from west to east during winters. By deflecting the excess cool breeze during winters can help achieve thermal comfort during high winters.

Sun Shading: Sun Shading Chart shows Shading is required for North-East side in the morning & Northwest during afternoon to avoid glare during the peak summers.

Fig 2.1. Site Plan : Lower Ground floor. Source:( Architecture Firm, 2024).

Fig.3. 1.Annual Temperature Range Source:( Clima Tool, 2024).

GROUND FLOOR: • Living • Kitchen • Powder room • Bathroom • Bedroom3 • Bedroom4 • Play room • Dining • Pantry

Fig.3.2. Annual Relative Humidity Range Source:( Clima Tool, 2024).

Fig2.2. Site Plan : Ground floor. Source:( Architecture Firm, 2024).

FIRST FLOOR: • Bedroom 1 • Ensuite 1 • Bedroom 2 • Ensuite 2 • Robe • Living • Deck 1 • Deck 2 • Deck 3

Fig2.3. Site Plan : First floor. Source:( Architecture Firm, 2024).

Fig3.3. Annual Wind Rose Source:( Clima Tool, 2024).

Fig3.4. Sun Shading Chart Source:( Climate consultant, 2024).

Fig3.5. Sunpath during March 4PM. Source:(Design Builder,2024.)

Fig3.6. Sunpath during June 12. Source:(Design Builder,2024.)

04. BASIX EVAUALTION: HOW BASIX WORKS:

WHAT IS Building Sustainability Index (BASIX)?

• BASIX is an online planning tool specifically created to evaluate future performance of new house in relation to several sustainability requirements.

• The higher BASIX standards aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and water consumption by establishing higher goals for energy efficiency, thermal comfort, and water conservation.

• The NSW Government aims to enhance the sustainability of every new house construction in order to minimize the environmental effects of the housing industry and develop a more sustainable future.

• It majorly focuses on Thermal Performance, Energy, Water & Embodied Carbon.

BUILDING DETAILS

LOCATION & NO. OF STOREYS

LANDSCAPE TYPE OF AREA

COMMON AREA

NO. OF BED BOTH CONDITIONED & UNCONDIIONED

CLIMATE DATA

IRRIGATION DEMAND

HVAC & LIGHTING AREAS

NO. OF OCCUPANTS IN HAVC & LIGTHING

BASIX EVALUATION TARGETS

Source: New South Homes,2024.

What Changes to BASIX are Coming?

• • • • • •

External Wall Insulation – R2.5 minimum Roof Insulation – R6.0 minimum Use of light roof colors as much as possible (subject to location) Single storey home designs to have Low E to bedroom windows and Double Glazed to living room windows Double storey homes have double glazing to all windows (except wet areas).

Electric Hot Water systems to increase in size and Small-scale Technology Certificates (STCs) Potential PV panels Source: (Zust, 2023).

WATER

COLD WATER TOILET TAPS COOLING • HOT WATER SHOWER TAPS POOL

•

THERMAL PERFORMANCE

ENERGY

HOT WATER HEATING • THERMAL HEATING COOLING • UNITS FANS LIGHT APPLIANCES

EMBODIED CARBON

•

ALETERNATIVE WATER SYSTEM

RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM

TOTAL WATER CONSUMPTION

TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION

EMBODIED EMISSION CALCULATION FOR: FLOORS ROOF/CEILING WINDOWS CONCRETE ( CLASS 2 ONLY).

SETS HEATING AND COOLING IN MJ/M2/YEAR FOR EACH CLIMATE ZONE: FOR CLASS 2 BUILDING

•

AVERAGE/ UNIT TEST

MATERIAL INDEX SCORE

•

PASS/FAIL

WATER SCORE

ENERGY SCORE

PASS/FAIL

PASS/FAIL

Reproduced by (Author, 2024).

Source: (NSW Government, 2023).

Fig 4.1 Showing Improvement Opportunity as per BASIX Source: ((NSW Government, 2023).

CRITICAL INFERENECES ON IMPROVING BASIX STANDARDS: After careful consideration for BASIX criteria, it is important to use alternative strategies to achieve high BASIX standards. The following Strategies include: • Optimal use of passive materials for construction.

• Optimal use of daylighting for the building by understanding the climate sun path and optimal use of daylight help reduce the rely on grid-based energy during daytime.

• Alternative Strategies to improve the performance of the building by choosing low carbon materials from Material Index from BASIX Further will discuss some Best example for passive design strategy in Australia.

05. EXAMPLE OF BEST PRACTICE: Huff’n’Puff Haus by Envirotecture (2023 Sustainability Awards Winner for Single dwelling).

About the Project: •

The Huff'n'Puff Haus Strawbale Passivhaus Design was completed in 2023 in central Victoria.

•

Integrates energy efficiency, natural building materials, and nature.

•

employs Passivhaus Certification for Passive House Plus.

•

Reduces scope to avoid large living areas and reduce floor space.

•

Off grid house.

•

Made by Ballarat-based Envirotecture (Talina Edwards Architecture).

•

Internal lime render and straw bale walls.

•

A polished concrete slab ensures material integrity.

•

Clients appreciate the design..

Location: Victoria.

Total Floor Area: 171sq.m.

Construction type: Timber construction.

Year of construction: 2022

Fig.5.2. Huff’n’Puff Haus by Envirotecture (Source: Passive House Buildings, 2024.)

(Source:Passive House Buildings, 2024.)

For Slabs: The floor slab has an insulation layer between concrete and screed such as: - 125mm structural concrete slab - R3.6 XPS (recyclable) insulation -80mm Lightweight Concrete Screed -There is only one floor type with a U-Value as shown.

-U-value = 0.258 W/(m2K).

Fig.5.3. Concrete (Source: Google Images, 2024.)

Construction Materials Used: For External Walls: Super Insulated Tilt Up Panels, External Cladding (Fibre-Cement Sheet), mounted on battens over Weathertight membrane, forming a ventilated cavity.

For Window System: PressGlass SilverStar Triple For Roof: Truss construction lightweight roof. Plasterboard ceiling adjacent to 90mm ceiling cavity (making ductwork easy), Glazed IGU, 4mm or 6mm glass. then: 4mm Glass/16mm Argon/4mm Glass/16mm Argon/4mm Glass

- Airtight Membrane (Pro Clima Intello)

Strawbale sit-up system by Glassford, 350mm thick and 75mm of - 90mm R2.5 insulation at Truss Bottom Chord Fig.5.4. Roof Lime.

- Earth Wool Roll R3.7 perpendicular to trusses

1 x layer of R2.5 insulation (Earth Wool)

- Earth Wool Roll R3.2 parallel with trusses

1 x layer of R3.7 insulation (Earth Wool)

- Earth Wool Roll R1.5 perpendicular to trusses.

1 x layer of R3.2 insulation (Earth Wool) Total U-Values for the two walls:

Fig.5.1. Strawbale (Source: Google Images, 2024.)

Straw bale: 0.172

U g-value = 0.53 W/(m2K).

Ecological Aspects:

Fig.5.5. Glass (Source: Google Images, 2024.)

There is only one roof type with the U-Value as shown.

Home construction includes off-grid systems, Passive House Plus standard requires energy generation equal to home consumption.

U-value = 0.089 W/(m2K).

- 19.24kW Solar PV arrays.

(Source: Passive House Buildings, 2024.)

Earth wool: 0.106 U-value = 0.17 W/(m2K).

Truss (Source: Google Images, 2024.)

6mm Glass/14mm Argon/6mm Glass/12mm Argon/6mm Glass

- 50,000 liters of rainwater storage.

(Source: Passive House Buildings, 2024.)

(Source: Passive House Buildings, 2024.)

06. DAYLIGHT ANALYSIS:

Block

Zone

Floor Area (m2)

Average Daylight Factor (%)

GROUND FLOOR

PLAY

8.802

0.152

GROUND FLOOR

KITCHEN

7.868

7.628

GROUND FLOOR

DINING

8.894

0.087

LIVING BEDROOOM GROUND FLOOR 3

13.931

7.093

8.828

2.928

GROUND FLOOR BEDROOM 4

9.269

2.896

GROUND FLOOR

FIRST FLOOR

LIVING

18.597

2.788

FIRST FLOOR

BEDROOM 2 BEDROOM 1

7.803

0.433

10.777

2.11

FIRST FLOOR Ground Floor

Table 6.1. Daylight factor. Source:(Design Builder,2024)

First Floor

Fig 6.1 & 6.2. Ground & first floor Daylight factor.

Source:(Design Builder,2024)

Ground Floor First Floor Fig 6.3 & 6.4. Ground & first floor UDI. Source:(Design Builder)

Block

Zone

Floor Area (m2)

GROUND FLOOR

PLAY

8.802

4.054

GROUND FLOOR

KITCHEN

7.868

85.938

GROUND FLOOR

DINING

8.894

7.317

GROUND FLOOR

LIVING

13.931

84.252

GROUND FLOOR

BEDROOOM 3

8.828

100

GROUND FLOOR BEDROOM 4

9.269

100

UDI Area in Range (%)

FIRST FLOOR

LIVING

18.597

99.383

FIRST FLOOR

BEDROOM 2

7.803

33.871

FIRST FLOOR

BEDROOM 1

10.777

91.667

Table 6.1. UDI. Source:(Design Builder,2024)

CRITICAL INFERENCES ON DAYLIGHT FACTOR & UDI BEN BUCKLER HOUSE: The Ben Buckler House has excessive daylight in habitable spaces like the dining and kitchen due to east-facing sun angles, while optimum daylight is found in bedrooms 1,3,4, and first floor living.

Play, Dining, Bedroom 2, and the ground-floor living room need daylight because they are mostly inside the building and receive minimal direct sunlight. Thus, these zones need better daylight while east zones need strategies to avoid direct daylight. Kitchen and ground floor living to avoid direct sunlight by reducing chances of glare and try achieve maximize daylight use. As recommended standards for Daylight factor ism 2%-5% and UDI is minimum of 80% for zone level.

STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE DAYLIGHT: Light shelves with optimim WWR: Due to neighbouring buildings and no direct sunlight for zones like Dining, Play and Bedroom 2 it highly important to penetrate diffused daylight to the zones through neighboring building with the help of light shelves and increasing the window wall ratio can help achieve optimum daylight for those zones and help improve the overall UDI. As suggested in this paper by (Umberto Berardi and Hamid Khademi Anaraki, 2015) that by Adding light shelves improves the zone's UDI by reducing effects away from windows. Additionally, the shading devices have minimal impact on the room's central UDI. Full-height windows allow deep light penetration, with UDI above 50% in the back zone in all cases (even 25% WWR). WWR over 35% never improves daylighting (Umberto Berardi and Hamid Khademi Anaraki, 2015).

Reduced WWR and Shading devices: As observed the results shows that on the ground zones Dining and living has more than recommended daylight factor as per NCC causing access glare to the zones.

Hence measure need to be taken to avoid the glare and perceive visual comfort. By implementing reduced window wall ratio (WWR) and incorporation of shading devices for those zones can significantly reduce the glare and achieve optimum visual comfort and daylight through the daytime. External blinds, shutters, or pergola shading can be used.

These provide summer sun protection and winter sun access. (Victoria, n.d.)

07. LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS: 7.1. BASE CASE SCENARIO:

7.2. Carbon Breakdown:

Construction Materials:

7.3. BASE CASE RESULTS: Fig. 2.2 shows section-wise upfront carbon intensity. Due to concrete foundations and slabs, carbon intensity is significant. Staircase and exterior walls also emit a lot of carbon, resulting in a CARBON STAR SCORE 2.5-star carbon rating. Thus, further strategies are needed to reduce upfront carbon and get a high carbon rating.

Use of Concrete was observed for foundation and slabs

Steel columns has been implemented to transfer the lateral loads of the building.

Slabs

Foundation

Following are different types of external wall assemblies implemented for the building: • 110mm Brickwall • 270mm Brick wall with plasterboard finish • 270 face Brickwall • 350 face Brick wall with Concrete block wall • 250 mm INSITU concrete • 140 mm Rendered Concrete block wall

External windows External ancillary works

Fig 7.3. Top 5 Materials. Source:(FootprintCalculator,2024)

For internal walls 90mm Timber Stud wall with 13mm plasterboard was seen

Tiber flooring was incorporated for all ground and first floor levels.

Lysaght Kliplok 406 roof sheet was used for roofing with insulation for the roof system.

Fig.7.1. Carbon breakdown for Base Case. Source:(Footprint calculator, 2024).

TOTAL UPFRONT CARBON

314.55 ABSOLUTE Fig.7.2. shows comparison with Benchmark for Base Case. Source:(Footprint calculartor,2024).

1.17 /m2 GFA

1.26 /m2NFA

7.4.IMPROVED CASE STRATEGIES: According to base case results, most upfront carbon was from concrete slabs and foundations, so an alternative carbon mitigation strategy was implemented. External windows were also in the top five carbon impact materials because they were the second alternative. Ancillary concrete works also affected carbon emissions. Thus, carbon improvement was necessary. Selecting these top five materials would significantly reduce the building's upfront carbon footprint.

7.5. Holcim ECOPact Zero concrete: Holcim ECOPact Zero concrete with Recycled reinforcement was introduced for Foundation in replacement of Ordinary Portland concrete as Holcim ECOPact Zero concrete has low lifecycle carbon emissions. Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), optimal mix design, recycled aggregates, and new manufacturing procedures minimize energy consumption and increase efficiency. Holcim takes certified carbon credits in greenhouse gas-reducing projects to offset some unavoidable carbon emissions. Lifecycle evaluations and Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) and LEED credits are used to evaluate the product's environmental impact. Suitable for various building projects, ECOPact Zero supports sustainability and regulatory compliance.

Sustainable building practices boost corporate social responsibility (CSR) profiles. ECOPact Zero promotes concrete and building innovation, matches customer demand, and helps companies remain ahead of laws. Holcim ECOPact Zero conists sustainable construction materials and supports worldwide climate change efforts. (Holcim (Australia) Pty Ltd , Fig 7.4.GWP of Holcim ECO pact 2022) zero. Source:((Holcim (Australia)

7.6. Geopolymer concrete:

Pty Ltd , 2022).

Geopolymer concrete was chosen for Slabs and Concrete walls with recycled reinforcement as an alternative to OPC since Infrastructure projects use high-value geopolymer concrete manufactured from low-calcium fly ash and blast furnace slag. Its compressive strength and environmental protection make it appropriate for structural applications. The research suggests mixture proportions based on the similar characteristics of hardened concrete and reinforced concrete structural components to Portland cement concrete. Sulfate, fire, acid, creep, and drying shrinkage resistance are also features of geopolymer concrete. Therefore, making it a better alternative to ordinary Portland concrete. (B. Vijaya rangan, 2014).

7.7. XLam CLT Panel: To mitigate the carbon for stairs, Xlam CLT panel was recommended as it would help in reducing the carbon impact and create a sustainable approach for future structures. XLam CLT panels are layers of solid-sawn lumber boards glued together. These panels are strong, stable, and rigid, making them perfect for construction. Cross-lamination gives panels a strong connection and uniform thickness, Strength, stability, load-bearing capacity, fire resistance, thermal and acoustic insulation, sustainability, carbon sequestration, and waste reduction are all advantages of CLT panels. They are increasingly employed in residential, commercial, institutional, and prefabricated construction. CLT panels are also perfect for hybrid construction due to their design freedom, architectural innovation, and versatility.

Fig.7.5. Carbon emission for Xlam CLT Source:(EPD Australasia, 2021)

7.8. 50% flyash Cement mortar ratio (5:1) : External walls with brick work and OPC mortar were replaced with 50% fly ash and 5:1 mortar to lower carbon intensity. Since the base case's upfront carbon was considerable, replacing it with fly ash will reduce carbon impact. Replacement of OPC mortar with 50% fly ash cement mortar has environmental, structural, economic, and practical implications. This change improves construction project performance and cost-effectiveness while supporting sustainability goals. Fly ash in mortar promotes greener building practices and meets modern environmental and resource efficiency standards.

7.9. Recycled Aluminium: Use of recycle materials plays an important role is circular economy since to reduce intensity of carbon for window system use of recycled aluminum was considered as it’s impact on the carbon footprint shows better results in achieving lower carbon profile.

7.10.. IMPROVED CASE RESULT:

The improved case results for top five materials in fig 1.1 shows, that strategies suggested helped reduce carbon footprint for concrete, which was higher in base case and had a significant to overall upfront carbon as it was seen an impact in contribution for top five materials by excluding carbon output and lowering embodied carbon.

CARBON STAR SCORE

7.11.Critical Inferences Improved Case: The implementation of above discuss strategies help overall reduction in Upfront carbon and achieved and a rating of Five star for the building, Thus by use of alternative materials like Holcim concrete, introducing some amount of Fly ash to concrete and extensive use of recycled materials helped improve the carbon profile by making a sustainable and energy efficient building contributing the adaptability of alternative and regenerative construction design.

TOTAL UPFRONT CARBON

Fig.7.6. Carbon breakdown for Improved Case.

Source:(Footprint calculator, 2024).

126.59 ABSOLUTE

0.47 /m2 GFA

0.51 /m2NFA

Fig.7.7. shows comparison with Benchmark for Improced Case. Source:(Footprint calculartor,2024).

Fig.7.8. Top 5 Materials. Source:(FootprintCalculator,2024)

08. COST COMPARISON: MATERIAL

COST PER CUBIC METER (AUD$)

REMARKS

ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT

100-150

Most common with high carbon footprint

HOLCIM ECOPACT ZERO CONCRETE

180-220

Carbon neutral & Sustainable

GEOPOLYMER

300-400

Low carbon, high strength

Xlam CLT PANELS

600-800

High sustainable, feasible for larger projects

50% FLY ASH CEMENT MORTOR

150-200

More durable than OPC

RECYCLED ALUMINIUM

2378 per tonne

Low energy consumed in compared to virgin aluminium

8.1. Inferences on Cost comparison: Although the alternative materials have high initial cost comparison to traditional methods but it implications can give longterm benefits by reducing the energy demands, maintenance cost government regulatory fines, rebates etc.

09. DISCUSSIONS: The indoor environment quality impact of recycled materials was not calculated.

New technologies are not yet standardized and may not be benchmarked, making building approvals difficult.

Alternative materials may be expensive upfront but has low-maintenance over time.

Plans and online data were used to quantify units for the analysis, but building quantification may vary.

The analysis was conducted for conceptual level and understanding purposes, its practical application may differ in results.

The use of recycled materials is completely subjected to proximity and availability to site.

10. LIMITATIONS: Cost assemblies are subject to supplier and availability and are not completely accurate.

Although design builder was used for daylight analysis the result of analysis may differ with respect to surroundings and location.

Material carbon emissions were calculated unanimously by averaging country output, location-specific data, and locally sourced material. The approach is very standardized and cannot be calculated easily.

Virgin materials may be less emissive than recycled materials and plot location is not specific.

11. CONCLUSION: • To achieve high BASIX standards, it is important to adopt sustainable materials at the design level helping achieve high standards • Selection of Passive design strategies boosts long term benefits and promote renewable energy by discarding grid-based energy usage.

• Implementation of Light shelves, Optimum Window wall ratio and Shading devices for zone levels helped achieve a great visual comfort and improving energy usage for daytime hours.

• Low-Carbon Concrete Options: Holcim EcoPact Zero Concrete reduces carbon emissions, providing long-term regulatory compliance and sustainable building incentives.

• Geopolymer Concrete uses industrial by-products and reduces Portland cement use, making it expensive but environmentally friendly • Using 50% Fly Ash Cement Mortar reduces the carbon footprint of traditional concrete and improves durability.

• Using Sustainable Materials: XLam CLT Panels are easy to assemble and cost-effective.

• Recycling and Reusing Materials: Recycled aluminum is cheaper and greener than primary aluminum.

Long-term cost savings and environmental benefits: • Lower Operational Costs: Energy efficiency and building maintenance savings.

• Compliance: Avoiding fines and using tax incentives.

• Sustainable buildings are more valuable and attract eco-conscious tenants and buyers.

• Futureproofing: Early implementation of sustainable materials helps firms meet compliance requirements and avoid future costs.

In conclusion the report demonstrates use of alternative materials suggested helps improved the BASIX standards and mitigate the upfront carbon making sustainable building. If strategies discussed implemented at design level helps achieve long term benefit to the company’s approach to high standard and cost effectiveness by avoiding fines, taxes and maintenance cost for the project.

12. REFERENCES: • Reference listArchdaily (2017). North Bondi House / Scale Architecture. [online] ArchDaily. Available at: https://www.archdaily.com/885196/north-bondi-housescale-architecture [Accessed 12 Jun. 2024].

• B. Vijaya rangan (2014). Special iSSue -Future concrete. [online] Available at: https://espace.curtin.edu.au/bitstream/handle/20.500.11937/29749/198952_11 4544_ICJ_April_2014_Paper.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y.CBE Clima Tool (2021).

• CBE Clima Tool. [online] clima.cbe.berkeley.edu. Available at: https://clima.cbe.berkeley.edu/.

• ClimateConsultant (n.d.). Climate Consultant. Get the software safely and easily. [online] Software Informer. Available at: https://climateconsultant.informer.com/6.0/.

• design Builder (n.d.). Home -. [online] designbuilder.com.au. Available at: https://designbuilder.com.au/.

• EPD Australasia (2021). Environmental Product Declaration. [online] Available at: https://epd-australasia.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/SP02326-XLamEPD_v1.1_Jun23.pdf [Accessed 11 Jun. 2024].

• Holcim (Australia) Pty Ltd (2022). ViroDecsTM Special Holcim Australia ReadyMix Concrete New South Wales -Illawarra & Nowra -ECOPact Range Environmental Product Declaration. [online] Available at: https://epdaustralasia.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/2022-HolcimViroDecs%E2%84%A2-Special-NSW-Illawarra-Nowra-ECOPact.pdf [Accessed 11 Jun. 2024].

• LYSAGHT (n.d.). KLIP-LOK ® 406. [online] Available at: https://cdn.dcs.lysaght.com/download/lysaght-klip-lok-406-brochure [Accessed 12 Jun. 2024].

• NSW Government (2023). A comprehensive guide to BASIX The Building Sustainability Index. [online] Available at: https://shared-drupal-s3fs.s3.apsoutheast-2.amazonaws.com/mastertest/fapub_pdf/NSW+Planning+Portal+Documents/A+comprehensive+guide+ to+BASIX+-+September+2023.pdf.

• Passive house database (n.d.). Passive House Buildings. [online] passivehousedatabase.org. Available at: https://passivehousedatabase.org/index.php?lang=en#d_7237.

• Scale Architecture (2016). House at Ben Buckler. [online] Scale Architecture.

Available at: https://scalearchitecture.com/projects/house-ben-buckler/ [Accessed 12 Jun. 2024].

• Victoria, S.E.A. (n.d.). Reducing summer heat gain. [online] Available at: https://www.heat-on.com.au/wpcontent/uploads/2018/07/Window_protection.pdf.

• Zust, T. (2023). Increase to BASIX Standards – What You Need to Know. [online] New South Homes. Available at: https://newsouthhomes.com.au/increase-tobasix-standards-what-you-need-to-know/.

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