Addressing Pollution in the River on Urban Scale through Architectural Intervention

Addressing Pollution in River on Urban Scale through Architectural Intervention MA_ARCH STUDIO MARKET Shivendra Singh Prof.Dr. Gunnar Hartmann Prof. Attilio Terragni

Acknowledgement Firstly I would like to thank my thesis advisor Prof.Dr. Gunnar Hartmann for his patient guidance, enthusiastic encouragement and useful critiques of this thesis work. He continually allowed this thesis work to be my own work and steered me in right direction whenever he thought it was needed. I would also like to thank Prof. Attilio Terragni for his advice and valuable inputs in the crucial part of this thesis work.

I would like to acknowledge Department of Landscape Architecture University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, USA for there valuable help in research stage of this work. I also wish to thank my studio colleagues and friends for there support and encouragement.

Finally, I must express my deepest of gratitude to my Mother for providing me with the unfailing support and continous encouragement throughout my years of study and through process of this thesis work. This accomplishement would not have been possible without her.

3

Contents Chapter 1: Introduction - Ganga, Varanasi, Culture

9-15

The Body and Landscape - Mythic, enacted and historic

16-21

Measure of Pollution in Ganga

22-23

Main Causes of Pollution in Ganga

24-35

Chapter 2: Activity Splitup

38-39

Activity Hotspot

40-41

Site Analysis - Manikanika Ghat

44-45

Ghat Typology

46-47

Activity Splitup

48-49

Cremation Cycle

50-57

Intensive Usage

58-71

Organic Waste Mapping

72-73

Other Waste

74-75

Findings

79-83

Floods

84-87

Site Analysis- Dashashwamedh Ghat

-90-91

Ghat Typology

92-93

Activity Splitup

94-95

Bathing and ritual cycle

96-122

Waste Mapping - Dashashwamedh Ghat

124-127

Site Analysis- Assi Ghat

128-129

Ghat Typology

130-133

Activity Splitup

134-139

Waste Mapping -Assi Ghat

140-143

Findings

144-146

Chapter 3: Proposal - Manikarnika Ghat

149-167

Conclusion

169

Chapter 4: Notes

170-174

References

176

5

Chapter 1

7

Introduction Ganga, Varanasi and Culture Indian civilization grew up under the care of River Ganga for thousands of years, nourished for generations by her generous bounties. The Ganga river along with her many tributaries provided material, spiritual and cultural sustenance to millions of people who lived in and around her basin. And all through the ages, Indians held the munificent River Ganga as a Divine Body who descends from the heights of the Himalayas and winds her way down to the sea, distributing her blessings to all and sundry. To the Indian mind, River Ganga is not only the holiest of rivers and purifier of mortal beings, but also a living goddess!

Since ages, the religious and cultural pre-eminence of River Ganga in the Indian ethos testifies to her centrality in Indian civilization. This significance is so lasting that, even today, River Ganga remains the physical and spiritual lifeline of India. But like other rivers and water bodies in World river Ganga also has to face the wrath of human civilization living around it. The physical environment of the Ganga Basin is governed by a complex combination of natural and manmade processes which havebeen changing and evolving over time.

9

In Picture: AssiGhat the southernmost and newest Ghat in Varanasi(for site analysis turn to page 128) .

With human activities multiplying and diversifying in the industrial age, the resulting environmental consequences have also been pronounced in recent times.

With proliferation and diversification of human activities having harmful environmental effects, River Ganga and her basin have been degrading rapidly.

The degradations are due to five main causes, viz.: (1) Over use of natural resource of the basin (2) discharge of pollutant into terrestrial and and aquatic environment (3) reduction in water holding

capacities and replenishment of water bodies (4) Mutilation of river by piecemeal engineering operations (5) threats to geological processes in basin.

The major human activities causing the above damages may also be clubbed under five main heads, viz :(1) Urbanization (2) Industrialisation (3) Agriculture and other rural activities (4) Religious Rituals(5)Deforestation/Denudation. This broad grouping indicates the key factors underlying basin degradation.

The Ganga basin accounts for a little more than one-fourth (26.4%) of the country’s total geographical area and is the biggest river basin in India, covering the entire states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh (UP), Bihar, Delhi, and parts of Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and West Bengal .1 It supports 400 million people and is worshipped by one Billion of countries population. On the map Ganga is considered to begin at confluence of Bhagirathi and Alaknanda at Devprayag in Garhwal Himalayas; Scorching its

way through mountains and valleys into the plains of north India. it passes through many densely populated and underdeveloped cities, which depends on the river for agriculture, irrigation, electricity, water supply, industrial production and religious and cultural use.

According to CPCB study in 2013, river is found to be critically polluted when the river passes through some of the cities lying on gangetic plains in state of Uttar Pradesh in North India.2 11

River passing through Kanpur and Allahabad enters Varanasi.

Varanasi is one of the oldest and continuously inhabited city, located in North India in state of Uttar Pradesh. Many consider it as India’s religious capital the Hindu heartland. Every year more than millions of domestic and foreign tourist visit Varanasi to see its culture and its heritage. Varanasi Ghats are world famous. Its relation with the river Ganga; connecting the people of city to its mother Ganga is unique. With time their landscape has evolved

to support the ritual enactments and is mnemonic of mythic narratives in its built form. Festivals are celebrated throughout the year on the Ghats of Varanasi, they are tied to the seasons, to key moments in solar and lunar calendar; celebrating the passage of sun and waxing waning moon, and to the harvest cycle. As much the city is known for its ghats, its temples, it is most importantly known for its cremation grounds as the city of liberation. At the centre of city along the riverfront is Manikarnika ghat, the sanctuary of death with its ceaselessly smoking cremation pyres.

Much has been written about Varanasi for its reverence in Hinduism; about its origin by lord Shiva and how he brought the river Ganga from the heavens to the earth here in Varanasi. 3 How the people consider the river here to be purifying them, how they believe that dispersing the dead’s ashes here in Ganges is sure path to heaven. But the centuries of these beliefs and cultural activities has actually polluted the river. For the firm believers living in the city river Ganges cannot be polluted. While some of them believe that the river is in danger.

Ghats are thin sliver of public space along the river.

The cultural landscape of ghats lined by temples, shrines, pavilion, kunds(tanks) and plazas is layered and kinetic. This 6.8 kms crescent shaped stretch date back to 14th century although they were extensively renovated and extended in last three centuries to allow the access to Holy ganga from the temples and shrines of the ancient city. There are 84 different Ghats along the river with some of them being more famous than the others due to beliefs in mythology and historical importance.

13

They are the major hotspots for people to gather and host many religious and cultural activities which make them popular among the pilgrims, tourist and the local of the city. They are also the biggest sources of pollution in river today. Tons of solid waste, diseases of thousands of bathers, tons of burnt human ashes and sometimes even partially burnt human flesh and animal carcasses flowing into the river has made it very polluted indeed. The problem is further compounded by the haphazard present condition of the Ghats. At the famed cremation ground (Makarnika ghat) which is stocked with

piles of firewood its getting difficult to cope with the pressure of increasing number of cremations per day. Partially burnt dead bodies are daily disposed into the river sometimes due to affordability and sometimes due to certain traditions. Haphazard condition on the site results in lot of waste and burning left over polluting the river. At Dashashvamedh ghat which is the main bathing ghat the body of pilgrim and tourist is fully immersed in cultural landscape of the Ghats. They take bath in the river, sip the water, make offerings, and collect the water of the river.

Then in the evening thousands of local and tourists witness the aarti ceremony. There is lot of left over waste generated by the rituals that are performed along the ghats everyday. On the festival days problem is even further compounded. Basic sanitation facilities along the ghat are also in dire condition.

Furthermore the lack of unawareness among the people regarding the sanitation and cleanliness aggregates the problem. Similar to other cities in the Ganges Basin, Varanasi has been contributing to the pollution in river. The level of organic pollution in Ganga is found to be highest in Varanasi.4

In such a context, my thesis will try to understand and map the major pollution causing hotspots along the Ghats which need to be redesigned according to present day needs by site planning and management also taking into account the hidden meaning of rituals, language of myths and sanctity attributed in everyday practices by following the eco-cultural approach which advocates the use of appropriate technology, local material and renewable energy sources.

15

The Body and Landscape mythic, enacted and historic landscape Intangible and tangible cultural heritage encompassed by the cultural landscape of the ghats is interpreted in its mythic, enacted and historic dimension. The three facets are mutually constitutive - The landscape is read as tapestry of mythic narratives and is at the same time a setting for continous enactments by the devotees thus keeping the ancient traditions alive and vigorous. The landwater interface has been culturally significant for over two millenia. While the chronology of its evolution into the contemporary landscape has many gaps, the documented history of last three centuries holds

a clue to understanding the ways in which its built environment was shaped in response to cultural beliefs.

The idea of the body and landscape underlies the mythic, enacted and historic dimension.The landscape is a symbol of primeval being purusha and the great gods of Hinduism - Shiva and Vishnu.The icons and deities in many temples and shrines on the ghats attest to their living presence on earth.

Their action in mythic time are celebrated through ritual enactments in festival creating the spatial temporal order in the landscape.

Ritual Bathing: The landscape is always in flux, its temporality a function of the Gangas seasonal flow and calendar of rituals and festivals determined by planetary motion. The ghats on the west bank of the Ganga are altar to worship of the sun rising in the every morning bringing light and life, an end to actual and metamorphic darkness. The phenomenal form of the goddess Ganga is worshipped through an immersive engagement with the river.

The Ganga invites rich visual, tactile, and haptic experience in in everyday, humdrum actvities and perfromances that carry profound meanings. The tradition of ritual bathing at festivals, in the course of pilgrimage and in life cycle events, has continued through the centuries and carries great significance.

Immersion by as many 5 million people in the Ganga on auspicious days is a grand spectacle, resulting from the self organized activities on a very large scale. The river and its banks are setting of performative rituals.

17

Cremation: As much the city is known for its ghats, its temples, it is most importantly known for its cremation grounds as the city of liberation. At the centre of city along the riverfront is Manikarnika ghat, the sanctuary of death with its ceaselessly smoking cremation pyres. In Kashi, life is lived in the perpetual presence of death. Death, which elsewhere is feared, here is welcomed as long expected guest.

Death which elsewhere is polluting, is here holy and auspicious. It is considered that on deathbed Lord

Shiva himself whispers the words of crossing in ears of desceased.5 Death, the most natural, unavoidable, and certian of human realities, is here the sure gate to moksha. People from different part of country come to Varanasi to die. They come for Kashivasa - “living in Kashi�.6 For them this is final stop on a pilgrimage that has lasted for many lives, through birth and death and birth again. Dying in Kashi, they make the final crossing which ends the pilgrimage of this life, and of all lives.

In Varanasi, it is a common sight to see the body of deceased is carried by the mourners. The Body travels through the narrow streets of Varanasi and is brought to the cremation ground where it is washed in the River and placed on death pyrefor final death rituals. Then the eldest son or mail mourner or a priest sets the pyre ablaze while the mourners mourn. Then the mourners bathe in Ganga to clean themselves from exposed cremation smoke. The dom (Undertaker) collects the ashes and is later consecrated in the Ganga.

This death cycle goes on the entire day and night.

The cremation never stops at Manikarnika ghat and its considered that the main(eternal) fire has been burning here for several thousand years.

19

Circle of Liberation: The trancendental view of nature in Hinduism underlies the elaborate structure of myths relating to Ganga, the archetypal divine river and Kashi, the supreme tirtha.

In Hindu mythology Varnasi is the place where universe was created and it is believed that whole city is a symbol. of universe, a cosmogram charged with positive energies.7 This the center where all journeys begin and end.

It is the point of origin and of continual renewal though the body’s enagagment with the landscape in circumumbulatory journeys known as yatras. Five circumbulatory circuits - Kashi, Varanasi, Avimukta, Antargriha and Vishvanath are traced in pilgrim yatras. These sacred rings defines the sacred space of Varanasi within which who dies is granted liberation by Lord Shiva.Geographically the two cremation grounds of city are also located within this circle and they also mark the Ghat limits.

21

Measure of Pollution in Ganga According to CPCB study in 2013, Biooxygen demand (BOD) increases by 500 percent after passing through Varanasi. Tons of solid waste, million litres of sewage and industrial waste, animal carcasses,partially burnt human, human ashes, religious bathing, plastic bags, animal waste, waste by tourists and pilgrims has made Ganga sick. The level of this pollution can be quantified by biochemical oxygen (BOD)demand in mg/l which is measure of organic matter in river. And the number of faecal coliform counts (FCC)/100ml of water sample, indicating the measure of faecal coliform bacteria

which is root cause of waterborne diseases.

The BOD of Ganga water at the beggining of city at Assi confluence is around 4mg/l and FCC/100ml is around 60,000. The river flow downstream from here and quality of water at end of city at Varuna’s confluence is poor. With BOD equal to 20mg/l and FCC around 1.5 million/100ml. The river water here is grey in colour and stinks. For a healthy river BOD should be around 3mg/l to be fit for bathing.8

The three Sewage treatment plant (STP’s) are running over capacity and are unable to treat all the sewage. Also the government is not able to provide them with continous electricity which is required them to function. Even after treatment the water though improved is still far above BOD levels for human contact.

Non-point sources of pollution include animal waste, waste generated by daily rituals perfrmed along the ghats, 1000 kgs of ashes and burning waste disposed in the river, partially burnt human bodies and also ritual bathing contributing to the organic pollution in Ganga along the ghats of Varanasi.

There are 30 point sources of pollution along the ghats i.e. sewer outfalls, open drains and other outlets.

23

Main causes of Pollution in Ganga Poor Existing Infrastructure and Rapid Urbanization : The world changed with the Industrial Revolution and other development processes. During the british period in India, Varanasi was given its due importance. A well designed underground gravity sewage system for population of 200,000 people was laid in Varanasi, when flushed toilets were installed. Though no sewage treatment plant was installed the sewage system was good enough to divert, the city’s sewage away from the ghats.

No sewage flowed into the Ganga in the religious bathing area.Other urban infrastructure needed for Varanasi was laid.

The present population of the city is about 1.5 million. The infrastructure created for 200,000 people has not been improved. The sewage system has become old. People have started settling in lowlevel lands on both sides of river, Asi and Varuna. People have started using storm water drains as sewer outfalls. Like other cities on the Ganga basin Varanasi has to face the challanges of rapid urbanization.

Only about 30% of total area is provided with underground sewage network. Existing waste management facilities include 3 STP’s and 5 intermittent pumping station and 1 main pumping station.

According to multiple studies done the Sewage treatment plants (STP) are not receiving all the wastewater because pumping stations are not able to work at full capacity. With most of the times 1/3 of wastewater flowing into the river directly untreated. And the existing STP’s doesnt have provision to eliminate the Faecal coliform bacteria which is responsible for waterborne diseases.

Master plans were made, suspended, discarded and changed due to political pressures. This has resulted in an unplanned development of Varnasi in the last 50 years. The maximum population density of the city near Shri Vishwanath temple is 1000,000 per sq.km.9 The capacity of old sewers has been exceeded and the city’s sewage and industrial waste flow into the religious bathing area also, through 30 point sources. i.e. sewer outfalls, open drains and other outlets.

25

In Picture: Dashashwamedh Ghat the main Bathing Ghat of Varanasi(for site analysis turn to page 90) .

Ground water contamination and depletion: There is an acute shortage of water in Varanasi because the water supply system is over a century old and the disturbution system is inadequate. About 55% of water supply needs are met by tube wells and hand pumps leading to ground water depletion.

The adeqaute solid waste management and the absence of sanitary water treatment plagues the Ghats landscape and increase the pollution in the Ganga. The city’s high resident and floating population strains current muncipal facilities far beyond

The city’s high resident and floating population strains current municipal facilities far beyond their functioning capacities, which leads to large amounts of untreated waste being expelled directly into Varuna and Ganga rivers and failure to collect approximate eighty six metric tons of waste in the city every day.10 The combination of intermittent powerloss, fluctuation in Ganga velocities, rising and falling levels as well as outdated, poorly managed treatment facilities has resulted in detoriation of public spaces and increasing groundwater pollution.

The region once had extensive system of natural and manmade water bodies called talabs and kunds respectively. In ancient times, these water bodies were constructed and used strategically to collect and store water for times of drought while unintentionally providing a natural ground water recharge and filtration system for the city.11 As Varanasi expanded. these water bodies were encroached upon, depleted for drinking and irrigationwater as filled in for urban development.

The present situation of amassing uncollected garbage has forced the community dumping grounds on the outkirts of the city, as well as filling the low lying areas of ponds, i.e. what remains of the ancient water body network within the city with rubbish. Studies on ground water quality in Varnasi show that the most vulnerable points for groundwater contamination were in public areas filled with waste.

27

Deforestation: The Ganga is flooding more often because of deforestation upstream and constrcition in its flow locally causes by silt deposition on east bank.

Frequent flooding negatively impacts the Ghats and city beyond them. The Ganga meanders through the Indo-Gangetic plains of Northern India leaving traces of erosion and deposition of sediment transported by the river. The holy city of Varanasi and its majestic ghats on the western bank sit on the erosion edge.

On the highly constructed west bank there is visibly less erosion. The water level of Ganga fluctuates through the year affecting the ghats; however the normal water level is 65.37 meters, allowing the various rituals and other activities to occur. In drought the water level is around 60 meters above the mean sea level that result in exposing the silt bed. Due to climate change the frequency of flooding is increasing, occuring now at every 5 year interval. The highest level of flood recorded as 73.90 meters is well above 71.26 meters considered to be the danger level, completely submerging the ghats.

The 100 yeat flood will cover all the part of the ghats, including temples and hustoric buildings.

The flooding and silting is threat to the river and cultural landscape of the ghats. The mild slope of the east bank is continously covered with layers of silt deposition every year. With deforestation in the Himalayan foothills, sediment loads in Ganges is increasing. The sand bed formed in the flood plains expands laterally and increases in height with the downstream flow, the maximum elevation being Prahalad ghat.

In the absence of sand mining on the east bank the width of river is constantly decreasing. Due to this decrease there is constant pressure on the built edge which may result in collapse of Ghats in the future.

29

Intensive use of Urban edge : Varanasi has developed between the confluence of two tributaries Assi in the south and Varuna at the north. The inner core of the city which is ghat and its nearby areas are densely populated and are hotspots of all the main activities. They are main hub of economic activities, tourism and religious activities. Varanasi Ghat landscape is layered and kinetic. They are public common, ritual spaces and cremation grounds. Ghats are used by city locals, tourist which come to see its historic and cultural landscape, pilgrims which are participating in the religious and cultural rituals

and the mourners who come here to cremate the dead. There are 84 different ghats along the 6.8 km long stretch out of which 3 that are Assi, Dashaswamedh, and Manikarnika are more popular among the locals, tourist and pilgrims because of the beliefs and mythological importance.

Assi ghat which is the newest ghat with easy access from the city. It is mostly visited for recreation and and during festivals. On typical days about 300 people visit the ghats every hour in the mornings.

Number raises to 2500 people on festival days.

Ghats have relatively open space with potential to

be developed. However, the site is covered by large expanses of silt extending up to 120 feet from steps.

As a result most of the activities occur on unstable silt bed. Besides the space between buildings and steps is not large enough for rituals. Seasonal flooding increases the water level resulting in lack of public space. The main activities include bathing in river, worship of linga under the tree and temple, boat landing, praying and meditation, and traditional aarti ceremony in the evening.

Moving northwards along the ghats one reaches Dashaswamedh ghat famous as main ghat among

the locals of Varanasi. Its the main hub of activities related to holy Ganga, is probably the most spectacular ghat. A group of priest daily in the evening at this ghat perform “Agni pooja� wherin dedication is made to Lord Shiva, river Ganga, Surya(sun), Agni(fire) and the whole universe. Thousands of people sqaut on the ghats and another thousand witness it from the boats docked along the ghats from the Ganga. Ghats are littered with rubbish and its not uncommon to stumble onto rotten pile of offerings.

Most of it makes it way into the Ganga, liitering the shoreline and bobbling along with the current.

31

In mornings ghat are flocked with large number of local and pilgrims to bathe in Ganga. Around 60,000 people bathe in river Ganga everyday and Dashwashmedh Ghat being the most famous hotspot.

They believe that bathing in the river can wash away their sins. Many bathe in it at the starting or the end of the rituals that have some holy meaning to it which are perfromed through out the day along the ghat. Pilgrim seek the river grace through ablutions and by offering that they make in the river during many rituals through out the day.These rituals involve offerings of flowers,idols, claypots, plastic

bags, aluminium foil which are polluting the river.

The biodegradable material takes oxygen from river water to decompose, leading to illness and death of aqautic creatures. Non-biodegradable materials float through the rivers, creates block in the free flow of water and slowly leech their harmful chemicals into the water itself.

Moving northwards to the oldest and most mystical of Varanasi ghats, Manikarnika Ghat is mentioned in 5th century Gupta inscription, rebuilt in 1302 CE and renovated by Marathas in 1735 CE and 1872 CE is the most popular site for cremation; where

funeral pyres never extinguish.12 With around 28,000 bodies cremated every year. Cremation can be interpreted as symbolic sacrifice essential for regenerating the cosmos. The ghat is therefore the site of recurring dissolution and recreation of universe.

It is associated with both lord Shiva and Vishnu, eternally present at the site that is absolute space and where time stands still. Here moksha, liberation from the cycle of rebirths is promised and the Ganga washes away the pollution of death. Ghats significance in myths make it more important and famous than the other cremation ghat in Varanasi.

More than 3/4 th of corpses brought from outside are cremated here in Varanasi only 1/4th are burnt at the other cremation ghat.

For Hindus the funeral process is vital in acheiving nirvana(liberation), and rituals many stages must be perfectly performed or soul wont find peace in afterlife. Fire plays an important role in cremations as it is considered that it releases the soul from the body. Wood is also important as it is what generates fire and burn the body into ashes which are finally dispersed in Ganga. The ashes of cremated body weighs roughly between 2-3kgs, with around 300 33

In Picture: Manikarnika Ghat the main burning Ghat at Varanasi(for proposal turn to page 149] .

bodies being burnt daily total ashes weight would be around 600-900 kgs. With most of it being dumped in river and with other burning left over is adding a lot of pollution in the river. Burning one body requires about 300-500kgs of wood. With firewood being too costly for majority of poor population living along the Ganga basin, many times the body partially burnt is dumped into the river.

Certain traditions doesnt allow the body of holy men ,childrens and unmarried women to be burnt so they are also dumped directly in the river adding to unimaginable amount of pollution.13

Every year around 50-60 million trees are cut to burnt in cremations in India. Around 50,000kg of fire wood is burnt in Manikarnika Ghat itself to facilitate cremation of average 100 bodies per day. Air pollution, deforestation, leftover ashes all adding to the problem of pollution in the river. Wood is integral part of cremation process and majority of hindus prefer it over electric or gas combustion.

Haphzard conditions on ghat which is stocked with piles of wood and piles of leftover ashes all around its difficult to cope with the evergrowing demand of cremation. Animal waste, cremation ritual left overs,

litter from the mourners aggregates the problem.

Manikarnika Ghat is not only known a burning ghat it is also known as bathing ghat as they are many pilgrims and mourners who bathe here. According to the funeral rituals relatives of deceased should bathe in the river after the cremation as it is considered to be polluting. Just around the corner of burning place along the ghats people bathe in Ganga. Many pilgrim bathe just before and at the end of circumbalation in Manikarnika. All 5 pilgrim yatras start and end with bathing in Manikarnika.14

Government efforts in recent years to move the cremation ground outside the city boundaries to reduce the pollution in religious bathing area has also gone in vain, with large community of people who are responsible for burning opposing it.

35

Chapter 2

37

Activity Graph

500

450

400

No. of people (per day)

350

300

250

200

150 Harishcha- Kedar ndra Ghat Ghat

100

50

Dashash-Man- Mir wamedh mandir Ghat Ghat Ghat

Jalsayi Ghat

Manik- ScinBhon-PanchDurgaLala arnika dhia Gaya Gola sale Ghat Ghat Ghat ganga Ghat Ghat Ghat Ghat Sakka Naya PrahaGhat Ghat Ghat lad Ghat

Assi Ghat

Adikeshava Ghat

Activities on Ghats

Cremation Bathing Rituals Others

Note : Other Activities include tourist visiting and other public activities on ghats.

39

Activity Hotspots 84 Ghats

0

100

200

300 m

Green Space Platform Stairs Embankement Plaza

Assi Ghat

Dashashwamedh Ghat

Manikarnika Ghat

Open Space Parking Bathroom Signage Other facility

41

Site Analysis - Manikarnika Ghat

43

Site Analysis - Manikarnika Ghat

Wood Storage/ Widow House

Bhootnath Temple

Steps leading to river Ganga

Approach Road from the City

Cremation Pyre

Aarti Performance Platforms

A

B

A

B

0

5

10

15

Cremation Pyre Temples Public space

45

Ghat Typology - Manikarnika Ghat Approach Road from the City

Approach road from Ghats

Durga Temple

Manikarnika Kund

Bhootnath Temple

Cremation Pyre

Steps Leading to River

Cremation Pyres

Aarti Performance Platforms

47

Activity Split up

Legend Performance

Corpse carrying

Bathing

Wood purchase

Boating

Washing of corpse

Praying

Cremation burning

Socialising

Ashes immersion

49

Cremation Cycle :

Wood is bought from the Market around the Ghat, funeral incharge is paid comission for burning.

The corpse is brought from the narrow streets of Varnasi into the ghat.

Dead Corpse is washed in Ganga and laid on creamation pyre.

Bodies are Burnt in open air as per Hindu cremation traditions.

Part of Ash remains are given to family after burning to disperse in river.

On average around 3-5 kgs of ash is produced by burning of one body.

51

In Picture : Fire wood market behind Bhootnath temple at Mankarnika Ghat

In Picture : Body being brought from narrow streets behind the Manikarnika Ghat for cremation

In Picture : Wood being weighed and sold behind Manikarnika Ghat

53

In Picture : Body being taken by set of mourners for washing in Ganga

In Picture : Body being laid on steps for drying

In Picture : Body being washed in the river Ganga

In Picture : Body being laid on cremation pyre at Manikarnika ghat. Note: The piles of fire wood stacked in the background.

55

In Picture : Body being set at fire by the eldest son or cheif mourner.

In Picture : Dom( cremation incharge) breaking the skull of body by bamboo stick.

In Picture : Body being burnt, which takes around 3-4 hours to burn completely.

In Picture : After burning, site worker trying to cool the ashes down.

57

Intensive usage Recently added Pyre

Fire Wood Barged Ashes Immersion on Boat

Group of Mourners

Flood Plains encroached for Burning

Existing Cremation Pyre

Tourist observing Funeral process

Section BB 0 5

10

20m

59

In Picture : Pressure of Burning at Manikarnika Ghat, Burning pyres have tons of waste accumulated with several bodies burnt daily its hard to cope with the condition on site.

61

Bhootnath Temple

Dead Corpse being carried

SectionAA 0 5 10

Existing Pyres

Tourist Boats

25m

63

65

In Picture : Cremation happening at the uppermost pyre with mourners watching. Note: The waste at the site.

In Picture : Cremation left over being piled up at the upper pyre. Pigeons fly above the steaming ashes and bone fragements of a funeral pyre.

In Picture : SIte worker throwing the pile of ash on to the lower level, which eventually ends up in the river.

67

In Picture : Cremation continues day and night, large number of mourners attending the funeral rites and group of tourist on the boats watching.

69

In Picture : View of Manikarnika Ghat from the east bank. Note: The amount of bodies burning on different piers.

Picture Source: Downtoearth.com 71

Organic Waste Locations

Underground drainage Surface drainage Surface drainage pipes Organic Waste

73

Other waste

Visitors throwing trash in River

Waste by animal defecation

Waste by ritual offerings

75

In Picture : Tourist and other mourners watching. Highlighted : Rituals and other waste deposited along the flood plains at Manikarnika Ghat.

77

Findings

On average a human body takes around 3-4 hours to burn completely also the method isnt very efficient, sometimes the heavy parts of human bodies are not burnt completely and are tossed into the river.

On average100 bodies are cremated everyday at Manikarnika Ghat. Which results in complete chaos. There isnt enough pyres for burning on site and often the flood plains are encroached. The burning left overs and rituals waste often make their way into the river.

More than 1000kg of ash is produced everyday by cremations at the Ghat. Part of it is given away to the family of deceased and rest of it is piled up on the Ghats by siteworkers. Piled up ash is further dumped in the river and is one of the main cause of organic pollution in the river.

An average Body requires around 300 -500 kg of wood do be burnt completely.

More than 50,000 kg of wood is burnt daily at Manikarnika Ghat for cremations.

Around 6 -7 million trees are cut in India for supplying wood for cremations.

There is a huge market of wood and many people involved. On average cremation costs around 1500 rupees to 7000 rupees.

Unfortunately use of wood is not only costing environment its also unaffordable for majority of population living along the Ganga basin. So many a times the deceased body is directly disposed in the river. There are also many traditions under which the bodies are not burnt and disposed directly into the river.

79

In Picture : A tourist boat along the Manikarnika Ghat. Note : The pile of hot ashes in the background.

81

In Picture : A corpse floating in river Ganga infront of Varanasi Ghats.

83

Floods

Drought Normal Flood

Pattern of Flooding

Flood water level 73.90 m Normal water level 65.37 m

Cross Section

Deposition

85

In Picture: Manikarnika ghat flooded with all its cremation pyre on lower level being submeged in water. Picture source: National Geographic Proof 87

Site Analysis - Dashashwamedh Ghat Assi Ghat

89

Site Analysis - Dashashwamedh Ghat

Ahiliyabai Ghat Temple

Temporary Aarti Performance Platforms Maa Kali Temple

Aarti Performance Pumping Station Platform

Recreational Platform

B

A

B A

0

5

15

30m

Temple Performance Platforms

91

Ghat Typology - Dashashwamedh Ghat Ahiliyabai Ghat Temple

Maa Kali Temple

Approach Road to the Ghat

Pumping Station at Dashashwamedh Ghat

Steps Leading to River

Temporary Performance Platforms

Aarti Performance Platform Recreational Platfrom

93

Activity Splitup

Legend Performance Bathing Boating Praying Socialising

95

Bathing and Ritual cycle

Everyday around 6,000 people bathe in Ganga in Varanasi at the edge of Dashashwamedh ghat. Majority of rituals end up with bathing in river and making offerings in Ganga. On festival days the number of people bathing increases by 5 times as bathing in river is considered auspicious during these days.

Every evening on ghats of Varanasi people come to witness the Aarti (prayer) where the dedication is made to Lord Shiva, river Ganga, and fire. More than 2000 people, tourist, pilgrims, locals come to witness the performance and sqauts on ghats and many watch it from the boats.

Studies have shown that Ganga gets polluted

by Mass bathing. The BOD which is indicator of pollution in river is found to be higher after mass bathing.

Use of soaps and detergents in bathing aggrevates the problem even more. Many times offerings are made at the end of ritual bathing in the river which is also harming the river.

After Ceremnony is over people make offerings in the river as part of ritual

Offerings include flowers which are biodegradable and plastic bags which they are wrapped in. Adding to the pollution level in Ganga.

97

Bathing Cycle

In Picture : Group of pilgrims offering ealry morning prayers to river Ganga at Dashashwamedh Ghat

In Picture : Offerings being made after bathing in the river Ganga.

In Picture : Early morning scene at Dashashwamedh Ghat, large number of people bathing along the Ghat edge.

99

Dashashwamedh ghat steps leading to river are the main space for people for bathing in river Ganga

Main promenade hosts large number of tourist, pilgrims and locals everyday

Main temple is visited by thousands of people everyday after bathing in river Ganga

Ghat platforms mainly used for evening prayer (Aarti) ceremony

Recently added raised platform for tourist and pilgrims to gather

101

In picture : People bathing in river Ganga at Dashashwamedh Ghat.

103

In Picture : Plastic and flower offering floating in Ganga with people bathing and offering rituals in Ganga at Dashashwamedh Ghat Varanasi.

In Picture : Woman offering flower petals in river Ganga at Dashwashmedh Ghat.

105

In Picture : A man bathing at Dashashwamedh ghat in Varanasi. Note : The soap used and waste floating in the river.

107

Ritual Cycle

Tourist boats: Lined up along the ghats for rides and provide option to watch the evening performance.

Performance Platforms: spaces for rituals.

Dashashwamedh ghat main entrance from the street

Main promenade: The main space for people to gather during evening Aarti(prayer).

Section AA 0

5

10

25m 109

In Picture : Waving of incense sticks and ringing the prayer bell in synchnorized manner.

In Picture : Group of Priests announcing beggining of Ganga Aarti (prayer) by blowing conch shell.

In Picture : Waving the brass lamps in all directions while people in background watch.

111

In Picture : People pouring milk and flowers in river after the ceremony ends

In Picture : After the cermenony is reaching the closing stages people are offered prasad (offering)

In Picture : Foreign tourist making offerings in the river

113

Secondary entrance to Dashashwamedh Ghat

Kaali temple the most popular temple among people

Evening prayer platforms

Tourist boats acting as temporary stage for people to witness the evening prayer.

Section BB 0

5

10

25m 115

In Picture : Thousands of people come to Dashashwamedh Ghat and squat along the Ghats to watch Aarti ceremony everyday.

117

In Picture : Half of them watching the ceremony from the Boats docked along Ghat 119

In Picture : Thousand of people come to watch Ganga Aarti every evening at Dashashwamedh Ghat and squat all around the ghats to find a viewing place. Source: Yatra.com 121

In Picture : Offering of flower and oil lamp on paper tray floating in river Ganga at Dashashwamedh Ghat

123

Waste Mapping - Dashashwamedh Ghat

Waste by Littering

Waste by animal defacation

Waste by offerings

125

In Picture : Site worker trying to collect the amount of offering waste on Dashashwamedh Ghat.

In Picture : Offering of flower wrapped in plastic bag with other ritual waste floating in Ganga at Dashashwamedh Ghat

127

Assi Ghat Main Access Road to the Ghat from the city

Parking

Recent Extension to the Old part

Old Assi Ghat

Ganga Mahal

Ritual Performance Platforms

A

A

0

5

15

30m

129

Ghat Typology - Assi Ghat

Assi ghat main temple

Recreational huts

Assi ghat Temple

Ganga mahal

Steps leading to river

Exposed Silt bed

Aarti perfromance platform

131

Relatively more open space than other ghats

Section AA 0 2

5

Main Promenade leading to Performance area also host many diiferent function on ghat

Steps leading to main temple are mostly occupied by tourist and pilgrims as they face main promenade which hosts many activities

Assi ghat main temple

10m 133

Activity Splitup

Legend

Performance Bathing Boating Praying Socialising

135

In Picture : Children playing at Assi Ghat Note: People Bathing in Ganga in background.

137

In Picture : Assi ghat hosts many bathers in early morning.

In Picture : People making offering in river Ganga after bathing at Assi Ghat.

139

Waste Mapping - Assi Ghat

Waste by littering

Waste by offerings

141

In Picture: Waste found near Assi Ghat include claypots, flowers used in offerings, polythene bags, cloth used in offerings and food waste

143

Findings:

Mass Bathing in Ganga cant be stopped as the traditions followed cant be changed so quickly. Though by spreading sense of awareness about pollution in river there can be reduction of bathers which can help in cutting some pollution in river. More than mass bathing its the abuse of river by dumping waste and making offerings which is polluting river.

Use of soaps and detergents in river is causing serious damage to river as the harmful chemicals and solids are entering into the river ecosystem. There are no provision for addressing these problems on Ghats.

Tons of solid waste which is caused by littering by tourists and pilgrims, animal defacation and ritual offering goes unchecked in the river ecosystem. Some of these waste are biodegradable but waste like plastic bags, silicone covers, foodpackaging , cloth and idols offeringsare causing serious harm to the river.

No efficient facilities to deal with the waste produced on Ghats everyday.

145

147

Chapter 3

149

Proposal - Manikarnika Ghat

Religious Constraints: Hinduism , which is more a way of life than religion, upholds death as real and natural as life. In Hindu philosophy, death of any life form is a cause of celebration as it is an event that helps the soul to reunite with the divine cosmic cycle.

Proposal: Concept : - Redesigning the space so that the activites and ritual involved in cremation happen in sequential manner which will create an order in space so that its easy to deal with problems and also implement ways to deal with them.

The five elements: Body should be surrounded by air, water, fire, earth and sky during final departure North South Alignment: It is believed that yama: the god of death comes from the south and drags the body from the feet.

Thus, the orientation of the pyre is always kept in N-S direction.

- Adding more burning pyres to deal with the pressure of incoming bodies on the site.

- Proposing a larger promenade and tourist lanes for tourist to view cremation.

KapalKriya: After the corpse is completely burnt, the chief mourner has to crack the skull with long Bamboo stick, thus releasing the soul from entrapment of in the body.

- Proposing wood storage facilities on site.

Cultural Constraints:

- Adding a docking station for boats which are to be responsible for transporting solid waste from the site to the existing waste management facilities on the east bank.

Dom Community: As per traditions in Hindu culture there is a specific community of people who are t responsible for burning. They are the one’s who prepare the cremation bed and also arrange for other materials required for burning. The family of deceased pays them commision before initiating the funeral process they also get the cut from the wood market located near the Ghat where the wood is bought from. These communities living is connected to burning and unfortunately they oppose any change involved in the funeral process. The whole burning economy relies on the cremation process and the wood involved in burning has become the source of living for many.

- Design of Pyre to make burning easy and efficient process.

- Implementing technology by introducing the combustion system which can help in reducing the amount of wood used in burning by making burning faster and also also cutting carbon emissions and ash emission in the air.

151

Spatial Division:

Context

Stairs and Platforms Tourist Lane

Tourist Lane

Cremation Spaces + Passages Cremation Spaces + Passages Cremation Spaces + Passages Cremation Spaces + Passages Cremation Spaces + Passages Service Lane

Service Lane

Interaction with River

153

A

B

B

Tourist Lane

Proposed Promenade A

Cremation Space

Deck passage for ritual immersion

Deck for Wood Supply

0

5

10

15m 155

Touritst Lane

Burning Pyres

Proposed Promenade

Steps leading to pyres

Service Room Deck passage

Wood storage under tourist lane

Proposed Boat docking

157

Proposed deck to access the river for washing of corpse

Steps and platform become natural barrier and confine space for cremation rituals

Cremation space: Designed to provide privacy

Extended Promenade: Opens up much more space for public use

0

5 10 Transverse Section AA

15m

159

Proposed Deck for boat docking

Tourist Lane and Service room below

Stepped passage to reach out the pyres and the river

Tourist Lanes and Wood storage below

Cremation Pyres

0

0

5 10 Longitudnal Section BB

15m

161

View from Ganga looking towards Ghat 163

Design of Pyre

Side Flaps to support the body

Pyre Bed

Suction Pod

Space for circumbulation around the body Pyre Bed

Pyre base

Ash collecting tray underneath the base

165

Introducing Technology

Carbon and Ash capture Unit Mechanism:

Suction Wall: Acts like a cabinet to the pods inside

Filtration I.D fan: Provided for a continous drawing of gases from pods.

Water Sprayer Carbon and Ash capture unit: water is sprayed on the incoming gases and carbon and ash is captured in liquid form.

Clean Air

Combustion

Suction

167

Conclusion Pollution in river Ganga has raised to alarming levels, government plans to eradicate pollution in river by top-down planning approach have not been successful so far. In this engineering approach cultural practices, folk beliefs, and local community traditions are ignored. The complex situation of pollution in river Ganga is attributed by various reasons and ignoring part of them will not help in cutting down pollution in Ganga. For the city of Varanasi, river Ganga is like its soul and city will not survive if Ganga becomes extinct. Its famous Ghats on west bank which are altar to worship river Ganga for thousands of its devotees everyday are one of the biggest sources of pollution in it. Ancient practices are kept alive in Varanasi and ghats become the stage for there continous enactments. These practices are integral part of intangible landscape which coexist within the physical landscape which forms the sacred fabric of the Ghats. Although these practices are causing unimaginable level of pollution in Ganga but its important that they exist. There is a need to adapt and modernize and to develop a site specific model which caters solution to the problem of pollution with site planning and use of modern technology also taking into account the hidden meaning of rituals, language of myths and sanctity attributed in everyday practices.

By understanding the cremation cycle at Manikarnika ghat and how it contributes to the pollution in river a site specific model has been developed which will help to resolve the pressure of incoming bodies, waste management and reducing the carbon emissions in air making cremation fast, efficient and affordable process also maintaining the sanctity of space by giving importance to privacy of mourners from direct vision of by watchers and tourists also maintaining the architectural character of ghats.

169

Notes 1.

Thousands of megawatts of hydropower potential in upper reaches

Chapter 4

2. According to Central Pollution Control Board of India 2013 report on pollution analysis of River Ganga water is polluted in most of it stretches. In Kanpur the industrial capital of Uttar Pradesh which has more than 600 industries the dissolved oxygen at one point in the river was recorded to be zero which means the river is dead i.e. it cannot support any kind of aquatic life.1 The industrial effluent has chocked the river to its death. But it‟s not the case where river originates. The land of gods Uttarakhand where river originates from Himalayas Glacier the river is found to have sufficient amount of dissolved oxygen which is also because of the continuous flow of water. But even here the measure of organic pollution is higher than permissible that is mostly because of open defecation. Haridwar one of the sacred places in Hinduism is the hotspot for pollution in Uttarakhand. It is where you see the real love and adornment that people have for its mother Ganga at its best. Every evening thousands of people gather at ghats(steps) at the river banks and pray. They make offerings in the river unaware of the plastic that they also dispose with the flowers and flames in the river polluting it.

Go downstream and same happens in Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh. It is considered to be the most sacred place in Hinduism.

People in Hinduism consider that dying here can liberate one‟s soul from the life circle one attaining „moksha‟ and Ganga washes away the pollution of death. 32,000 corpses are burnt in Varanasi every year which is roughly 250 corpses per day.

Which accounts for 500 -750 kg of ashes roughly per day going into the ganga river. Of course the organic pollution which is determined by Biochemical oxygen demand and pathogenic pollution which is determined by Faecal Coliform count is found to be highest in the Varanasi.2 The pollution level in river is endangering the aquatic life of the species; out of which many are on verge of extinction. It is also harmful for humans who come in direct contact with it. Religious bathing and other ritual activities is harmful for health of people. According to World Bank India spends 3%of its GDP on health concerns due to water pollution in Ganga.

171

3. Myths explain the sacred geography of Varanasi and the embodied practices that give it meaning and value in ways history cannot. Myths occur in absolute space and eternal time. Their enactments impart a powerful and timeless quality to the landscape. Varanasi traces its origin to Anandvana, the forest of bliss where Lord Shiva sits in a yogic posture with his eyes closed listening intently to his wife Parvati playing the veena. He creates the cosmos contained in Kashi with his yogic power and her music. He strikes his trident to hold the city and place it beyond the ravages of time. Hecatches the sacred Ganga in his locks as she pours down from heaven as a result of sage Bhagirath’s penance to revive the sixty thousand sons of King Sagara.

4. Organic Pollution: is term which refers to pollution caused by large quantities of organic compounds enters the river ecosysytem. The organic compound entered in river needs to be decomposed in the receiving water body and requires dissolved oxygen supply at greater rates so that it can replenish. Causing oxygen depletion and having severe consequences for stream biota. Pathogen is an disease causing organism and considered as organic pollution.

10. According to CPCB report 2013, important cities in Ganga basin like Allahabad and Varanasi as much as 70 to 85percent of cities household remain unconnected to sewage network. The cities are expanding at unimaginable rate; Its hard for government to map the city development and provide them with basic sanitation. In general practice, domestic waste of grey water and black water is combined and released in municipal drain which flows to sewage treatment plant in the city and treated before disposing it into the river. In some cases where communities do not have municipal connection to the sanitation people rely on septic tank in private house for treatment of sewage. Some only have pit latrines. Many times the municipal drains that carry domestic waste are uncovered and found to be clogged by the human waste which goes into it from streets. The waste from these drains doesn’t reach River often contaminate shallow ground water. According to World bank 2,700 million litres of wastewater is discharged in River Ganga every day. Out of which 700 is treated or partially treated and rest is discharged directly.

11.

5. Tarak Mantra: Lord Shiva plays a major role in cremation at Manikarnika Ghat by whisphering the ferry boat words, the words of crossing in the ear of deceased at the death bed himself which is the sure path to salvation.

6. Kashivasa: refers to people who come to live in Varanasi from different places to live the life of sect and finally attaining moksha by dying in Varanasi.

7. Circle of Liberation:

Varuna

Varanasi Manikarnika Area of Liberation

Harishchandra

Assi Antargrahi Pilgrimage Panchkosi Pilgrimage

Temple Cremation Grounds

8. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) – is the measure of oxygen that is dissolved in water. The oxygen dissolves by aeration of water that has tumbled over falls and rapid and as a waste product of photosynthesis. It is important for possibility of aquatic life in river water.

Total Coliform (TC) – It is the bacterial indicator in water. It is used as general indicator of potential contamination with pathogenic organisms; which are major cause of diseases in water.

Bio Oxygen Demand (BOD) – is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic biological organism to break down organic material present in given sample at certain temperature over a specific time period. It is important criteria to measure organic pollution in water.

173

12. Manikarnika was in 1302 the first Ghat to be built in stone. It was rebuilt in 1735 by the (maratha) PeshwaBajirao and again in 1791 by Banaras’s most celebrated patron Rani Ahiliyabai of Indore who funded the construction of its imposing temples and never completed screened off area known as Zenana ghat where women could bathe in privacy.

13. The annual administration report for the Benaras muncipality for 1925 records that pollution from incompletely inceinerated bodies was a major sanitary problem, but concludes with resignation that its impossible to remove the burning ghats from their location, its not that the Manikarnika and Harishchandra are for the city but city is for them.

14. The circumference of Kashi is marked by Panchkosi pilgrimage route which at peak times especially during adhik mas is followed by ten thosands of pilgrims from the city and surrounding districts. The journey of nearly 50 miles is completed in fivedays. The route thus marks the boundaries of sacred space and area within which who die are granted ‘liberation’ by Shiva.

175

References Eck, Diana. Banaras, City of Light. Alfred Knopf, 1982.

Dodson, Michael (ed.) Banaras: Urban Forms and Cultural Histories. Routledge, 2012.

Gaenszle, Martin(ed.) Visualizing space in Banaras, Harrassowitz Verlag, 2006 Parry, Jonathan. Death in Banaras. Cambridge University Press, 1994.

Gutschow, Niels. Benaras: The Sacred Landscape of Varanasi. Axel Menges, 2006.

Singh, Rana P.B. (ed.). Banaras (Varanasi): Cosmic Order, Sacred City, Hindu Traditions. Tara Book Agency, 1993.

Lannoy, Richard. Benaras Seen from Within. Indica Books, 1999.

Central Pollution Control Board India, “ Pollution assessment in river Ganga”; 2013.

Consortium of 7indian IITs , “Ganga river Basin management plan”; 2015.

Hartmann, Gunnar, “Redesign”; 2016

177

I Dessau International Architecture School Anhalt University Department 3 Š 2016