English handbook ap lang edition

2017-18 ENGLISH HANDBOOK | AP Edition

MCINTOSH HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH PEACHTREE CITY, GA 0

TABLE OF CONTENTS Section 1 | Writing...................................................................................................................................................7 Types of writing..................................................................................................................................................7 Expository Essay.............................................................................................................................................7 Literary Analysis..............................................................................................................................................7 Rhetorical Analysis..........................................................................................................................................7 Persuasive Essay.............................................................................................................................................7 Argumentative Essay......................................................................................................................................7 Narrative Writing............................................................................................................................................7 Multimodal Composition.................................................................................................................................7 Modes of Discourse............................................................................................................................................8 Description.....................................................................................................................................................8 Narration........................................................................................................................................................9 Exemplification.............................................................................................................................................10 Analysis........................................................................................................................................................10 Argument and Persuasion.............................................................................................................................12 Classification.................................................................................................................................................14 Process Analysis............................................................................................................................................15 Comparison/Contrast....................................................................................................................................17 Definition......................................................................................................................................................18 Cause and Effect...........................................................................................................................................19 PATTERNS OF ORGANIZATION AND THEIR CUE WORDS................................................................................21 KEY TERMS USED IN ESSAY QUESTIONS........................................................................................................22 Rhetorical Précis Format...................................................................................................................................23 Rhetorical Précis Frame................................................................................................................................23 Précis Examples............................................................................................................................................24 The Synthesis Essay.............................................................................................................................................26 What does the synthesis essay require of me?..................................................................................................26 What kinds of essays can I expect to write?.......................................................................................................26 How do I decipher the prompt?.........................................................................................................................26 How do I read and annotate the sources?.........................................................................................................26 How do I decide which sources to use?..............................................................................................................27 How do I plan my essay?...................................................................................................................................27 1

What should my opening include?.....................................................................................................................27 What should the body of the essay include?......................................................................................................27 How do I conclude my essay?............................................................................................................................28 What are some things I need to keep in mind as I write?...................................................................................28 How do I pace myself?......................................................................................................................................28 The Analysis Essay................................................................................................................................................28 What does the analysis essay require of me?....................................................................................................28 What kinds of questions can I expect?...............................................................................................................29 How do I DECONSTRUCT the prompt?.............................................................................................................29 How do I read and annotate the text?...............................................................................................................30 How do I plan my essay?...................................................................................................................................30 What should my opening include?....................................................................................................................30 What should the body of the essay include?......................................................................................................30 How do I conclude my essay?............................................................................................................................31 What are some things I need to keep in mind as I write?....................................................................................31 How do I pace myself?.......................................................................................................................................31 The Argument Essay.............................................................................................................................................33 What does the argumentative essay require of me?..........................................................................................33 How do I decipher the prompt?.........................................................................................................................33 How do I respond to the excerpt or statement?.................................................................................................33 How do I know which position to take?.............................................................................................................33 How do I support my position?..........................................................................................................................34 What should my opening include?....................................................................................................................34 What should the body of the essay include?......................................................................................................34 How do I conclude my essay?............................................................................................................................34 What are some things I need to keep in mind as I write?....................................................................................34 How do I pace myself?......................................................................................................................................35 Writing a Timed Essay.......................................................................................................................................36 BEFORE........................................................................................................................................................36 Preview, Pick, and Prepare.......................................................................................................................36 Plan..............................................................................................................................................................36 DURING.....................................................................................................................................................36 AFTER...........................................................................................................................................................37 Troubleshooting............................................................................................................................................37 2

Timed Writing Introductions.........................................................................................................................38 Writing Strong Opening Paragraphs in AP Language & Comp...........................................................................39 THIS READER’S OBSERVATIONS:................................................................................................................39 WHAT DOES NOT WORK WELL:...................................................................................................................39 WHAT DOES WORK WELL:...........................................................................................................................39 Sample Introductions high scoring AP Essays...................................................................................................40 Example 1 from a synthesis on public libraries..............................................................................................40 Example 2 from a synthesis on the disadvantage of being monolingual in a global economy........................40 Example 3 from an analysis of the introductory remarks to speech by journalist Clare Boothe Luce to fellow reporters on sensationalism in newspapers...................................................................................................40 Example 4 from an analysis of British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher’s eulogy for President Ronald Reagan..........................................................................................................................................................41 Example 5 from an argument about the role of artifice* in politics and consumer culture.............................41 Writing Body Paragraphs for AP Argument and Synthesis Essays..................................................................41 Missteps on the Road to “Mature Academic Style”...........................................................................................46 Special Detractors from “Mature Academic Voice”........................................................................................46 So what is the successful AP student writer to do?........................................................................................48 Writing Conclusions..........................................................................................................................................49 Tone words.......................................................................................................................................................60 CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE WRITING....................................................................................................77 Writing vocabulary............................................................................................................................................81 Five Types of Claims........................................................................................................................................82 Claims of Fact...............................................................................................................................................82 Claims of Definition......................................................................................................................................82 Claims of Cause.............................................................................................................................................82 Claims of Value.............................................................................................................................................82 Claims of Policy.............................................................................................................................................82 Sample Claims..................................................................................................................................................83 Claim Sentences...............................................................................................................................................84 Supporting a Claim.......................................................................................................................................84 Make your Claim Specific..............................................................................................................................86 Types of Thesis Statements..............................................................................................................................88 Closed Thesis Statement...............................................................................................................................88 Open Thesis Statement................................................................................................................................88 3

Counterargument Thesis Statement.............................................................................................................88 Section 2 | Grammar, Usage, and Punctuation......................................................................................................89 Common Writing Errors....................................................................................................................................89 COMMONLY CONFUSED WORDS....................................................................................................................91 CONFUSING CONTRACTIONS.....................................................................................................................91 ONE-WORD OR TWO-WORD PAIRS.............................................................................................................91 WORDS WITH SIMILAR SPELLINGS.............................................................................................................91 OTHER CONFUSABLES................................................................................................................................91 SIMILAR-SOUNDING WORDS (AKA HOMONYMS)......................................................................................92 Guide to Formal Academic Voice......................................................................................................................94 Using Formal Voice: An Overused Word FUNeral..............................................................................................98 Zero Tolerance Errors......................................................................................................................................100 The Twenty Sentence Patterns........................................................................................................................102 COMPOUND CONSTRUCTIONS.................................................................................................................102 SENTENCES WITH SERIES..........................................................................................................................102 REPETITIONS..............................................................................................................................................103 MODIFIERS.................................................................................................................................................104 INVERSIONS...............................................................................................................................................105 ASSORTMENT OF PATTERNS....................................................................................................................105 Basic Punctuation Rules..................................................................................................................................108 Commas.....................................................................................................................................................108 End of Sentence Punctuation......................................................................................................................108 Periods........................................................................................................................................................108 Exclamation Points.....................................................................................................................................108 Semicolons.................................................................................................................................................109 Colons.........................................................................................................................................................109 Hyphens......................................................................................................................................................109 MORE ABOUT COMMAS................................................................................................................................110 Compound Sentences.................................................................................................................................110 Series..........................................................................................................................................................110 Introductory Dependent Clause...................................................................................................................110 Sentence-Ending Clauses............................................................................................................................110 Introductory Verb Phrases (Infinitival and Participial)...................................................................................110 Introductory Prepositional Phrases..............................................................................................................111 4

Other sentence modifiers............................................................................................................................111 Nonrestrictive elements..............................................................................................................................112 Coordinate Adjectives.................................................................................................................................112 Nouns of Direct Address..............................................................................................................................112 Direct Quotations........................................................................................................................................112 State and Year.............................................................................................................................................113 Punctuating Titles...........................................................................................................................................114 Section 3 | Integrating and Documenting Quotations......................................................................................117 Differences in Quoting, Paraphrasing and Summarizing..................................................................................117 Transitions to Incorporate Quotations Into Paragraphs...................................................................................119 Integrating Quotes Smoothly Into Texts..........................................................................................................121 Fayette County Schools Plagiarism and Academic Dishonesty Statement (9-12).............................................122 Section 4 | Reading Analytically........................................................................................................................123 B-H-H Reading................................................................................................................................................123 Preparing to Discuss a Text.............................................................................................................................124 Guidelines for Socratic Seminars.....................................................................................................................125 Basic Setup of the Socratic Seminar............................................................................................................125 Guidelines for Participants in a Socratic Seminar.........................................................................................125 Expectations of Participants in a Socratic Seminar......................................................................................126 Dialogue versus Debate..............................................................................................................................126 Socratic Seminar Rubric for Individual Participants......................................................................................127 ....................................................................................................................................................................127 SOAPSTONE—An Acronym for Analyzing Texts for Point of View..................................................................128 Simple Guide to Text Annotation.....................................................................................................................129 How should I annotate?...................................................................................................................................130 SAMPLE ANNOTATION..................................................................................................................................131 A GLOSSARY OF LITERARY TERMS..............................................................................................................132 LITERARY DEVICES......................................................................................................................................132 LITERARY FORMS......................................................................................................................................133 LITERARY ELEMENTS...............................................................................................................................133 ADDITIONAL VOCABULARY......................................................................................................................134 Section 5 |Rubrics...............................................................................................................................................135 Four Point Holistic Rubric Genre: Narrative......................................................................................................135 Fayette County Seven Point Two-Trait Rubric..................................................................................................136 5

Informational/Explanatory Genre....................................................................................................................136 Fayette County Seven Point Two-Trait Rubric..................................................................................................138 Argumentative Genre......................................................................................................................................138 AP English Language and Composition Rubrics...................................................................................................141 Think Piece Assessment..................................................................................................................................141 Nine-Point Rubric............................................................................................................................................141 Grading Scale..............................................................................................................................................143 Practice Multiple Choice Grading Scale...........................................................................................................144 Summative Multiple Choice Grading Scale......................................................................................................145 Multiple Choice Full Test Score Guide..............................................................................................................145 Section 6 | Graphic organizers...........................................................................................................................147 outline.............................................................................................................................................................147 ESSAY ORGANIZER.......................................................................................................................................149 Audience Analysis...........................................................................................................................................152 Purpose Analysis.............................................................................................................................................154 Ethos Analysis.................................................................................................................................................156 Pathos Analysis...............................................................................................................................................158 Logos Analysis................................................................................................................................................160 Kairos Analysis................................................................................................................................................162

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SECTION 1 | WRITING TYPES OF WRITING EXPOSITORY ESSAY A genre of essay that requires the writer to explore a concept or idea and present his or her conclusions in an unbiased fashion. It is an explanatory essay that enables the reader to understand new information. This genre includes cause/effect, informative, compare/contrast, defining a concept, and problem/solution.

LITERARY ANALYSIS The purpose of analysis is to practice looking closely at small parts of a piece of literature to determine how they affect the whole. Literary analysis focuses on how plot, structure, character, setting, and other literary techniques are used by an author to create meaning. In a literary analysis essay, a writer uses evidence from within the text to convey a unique interpretation of that text.

RHETORICAL ANALYSIS A rhetorical analysis requires you to apply your critical reading skills in order to “break down” a text. In essence, a writer breaks off the “parts” from the “whole” of the piece being analyzed. The goal of a rhetorical analysis is to articulate HOW the author writes in order to achieve his or her goal or purpose of writing their piece.

PERSUASIVE ESSAY The purpose of persuasive writing is to give an opinion and to influence the reader's way of thinking with supporting evidence. This is usually done through emotional appeals, logic with presentation of evidence, establishing credibility as an author, and using a strongly biased voice.

ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY An argumentative essay uses reasoning, logic, and evidence—not emotion—to take a definitive stand on a controversial or debatable issue. The essay explores two sides of a topic and proves why one side or position is the best.

NARRATIVE WRITING A narrative may be fiction containing a fabricated story line, or it may be non-fiction, based on events that really happened. We use narrative writing frequently in our daily lives whether it is documenting a special event (a first school dance) or chronicling a trip or vacation (Close-Up trip to D.C.). Use vivid details and show me; don’t tell me.

MULTIMODAL COMPOSITION Essays often constructed using digital technology that combine written text with audio, image, gesture, and spatial relationships in designing products. Multimodal refers to the combination of two or more modes—a slide show that incorporates music, a podcast that combines text and audio, a documentary that combines visual, text, and audio.

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MODES OF DISCOURSE DESCRIPTION Mode

Key Question That Provides Structure

Description: A rhetorical strategy using sensory details to portray a person, place, or thing.

From In Cold Blood by Truman Capote

How does this person, place, thing, or event look, smell, taste, feel, and/or sound?

The distance between Olathe, a suburb of Kansas, and Holcomb, which might be called a suburb of Garden City, is approximately four hundred miles.

A town of eleven thousand, Garden City began assembling its founders soon after the Civil War. An itinerant buffalo hunter, Mr. C.J. (Buffalo) Jones, had much to do with its subsequent expansion from a collection of huts and hitching posts into an opulent ranching center with razzle-dazzle saloons, an opera house, and the plushiest hotel anywhere between Kansas City and Denver--in brief, a specimen of frontier fanciness that rivaled a more famous settlement fifty miles east of it, Dodge City. Along with Buffalo Jones, who lost his money and then his mind (the last years of his life were spent haranguing street groups against the wanton extermination of the beasts he himself had so profitably slaughtered), the glamours of the past are today entombed. Some souvenirs exist; a moderately colorful row of commercial buildings is known as the Buffalo Block, and the once splendid Windsor Hotel, with its still splendid high-ceilinged saloon and its atmosphere of spittoons and potted palms, endures amid the variety stores and supermarkets as a Main Street landmark--one comparatively unpatronized, for the Windsor's dark, huge chambers and echoing hallways, evocative as they are, cannot compete with the air-conditioned amenities offered at the trim little Hotel Warren, or with the Wheat Lands Motel's individual television sets and "Heated Swimming Pool."

Anyone who has made the coast-to-coast journey across America, whether by train or by car, has probably passed through Garden City, but it is reasonable to assume that few travelers remember the event. It seems just another fair-sized town in the middle--almost the exact middle--of the continental United States. Not that the inhabitants would tolerate such an opinion--perhaps rightly. Though they may overstate the case ("Look all over the world, and you won't find friendlier people or fresher air or sweeter drinking water," and "I could go to Denver at triple the salary, but I've got five kids, and I figure there's no better place to raise kids than right here. Swell schools with every kind of sport. We even have a junior college," and "I came out here to practice law. A temporary thing, I never planned to stay. But when the chance came to move, I thought, Why go?

What the hell for? Maybe it's not New York--but who wants New York? Good neighbors, people who care about each other, that's what counts. And everything else a decent man needs--we've got that, too. Beautiful churches. A golf course"), the newcomer to Garden City, once he has adjusted to the nightly after-eight silence of Main Street, discovers much to support the defensive boastings of the citizenry: a well-run public library, a competent daily newspaper, green-lawned and shady squares here and there, placid residential streets where animals and children are safe to run free, a big, rambling park complete with a small menagerie ("See the Polar Bears!" "See Penny the Elephant!"), and a swimming pool that consumes several acres ("World's Largest FREE Swimpool!"). Such accessories, and the dust and the winds and the ever-calling train whistles, add up to a "home town" that is probably remembered with nostalgia by those who have left it, and that, for 8

those who have remained, provides a sense of roots and contentment.

NARRATION Mode

Key Question That Provides Structure

Narration: the process of giving an account of a sequence of events, real or imagined; storytelling.

What happens next?

From The Story of an Eyewitness: The San Francisco Earthquake by Jack London The earthquake shook down in San Francisco hundreds of thousands of dollars’ worth of walls and chimneys. But the conflagration that followed burned up hundreds of millions of dollars' worth of property. There is no estimating within hundreds of millions the actual damage wrought. Not in history has a modern imperial city been so completely destroyed. San Francisco is gone. Nothing remains of it but memories and a fringe of dwelling-houses on its outskirts. Its industrial section is wiped out. Its business section is wiped out. Its social and residential section is wiped out. The factories and warehouses, the great stores and newspaper buildings, the hotels and the palaces of the nabobs, are all gone. Remains only the fringe of dwelling houses on the outskirts of what was once San Francisco.

Within an hour after the earthquake shock the smoke of San Francisco's burning was a lurid tower visible a hundred miles away. And for three days and nights this lurid tower swayed in the sky, reddening the sun, darkening the day, and filling the land with smoke.

On Wednesday morning at a quarter past five came the earthquake. A minute later the flames were leaping upward. In a dozen different quarters south of Market Street, in the working-class ghetto, and in the factories, fires started. There was no opposing the flames. There was no organization, no communication. All the cunning adjustments of a twentieth century city had been smashed by the earthquake. The streets were humped into ridges and depressions, and piled with the debris of fallen walls. The steel rails were twisted into perpendicular and horizontal angles. The telephone and telegraph systems were disrupted. And the great watermains had burst. All the shrewd contrivances and safeguards of man had been thrown out of gear by thirty seconds' twitching of the earth-crust.

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EXEMPLIFICATION Mode

Key Question That Provides Structure

Exemplification: A method of paragraph or essay development by which a writer clarifies, explains, or justifies a point through narrative or informative details. Related to: example (rhetoric).

How is the general made specific and the abstract made concrete?

"The best way to reveal a problem, phenomenon, or social circumstance," says William Ruehlmann, "is to illustrate it with a single, specific instance" (Stalking the Feature Story, 1978). from "Watching Out for Loaded Words"*by Frank Trippett (1926-1998) Words can be impregnated with feeling by oversimplification. People who oppose all abortions distort the position of those favoring freedom of private choice by calling them proabortion. And many a progressive or idealist has experienced the perplexity of defending himself against one of the most peculiar of all disparaging terms, do-gooder. By usage in special contexts, the most improbable words can be infused with extraneous meaning. To speak of the "truly needy" as the Administration habitually does is gradually to plant the notion that the unmodified needy are falsely so. Movie Critic Vincent Canby has noticed that the word film has become imbued with a good deal of snootiness that is not to be found in the word movie. Moderate is highly susceptible to coloring in many different ways, always by the fervid partisans of some cause: Adlai Stevenson, once accused of being too moderate on civil rights, wondered whether anyone wished him to be, instead, immoderate. * "Watching Out for Loaded Words," by Frank Trippett, was first published in Time magazine, May 24, 1982.

ANALYSIS Mode

Key Question That Provides Structure

Analysis:

How do the elements of this thing or event fit together to form the whole?

A form of expository writing in which the writer separates a subject into its elements or parts.

Plural: analyses. Also called: division “Look at Your Fish� by Samuel Hubbard Scudder

It was more than fifteen years ago that I entered the laboratory of Professor Agassiz, and told him I had enrolled my name in the scientific school as a student of natural history. He asked me

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a few questions about my object in coming, my antecedents generally, the mode in which I afterwards proposed to use the knowledge I might acquire, and finally, whether I wished to study any special branch. To the latter I replied that while I wished to be well grounded in all departments of zoology, I purposed to devote myself specially to insects.

"When do you wish to begin?" he asked. "Now," I replied.

This seemed to please him, and with an energetic "Very well," he reached from a shelf a huge jar of specimens in yellow alcohol.

"Take this fish," said he, "and look at it; we call it a haemulon; by and by I will ask what you have seen."

With that he left me, but in a moment returned with explicit instructions as to the care of the object entrusted to me.

"No man is fit to be a naturalist," said he, "who does not know how to take care of specimens."

I was to keep the fish before me in a tin tray, and occasionally moisten the surface with alcohol from the jar, always taking care to replace the stopper tightly. Those were not the days of ground glass stoppers, and elegantly shaped exhibition jars; all the old students will recall the huge, neckless glass bottles with their leaky, wax-besmeared corks, half eaten by insects and begrimed with cellar dust. Entomology was a cleaner science than ichthyology, but the example of the professor, who had unhesitatingly plunged to the bottom of the jar to produce the fish, was infectious; and though this alcohol had "a very ancient and fish-like smell," I really dared not show any aversion within these sacred precincts, and treated the alcohol as though it were pure water. Still I was conscious of a passing feeling of disappointment, for gazing at a fish did not commend itself to an ardent entomologist. My friends at home, too, were annoyed, when they discovered that no eau de cologne would drown the perfume which haunted me like a shadow. In ten minutes I had seen all that could be seen in that fish, and started in search of the professor, who had however left the museum; and when I returned, after lingering over some of the odd animals stored in the upper apartment, my specimen was dry all over. I dashed the fluid over the fish as if to resuscitate the beast from a fainting fit, and looked with anxiety for a return of the normal, sloppy appearance. This little excitement over, nothing was to be done but return to a steadfast gaze at my mute companion. Half an hour passed--an hour-another hour; the fish began to look loathsome. I turned it over and around; looked it in the face--ghastly; from behind, beneath, above, sideways, at a three-quarters view--just as ghastly. I was in despair; at an early our I concluded that lunch was necessary; so, with infinite relief, the fish was carefully replaced in the jar, and for an hour I was free.

On my return, I learned that Professor Agassiz had been at the museum, but had gone and would not return for several hours. My fellow-students were too busy to be disturbed by continued conversation. Slowly I drew forth that hideous fish, and with a feeling of desperation again looked at it. I might not use a magnifying glass; instruments of all kinds were interdicted. My two hands, my two eyes, and the fish: it seemed a most limited field. I pushed my finger down its throat to feel how sharp the teeth were. I began to count the scales in the different rows until I was convinced that that was nonsense. At last a happy thought struck me--I would draw the fish; and now with surprise I began to discover new features in the creature. Just then the professor returned.

"That is right," said he; "a pencil is one of the best of eyes. I am glad to notice, too, that you

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keep your specimen wet, and your bottle corked."

With these encouraging words, he added, "Well, what is it like?"

He listened attentively to my brief rehearsal of the structure of parts whose names were still unknown to me; the fringed gill-arches and movable operculum; the pores of the head, fleshy lips and lidless eyes; the lateral line, the spinous fins, and forked tail; the compressed and arched body. When I had finished, he waited as if expecting more, and then, with an air of disappointment: "You have not looked very carefully; why," he continued, more earnestly, "you haven't even see one of the most conspicuous features of the animal, which is as plainly before your eyes as the fish itself; look again, look again!" and he left me to my misery.

I was piqued; I was mortified. Still more of that wretched fish! But now I set myself to my task with a will, and discovered one new thing after another, until I saw how just the professor's criticism had been. The afternoon passed quickly, and when, towards its close, the professor inquired: "Do you see it yet?"

ARGUMENT AND PERSUASION Mode

Key Question That Provides Structure

Argument and Persuasion: A course of reasoning aimed at demonstrating truth or falsehood. Argument is one of the traditional modes of discourse. Adjective: argumentative.

The use of appeals to reasons, values, beliefs, and emotions to convince a listener or reader to think or act in a particular way. Adjective:

Why do you believe that?

persuasive.

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“Time for an Anthem the Country Can Sing� by Shelby Wilson The music was composed as a drinking song for an 18th-century London social club. The words were written in 1814 by Francis Scott Key to commemorate a battle. And on March 3, 1931, "The StarSpangled Banner" officially became the national anthem of the United States. Ever since then, people have been complaining that the tune is unsingable and the lyrics are offensive. In response to these complaints, a bill was recently filed in Congress to replace "The Star-Spangled Banner" with "America the Beautiful" as our national anthem. For a number of reasons, this bill deserves wide support.

"The Star-Spangled Banner" can be as painful to listen to as it is difficult to sing. Even professional singers have difficulty with its 12-note span, rumbling at "Oh! say, can you see" and screeching at "the rockets' red glare." In a way, however, such rumbles and screeches are fitting, for the lyrics are bloody, confusing, and war-stained. Does anyone really believe that red rockets and bursting bombs express the true spirit of America? And all that talk of of "the foe's haughty host," 'the gloom of the grave," and "the war's desolation" is far from being rousing and inspirational.

Over the years, other songs have been recommended as replacements, but most of these are just as inappropriate as the present anthem. "The Battle Hymn of the Republic," for instance, is also a war tune, and John Philip Sousa's stirring march "The Stars and Stripes Forever" has no lyrics at all. "My Country 'Tis of Thee" is sweet and dignified, but the music belongs to the British national anthem, "God Save the Queen." And finally, among recent contenders, Bruce Springsteen's "Born in the U.S.A." has a terrific beat, but its lyrics are better suited to a requiem than to an anthem. Just imagine how disconcerting it would be to start a ball game with the line, "You end up like a dog that's been beat too much."

Clearly, "America the Beautiful" deserves to be our national anthem. For years now, it has been gaining popularity in school assemblies, at official state functions, and even in our ball parks. The music is simple, dignified, and--most important--easy to sing. The lyrics celebrate our history ("O beautiful for pilgrim feet . . ."), our land ("For purple mountain majesties above the fruited plain"), our heroes ("Who more than self their country loved"), and our future ("That sees beyond the years"). It is proud but not warlike, idealistic without sounding silly.

Oh! say, it's time "The Star-Spangled Banner" was put to rest. Surely our flag will continue to wave "O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave" without benefit of this windy tune. Let us have a national anthem that the whole country can sing. Let us sing, with pride, "America the Beautiful."

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CLASSIFICATION Mode

Key Question That Provides Structure

Classification: A method of paragraph or essay development in which a writer arranges people, objects, or ideas with shared characteristics into classes or groups. A classification essay often includes examples and other supporting details that are organized according to types, kinds,

How are things in this group like each other and different from things in similar groups?

segments, categories, or parts of a whole. “The Man Who Interrupts� by Bill Nye I do not, as a rule, thirst for the blood of my fellow-man. I am willing that the law should in all ordinary cases take its course, but when we begin to discuss the man who breaks into a conversation and ruins it with his own irrelevant ideas, regardless of the feelings of humanity, I am not a law and order man. The spirit of the "Red Vigilanter" is roused in my breast and I hunger for the blood of that man.

Interrupters are of two classes: First, the common plug who thinks aloud, and whose conversation wanders with his so-called mind. He breaks into the saddest and sweetest of sentiment, and the choicest and most tearful of pathos, with the remorseless ignorance that marks a stump-tail cow in a dahlia bed. He is the bull in my china shop, the wormwood in my wine, and the kerosene in my maple syrup. I am shy in conversation, and my unfettered flights of poesy and sentiment are rare, but this man is always near to mar it all with a remark, or a marginal note, or a story or a bit of politics, ready to bust my beautiful dream and make me wish that his name might be carved on a marble slab in some quiet cemetery, far away.

Dear reader, did you ever meet this man--or his wife? Did you ever strike some beautiful thought and begin to reel it off to your friends only to be shut off in the middle of a sentence by this choice and banner idiot of conversation? If, so, come and sit by me, and you may pour your woes into my ear, and I in turn will pour a few gallons into your listening ear.

I do not care to talk more than my share of the time, but I would be glad to arrive at a conclusion just to see how it would seem. I would be so pleased and so joyous to follow up an anecdote till I had reached the "nub," as it were, to chase argument home to conviction, and to clinch assertion with authority and evidence.

The second class of interrupters is even worse. It consists of the man--and, I am pained to state, his wife also--who see the general drift of your remarks and finish out your story, your gem of thought or your argument. It is very seldom that they do this as you would do it yourself, but they are kind and thoughtful and their services are always at hand. No matter how busy they may be, they will leave their own work and fly to your aid. With the light of sympathy in their eyes, they rush into the conversation, and, partaking of your own zeal, they take the words from your mouth, and cheerfully suck the juice out of your joke, handing back the rind and hoping for reward. That is where they get left, so far as I am concerned. I am almost always ready to repay rudeness with rudeness, and cold preserved gall with such acrid sarcasm as I may be able to

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secure at the moment. No one will ever know how I yearn for the blood of the interrupter. At night I camp on his trail, and all the day I thirst for his warm life's current. In my dreams I am cutting his scalp loose with a case-knife, while my fingers are twined in his clustering hair. I walk over him and promenade across his abdomen as I slumber. I hear his ribs crack, and I see his tongue hang over his shoulder as he smiles death's mirthful smile.

I do not interrupt a man no more than I would tell him he lied. I give him a chance to win applause or decomposed eggs from the audience, according to what he has to say, and according to the profundity of his profund. All I want is a similar chance and room according to my strength. Common decency ought to govern conversation without its being necessary to hire an umpire armed with a four-foot club, to announce who is at the bat and who is on deck.

It is only once in a week or two that the angel troubles the waters and stirs up the depths of my conversational powers, and then the chances are that some leprous old nasty toad who has been hanging on the brink of decent society for two weeks, slides in with a low kerplunk, and my fair blossom of thought that has been trying for weeks to bloom, withers and goes to seed, while the man with the chilled steel and copper-riveted brow, and a wad of self-esteem on his intellectual balcony as big as an inkstand, walks slowly away to think of some other dazzling gem, and thus be ready to bust my beautiful phantom, and tear out my high-priced bulbs of fancy the next time I open my mouth.

PROCESS ANALYSIS Mode

Key Question That Provides Structure

Process Analysis: A method of paragraph or essay development by which a writer explains step by step how something is done or how to do something.

How do I do this, or how does this thing work?

Process analysis writing can take one of two forms: (1) it can provide information about how something works (informative) or (2) it can explain how to do something (directive).

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from Catch-22 by Joseph Heller All the officer patients in the ward were forced to censor letters written by all the enlisted-men patients, who were kept in residence in wards of their own. It was a monotonous job, and Yossarian was disappointed to learn that the lives of enlisted men were only slightly more interesting than the lives of officers. After the first day he had no curiosity at all. To break the monotony he invented games. Death to all modifiers, he declared one day, and out of every letter that passed through his hands went every adverb and every adjective. The next day he made war on articles. He reached a much higher plane of creativity the following day when he blacked out everything in the letters but a, an and the. That erected more dynamic intralinear tensions, he felt, and in just about every case left a message far more universal. Soon he was proscribing parts of salutations and signatures and leaving the text untouched. One time he blacked out all but the salutation "Dear Mary" from a letter, and at the bottom he wrote, "I yearn for you tragically. A. T. Tappman, Chaplain, U.S. Army." A. T. Tappman was the group chaplain's name.

When he had exhausted all possibilities in the letters, he began attacking the names and addresses on the envelopes, obliterating whole homes and streets, annihilating entire metropolises with careless flicks of his wrist as though he were God. Catch-22 required that each censored letter bear the censoring officer's name. Most letters he didn't read at all. On those he didn't read at all he wrote his own name. On those he did read he wrote, "Washington Irving."

When that grew monotonous he wrote, "Irving Washington." Censoring the envelopes had serious repercussions, produced a ripple of anxiety on some ethereal military echelon that floated a C.I.D. man back into the ward posing as a patient. They all knew he was a C.I.D. man because he kept inquiring about an officer named Irving or Washington and because after his first day there he wouldn't censor letters. He found them too monotonous.

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COMPARISON/CONTRAST Mode

Key Question That Provides Structure

Comparison/Contrast

How are these things alike or different from one another?

A rhetorical strategy and method of organization in which a writer examines similarities and/or differences between twopeople, places, ideas, or things.

Watching Baseball, Playing Softball by Lubby Juggins

We watch baseball: it's what we have always imagined life should be like. We play softball. It's sloppy--the way life really is. I figured that out a long time ago, on a soft summer evening when I was 13 years old and dying of embarrassment in center field as our opponents touched us up for 17 runs in the top half of the first inning. Now, beer in fist, gaping at a blank TV screen as I wait for the first major league game of the season, I'm trying to define just what it is I'm waiting for.

Baseball, we know, is precise, ceremonial. It's a world bounded by foul lines, marked by fixed positions. The playing field is neatly geometric, while the game itself is a linear equation of batters retired and runs batted in. It begins with a song nobody can sing, and it ends with hoarse whispers of "Maybe next year." The story of baseball is like some ancient Greek myth: meet the enemy head on, tour the bases, and eventually head back home, there to be greeted by friends who suddenly recall how much they have missed you. That's baseball.

Now softball is something different. For one thing we play wherever we can, usually on golden fields of dog patties and shattered glass, bounded by city streets and factory parking lots. We start by choosing sides, arguing over who's to be stuck with Artie Magaffe, gimlet-eyed and gimpy, and what we're going to use for home plate. We play until we get too rowdy or the kids drag us home or we lose the ball somewhere between a dumpster and a security fence. And whenever some complacent fool reminds us, "It's only a game, fellas," we come close to lopping his head off because, of course, we know it's a game. Why else would we take it so seriously?

We watch baseball and imagine what it would be like to have the power of Manny, Big Papi, and Johnny D. We play softball and remember that really we're more like Larry, Curly, and Moe. In baseball men are Giants--and Pirates and Tigers and Braves. In softball, at best, we're lug wrenches and nuts in Warren's Electric & Hardware. Or, more often, we're just beer-bellied slobs in Disney World t-shirts and Hooters caps. And while we imagine grandstands thundering with fans, all we've got is a runny-nosed wino chasing unicorns in the outfield, and Sammy's poor wife, squatting on the hood of their Honda, reading Harold Robbins and picking her teeth.

Yet now, as I sit here glaring at the TV, I remember what it is we're all waiting for. That's why I get up, wheezing slightly, go to the closet and root out a stiff old glove signed by Nomar Garciaparra. The laces are missing and all the padding has been squeezed out through a hole in the thumb. I follow my belly across a schoolyard diamond--jackets for bases, a Frisbee for home plate--and I wander out to center field. In front of me a gaggle of obsolete children in middle-age are shagging, groaning, slapping their haunches, hollering "Way to go! Way to go!" I crouch down with my hands on my knees and I wait. I wait for a lopsided ball to come skidding or spinning or bounding my way. And, asever, I will spend the afternoon fumbling and bobbling and falling flat on my can. I play softball.

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DEFINITION Mode

Key Question That Provides Structure

Definition: In a paragraph or essay, an explanation and/or illustration of a word, thing,

What names will be assigned to any one item (or the various items) in the groups which I

or concept

have identified?

“A Jerk� by Sidney J. Harris I don't know whether history repeats itself, but biography certainly does. The other day, Michael came in and asked me what a "jerk" was--the same question Carolyn put to me a dozen years ago, At that time, I fluffed her off with some inane answer, such as, "A jerk isn't a very nice person," but both of us knew it was an unsatisfactory reply. When she went to bed, I began trying to work up a suitable definition.

It is a marvelously apt word, of course. Until it was coined, there was really no single word in English to describe the kind of person who is a jerk--"boob" and "simp" were too old hat, and besides they really didn’t fit, for they could be lovable, and a jerk never is.

Thinking it over, I decided that a jerk is basically a person without insight. He is not necessarily a fool or a dope, because some extremely clever persons can be jerks. In fact, it has little to do with intelligence as we commonly think of it; it is, rather, a kind of subtle but persuasive aroma emanating from the inner part of the personality.

I know a college president who can be described only as a jerk. He is not an unintelligent man, nor unlearned, nor even unschooled in the social amenities. Yet he is a jerk cum laude, because of a fatal flaw in his nature--he is totally incapable of looking into the mirror of his soul and shuddering at what he sees there.

A jerk, then, is a man (or woman) who is utterly unable to see himself as he appears to others.

He has no grace, he is tactless without meaning to be, he is a bore even to his best friends, he is an egotist without charm. All of us are egotists to some extent, but most of us--unlike the jerk-are perfectly and horribly aware of it when we make asses of ourselves. The jerk never knows.

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CAUSE AND EFFECT Mode

Key Question That Provides Structure

Cause and Effect: A method of paragraph or essay development in which a writer analyzes the reasons for--and/or the consequences of--

How does one of these things come from or lead to the other?

an action, event, or decision.

Learning to Hate Mathematics by Anne Miller I started to dread arithmetic back in the third grade because I didn't want to memorize the multiplication tables. Unlike learning how to read, studying math seemed to have no purpose other than to give me massive headaches and shattered nerves. The alphabet was a wonderful code that, when deciphered, entertained me with stories and revealed all kinds of secrets about the world. Multiplication tables, on the other hand, just told me how much six times nine was.

There was no joy in knowing that. Although even in third grade I understood that I shared with many other students a terrible fear and hatred of mathematics, I drew little comfort from that fact. Since then, I have struggled with math for a number of reasons.

I especially began to hate math when Sister Celine forced us to participate in her sadistic counting contests. Having ordered us to stand in rows, side by side, this jolly nun would shout problems at us: "Forty-eight divided by three? . . . Nine times twelve? . . . Three times eight divided by two?" The students who called out the correct answers fastest would win; those of us who answered wrong or not at all would have to sit down. To be honest, losing never bothered me that much. Rather, it was that feeling in the pit of my stomach before and right after she called out the numbers. You know, that awful math feeling. Not only did mathematics seem irrelevant and dull, it also became forever associated in my mind with speed and competition.

During the counting contests, I would deliberately give an incorrect answer early on so that I could escape the game quickly.

As I grew older, math grew worse, like a persistent headache that makes you want to scream to relieve the pain. Negative numbers, I thought, were simply insane. You either have some or none, I figured--not negative some. Patiently, my older brother would try to talk me through the steps when helping me with my homework. Oh, eventually I would puzzle things out (long after the rest of the class had moved on to something else), but I never understood the point of the game. My teachers were always too busy droning out formulas to explain how and why any of these calculations mattered. Who on earth cared about determining the departure times of trains or figuring how long it would take Arthur to walk to the playground? Constantly frustrated by the sheer meaninglessness of it all, I even grew to hate the people and places mentioned in word problems: I imagined trains crashing in the dead of night and little Arthur becoming hopelessly lost on his way home from the playground.

After years of hating math and only barely passing my classes, I started to compound my difficulties in high school by skipping homework. With geometry, of course, that means death. My teachers would punish me by making me stay after school to do--what else?-more math problems. In anger and frustration, I broke pencils and tore paper as I dutifully 19

filled page after page with utterly meaningless calculations. Not surprisingly, I came to associate math with nothing more nor less than pain and heartless punishment. In my recurring nightmares, my head was fractured by fractions and crushed by multiplication signs.

Though I'm through with math classes now and carry a calculator in my purse, math still has a way of making me queasy. It's not that I can't do the math; it's just that it is math.

Recently, however, a strange thing thing has happened. On a whim the other day, I bought a book called Mathematics for People Who Hate Math, and even though parts of it seem to have been written in a foreign language, I've actually been enjoying the book. In architecture and engineering, in physics and electronics, even in art and music, mathematics does have a purpose and a meaning. Like the letters of the alphabet, numerical signs can tell stories and reveal secrets about the world. Now, without sadistic teachers conducting drills or staging competitions, I think I might even enjoy learning more about math--on my own terms, at my own pace. But don't you dare throw any problems at me when I'm not looking, because I still get that feeling in my stomach sometimes.

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PATTERNS OF ORGANIZATION AND THEIR CUE WORDS Time Order

Discussion of events or ideas in relation to passing time

Simple Listing-Process

Emphasis on the order in which something occurs

Definition

Emphasis on the meaning of a word, phrase, or idea

means, can be defined as, the same as, like

Statement & Clarification

Statement of fact wit h discussion intended to make that statement clear Analysis of where events, ideas, or facts fit in with other events, ideas, and facts

words, obviously, of course, too

Classification

Summary

Comparison

Contrast

Generalization & Example

Cause and Effect

Condensed statement of the principal points in a larger statement or idea Discussion of similarities in two or more ideas, events, or things Discussion of the differences in two or more ideas, events, or things

Statement with examples designed to illustrate or clarify the statement A reason or condition and the subsequent effect or conclusion

Addition

Emphasis on providing more information

Location—Spatial Order

Emphasis on whereabouts of a thing or things

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after, afterward, at last, at that time, before, during, immediately, now, presently, shortly, since, until, while next, then, first, second, finally

category, field, rank, group, various, elements, characteristics, some feature, types, parts in brief, in conclusion, in short, on the whole, to sum up, to summarize also, likewise, in like manner, similarly, similar to, compared to although, however, but, conversely, nevertheless, yet, on the contrary, on one hand, on the other hand, at the same time… for examples, for instance, that is, thus, to illustrate, as demonstrated accordingly, affect, as a result, and, because, consequently, hence in short, may be due to, reasons, results, then, therefore, thus again, also, and besides, equally , important, finally, further, furthermore, in addition, last, likewise, moreover Above, adjacent to, below, beyond, then, close by, elsewhere, inside, nearby, next to, opposite, within, without, behind, in front of, to left…

KEY TERMS USED IN ESSAY QUESTIONS DISCUSS: A general instruction that means “write about.” If the question says “discuss,” look for other key terms to focus your response.

DESCRIBE: Give sensory details or particulars about a topic. Often, however, this general information simply means “discuss.”

ANALYZE: Divide a topic into its parts and show how the parts are related to each other and to the topic as a whole.

SYNTHESIZE: Show how the parts relate to the whole or how the parts make sense together.

EXPLAIN: Show relationships between specific examples and general principles. Explain what (define), explain why (causes/effects), and/or explain how (analyze process).

DEFINE: Explain what something is. As appropriate, give a formal definition, describe it, analyze its parts or function, describe what it is not, and/or compare and contrast it with similar events or idea COMPARE: Explain similarities and (often) differences. Draw conclusions from the observed similarities and differences.

CONTRAST: Explain key differences. Draw conclusions from the observed differences ILLUSTRATE: Provide specific examples of an idea or process.

TRACE: Give the sequence or chronological order of key events or ideas.

EVALUATE: Determine the value or worth of an idea, thing, process, person, or event. Set up criteria and provide evidence to support your judgments.

SOLVE: Explain your solution; show how it fixes the problem, why it is better than other alternatives, and why it is feasible.

ARGUE: Present both sides of a controversial issue, showing why the opposing position should not be believed or accepted and why your position should be accepted. Give evidence to support your position.

INTERPRET: Offer your understanding of the meaning and significance of an idea, event, person, process, or work of art. Support your understanding with specific examples or details.

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RHETORICAL PRÉCIS FORMAT Sentence #1 will include the following:  Name of the author and (if possible: a phrase describing the credentials of the author)  The type (e.g. essay, lecture, research paper, etc.) and title of the work  The date, if available (inserted in parentheses)  A rhetorically accurate verb (such as “assert,” “argue,” “suggest,” “imply,” “claim,” etc.) that describeswhat the author is doing in the text  A THAT clause in which you state the major assertion (thesis statement) of the author’s text Sentence #2 will include the following:  An explanation of how the author develops and/or supports the thesis (such as by comparing and contrasting, narrating, illustrating, defining, etc.)  Present your explanation in the same chronological order that the items of support are presented by the author in the text Sentence #3 will include the following:  A statement of the author’s purpose  Followed by an IN ORDER TO clause in which you explain what the author wants the audience to do or feel as a result of reading the work Sentence #4 will include the following:  A description of the intended audience  A description of the tone the author uses RHETORICAL PRÉCIS FRAME , (author’s first and last name)

, (appositive stating author’s credentials)

in his/her

, argues that

(type of text) (title) (date) .

He/she supports the claim by first

,

then

,

then

, and finally . ’s purpose is to (author’s last name)

(what the author does in the text) in order to .

(what the author wants the audience to do after reading the text) 23

He/she adopts a(n)

(and/but) tone

for

.

(intended audience)

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PRÉCIS EXAMPLES A. Sheridan Baker, in his essay "Attitudes" (1966), asserts that writers' attitudes toward their subjects, their audiences, and themselves determine to a large extent the quality of their prose. Baker supports this assertion by showing examples of how inappropriate attitudes can make writing unclear, pompous, or boring, concluding that a good writer "will be respectful toward his audience, considerate toward his readers, and somehow amiable toward human failings" (58). His purpose is to make his readers aware of the dangers of negative attitudes in order to help them become better writers. He establishes an informal relationship with his audience of college students who are interested in learning to write "with conviction" (55).

B. Toni Morrison, in her essay "Disturbing Nurses and the Kindness of Sharks," implies that racism in the United States has affected the craft and process of American novelists. Morrison supports her implication by describing how Ernest Hemingway writes about black characters in his novels and short stories. Her purpose is to make her readers aware of the cruel reality of racism underlying some of the greatest works of American literature in order to help them examine the far-reaching effects racism has not only on those discriminated against but also on those who discriminate. She establishes a formal and highly analytical tone with her audience of racially mixed (but probably mainly white), theoretically sophisticated readers and critical interpreters of American literature.

C. Sandra M. Gilbert, professor of English at the University of California, Davis, in her essay “Plain Jane’s Progress” (1977), suggests that Charlotte Brontë intended Jane Eyre to resemble John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress in that Jane’s pilgrimage through a series of events based on the enclosure and escape motif eventually lead toward the equality that Brontë herself sought. Gilbert supports this conclusion by using the structure of the novel to highlight the places Jane has been confined, the changes she undergoes during the process of escape, and the individuals and experiences that lead to her maturation concluding that "this marriage of true minds at Ferndean – this is the way" (501). Her purpose is to help readers see the role of women in Victorian England in order to help them understand the uniqueness and daring of Brontë’s work. She establishes a formal relationship with her audience of literary scholars interested in feminist criticism who are familiar with the work of Brontë, Bunyan, Lord Byron and others and are intrigued by feminist theory as it relates to Victorian literature.

D. In her article "Who Cares if Johnny Can't Read?" (1997), Larissa MacFarquhar asserts that Americans are reading more than ever despite claims to the contrary and that it is time to reconsider why we value reading so much, especially certain kinds of "high culture" reading. MacFarquhar supports her claims about American reading habits with facts and statistics that compare past and present reading practices, and she challenges common assumptions by raising questions about reading's instrisic value. Her purpose is to dispel certain myths about reading in order to raise new and more important questions about the value of reading and other media in our culture. She seems to have a young, hip, somewhat irreverent audience in mind because her tone is sarcastic, and she suggests that the ideas she opposes are old-fashioned positions.

E.

Douglas Park, in his essay “Audiences” (1994), suggests that teaching audience is an 25

essential but elusive aspect of teaching writing. Park develops this idea by exploring different definitions of audience, looking at how a text itself can delineate audience, and then discussing specific strategies writers can use to create contexts for audience. His purpose is to help teachers of writing understand and teach the different aspects of audience in order that they can help students improve the sense of audience in their writing. Park establishes an informal relationship with teachers who are interested in strengthening their students’ weak writing.

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THE SYNTHESIS ESSAY 15 minutes for reading; 40 minutes for writing

WHAT DOES THE SYNTHESIS ESSAY REQUIRE OF ME? You will be presented with a description of an issue along with a selection of sources that address the topic and may include nonfiction, fiction, poetry, drama, photos, charts, art work, or cartoons. After carefully reading and annotating the sources, you will respond to the prompt with an essay that incorporates at least three of the sources in support of your position on the subject. The College Board uses this essay to determine how well you are able to investigate a variety of sources, both print and visual; choose which of these sources to include in your presentation; and respond to the sources and discuss how they relate to your position on the topic. In short, you will demonstrate your ability to develop a “researched idea,” using not only your personal viewpoint, but also the viewpoints of others.

WHAT KINDS OF ESSAYS CAN I EXPECT TO WRITE? You may need to write an expository essay in which you develop your thesis and support it using compare and contrast, cause and effect, or analysis. Or, you might need to present an argument where you take a position on a topic while indicating the weaknesses of other viewpoints.

HOW DO I DECIPHER THE PROMPT? Carefully read and deconstruct the prompt. You will have to read the prompt more than once. Read all introductory material that will set up the situation and give you background. Also, read the assignment. Highlight important terms and elements that make your task clear.

HOW DO I READ AND ANNOTATE THE SOURCES? As you consider the sources, jot down ideas that you think you could use in your essay. Annotate directly on the sources themselves.

As you actively and critically read each print source, determine the following:      

     

Purpose/thesis Intended audience Type of source (primary, secondary) Main points Historical context Authority of the author

As you analyze visual text, you should    

Identify the subject.

Identify major components (characters, details, symbols).

Notice position and size of details.

Decide whether the visual takes a positive or negative position toward the issue.

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How the material is presented Type of evidence presented Source of the evidence Any bias or agenda How the text relates to the topic Support or opposition toward your thesis

 



Identify the primary purpose of the visual.

Determine how each detail illustrates and/or supports the primary purpose.

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Consider whether the author indicates alternative viewpoints.

HOW DO I DECIDE WHICH SOURCES TO USE? You must establish a position and choose sources that support and develop your position. As you chose, think about the following questions:        

What is your purpose?

Does one source lend itself to serving as a foundational source that you can use as the basis for your essay? If so, use this source as the center of your essay, utilizing the other sources as you refute or support the main source.

Is the text background information or pertinent information?

Does the source give new information or information that other sources cover?

Is this information that will add depth to the essay?

Does the text reflect the viewpoints of any of the other texts?

Does the text contradict the viewpoints of any of the other texts?

Does the source support or oppose your claim?

Once you have selected your sources, pay no attention to the ones that you have eliminated.

Review the notes you’ve made on your chosen sources, and select short, powerful quotations that will strengthen your position. Decide how you will analyze and comment on the excerpts from the sources.

HOW DO I PLAN MY ESSAY? 1.

2.

3.

4.

Understand the prompt. Know your purpose for reading and what your essay needs to accomplish.

Read the sources to become informed about the topic and to note key ideas and issues related to the topic.

Then, decide on your position and the major points of your essay. Jot down a few notes about how you are going to present your material. Simply create a brief listing of the major points you want to include and the order in which you will present them so that your argument develops logically.

Finally, choose which sources you will use to support your points. Be sure that you plan to incorporate at least three of the sources in your essay.

WHAT SHOULD MY OPENING INCLUDE? Make certain that your introductory paragraph introduces the subject and its context and clearly states your position on the issue WHAT SHOULD THE BODY OF THE ESSAY INCLUDE? Make certain that your major points   

relate to your thesis use specific examples (personal and otherwise) use selected sources to support the major point

Make certain that you incorporate sources into the development of your point by using   

attribution and introduction of cited sources transitions between and within paragraphs a mix of direct quotations, summary, and paraphrases

HOW DO I CONCLUDE MY ESSAY? End with a short paragraph in which you present your final remarks. This concluding idea is the last pertinent thought you want your reader to remember. Avoid a final paragraph that merely summarizes.

WHAT ARE SOME THINGS I NEED TO KEEP IN MIND AS I WRITE?      

The synthesis essay requires you to be familiar with both analysis and argument.

Don’t be put off by the length or complexity of the introduction to the subject. You are the one who will choose your position and which sources to incorporate in your essay.

You need to integrate the source material into the essay in a skillful manner.

Cite sources appropriately, i.e. (Source C).

Write in first person (“I”).

Write in present tense.

HOW DO I PACE MYSELF? 15 minutes

Use the allotted 15 minutes of reading time by reading all three of the prompts, deconstructing the synthesis prompt, reading and annotating each of the texts related to the synthesis prompt, and deciding how you will address the synthesis prompt.

5-6 minutes Revisit the texts and decide which you’ll use in your essay. 8-10 minutes Plan the support of your position.

20 minutes

Write the essay.

3-4 minutes

Check to make certain you’ve included at least the minimum number of sources and correctly cited each of them.

3 minutes

Proofread.

55 minutes

Total time on essay

AP ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMMUNCIATION: THE ANALYSIS ESSAY Analysis: the deconstruction of a passage into its component parts in order to examine how a writer develops a subject WHAT DOES THE ANALYSIS ESSAY REQUIRE OF ME? You will be presented with a prose passage that can be drawn from various genres and time periods. Although the specific tasks asked of the student may vary, they almost always involve the analysis of language, including rhetorical strategies and stylistic elements. The College Board wants to determine your facility with reading, understanding, and analyzing challenging texts. They also want to assess how well you manipulate language to communicate your written analysis of a specific topic to a mature audience. Your level of writing should be a direct reflection of your critical thinking.

WHAT KINDS OF QUESTIONS CAN I EXPECT?      

Analyze an author’s view on a specific subject Analyze rhetorical devices used by an author to achieve his or her purpose Analyze stylistic elements in a passage and their effects Analyze the author’s tone and how the author conveys this tone Compare and/or contrast two passages with regard to style, purpose, or tone Analyze the author’s purpose and how he or she achieves it

  

Analyze some of the ways an author recreates a real or imagined experience Analyze how an author presents him or herself in the passage Discuss the intended and/or probable effect of a passage

HOW DO I DECONSTRUCT THE PROMPT? 

Carefully read and deconstruct the prompt. You will have to read the prompt more than once. Once you know what is expected, you will read in a more directed manner and be sensitive to the details from the reading that will apply to the topic.



To deconstruct the prompt, highlight the essential terms and elements of the prompt that tell you what your essay needs to accomplish.



Use the ARCH method.



Make sure you understand the BIG IDEAS then the LITTLE IDEAS. o o

The BIG IDEAS are purpose and meaning.

The LITTLE IDEAS are the strategies and techniques

o

HOW DO I READ AND ANNOTATE THE TEXT? Read once quickly to get the gist of the passage. Then, reread to highlight and annotate, making notes that relate to the writing assignment.

OR Read slowly in order to highlight and annotate details that relate to the writing assignment.

Then, reread to confirm that you have caught the full impact of the passage.You must highlight and make marginal notes. Here are some strategies to help you:     



Read the introductory information that provides clues about the rhetorical situation and background of the author and text. (Speaker, Occasion, Audience, Purpose) Identify the main idea, message, or theme of the text. (Subject) Identify the tone of the text. (Tone) Watch for shifts in the text. Why do they occur? What is their importance or significance?

How do they work to move the essay forward?

Find literary devices, rhetorical devices, and stylistic elements at work in the essay. You should especially watch for the devices that are mentioned in the prompt. How does the author use these devices? How do these elements help the author attain his or her purpose for writing? (To what end? To what avail?)

Ignore what you don’t understand immediately. It may become clear as you continue.

HOW DO I PLAN MY ESSAY? 

After deciphering the prompt and annotating the passage, sort your annotations using a numbering or labeling system. As you sort, link the literary and rhetorical devices according to the author’s content and purpose. The reasons for your groupings should reflect the questions in the prompt. Arrange your analysis, instead, from the beginning of the passage to the middle to the end rather than writing about one device, then another, then another.

Watch for clear shifts in tone, structure, or mode to see where natural breaks in the passage occur.

WHAT SHOULD MY OPENING INCLUDE? Make certain that your introductory paragraph   

cites the author and title of the text states which strategies, devices, or elements you will analyze in your essay states the purpose of analyzing these elements by referring to the question from the prompt

WHAT SHOULD THE BODY OF THE ESSAY INCLUDE? Make certain that your body paragraphs       

contain specific but short direct references to the text (clipped quotes) repeat key ideas from the prompt and the opening paragraph connect all quotations and analysis to the prompt, establishing adherence to the question contain “echo words” (i.e. synonyms: town/village/hamlet; bland/ordinary/undistinguished) use transitions between and within paragraphs do not simply list the use of rhetorical devices; show how they support the central argument ignore details that do not apply to the prompt

HOW DO I CONCLUDE MY ESSAY? Focus on your body paragraphs, not on a conclusion. You do not need to summarize your major points, restate your thesis, or repeat the prompt. If you feel that you must have a concluding statement or remark, try to link your ideas to a particularly effective line or image from the passage. Use the last sentence or two of your last body paragraph to deliver this concluding comment.

WHAT ARE SOME THINGS I NEED TO KEEP IN MIND AS I WRITE? 

  

Don’t be thrown by a complex passage. You choose the references you’ll use. So, even if you don’t understand everything, you can write an intelligent essay as long as you address the prompt and refer to the parts of the passage you do understand. Likewise, don’t get overconfident with an easy passage. You’ll need to find the nuances that will make your essay mature.

You need to connect your analysis of the writer’s language to his or her purpose as indicated in the prompt.

Your essay should not consist of a list of devices that you have identified.

Write in present tense.

HOW DO I PACE MYSELF? 1-3 minutes

Read and decipher the prompt

5 minutes

Read and make marginal notes regarding the passage Try to isolate two references that strike you; you might use these in your opening and closing

10 minutes

Prepare to write by highlighting, marginal mapping, using charts or key word/one word/line number outlining

20 minutes Write the essay based on your preparation 3 minutes Proofread

40 minutes

Total time on essay

THE ARGUMENT ESSAY 40 minutes WHAT DOES THE ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY REQUIRE OF ME? You’ll need to do three things:   

understand the nature of the position taken in the prompt take a specific stand—agree, disagree, or qualify—with the assertion in the prompt clearly and logically support your claim

HOW DO I DECIPHER THE PROMPT? Carefully read and deconstruct the prompt. You will have to read the prompt more than once. Your success depends upon your clear understanding of what is expected of you. To do this, highlight the essential elements of the prompt that tell you what your essay needs to accomplish. In addition, you need to be able to paraphrase and summarize the writer’s assertion so that you are able to decide if will agree, disagree, or qualify the writer’s position.

HOW DO I RESPOND TO THE EXCERPT OR STATEMENT? Choose the question that best represents your thinking:   

Do I think about this subject in the same way as the writer/speaker? If so, you will agree with, support, or defend the writer’s assertion.

Do I think the writer/speaker is totally wrong? If so, you will disagree with, dispute, challenge, or refute the writer’s assertion.

Do I think that some of what is said is correct and some is incorrect? If so, you will qualify the writer’s assertion. “Qualify” means that you will modify, limit, or restrict your agreement or disagreement by presenting exceptions. You might limit your agreement by supporting some of the writer’s ideas but asserting some opposing ideas as well. Or, you might limit your disagreement by refuting some of the writer’s ideas but supporting some aspects of the writer’s position.

HOW DO I KNOW WHICH POSITION TO TAKE? Think quickly. Use the key words, phrases, and ideas from the prompt to develop a graphic organizer such as a list, a chart, or an outline that will help you decide on you position and will also dictate the structure for your essay. Then, brainstorm ideas in categories as dictated by the prompt. Brainstorm for and against the claim. If possible, you should refute the claim made by the author of the passage. If done well, essays that refute the author’s claim will be the most interesting. If you lack strong evidence in either direction, you will have to qualify the author’s claim. Whatever your choice, make your position perfectly clear in your introduction. You will not be penalized for taking an unpopular, unexpected, irreverent, or bizarre position on an issue. As long as you address the prompt and support your position appropriately, there is no danger in taking a different approach. Your essay is graded for process and mastery and manipulation of language, not for how close you come to the viewpoint of your reader. The most important things are that you have clearly decided how you feel about the issue and that you have the examples to back up your claim. Keep in mind that no one really knows or cares what you really think about an issue. This is not a testimonial. Take the stand that’s easiest for you to defend at that particular moment based on the ideas that come to you.

HOW DO I SUPPORT MY POSITION?

You’ll support your position with evidence from reading, literature, history, personal experiences, observations, your study, etc. The strength of your supports should lead you to your position (agree, disagree, or qualify). Here’s a list of some types of support and evidence that you might use to bolster your argument:            

facts statistics details quotations dialogue needed definitions recognition of the opposition examples anecdotes contrast and comparison cause and effect appeal to authority

WHAT SHOULD MY OPENING INCLUDE? Make certain that your introductory paragraph    

refers specifically to the prompt cites the speaker and occasion states the writer’s position on the given issue clearly states your position on the given issue (agree, disagree, qualify)

WHAT SHOULD THE BODY OF THE ESSAY INCLUDE? The key ideas and categories indicated in the prompt will dictate the topics of your body paragraphs and, consequently, the structure of your essay. So, choose the best ideas from the lists that you brainstormed and categorized based on the key ideas from the prompt. Then, expand and elaborate on these points in order to support your position.

HOW DO I CONCLUDE MY ESSAY? Focus on your body paragraphs, not on a conclusion. You do not need to summarize your major points, restate your thesis, or repeat the prompt. If you feel that you must have a concluding statement or remark, you should do so. But, make certain that the final remark is of interest, shows insight, and is appropriate to your purpose. Use the last sentence or two of your last body paragraph to deliver this concluding comment.

WHAT ARE SOME THINGS I NEED TO KEEP IN MIND AS I WRITE?    

In your essay, you should address the opposition in order to put your argument in context and show how and why you are “entering the conversation” on the topic.

In this essay, you will use the first person (“I”) and you will write in present tense.

The readers are open to a wide range of approaches. Your tone can be informal and personal, formal and objective, or even humorous and irreverent. Just be sure that your choice is appropriate for your purpose.

You should utilize effective language in your argument. Remember all of the rhetorical and literary devices that you are discussing in your analysis essays? Well, you need to use these now in your own writing so that you present yourself as a mature writer.

HOW DO I PACE MYSELF? 1-3 minutes

Read and decipher the prompt

3 minutes qualify) 10-12 minutes 20 minutes preparation 3 minutes 40 minutes

Decide on a position (agree, disagree, Plan the support of your position Write the essay based on your Proofread Total time on essay

WRITING A TIMED ESSAY Writing a brilliant essay about a topic and a text you may never have seen before is difficult! You have to think and act fast if you are going to write something you can turn in with pride at the end of the allotted time. After reading these strategies for writing a timed essay, consult the annotated sample prompt, rubric, and paper. Note that most readers realize you are writing under difficult circumstances and are trained to “reward you for what you do BEFORE PREVIEW, PICK, AND PREPARE 1. Preview all prompts (if you have choices) and pick the topic about which you can write the best essay (which may be different from the one about which you would most like to write).

2. Analyze the prompt, paying close attention to what you must do and include; this means identify and underline the required nouns and verbs (e.g., compare and contrast, textual evidence and literary devices).

3. Read and take useful notes––in the margins or on a separate piece of paper––related to your chosen prompt if you are writing about a text included in the test; if there is no text, proceed to the planning stage.

PLAN 4. Generate compelling, specific ideas that are clearly related to the prompt.

5. Gather examples, quotations, evidence, or details from appropriate sources or the text you are analyzing.

6. Revisit the prompt to confirm that your ideas, examples, and evidence are appropriate to the prompt.

7. Sketch out a brief writing plan, outline, or mindmap if time allows; indicate the key connections and ideas.

8. Develop a thesis that is narrow and compelling, but also supportable and related to the prompt.

9. Avoid a formulaic thesis or restatement of the prompt itself if at all possible (to make a strong first impression) 10. Write legibly: What the reader can’t read, they skip them, resulting in a lower grade.

DURING 11. Establish your purpose and point quickly and in a compelling voice to make a strong first impression.

12. Use an organizational strategy appropriate to the prompt and your thesis, making sure it prevents writing a summary or mere description. Choosing a journey pattern, for example, gives the writer an analytical focus.

13. Avoid long introductions; instead, create a narrow, compelling argument you can then defend in the essay.

14. Organize each body paragraph around a specific topic sentence that makes an assertion related to your thesis (instead of beginning with description or narration which takes time and does not advance your argument).

15. Integrate specific examples, evidence, and details––and comment on these, explaining what the quotations or examples mean, why they are important, how they relate to your thesis or topic sentence.

16. Avoid summary; if you find yourself summarizing, keep asking yourself, “So what?” and “Who cares?” and “How is that related to my claim or the point I was trying to make?”

17. Revisit the prompt, checking that you are doing or including everything it requires.

18. Monitor the time: You must write a complete essay with a beginning, middle, and end. Every second counts!

19. Take time to write well: You have no time to revise, so pay attention along the way to make sure that you:  Pay as much attention to what you write as you to how you write: voice and style matter!  Use strong verbs, precise nouns, and a variety of sentence types appropriate to your purpose.

 Provide effective transitions to clarify and emphasize your ideas and the connections between them.  Organize your ideas in paragraphs that are visibly indented, fully developed, and purposefully arranged.  Avoid any grandstanding, editorializing, ranting, seeking pity, asking for mercy, or making excuses.

20. Conclude the essay, tying up all your ideas, connecting them to the thesis; however, do more than just restate what you have already said. Reach for the great closing line that delivers to the reader a final WOW!

AFTER Revisit and Refine 21. Revisit the prompt and, if available, the rubric to make sure you have done everything the prompt asks.

22. Edit and proofread as needed depending on the number, type, and severity of your errors.

23. Follow any other minor directions for which you might be penalized: indicating which prompt you wrote about, attaching the prompts, scoring rubric, or notes you may have made to prepare to write.

TROUBLESHOOTING  What if you do not understand the topic or the text you must write about?  What if reading and writing are difficult for you and so you need more time to complete this assignment?  What if you write better on the computer than on paper?

© 2010 Jim Burke. Visit www.englishcompanion.com for more information and resources.

TIMED WRITING INTRODUCTIONS INTRODUCTIONS TO AVOID: Cliched, simplistic opening statements: Since time began people have had opinions.

Rhetorical questions: Is expressing an opinion bad?

Expert quotation without integration: A wise man once said, “Free speech mad America what it is today.”

Definition: According to Webster’s, an opinion is “a belief not based on certainty.”

Book Report: In July 1776, our forefathers gathered in Philadelphia in a hot, muggy Independence Hall to draft The Declaration of Independence.

Introductions to try: TIMED WRITING WOW! “Cut the bread, get to the meat!”

Think KFC Double Down:

Make sure every sentence, every detail relates to your prompt.

Provide interesting, but necessary, background and context for your argument.

Discuss your purpose for writing—why does your claim matter? why is it relevant?

The purpose of this is essay is to In this essay, I will Do not repeat the prompt but use key words.

Make a claim (not a question, not a fact, not a quotation).

Longer, out of class essays Thought-provoking quotations with integration into the argument of the essay Underused rhetorical strategies Narrative/anecdotes/personal experience Unusual details, audience-capturing information The hook

WRITING STRONG OPENING PARAGRAPHS IN AP LANGUAGE & COMP THIS READER’S OBSERVATIONS: 1. There is no one right way to write an opening paragraph.

2. The opening paragraph is extremely important as a first impression and for the way it affects a reader’s attitude toward the paper. A paper can “recover” from a weak opening, but it’s an extra burden to undo the reader’s “first take” of the paper as lower half, immature, or dull.

3. The majority of students write “empty” openings, meaning that the content of the paragraph is shaped from what already exists in the prompt and is therefore “empty” of the writer’s critical thinking.

4. Opening paragraphs can be any length , but the high scoring papers often have three to four sentences (or even longer) whereas low scoring papers often have one or two.

5. The student writer is best served when the reader has an impression of the paper as demonstrating “a mind at work” and “a competent, mature writer in control.”

WHAT DOES NOT WORK WELL: 1. Rearranging or parroting the prompt but not adding anything form your own thinking (this is the “empty” opening discussed above).

2. Wording that is formulaic, signaling a generic, “five-paragraph” essay will follow. These openings are weak because the writer sounds as though he or she is on “autopilot” rahter than truly engaged with the text.

3. Beginning with a broad sweeping statement (i.e. “There have always been wars”), a cliche (“A picture is worth a thousand words), or a truism (i.e. “Everyone wants to be loved”). In general, if you can say “Like, duh!” after the statement, it falls into one of these categories.

4. Listing the devices an author uses but saying nothing more about them (i.e. “The author uses diction, imagery, and point of view to express her ideas.”)

WHAT DOES WORK WELL: 1. Weaving the key words of the prompt into the opening paragraph (and the whole essay for that matter!) to show the reader you know that AP stands...for what? Answer the Prompt!

2. Making a “grabber” opening sentence that gives insight into the over-arching idea of the piece or conveys an essential truth form it.

3. Writing a “bullet thesis” that directly addresses the prompt and is the thesis for the paper.

4. Weaving in a short, “essential quote” that captures the “spirit” of the piece and signals a direction for the student’s paper.

5. Writing an opening sentence that sets a context for the paper, often by describing what the writer is doing in a way that goes beyond the prompt—the statement comes from the critical thinking the student has done while reading the piece. This method shares an insight.

SAMPLE INTRODUCTIONS HIGH SCORING AP ESSAYS

EXAMPLE 1 FROM A SYNTHESIS ON PUBLIC LIBRARIES As the digitization of literature changes how people read, and as methods of learning evolve, the role of public libraries in the future should keep pace with the expansion of internet use. While ebooks and online reading provide greater accessibility to those in independent pursuit of knowledge, libraries should remain a means through which the public can engage in a collaborative exploration of literature.

EXAMPLE 2 FROM A SYNTHESIS ON THE DISADVANTAGE OF BEING MONOLINGUAL IN A GLOBAL ECONOMY

EXAMPLE 3 FROM AN ANALYSIS OF THE INTRODUCTORY REMARKS TO SPEECH BY JOURNALIST CLARE BOOTHE LUCE TO FELLOW REPORTERS ON SENSATIONALISM IN NEWSPAPERS It takes a great deal of courage to criticize someone, let alone a large group people in front of an audience. But American journalist and politician Clare Boothe Luce did just that in 1960 in front of the Women’s National Press Club, denouncing the tendency of the press to cover only the sensational stories to meet public demand. Although critical and clearly disappointed, Luce uses a series of rhetorical techniques to make her words seem less threatening and more constructive.

Through her manipulation of her credibility, the audience’s known values, and ultimate message, Luce was able to convey her thoughts without coming off as an antagonist.

EXAMPLE 4 FROM AN ANALYSIS OF BRITISH PRIME MINISTER MARGARET THATCHER’S EULOGY FOR PRESIDENT RONALD REAGAN

EXAMPLE 5 FROM AN ARGUMENT ABOUT THE ROLE OF ARTIFICE* IN POLITICS AND CONSUMER CULTURE I am an avid student of politics and political science, and it is one of the majors I will pursue in the fall. Thus Hedge’s assertion that “the most essential skill is . . . artifice” is not new to me. This assertion is very true. However, the conflicting forces of a society of spectacle and of the increasing accessibility of information puts its validity in jeopardy. *artifice=clever or artful skill designed to trick others into agreement; deceit or false behavior Example 6 from an argument about the role of social disobedience in provoking change

WRITING BODY PARAGRAPHS FOR AP ARGUMENT AND SYNTHESIS ESSAYS Look for patterns in the following essays.

You should note the following: Concrete Illustrations of Abstract Ideas. Every paragraph will present concrete examples. Every single one. It is simply a must. Ideas that exist only in the mind are rarely convincing because your audience cannot see how they apply in the real world.

How and Why. The writers spend time explaining how and why their ideas are correct. You cannot simply assume that the reader will agree with you. Talk to your audience. Show the why they should think as you do. Explain your reasoning. Engage your audience.

Fully Developed Points. Examples and explanations take time. A detailed example should run 3-4 sentences. Commentary and explanation should be at least 2-5 sentences. Don’t state that “Gandhi faced obstacles,” show them!

Note the writer’s use of a specific concrete illustration to prove his abstract point that television is a way for people to escape daily concerns and spend positive time together.

This synthesis body paragraph begins with information from a source. The writer then explains HOW and WHY he agrees with source’s author. Note the concrete illustration of “Microsoft tutorials.” This paragraph would be severely weakened by the exclusion. Strong argumentative paragraphs ALWAYS use concrete illustrations.

This his writer is arguing that adversity brings out talents that would not otherwise be elicited.

The reference is evolution is not fully developed, but it does show the author’s understanding. He then connects this concept to computers and technological development. The writer shows a broad awareness and the concrete reference (aircraft wings) helps immensely. This paper scored

an 8.

Perhaps more concreteness would have elevated it to a 9—but no one can deny the impressive depth of thought.

I completely disagree with the author’s point in this synthesis paragraph—but it doesn’t matter.

The writer presents information from the provided sources and uses it to make a reasonable argument. Though I don’t personally agree with his conclusion, there is an undeniable logic. Thus, the paper scored well. Remember: You are being evaluated on presenting a reasonable argument.

So long as you present clear and direct evidence for your ideas, and make an understandable connection between them, then you will score well.

The examples aren’t as developed as they could be, but do see that this writer presents concrete historical movements and a simple logic: These figures were unapologetic dissenters whose views eventually became the majority. This paragraph is strengthened by the writer’s style. Consider the power of the rhetorical questions at the end, which use Boorstin’s own words . Short paragraph, but it makes an effective point.

For this This synthesis essay response, note that the writer takes time to explain WHY teachers should choose books. Remember: In argument, do not simply given an opinion. Always explain WHY your opinion is the correct one. The more time spent explaining your thought process, the better.

MISSTEPS ON THE ROAD TO “MATURE ACADEM IC STYLE”

1. Regurgitating the prompt (aka: empty openings).

2. Lack of planning.

3. Generalizations instead of analysis.

4. Summary instead of analysis.

5. Actually anything instead of analysis.

6. Formulaic writing, (aka: a writer on autopilot instead of “a mind at work,” “a writer engaged with text”).

7. General carelessness: not differentiating between a poet and a speaker, between a character and a person, between an audience (for a play) and a reader (for text); not spelling words right that are in the prompt, or not getting characters names right; not stating ideas precisely.

8. Over-simplifying what is complex.

9. Filling the paper with quoted material instead of analysis (commentary).

10. Failing to develop ideas.

SPECIAL DETRACTORS FROM “MATURE ACADEMIC VOICE” 1. Use of first person. Avoid “I think,” “I believe,” “To me this means…” Note: used sparingly, first person can be appropriate in either the argument or synthesis questions on the AP exam since the student writer has been asked to create a position or assert an opinion. First person is usually NOT acceptable for Question 2, passage analysis, since this is considered an analytic academic essay. In this instance, the first person violates the accepted conventions for formal academic writing.

2. Use of second person “you.” Avoid the use of the second person. Not: “When you die…”

Instead use: “When humans die…” Not: “The slant rhyme makes you notice…” Instead use: “The slant rhyme makes the reader notice…” Not “If you confessed to being a witch…”

3. Colloquial speech and immature, excessively informal vocabulary. Examples: “Your average Joe,” “Joe College,” “Back in the olden days,” “came back to bite her,” “totally off the charts,” “Nowadays,” “A bunch of…a ton of…a huge amount of…” (Does the writer mean “a significant number…a great degree…”?); “I would have to say…” (Not really); “That would have to be…” (Again, not really); “He got off…” (Rather than the more elevated: “He escaped justice…”); “really hassled by” (Suggestion: “agitated by”).

4. Use of psychobabble: “Pap destroyed Huck’s self-esteem.” “The peer pressure on Hester Prynne…” “Gatsby was depressed by…” “Huck and Jim’s life-style on the raft…” “Ok, so Medea had an anger management issue…” “Virgina Woolf, herself a depressed person, writes a rather bi-polar essay.”

5. Use of absolutes: “all,” “always,” “never,” “none,” “nobody,” “everybody” “I’ll bet 99.99% of the people…”

6. Excesses of tone: hysterical, breathless, indignant, self-righteous, cute, breezy, etc.

Example: “If a homeless man even talks he gets arrested.” Purple prose is a special sub-genre of this category.

7. Cheerleading, a special kind of excess of tone when the student lavishes praise on an author or her work. Examples: “The greatest poet…” “Does a magnificent job of…” “…so awesome,” “obviously a genius,” “…will affect me for the rest of my life.” (Note: this observation is not intended to squelch true passion or heart-felt response to literature.) Silly, weak, childish examples; students’ lack of discernment with regard to quality of examples or evidence; using cartoons, Disney movies, etc. as legitimate evidence.

8. Rhetorical questions, especially those with an indignant response, such as: “Do we Americans have to put up with this? I think not!”

9. Clichés, all of them. They’re as old as the hills.

10. Exclamation points, especially lots of them!!!!

11. Most adverbs, such as “basically, obviously, surely, certainly, very, really, incredibly, totally,” etc. should be used sparingly!

12. Writing about the author and speaker or narrator as though they are the same.

Weak: Dickinson greets death as a courtly suitor. Stronger: The speaker greets Death as a courtly suitor.

13. Misspelling the author’s name, although I am partial to “Whit Waltman.”

14. Referring to authors by their first names. Please use “Whitman and Dickinson,” never “Walt and Emily,” unless, of course, you know either of them very well. And let’s not call him Author Miller.

15. Writing about an author’s life rather than his or her work or specific purpose in a text.

Weak: “Whitman and Dickinson write about death differently due to their different life experiences.” Better: “Dickinson chooses this image to…” or “Whitman’s imagery suggests…”

16. Using technical vocabulary incorrectly, inflated purple prose. Examples: “Green uses emotional syntax.” “She uses dictional phrases like…” “His short fragments are all connected by commas and collaborated into a few run-on sentences.”

17. Gobbledygook, usually some kind of combination of the characteristics listed above. It imitates pretentious writing but says little. Examples: “The author brilliantly uses a hyphen in order to emphasize and reinforce motivation and justice that God provides and installs in each and every man.” “Meger (sic) imagery provided by the author commences to place a precidence (sic) of their style, a conventional rhetoric that gives the passage somewhat of a quixotic tone.”

SO WHAT IS THE SUCCESSFUL AP STUDENT WRITER TO DO?

College Board’s Course Description says that “stylistic maturity…is characterized by the following:     

A wide-ranging vocabulary used with denotative accuracy and connotative resourcefulness; A variety of sentence structures, including appropriate use of subordinate and coordinate constructions; A logical organization, enhanced by specific techniques of coherence such as repetition, transitions, and emphasis’ A balance of generalization with specific illustrative detail; and An effective use of rhetoric, including controlling tone, maintaining a consistent voice, and achieving emphasis through parallelism and antithesis.”

AP English Literature and Composition, 2005-2006 Professional Development Workshop Materials, page 51

Tab 6/Analy sis Page _______ _ Syntax Date___ ______

WRITING CONCLUSIONS The following are all conclusions from papers that scored an 8 or 9 on the AP Language exam. Even though you have not seen the original question, an effective conclusion should make both the purpose and thesis of the essay clear.

A good conclusion should be the writer’s final appeal. In a persuasive argument, the writer should end with a final rhetorical thrust, ending with a convincing idea designed to draw the reader to his side. In a

rhetorical analysis, the writer should be with a holistic assessment of the author’s impact on his or her audience (viz., what does the author want his or her audience to think or feel upon finishing the work?).

Something NOT to do in either case: Summarize.

Always end with something new (that is, something not said before). You can and should return to former ideas, but present them from a different angle. Perhaps show the combined effect of the writer’s ideas in a rhetorical analysis. Or, in a persuasive argument, end with a convincing idea that follows from your previous points.

It doesn’t matter what you do, so long as the paper ends on an emotional upswing in which your ideas are crystal clear and meaningful.

If you can . . .

Try the following techniques at the end: 1. Dramatic sentences (e.g. one-word sentences or sentence fragments) 2. Parallel sentences or parallel elements 3. Rhetorical questions (i.e., questions with an obvious answer use to persuade the audience. For example: Do you want to fail, Johnny?)

4. A new specific illustration that captures a key idea.

5. Anaphora (or any type of intentional repetition). Anaphora is beginning a series of sentences with the exact same words (e.g., “I have a dream….”)

The point: End with style and flair, if possible. Most of these techniques work best with persuasive arguments. Keep in mind that this is the English Language and Composition exam.

Showing your skill at using advanced composition techniques will raise your score.

Note the intriguing idea at the end: That television benefits us because it prevents us from making mistakes. This final rhetorical appeal caps the writer’s disagreement with ideas presented by a man named Ehrenreich. KEY POINT: This writer ends with something new. A persuasive appeal that builds on ideas presented earlier.

Note the dramatic style of these closing lines. Consider using parallelism or dramatic sentence structures in your concluding paragraph. Such rhetorical “flair” stylistically enhances your ideas.

It also demonstrates advanced compositional skill. (In this case, observe the dramatic sentence fragment, “Not a place…” and the parallelism of the following line.) I strongly recommend ending your paper with dramatic, rhetorical techniques, especially syntactical structures such as anaphora (lines with repeated opening words), parallelism, or fragments.

This essay ends with reflection, capturing the idea that imperfection is a necessary part of life.

This philosophical ending adds depth to an already fine paper. Note how the ideas presented are universal and apply to many aspects of life. We don’t all think as deeply, but do recognize the important of showing your understanding at the end.

Not an impressive conclusion. The writer essentially returns to the author’s rhetorical purpose.

However, this conclusion does bring the paper to finality. It is functional. It doesn’t raise the score or quality, but neither does it do any harm. We are able to clearly see that the writer

understood Wilson’s purpose. Conclusions should also reveal a clear understanding of the subject being analyzed.

Nice concluding paragraph. The author brought in a new example (Iraqi voting) and connected it to the important of voting in America. This new illustrative example strengthened the writer’s final appeal. Remember: End with something new. In persuasive arguments, your paper should close with a final rhetorical appeal using something new.

Dull, dry conclusion, but it works. The writer reminds us of Hazlitt’s rhetorical purpose and reiterates the primary strategies employed. The writer’s language (“lax forth,” “relentless string of misfortune,” “readers’ heartstrings”) helps. Such conclusions are not recommended, but they work—in so far as they don’t hurt your paper. If you must end quickly, do it this way.

Nothing exciting. But it works. (See the previous example.)

This is a rather poor conclusion. You might note that—so far in this file—few excite. There’s a lesson there: Put your greatest energy into developing your body paragraphs. The conclusion need only be functional. Of course, in real writing, the conclusion carries far greater weight.

Ho-hum. Another one that merely works.

Now here’s a conclusion! Note the effective (stylistic) use of a rhetorical question. The writer ends with a thoughtful opinion, confidently presented. This conclusion comes from information presented previously but is “new” in that it had never been articulated before. The writer’s style and vocabulary impresses.

The remaining conclusions are presented without comment. Though not all will impress, they do what a conclusion is supposed to do: Bring a paper to finality and address the main idea(s).

Without a conclusion, your paper is structurally flawed and will be marked down severely.

TONE WORDS Students sometimes feel vaguely the correct attitude toward what they are reading, but are unstable to clarify and intensify the mood because they lack vocabulary adequate to describe.

Here is a list of attitudes, which should prove helpful when trying to identify tone in a piece of writing.

Attitudes chiefly rational: Explanatory, instructive, didactic, admonitory, condemnatory, indignant, puzzled, curious, wistful, pensive, thoughtful, preoccupied, deliberate, studied, candid, guileless, thoughtless, innocent, frank, sincere, questioning, uncertain, doubting, incredulous, critical, insinuating, persuading, coaxing, pleading, persuasive, argumentative, authoritative Attitudes of pleasure: Peaceful, satisfied, contented, happy, cheerful, pleasant, bright, sprightly, joyful, playful, jubilant, elated, enraptured Attitudes of pain: Worried, uneasy, troubled, disappointed, regretful, vexed, annoyed, bored, disgusted, miserable, cheerless, mournful, sorrowful, sad, dismal, melancholy, plaintive, fretful, querulous, irritable, sore, sour, sulky, sullen, bitter, crushed, pathetic, tragic Attitudes of Passion: Nervous, hysterical, impulsive, impetuous, reckless, desperate, frantic, wild, fierce, furious, savage, enraged, angry, hungry, greedy, jealous, insane Attitudes of self-control: Calm, quiet, solemn, serious, serene, simple, mild, gentle, temperate, imperturbable, nonchalant cool, wary, cautious Attitudes of friendliness: Cordial, sociable, gracious, kindly, sympathetic, compassionate, forgiving, pitying, indulgent, tolerant, comforting, soothing, tender, loving, caressing, solicitous, accommodating, approving, helpful, obliging, courteous, polite, confiding, trusting Attitudes of unfriendliness: Sharp, severe, cutting, hateful, unsociable, spiteful, harsh, boorish, pitiless, disparaging, derisive, scornful, satiric, sarcastic, insolent, insulting, impudent, belittling, contemptuous, accusing, reproving, scolding, suspicious Attitudes of comedy: Facetious, comic, ironic, satiric, amused, mocking, playful, humorous, hilarious, uproarious Attitudes of animation :Lively, eager, excited, earnest, energetic, vigorous, hearty, ardent, passionate, rapturous, ecstatic, feverish, inspired, exalted, breathless, hasty, brisk, crisp, hopeful Attitudes of apathy: Inert, sluggish, languid, dull, dispassionate, colorless, indifferent, stoic, resigned, defeated, helpless, hopeless, dry, monotonous, vacant, feeble, dreaming, bored, blasĂŠ, sophisticated Attitudes of self importance: Impressive, profound, proud, dignified, lofty, imperious, confident, egotistical, peremptory, bombastic, sententious, arrogant, pompous, stiff, boastful, exultant, insolent, domineering, flippant, saucy, positive, resolute, haughty, condescending, challenging, bold,

defiant, contemptuous, assured, knowing Attitudes of submission and timidity: Meek, shy, humble, docile, ashamed, modest, timid, unpretentious, respectful, devout, reverent, servile, obsequious, groveling, contrite, obedient, willing, fawning, ingratiating, deprecatory, submissive, frightened, surprised, horrified, aghast, astonished, alarmed, fearful, terrified, trembling, wondering, awed, astounded, shocked SOME MORE TIPS ON TONE Tone reveals the attitude the writer has toward a subject. Word choice (Diction) and syntax allow a writer to vary the way the audience understands and responds to the feelings the writer incorporates in the passage. Consistency of tone is how a writer creates unity within a piece. When analyzing tone you are analyzing the writing the way you would a speaker’s voice.

EXAMPLES: Read the following murder confessions and try to pick out what the writer used to convey the corresponding tone.

“I just shot my husband five times in the chest with his Tek9” TONE: matter-of-fact, objective “How could I ever have killed him? It just isn’t possible.” TONE: shocked, disbelief “I’ve murdered my husband. How can I ever be forgiven for this dreadful act?” TONE: remorseful, regretful “That dirty rat. He’s had it coming for years. I’m glad I finally did it.” TONE: revengeful, triumphant When analyzing tone the basic elements can be analyzed using the LIDDS acronym.

Language overall use of language, such as formal, informal, jargon, etc.

I mages vivid appeals to understanding through senses (metaphor, simile, etc.)

Diction the connotation of word choice Details facts that are included or those omitted for a purpose Syntax how structure affects the reader’s attitude

DICTION Definition: Word choice. Diction is the foundation of voice and contributes to all of its elements. Diction creates the color and texture of the written work; they both reflect and determine the level of formality; they shape the reader’s perceptions.

A trope is artful diction or figurative language.

Levels of diction can further be broken down into the following categories: 1. Standard English (language generally seen in scholarly writing, serious prose or poetry) 2. Informal English (language usually seen in narrative and expository essays, newspaper editorials, and works of fiction.

3. Colloquial English (language with certain expressions or phrases that speakers and readers would understand but that are outside Standard English) 4. Slang (language understood, especially by specific generations, but not usually accepted in formal situations)

5. Dialect (language used within certain ethnic groups, social groups, or geographic locations) 6. Jargon (language learned through specific training or jobs)

Words can be‌ monosyllabic

one syllable in length

polysyllabic

more than one syllable in length (the more of polysyllabic words, the more difficult the content

colloquial

regional, provincial language

informal

conversational

formal

literary

jargon

language related to a specific field

old-fashioned

words dated according to time period

vulgar

non-standard with deficient taste

slang

vernacular speech associated with a time period

denotative

containing an exact meaning (dress)

connotative

containing a suggested meaning (gown)

concrete

specific

abstract

general or conceptual

euphonious

pleasant sounding (languid, murmur)

cacophonous

harsh sounding (raucous, croak)

literal

accurate, without embellishment

figurative

comparative creating pictorial effect

objective

impersonal and unemotional

subjective

personal and emotional

active

states action

passive

states being

hyperbolic

deliberate exaggeration

understated

deliberate minimizing

pedestrian

layman’s terms

pedantic

bookish, difficult to understand

cliché

figurative language that has lost its freshness, clarity

Effective voice is shaped by words that are clear, concrete, and exact.

Good writers eschew words like pretty, nice, and bad. Instead they employ words that invoke a specific effect. A coat isn’t old; it is tattered.

The United States Army does not want revenge; it is thirsting for revenge. A door does not shut; it thuds.

Understanding diction will help you to analyze better and to write better. Learn the meaning of diction to identify and analyze in a text and learn to use more precise diction in your own writing.

Diction refers to the author’s choice of words.

Words are the writer’s basic tools:   

They create the color and texture of the written work.

They both reflect and determine the level of formality.

They shape the reader’s perceptions.

Students should rarely skip words they do not know when studying serious literature. (It’s like wearing earplugs to a symphony.) To understand voice, students must “hear” the words and “feel” their effects.

Diction reflects the writer’s vision and steers the reader’s thought. Effective voice is shaped by words that are clear, concrete and exact. Good writers eschew words like pretty, nice, and bad.

Instead, they use words that invoke a specific effect. A coat isn’t torn; it is tattered. The U.S. Army does not want revenge; it is thirsty for revenge. A door does not shut; it thuds. Specific diction brings the reader into the scene, enabling full participation in the writer’s world.

Diction depends on topic, purpose, and occasion. The topic often determines the specificity and sophistication of diction. Articles on computers are filled with jargon, specialized language: email, e-shopping, web, interface. The writer’s purpose—whether to convince, entertain, amuse,

inform, or plead—partly determines diction. Words chosen to impart a particular effect on the reader reflect and sustain the writer’s purpose. If the author’s purpose is to inform, the reader should expect straightforward diction. If the writer’s purpose is to entertain, the reader will likely encounter words used in ironic, playful, or unexpected ways. Diction also depends on the occasion. As with clothes, level of formality influences appropriate choices.

Formal diction is largely reserved for scholarly writing and serious prose or poetry.

Informal diction is the norm in expository essays, newspaper editorials, and works of fiction.

Colloquial diction and slang borrow from informal speech and are typically used to create a mood or capture a particular historic or regional dialect.

Appropriateness of diction is determined by the norms of society.

Language Register (Martin Joos, 1961) Frozen or “static” register At this level, language is literally “frozen” in time and form. It does not change. This type of language is often learned and repeated by rote. Examples include biblical verse, prayers, the Pledge of Allegiance, and so forth.

Formal register This style is impersonal and often follows a prescriptive format. The speaker uses complete sentences, avoids slang and may use technical or academic vocabulary. It is likely that the speaker will use fewer contractions, but opt instead for complete words. (Example: “have not” instead of “haven’t”).

A writer or speaker is more likely to use vocabulary with Latin or Greek roots at this register.

For example, the writer of a scientific article may be more likely to use the word “female” (Latin root) than “woman” (Anglo Saxon root).

This is the register used for most academic and scientific publishing.

Consultative register This is the register used when consulting an expert such as a doctor. The language used is more precise. The speaker is likely to address the expert by a title such as “Doctor”, “Mr.” or “Mrs.”.

Some sources say this register is the formal register used in conversation.

Casual register This register is conversational in tone. It is the language used among and between friends.

Words are general, rather than technical. This register may include more slang and colloquialisms.

Speakers are more likely to use vocabulary words with an Anglo Saxon or Germanic root. Her book “Starting from Scratch: A Different Kind of Writers’ Manual” has an impressive list of (pp.

63-65) English vocabulary words that have an Anglo-Saxon or Germanic root, and their Latin root counterparts.

Intimate register

The language used by lovers. It is also the language used in sexual harassment. This is the most intimate form of language. It is best avoided in public and professional situations.

When studying diction, students must understand both:  

connotation (the meaning suggested by the word) and denotation (the word’s literal meaning).

When a writer calls a character slender, the word evokes a different feeling from calling the character gaunt. A word’s power to produce a strong reaction in the reader lies mainly in its connotative meaning.

The English language sports many near synonyms, groups of which may share more or less the same denotation, but which differ in connotation. And sometimes these connotations can be arranged hierarchically, from high to low. Think of warrior (high diction), soldier (middle), and dogface or grunt (low); or apparel (high), clothes (middle), and duds (low). Higher diction often involves Latinate words, and lower diction Germanic, but not always.

And it's not just a matter of high, middle, and low diction; there are many possible registers — scientific, flowery, bureaucratic, vulgar. The important thing is to be consistent: if you jump at random between levels of diction, you're likely to confuse your AUDIENCE. And that's a bad thing.

Diction can impart freshness and originality to writing.

Words used in surprising or unusual ways make us rethink what is known and re-examine meaning.

Good writers often opt for complexity rather than simplicity, for multiple meanings rather than precision. However, one should demonstrate a predilection for complexity over simplicity with the intention of adjoining loftiness to diction because the consequence is obfuscation and pomposity.

Never use a big word when a short one will do; never use a pompous word when a modest one will do; never use an ambiguous word when a clear one will do. And remember: any rule can be broken for style.

Thus diction, the foundation of voice, shapes a reader’s thinking while guiding reader insight into the author’s idiosyncratic expression of thought: the writer’s voice.

EXERCISES IN UNDERSTANDING DICTION Explain the differences in connotation among the members of each of the following groups of words:



Corpulent, plump, obese, pudgy, heavy-set, fleshy, fat, paunchy, burly, overweight, roly-poly, bulky, portly, beefy



Mansion, abode, dwelling, domicile, residence, house, home, habitat



Hurl, throw, pitch, chuck, toss, fling, cast



Arrogant, stuck-up, conceited, cocky, vain, proud, self-satisfied, egotistical, overbearing, supercilious



Cheat, phony, con man, fraud, charlatan, operator, crook, imposter, quack, swindler



Naked, nude, stripped, bare, unclothed, in the buff



Bizarre, singular, far out, outlandish, off the wall, curious, odd, unusual, extraordinary, remarkable, noteworthy, strange, eerie



Titter, giggle, chuckle, laugh, guffaw, roar, snicker, snigger, cackle



Saving, tight, miserly, frugal, economical, careful, penurious, thrifty, penny-pinching, budget-minded, prudent, mean



Honest, straight, on the level, veracious, guileless, unaffected, artless, genuine, candid, truthful, sincere



Buff, enthusiast, amateur, fan, fanatic, hobbyist, bug, connoisseur



Pig-headed, stubborn, obdurate, adamant, stiff-necked, rigid obstinate, unalterable, changeless, dogged, steadfast



Sullen, taciturn, glum, withdrawn, down, silent, reticent, wordless



Concise, pointed, laconic, terse, bare bones, economical, pithy, compressed, brief, boiled down



Steal, purloin, pinch, rip off, filch, embezzle, burglarize, rob, hold up, snatch, grab, help oneself to, appropriate

SYNTAX WHAT IS SYNTAX? The term syntax refers not only to the structure of sentences, their types, their uses, their connection, and the variations authors choose, but also to smaller structures within sentences.

Phrases (any group of words) and clauses (groups of words that contain a subject and a verb) are also syntactic elements that require a reader’s attention.

Syntax affects the pace of a piece.





Short, clipped phrases, sentences and clauses tend to create a feeling of quickness, decisiveness, and speed to a piece. It is important to be aware of the content of a piece and look for connections to syntax. Pay attention to how pacing relates to the action and purpose of a particular piece.

Long, convoluted sentences, especially with subordinate clauses at the beginning tend to slow the pace of a piece. Often they are connected to a contemplative section, a heavy or serious subject and the writer wants to emphasize it. Sometimes, however, they are placed in a piece for the purpose of demonstrating the ramblings of a character, the ludicrousness of an idea, or the ridiculousness of a situation. Watch for occasional satire or irony in these long sentences.

Key Questions:  

How does syntax contribute to and enhance the meaning and effect of language?

How does syntax contribute to tone?

1. “Syntax” refers to the ways words and phrases are arranged to form sentences. The reader must identify an author’s syntax and discuss the relationship it has to the content of the passage. Authors may use: a. specific patterns of phrases and sentences b. divisions within a piece with different syntax for each c. parallel structure d. different sentence types e. specific kinds of punctuation f. other syntax techniques 2. To begin studying syntax, follow the following steps: a. Number the sentences in the passage. This will help analyze each sentence and discuss it efficiently. b. Make observations about the content and syntax of each sentence or group of sentences. Look for elements listed above or others observed. i. Does the sentence length fit the subject matter? ii. Why is the sentence length effective? iii. What variety of sentence lengths is present? iv. Sentence beginnings – Variety or Pattern? v. Arrangement of ideas in sentences vi. Arrangement of ideas in paragraph – Pattern? c. Write down what is observed. These observations will be the paper’s examples.

Sentence Structure   

Examine sentence beginnings. Is there a good variety or does a pattern emerge?

Examine the arrangement of ideas in a sentence. Are they set out in a special way for a purpose?

Examine sentence patterns.

Describe the sentence structure by considering the following:

1. Examine the sentence length. Are the sentences telegraphic (shorter than 5 words in length), short (approximately 5 words in length), medium (approximately 18 words in length), or long and involved (30 or more words in length)? Does the sentence length fit the subject matter? What variety of lengths is present? Why is the sentence length effective?

Sentence lengths telegraphic

shorter than 5 words in length

short

approximately 5 words in length

medium

approximately 18 words in length

long

long and involved – 30 words or more length

2. Examine sentence beginnings. Is there a good variety or does a pattern emerge?

3. Examine the arrangement of ideas in a sentence. Are they set out in a special way for a purpose?

4. Examine the arrangement of ideas in a paragraph. Is there evidence of any pattern or structure?  the beginning and ending of the passage  a particular sequence that is important  a noticeable chronology  prominent literary techniques  a focus or emphasis on any one part that makes it stand out 5. Examine the sentence patterns. Some elements to consider are listed below: Types of sentences declarative

The king is sick.

makes a statement

assertive

imperative

Cure the king!

gives a command

authoritative

interrogative

Is the king sick?

asks a question

questioning

exclamatory

The king is dead; long live the king!

makes an exclamation

emotional

Sentence Structures simple sentence

contains one subject and one verb

has only one main, complete thought The singer bowed to her adoring audience. compound sentence

contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinate

conjunction (and, but, or) or by a semicolon

has two or more main, complete thoughts. Two or more simple sentences are joined, usually with or, but, or and.

The singer bowed to the audience, but she sang no encores. complex sentence

has one simple sentence and one or more clauses. These clauses are connected to the simple sentence with words like because, while, when, if, as, although, since, unless, after, so, which, who, and that. contains an independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses

After she bowed to the audience, the singer sang an encore.

compound-complex sentence

a combination of the above contains two or more principal clauses and one or more subordinate clauses The singer bowed while the audience applauded, but she sang no encores.

Loose sentence

makes complete sense if brought to a close before the actual ending We reached Edmonton/that morning/after a turbulent flight/and some exciting experiences.

Periodic sentence

makes sense only when the end of the sentence is reached That morning, after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences, we reached Edmonton.

Balanced sentence

the phrases and clauses balance each other by virtue of their likeness of structure, meaning, or length He maketh me to lie down in green pastures; he leadeth me beside the still waters

The Cumulative or Loose Sentence A cumulative or loose sentence is a type of parallel sentence which builds through parallel constructions (dependent phrases or clauses) after a main clause. Remember: in the cumulative sentence, the main clause (with the subject and verb) comes first.

Formula: Main clause + Parallel Dependent phrases or clauses

A loose or cumulative sentence is one in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by dependent clauses and phrases; therefore, a loose sentence makes complete sense if brought to a close before the actual ending: e.g., “We reached Edmonton that morning after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences, tired but still exhilarated, full of stories to tell our friends and neighbors.” The sentence could end before the modifying phrase without losing its coherence. Loose sentences are the most natural for English speakers, who almost always talk in loose sentences: even the most sophisticated English writers tend to use loose sentences much more often than periodic sentences.

The brilliant assembly filed past us, the marshals with their batons and ceremonial red hats, the professors draped in their doctoral hoods, the graduates in somber black that contrasted with their jubilant mood.

1 Nothing could deflect that wall of water, sweeping away trees and boulders, engulfing streets and villages, churning and roaring like a creature in pain.

2 Then I saw that the child had died, never more to enjoy getting into trouble with his friends, never again to tell innocent lies to his parents, never to look with hopeful shyness at a girl he desires.

Cumulative sentences add parallel elements at the end. These sentences are especially effective for description, even if they use only a single detail at the end.

The student sat quietly, trembling at the thought of writing an essay. [using a single detail] The hounds continued to bray—uncontrollably, maddeningly, horribly. [using multiple details] Famous Cumulative Sentence George was coming down in the telemark position, kneeling, one leg forward and bent, the other trailing, his sticks hanging like some insect’s thin legs, kicking up puffs of snow, and finally the whole kneeling, trailing figure coming around in a beautiful right curve, crouching, the legs shot forward and back, the body leaning out against the swing, the sticks accenting the curve like points of light all in a cloud of snow.

[An example of a complex cumulative sentence from Hemingway’s In Our Time --quoted in Miles, Bertonasco and Karns, Prose Style: A contemporary Guide (1991) The Periodic Sentence A periodic sentence is a type of parallel sentence which builds through three or more parallel constructions (dependent phrases or clauses) to a main clause.

Remember: in the periodic sentence, the main clause (with the subject and verb) comes last.

Formula= Parallel Dependent Clauses and Phrases + Main Clause 1 A periodic sentence (also called a period) is a sentence that is not grammatically complete until its end. Periodicity is accomplished by the use of parallel phrases or clauses at the opening or by the use of dependent clauses preceding the independent clause; that is, the kernel of thought contained in the subject/verb group appears at the end of a succession of modifiers: e.g., “That morning, after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences, we finally reached Edmonton.�

The periodic sentence has become much rarer in formal English writing over the past hundred years, and it has never been common in informal spoken English (outside of bad political speeches). My own biased opinion is that this is a result of our fast-food approach to contemporary life and all aspects of culture, including both non-fiction and literature. In fact, I think this is regrettable, because periodicity is a powerful rhetorical tool. An occasional periodic sentence is not only dramatic but persuasive: even if the readers do not agree with your conclusion, they will read your evidence first with open minds. If you use a loose sentence with hostile readers, the readers will probably close their minds before considering any of your evidence. Therefore, when it is used to arouse interest and curiosity, and to hold an idea in suspense before its final revelation, a periodic sentence is most effective.

But if life hardly seems worth living, if liberty is used for subhuman purposes, if the pursuers of happiness know nothing about the nature of their quarry or the elementary techniques of hunting. these constitutional rights will not be very meaningful. (E. Warren) As long as politicians talk about withdrawal while they attack, as long as the government invades privacy while it discusses human rights, as long as we act in fear while speak of courage, there can be no security, there can be no peace. If students are absorbed in their own limited worlds, if they are disdainful of the work of their teachers, if they are scornful of the lessons of the past, then the great cultural heritage which must be transmitted from generation to generation will be lost.

The Balanced Sentence A balanced sentence is a type of parallel sentence in which two parallel elements are set off against each other like equal weights on a scale. In reading the sentence aloud, one tends to pause between the balanced parts, each seeming equal. When writing a balanced sentence, be certain that both parts of the sentence have the clear parallels of form, that they appear parallel grammatically.

In a balanced sentence, the phrases or clauses balance each other by virtue of their likeness of structure, meaning, or length: e.g., “He maketh me lie down in green

pastures; he leadeth me beside still waters.”

George Bernard Shaw said of writers: The ambition of the novice is to acquire the Literary Language; the struggle of the adept is to get rid of it. [Each part of the sentence follows the same pattern: subject, verb, infinitive phrase.]

Content of a Balanced Sentence Balanced sentences are particularly effective if you have an idea that has a contrast or antithesis. Balanced sentences can emphasize the contrast so that the rhetorical pattern reflects and supports the logical pattern.

No man has ever seen anything that Burne-Jones cannot paint, but many men have painted what Burne-Jones cannot see.

1 (Shaw) And so my fellow Americans—ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country.

(Kennedy) 2 If a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich.

(Kennedy) It is not that today’s artists cannot paint, it is that today’s critics cannot see.

(Rothko) Some of the above examples illustrate not only balanced sentences but also a device called “antimetabole,” in which the order of words is reversed in one of the parallel structures to produce a clever effect. The following are examples of antimetabole: 1 When the going gets tough, the tough get going.

2 You can take the gorilla out of the jungle, but you can't take the jungle out of the gorilla.

The Balanced Paragraph One can also develop an entire paragraph by balance. This is particularly useful if you are developing a series of contrasts.

1

I felt myself in rebellion against the Greek concept of justice. That concept excused Laius of attacking Oedipus, but condemned Oedipus for defending himself. It tolerated a king’s deliberate attempt to kill his baby son by piercing the infant’s feet and abandoning it on a mountain, but later branded the son’s unintentional killing of his father as murder. It held Oedipus responsible for his ignorance, but excused those who contributed to that ignorance. (Krutch)

Natural order of a sentence

involves constructing a sentence so the subject comes before the predicate Oranges grow in California.

Inverted order of a sentence (sentence inversion)

involves constructing a sentence so the predicate comes before the subject (this is a device in which normal sentence patterns are reversed to create an emphatic or rhythmic effect) In California grow oranges.

Split order of a sentence

divides the predicate into two parts with the subject coming in the middle In California oranges grow.

Juxtaposition

a poetic and rhetorical device in which normally unassociated ideas, words, or phrases are placed next to one another, creating an effect of surprise and wit The apparition of these faces in the crowd; /Petals on a wet, black bough.

Parallel structure (parallelism)

refers to a grammatical or structural similarity between sentences or parts of a sentence; it involves an arrangement of words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs so that elements of equal importance are equally developed and similarly phrased He was walking, running and jumping for joy.

Repetition

a device in which words, sounds, and ideas are used more than once to enhance rhythm and create emphasis “…government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth”

Rhetorical question

a question that expects no answer; it is used to draw attention to a point and is generally stronger than a direct statement If Mr. Ferchoff is always fair, as you have said, why did he refuse to listen to Mrs. Baldwin’s arguments?

Rhetorical fragment

a sentence fragment used deliberately for a persuasive purpose or to create a desired effect Something to consider.

Anaphora

the repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of successive clauses “We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing-grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills.”

Asyndeton

a deliberate omission of conjunctions in a series of related clauses “I came, I saw, I conquered.”

Chiasmus/ Antimetabole

a sentence strategy in which the arrangement of ideas in the second clause is a reversal of the first “Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country”

Polysyndeton

the deliberate use of many conjunctions for special emphasis to highlight quantity or mass of detail or to create a flowing, continuous sentence pattern The meal was huge – my mother fixed okra and green beans and ham and apple pie and green pickled tomatoes and ambrosia salad and all manner of fine country food – but no matter how I tried, I could not consume it to her satisfaction.

Stichomythia

dialogue in which the endings and beginnings of each line echo each other, taking on a new meaning with each new line “Hamlet, thou hast thy father much offended.

Mother, you have my father much offended.”

Zeugma

the use of the verb that has two different meanings with objects that complement both meanings He stole both her car and her heart that fateful night.

PUNCTUATION ELLIPSES

A TRAILING OFF; EQUALLY ETC.; GOING OFF INTO A DREAMLIKE STATE

DASH

INTERRUPTION OF A THOUGHT; AN INTERJECTION OF A THOUGHT INTO ANOTHER

SEMICOLON

PARALLEL IDEAS; EQUAL IDEAS; A PILING UP OF DETAIL

COLON

A LIST; A DEFINITION OR EXPLANATION; A RESULT

ITALICS

FOR EMPHASIS

CAPITALIZATION

FOR EMPHASIS

EXCLAMATION POINT

FOR EMPHASIS; FOR EMOTION

1. “An aged man is but a paltry thing/ A tattered coat upon a stick . . .”

--W. B. Yeats “Sailing to Byzantium”  

What picture is created by the use of the word tattered?

By understanding the connotations of the word tattered, what do we understand about the persona’s attitude toward an aged man?

2. Rowan = a small deciduous tree having --Seamus Heany, “Song” Field Work

white flowers and orange berries.

“A rowan like a lipsticked girl.”  

Other than color, what comes to mind when you think of a lipsticked girl?

How would it change the meaning and tone of the line if, instead of lipsticked girl, the author wrote girl with lipstick on?

3. “Doc awakened very slowly and clumsily like a fat man getting out of a swimming pool. His mind broke the surface and fell back several times.”

--John Steinbeck, Cannery Row 

What is the subject of the verb broke? What does this tell you about Doc’s ability to control his thinking at this point in the story?



To what does surface refer? Remember that good writers often strive for complexity in meaning.

4. “Most men wear their belts low here, there being so many outstanding bellies, some big enough to have names of their own and be formally introduced. Those men don’t suck them in or hide them in loose shirts; they let them hang free, they pat them, they stroke them as they stand around and talk.”

--Garrison Keillor, “Home” Lake Wobegon Days  

What is the usual meaning of outstanding? What is its meaning here? What does this pun reveal about the attitude of the author toward his subject?

Read the second sentence again. How would the level of formality change if we switched suck to pull and let them hang free to accept them?

5. Wind rocks the car.

We sit parked by the river, silence between our teeth.

Birds scatter across islands of broken ice. . .

--Adrienne Rich “Like This Together, for A. H. C.”  

What is the tone produced by the word rocks? Gentle, violent, or both?

How would the meaning change if we changed the first line to Wind shakes the car?

CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE WRITING

# Rule Being Consistent 1.

Use correct verb tenses 2.

3.

Avoid shift of pronoun person Parallelism

4.

Noun Number Agreement 5.

Subject-Verb Agreement Being Clear and Precise 6.

Coordination and Subordination 7.

Logical comparison

8.

Modification and word order

9.

Ambiguous and vague pronouns

10.

Diction

11.

Wordiness

12.

Missing subjects

13.

Weak passive verbs

Following Conventions 14. Adjective and adverb confusion 15. Double Negative

Incorrect

Correct

After he broke his arm, he is home for a week.

If you are tense, he should try to relax.

She skis, plays tennis, and flying kites.

Anna and Sarah want to be a pilot There is eight people here.

After he broke his arm, he was home for a week.

If you are tense, you should try to relax.

She skis, plays tennis, and flies kites.

Anna and Sarah want to be pilots.

There are eight people here.

Nancy has a rash, and she is probably allergic to something.

Harry grew more vegetables than his neighbor’s garden.

Barking loudly, the tree had the dog’s leash wrapped around it.

In the newspaper, they report that few people voted.

This event is unparalyzed in the world’s history.

There are many problems in the contemporary world in which we live.

If your car is parked here while not eating in the restaurant, it will be towed away.

When you bake a cake, the oven should be preheated.

Nancy has a rash, so she is probably allergic to something.

His friends agree that he drives too reckless.

Manuel has scarcely no

His friends agree that he drives recklessly.

Manuel has scarcely any free

Harry grew more vegetables than his neighbor.

The barking dog’s leash was wrapped around the tree.

The author of the newspaper article reported that few people voted.

This event is unparalleled in the world’s history.

There are many problems in the contemporary world.

If your car is parked here while you are not eating in the restaurant, it will be towed away.

When you bake a cake, you should preheat the oven.

16.

Pronoun case

17.

18.

Idiom, Colloquialism, Jargon, Clichés, and Slang.

Comparison of modifiers

19.

Sentence Fragments

20.

Run-on sentences: Comma splice or fused sentence Misc. Grammar Rules 21. Spells words correctly and proofread carefully!

22. Avoid overly long sentences 23. Follow all rules of comma use, including using serial commas.

24. Indicate plurals correctly 25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

Style 30.

31.

32.

Indicate possessives correctly Use articles (a, an, the) correctly. “The” is used from specific references.

“An” and “a” are used from general references.

Use these words correctly: to, too, two; there, their, they’re; its, it’s; your, you’re; then, than; who’s, whose; which, witch; whether, weather.

Use “that” for things and “who” for people.

Spell out numbers under 100

free time.

He sat between you and I at the theater.

Natalie had a different opinion toward her.

time.

He sat between you and me at the theater.

Natalie had a different opinion of her.

Of the sixteen executives, Meg makes more money.

Having to go home early.

Of the sixteen executives, Meg makes the most money.

Having to go home early was no fun.

Mary enjoys crossword puzzles.

She works on one every day.

Mary enjoys crossword puzzles, she works on one every day.

The mother needed to buy fruit eggs milk and cereal at the store.

The two girl’s had a lot of fun.

The mans favorite movie was on TV.

The mother needed to buy fruit, eggs, milk, and cereal at the store.

The two girls had a lot of fun.

The woman that won the race was overjoyed.

She had only 50 facebook friends.

The woman who won the race was overjoyed.

She had only fifty facebook friends.

The man’s favorite movie was on TV.

Awkward sentence; rewrite for clarity.

Redundant When not writing in the narrative mode, write in the third person; do not use “I,” “we,” or “you” statements.

MLA Format 33.

Use the MLA formal, four-line heading, 12 pt Times New Roman font, and double spacing for all work you submit. Make sure to properly indent paragraphs and use one inch margins all around.

34.

Give all your essays titles that meaningfully reflect their thesis—do NOT underline, boldface, italicize or change font.

35.

Follow MLA style for in-text citations.

36.

Use block indentation and set off with colons for quotes that are more than four lines long, but use such long quotes rarely.

37.

Punctuation, such as commas and periods, go inside a title or phrase in quotations marks, if the title or phrase is not immediately followed by a parenthetical citation.

38.

Titles of short works, such as poems, short stories, essays, songs, and articles are placed in quotation marks.

39.

Titles of long works, such as novels, websites, and collections of poetry, stories, and essays are italicized when typed and underlined when handwritten..

Writing Development 40 Include a well-developed introduction with a clear thesis statement that responds completely to the prompt.

41.

Include a clear topic sentence for every paragraph; each paragraph should focus on one idea.

42.

Provide evidence for every idea you present.

43. a. Introduce the context of quotes and paraphrases before using them. b. Use a proper signal phrase (he writes, she argues, etc). Never leave a quote alone in a sentence! c. Always follow up the quote with your explanation and analysis. Never end a paragraph with a quote! d. Set off short quotes with a comma and long quotes with a colon; set off paraphrases with “that” 44.

Avoid generalities; use concrete and specific details, explanations, and examples.

45.

Transition needed 46.

Put sentences in a better order for flow of ideas.

47.

Needs more development Misc. Add-ons 48.

DO NOT refer to authors only by their first names; give first and last names the first time you refer to them and last name only after that.

49.

DO NOT refer to “the reader,” “the audience,” or other terms for the reader.

50.

DO NOT refer to “this quote” 51.

DO NOT use the phrase “paints a picture in the reader’s mind.” When writing about imagery, discuss the effect of the imagery: how it appeals to the senses and enhances understanding.

52.

Form a dash by joining two hypens (- -) 53.

Use a hyphen to join compounds (-) 54.

Do not use contractions in formal papers.

55.

This information is incorrect. Please refer back to your book.

56.

Include a well-developed introduction that clearly summarizes your paper and restates any important points. Never introduce new information in your conclusion.

57.

58.

59.

60.

61.

62.

63.

64.

Make sure your quote clearly supports your point.

Follow all MLA rules for your works cited page, including hanging indent, alphabetizing and use of correct citations.

When writing about literature, use the universal present tense.

No extra spaces between paragraphs.

Avoid starting paragraphs with first, second, third, lastly, finally, in conclusion, etc.

Make sure to introduce new sources correctly. Always give the title and author of a new source!

Follow all punctuation rules, including capitalization rules.

Avoid unnecessary statements such as “this essay will discuss” or “the final point to be discussed” etc.

WRITING VOCABULARY Thesis (ALSO KNOWN AS CLAIM) main idea of an essay, states a provable point; usually appears as the last sentence of the opening paragraph ex. Sophocles uses the images of sight, especially the dual images of darkness and light, to show the developing self-awareness of the main character Oedipus.

Hook: an optional opening sentence before the topic sentence that captures the reader's attention and provides the hook for the information to follow ex. Oedipus is a character shrouded in darkness.

Topic Sentence: main idea of a paragraph follows patterns established by the thesis; everything in a paragraph relates to the topic sentence; traditionally the first sentence in the paragraph but can appear anywhere ex. The image of darkness is prominent in the first two episodes of Oedipus Rex during the period when the main character is in the dark about his own identity.

Supporting Statement: reasons that the writer believes the topic sentence is true; each supporting statement is related to the topic sentence ex. One way Oedipus is in the dark is that he does not know that he is actually the murderer he is looking for.

Concrete Illustration: details (quotes, paraphrases, summaries of events) that illustrate the previous supporting statement; the concrete illustrations illustrate the supporting statements ex. Oedipus tells Tiresias "Blind,/lost in the night, endless night that nursed you! You can't hurt me or anyone else who sees the light--/you can never touch me" (425-428).

Explanation/Elaboration: a sentence that explains the meaning or relevance of the concrete illustration ex. Tiresias points out that it is the insults like these Oedipus flings that soon will be aimed at him because Oedipus is actually the one "lost in the night."

Concluding Sentence: a clincher that provides closure to the paragraph, usually links back to the hook of the opening sentence and provides transition to the next main idea ex. Oedipus eventually comes out of his dark shroud and enters the light, only too late.

FIVE TYPES OF CLAIMS Claims can be categorized into five types, though there will obviously be instances of overlap and confusion. Analyzing the nature of the claim helps both with understanding its implications and the best approach to refute it.

CLAIMS OF FACT Claims of fact center on debates about subjects we believe to be objectively true or untrue. These types of claims should be empirically disputable.

Examples include:

  

Global warming is a human-caused phenomenon.

Women are as effective as men in combat.

The 1950s were a time of racial and gender harmony in the United States.

CLAIMS OF DEFINITION Claims of definition center on the meaning, composition or classification of things. Examples include:

  

Alcoholism is a disease, not a vice.

The detainees at Guantanamo are prisoners of war. th The death penalty violates the 8 Amendment’s prohibition on cruel and unusual punishment.

CLAIMS OF CAUSE Claims of cause deal with the causes and effects of events. They analyze questions like “what led to this?” and “what are the likely results of this event?” Examples include:

 

The economic boom of the Clinton Presidency was caused by skillful decision-making during the Reagan Administration.

Easy access to the Internet has made plagiarism inevitable.

CLAIMS OF VALUE Claims of value evaluate the inherent goodness or morality of an event and the value systems by which we should make decisions. Examples include:

  

Euthanasia is an affront to God. The dancing that occurs in high schools leads to immoral behavior.

Democracies are the only legitimate form of government.

CLAIMS OF POLICY

Claims of policy address the course of action we should take, the policies we should adopt, and the way that we attempt to solve problems. Examples include:

  

The state of Texas should secede from the United States.

The United States should adopt a Canadian-style universal healthcare system.

We should dismantle prisons and spend our resources on education.

SAMPLE CLAIMS [Adapted from R. Gass, CSU-Fullerton]

Allowing faith-based organizations to distribute federal dollars to provide social services violates the doctrine of separation of church and state.

This is a value Claim: Whether a given act violates the constitution or not is a matter of opinion. Once the Supreme Court issues a ruling, their ruling is a fact, but their decision itself still represents the opinion of the

The proliferation of violent video games in American society has undermined the family structure.

This is a claim of causation: the speaker is asserting that video games have damaged families.

The First Amendment includes the right to burn the American flag.

This is a claim of definition: the speaker is defining the limits of the First Amendment.

You should never give your social security number, or a telephone number to any telephone solicitor who has called you. You have no way of knowing if the person is really who he/she claims to be.

This is a policy claim: The arguer is recommending a specific course of action.

James Earl Ray did not kill Dr. Martin Luther King. Even Dr. King’s own family members now agree he was not the assassin.

This is a factual claim: Either Ray either did or did not pull the trigger. Whether he is/was guilty of “murder,” however, is a judgment call.

Scary Movie 3 was scarier than Psycho, The Exorcist, or The Blair Witch Project.

This is a value claim: Whether a movie is good or bad, better or worse, is a matter of opinion.

You should never give baby aspirin to an infant with a fever. The use of aspirin has been linked to Reye’s syndrome, a potentially fatal disease, which can afflict infants following exposure to the flu or chicken pox.

This is a policy claim: the arguer is recommending against a specific course of action.

Tinky Winky, the purple Teletubby, is gay, as evidenced by the fact that he has a boy’s voice, but carries a purse.”

This is a value claim: This represents the opinion of televangelist Jerry Falwell.

Public schools should be permitted to segregate instruction for boys and girls.

Studies show girls do better in math and science when they are in segregated classes.

This is a policy claim: The arguer is advocating a specific course of action. It also presents a debatable fact claim.

The Soviet Union collapsed because the United States forced its enemy to spend itself into oblivion.

This is a claim of causation.

CLAIM SENTENCES lFrom The Craft of Research SUPPORTING A CLAIM BASE CLAIM ON REASONS 1. The emancipation of Russian peasants was an empty gesture claim because it did not improve the material quality of their daily lives. reason 2. TV violence can have harmful psychological effects on children claim because their constant exposure to violent images makes them think that violence is natural. reason BASE REASONS ON EVIDENCE 1. TV violence can have harmful psychological effects on children claim 1 because those exposed to lots of TV tend to adopt the values of what they see. reason 1 supporting claim 1/claim 2 Constant exposure to violent images make them unable to distinguish fantasy from reality. reason 2 supporting reason 1 and claim 2 Smith (1997) found that children ages 5-7 who watched more than three hours of violent television a day were 25 percent more likely to say that what they saw on television was “really happening.” evidence supporting reason 2 CLAIM → {because of} REASON → [based on} EVIDENCE ACKNOWLEDGING AND RESPONDING TO ANTICIPATED QUESTIONS AND OBJECTIONS 1. TV violence can have harmful psychological effects on children claim 1 because those exposed to lots of it tend to adopt the values of what they see. reason 1 supporting claim 1 and 2 Their constant exposure to violent images makes them unable to distinguish fantasy from reality. reason 2 supporting reason 1 and claim 2 Smith (1997) found that children ages 5-7 who watched more than three hours of violent television on a day were 25 percent more likely to say that most of what they saw on television was “really happening.” evidence supporting reason 2 Of

course, some children who watch more violent entertainment might already be attracted to violence. acknowledgment But Jones (1999) found that children with no predisposition to violence were as attracted to violent images as those with a violent history.response CLAIM

REASON

EVIDENCE

I claim. . . . .because of these reasons … which I base on this evidence…

I acknowledge these questions, objections, and alternatives, and I respond to them with these arguments. …

ACKNOWLEDGE AND RESPONSE WARRANTING THE THE RELEVANCE OF YOUR REASONS

This General Circumstance

predictably leads to

When an area has a few hard freezes,

This General Consequence

it will pay more to combat diseases carried by subtropical insects no longer killed by hard freezes.

This is a good instance of this Global warming is moving the line

This is a good instance of this SO

of extended hard freezes steadily

We are facing significantly higher health care costs. claim

north. reason This specific circumstance

lets us infer

This specific consequence

When an area has fewer hard freezes, it can expect higher medical costs to cope with diseases carried by subtropical insects that do not survive freezes. warrant Europe and North America must thus expect higher health care costs main claim because global warming is moving the line of extended hard freezes steadily north. reason In the last one hundred years, the line of hard freezes lasting more than two weeks has moved north at the rate of roughly… evidence

MAKE YOUR CLAIM SPECIFIC 1. Graphic reports of violence on local TV news lead regular viewers to overestimate by as much as 150 percent both the rate of crime in their neighborhood and the personal danger to themselves and their families.

2. Although violent crime is actually decreasing, regular TV viewers overestimate their neighborhood crime rate by 150 percent and therefore misjudge personal danger to themselves and their families, because local TV evening news regularly opens with graphic reports of mayhem and murder in familiar locations, making many believe that crime happens nightly outside their front door.

3. Although many believe that school uniforms help lower the incidence of violence in public schools, qualification the evidence is at best weak, claim because researchers have not controlled for other measures that have been instituted at the same time as uniforms reason 1 and because the data reported are statistically suspect. reason 2 ACKNOWLEDGE LIMITING CONDITIONS 1. Today Franklin D. Roosevelt is revered as one of our most admired historical figures, but toward the end of the second term, he was quite unpopular, at least among certain segments of American society. claim Newspapers, for example, attacked him for promoting socialism, a sign that a modern administration is in trouble. In 1938, 70 percent of Midwest newspapers accused him of wanting the government to manage the banking system. … Some have argued otherwise, including Nicholson (1983, 1992) and Wiggins (1973), both of whom offer anecdotal reports that Roosevelt was always in high regard, acknowledgment but these reports are supported only by the memories of those who had an interest in deifying FDR. response Unless it can be shown that the newspapers critical of Roosevelt were controlled by special interests, limitations on claim their attacks demonstrate significant popular dissatisfaction with Roosevelt’s presidency. restatement of claim THE VOCABULARY OF ACKNOWLEDGMENT AND RESPONSE 1. Downplay an objection or alternative by introducing it with despite, regardless of, or notwithstanding: [Despite/Regardless of/Notwithstanding] Congress’s claims that it wants to cut taxes, acknowledgement the public believes that … response

[Although/While/Even though] there are economic problems in Hong Kong, acknowledgment Southeast Asia remains a strong … response 2. You can signal an acknowledgment indirectly with seem, appear, may, and could, or with an adverb like plausibly, justifiably, reasonably, surprisingly, or even certainly: In his letters Lincoln expresses what [seems/appears] to be depression. acknowledgment But those who observed him… response This proposal [may have/plausibly has] some merit, acknowledgment but we… response 3. Acknowledge alternatives by attributing them to an unnamed source or to no source at all, which gives little weight to the objection: It is easy to [think/imagine/say/claim/argue] that taxes should… But there is [another/alternative/possible] [explanation/line of argument/account/possibility].

Some evidence [might/may/can/could/does] [suggest/indicate/point to/lead some to think] that we should…, but…

4. You can attribute an alternative to a more specific source, giving it more weight: There are [some/many/a few] who [might/may/could/would] [say/think/argue/claim/charge/object] that Cuba is not… But in fact, …

5. You can acknowledge an alternative in your own voice, with a passive verb or with an adverb such as admittedly, granted, to be sure, and so on, conceding it some validity: I [understand/know/realize] that liberals believe in …, but…

It is [true/possible/likely/certain] that no good evidence proves that coffee causes cancer. However, …

It [must/should/can] be [admitted/acknowledged/noted/conceded] that no good evidence proves that… Nevertheless, …

[Granted/Admittedly/True/To be sure/Certainly/Of course], Adams has claimed…

However, …

We [could/can/might/may/would] [say/argue/claim/think] that spending on the arts supports pornographic… But...

Responding to Objections and Alternatives 1. You can regret not that the source is unclear, but that you don’t entirely understand: But [I do not quite understand how/I find it difficult to see how/It is not clear to me how] X can claim that, when...

2. Or you can note that there are unsettled issues: But there are other issues here.../But there remains the problem of …

3. You can respond more bluntly, claiming the acknowledged position is irrelevant or unreliable: But as insightful as that may be, it [ignores/is irrelevant to/does not bear on] the issue at hand.

But the [evidence/reasoning] is [unreliable/shaky/thin].

But the argument is [untenable/weak/confused/simplistic].

But the argument [overlooks/ignores/misses] key factors.

Smith’s evidence is important, but we must look at all available evidence.

That explains some of the problem, but it is too complex for a single explanation.

That principle hold in many cases, but not in all.

TYPES OF THESIS STATEMENTS CLOSED THESIS STATEMENT A closed thesis is a statement of the main idea of the argument that also previews the major point that the writer intends to make. It is “closed” because it limits the number of points the writer will make. The closed thesis fits easily in a five-paragraph essay.

The three-dimensional characters, exciting plot, and complex themes of the Harry Potter series make them not only legendary children’s books but enduring literary classics.

OPEN THESIS STATEMENT An open thesis is one that does not list all the points the writer intends to cover in an essay. This is useful when you have more than two or three main points, but it is also effective for shorter essays as well.

The popularity of the Harry Potter series demonstrates that simplicity trumps complexity when it comes to taste of readers, both young and old.

COUNTERARGUMENT THESIS STATEMENT A variant of the open and closed thesis is the counterargument thesis, in which a summary of a counterargument usually qualified by although or but precedes the writer’s opinion. This allows you to address the counterargument and lets you respond not with a firm “yes” or “no,” but with a qualification.

Although the Harry Potter series may have some literary merit, its popularity has less to do with storytelling than with merchandising.

(Language of Composition, pp. 95 -6)

SECTION 2 | GRAMMAR USAGE AND PUNCTUATION COMMON WRITING ERRORS SENTENCE FRAGMENT – A group of words used as a sentence; however, it is not a sentence because it lacks a subject, verb, or some other essential part.

EX: Because she studied at a conservatory. (This is a fragment because it does not make a complete thought.)

Because she studied at a conservatory, she had a thorough understanding of classical music.

COMMA SPLICE – A mistake made when two independent clauses are connected (‘spliced’) with only a coma.

The comma is not enough: a period, semicolon, or conjunction is needed. EX: Fighting looks like play, it teaches cubs important survival skills.

Fighting looks like play, but it teaches cubs important survival skills.

RUN-ON SENTENCES – This is actually two sentences joined without adequate punctuation or a connecting word. You could use a comma and a conjunction, a semicolon, or a period – you may also add a transition word.

EX: Weather is one cause of famine political strife is another cause.

Weather is one cause of famine; political strife is another cause. (Note that the semicolon was used) COMMA OMISSION AFTER A LONG INTRODUCTORY PHRASE – A comma should separate an adverb clause or a long modifying phrase from the independent clause that follows.

EX: Considering all of the incredible hype the show was a disappointment.

Considering all of the incredible hype, the show was a disappointment. (Note that the comma was added after the word hype, which was the end of the introductory clause)\ COMMA OMISSION IN A COMPOUND SENTENCE – A comma may be used between two independent clauses that are joined by a coordinating conjunction such as these: and, or, but, for, nor, so, yet.

EX: The first customer came before dawn and the last one left after midnight.

The first customer came before dawn, and the last one left after midnight.

(Note that a comma was added before the conjunction and) PRONOUN/ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT ERROR – The pronoun must agree in number, person, and gender with its antecedent.

EX: Each candidate should report all of their income. Each candidate should report all of his or her income.

SHIFT IN PERSON – This is a change in the structure or style midway through a sentence.

EX: When people have heart attacks, you experience pain in the left arm. When people have heart attacks, they experience pain in the left arm.

SUBJECT/VERB AGREEMENT ERROR – The subject and verb of any clause must agree in both person and number.

EX: The problem with the new facilities are the ventilation. The problem with the new facilities is the ventilation.

SHIFT IN VERB TENSE – This is the same as shift in person – you should make sure that you do not change the structure or style midway through a sentence.

EX: After the trustees met, we are allowed to ask questions. After the trustees met, we were allowed to ask questions.

DANGLING MODIFIER – These are modifiers that appear to modify the wrong word or a word that is not in the sentence.

EX: After studying so long, the exam was a snap. After studying so long, I found the exam was a snap.

COMMONLY CONFUSED WORDS

CONFUSING CONTRACTIONS it’s (it is) they’re (they are) who’s (who is) you’re (you are)

its (of it) their (of them) there (at that place) whose (of whom) your (of you)

ONE-WORD OR TWO-WORD PAIRS all ready (completely prepared) all together (all in one place) methods) a lot (a large amount) every day (each day) may be (could be) some time (an amount of time)

already (previously) altogether (thoroughly) all ways (all always (at all times) allot (distribute, assign) everyday (ordinary) maybe (perhaps) sometime (at some unspecified time)

WORDS WITH SIMILAR SPELLINGS advice (noun) breath (noun) chose (past tense) cloths (fabrics) device (noun) envelope (noun) human (of people) later (after more time) prophecy (noun)

advise (verb) breathe (verb) choose (present tense) clothes (garments) devise (verb) envelop (verb) humane (merciful) latter (in final position) prophesy (verb)

OTHER CONFUSABLES good (adjective) may (asking permission)

well (adverb) can (have the ability)

bring (moving toward)

take (to carry off)

fewer (something you can count) lay (to place) sit (to rest the body) things)

less (something you can’t count) lie (to recline or tell an untruth) set (to place something) which or that (one of several who (what person) who (subjects) whom (objects)

SIMILAR-SOUNDING WORDS (AKA HOMONYMS) accept (receive) affect (influence, verb) allowed (permitted) ate (past tense of eat) break (smash, split) by (preposition) capital (city, wealth) cite (mention) coarse (rough) complement (make complete) conscience (moral judgment) council (committee) desert (dry land) do (to act) dew (moisture) dual (having two parts) dye (color) faze (disturb, bother) for (preposition) forth (forward) hear (perceive) heard (perceived) heroin (drug) hole (opening) knot (twist) know (be aware) knows (be aware) lead (metal) loose (free, united) meat (food) metal (element) miner (excavator) one (less than two) passed (went by) peace (absence of war) plain (simple) poor (not rich) pour (liquids) principle (rule) quiet (silent) quit (stop) rain (precipitation) read (process words) right (proper) road (path) rowed (a boat) ride) scene (stage, setting) (perceived)

except (leave out) effect (result, noun) aloud (clearly heard) eight (the number) brake (stopping device) buy (purchase) capitol (building) sight (vision) course (way or path) compliment (praise) conscious (aware) counsel (advice, adviser) dessert (sweet food) due (deadline) duel (fight) die (perish) phase (stage) four (number) fourth (comes after third) here (in this place) herd (group) heroine (principal character) whole (entire) not (negative) no (opposite of yes) nose (part of face) led (guided) lose (misplace, fail to win) meet (encounter) medal (award) minor (young person) won (to acquire) past (earlier time) piece (part, portion) plane (flat surface) pore (opening in skin) principal (chief person, sum) quite (really, positively) reign (rule, authority) red (color) rite (ritual) write (put pen to paper) rode (past tense of seen

sense (perception) stationary (not moving) paper) straight (not curved) than (word of comparison) threw (past tense of throw) to (in the direction of) two (number) waist (center of body) weak (feeble) wear (carry on the body) weather (atmospheric conditions) which (what one) witch (sorceress)

since (from that time) stationery (writing strait (narrow place) then (at that time) through (by way of) too (also) waste (squander) week (seven days) where (in what place) whether (if, in case)

GUIDE TO FORMAL ACADEMIC VOICE There are many different ways to write and speak, just as there are many different ways to dress. An outfit that is appropriate for jogging would probably not be suitable for prom. A job interview requires different attire than an afternoon with friends. Likewise, a certain type of language usage is appropriate for formal settings like academic or business writing, and it may be different that the way language is spoken casually. These suggestions will help check for characteristics of formal writing. The goal of formal writing is not to “sound” smart. The goal of formal writing is to communicate complex ideas clearly and effectively.

Do not use the first and second person

Use the third person only.

Both first person (“I”/”me”/”we”) and second person (“you”) are inappropriate.

Speak about authors and characters in the third person (“he”/”she”). It is sometimes acceptable to use “one,” but it is often better to re-write sentences and refer only to specific, identifiable individuals.

Example with error: I believe Jim Casy, the preacher in The Grapes of Wrath, is a Christ figure.

You may wonder what type of characters Cal and Aron represent.

Revision: Jim Casy, the preacher in The Grapes of Wrath, is a Christ figure.

Cal and Aron in East of Eden represent the archetypal sibling rivals.

Do not use the past-tense for criticism or analysis.

Use the present tense for discussion of literature.

While references to specific historical events may require occasional past-tense, most literary criticism will not involve any past-tense phrasing.

Analysis of how literature “works” or what occurs in the text should be in present tense. These works are being read and analyzed now!

Example with error:

Revision:

The scarlet letter in Hawthorne’s novel represented shame at the beginning, then shifted meanings as Hester started to accept her identity.

The scarlet letter in Hawthorne’s novel represents shame at the beginning, then shifts meaning as Hester starts to accept her identity.

Do not use colloquial and slang expressions.

Use standard, formal English.

Colloquial diction is informal language used in everyday speech and includes such words as "guys," "yeah," "stuff," "kind of," "okay," and "big deal." Slang is also included, as non-standard expressions may not be easily recognized by all readers.

Standard English is the form of usage taught in schools, meaning it is widely understood. Only standard English terms and expressions should be used in formal writing.

Revision:

Example with error: Holden Caulfield, the protagonist of The Catcher in the Rye, is kind of shady.

Holden Caulfield, the protagonist of The Catcher in the Rye, is a cynical teenager who believes the world is full of hypocrites.

96

Do not use contractions or shortened versions of words.

Contractions, shortened versions of words, and low numbers in numerical form (except years) should be avoided.

Use complete words.

Spell out words and numbers completely.

Revision: Photographs cannot be taken without permission.

Example with error: Photos can’t be taken without permission.

Do not use all short, simple sentences.

Use a variety of sentence lengths and types.

Too many short and simple sentences can make an essay sound informal, as if the writer does not recognize that the audience is capable of reading and understanding more complex and longer sentences.

Sentences that begin with the same word repeatedly are redundant.

A variety of sentence lengths and types reflects a mastery of writing and allows the author to balance complex analysis with strong, focused points.

Example with error: The American dream is an important motif in American literature. The American dream is rarely realized in American literature. The motif of the American dream can be seen in the novels of F. Scott Fitzgerald and John Steinbeck. The Great Gatsby is from the perspective of the wealthy. The Grapes of Wrath is from the perspective of the poor.

Revision: Reflecting the perspectives of both rich and poor American characters, novels by F. Scott Fitzgerald and John Steinbeck demonstrate characters rarely attain the American dream.

Do not use broad, vague or ambiguous language.

Use precise, effective, and confident language.

Avoid phrases like “quite,” “very,” “a lot” or “in many ways,” which tend to be meaningless qualifiers. Also avoid “there is” or “it is” constructions which make the subject unclear.

Be as specific as possible and construct sentences so the subject is clearly stated. Rather than generalizations, make clear, interpretative statements.

Example with error: It is sad that Tom Joad has to leave his very sad mother to go on the run from murder charges.

There is a lot of hope when Tom says, “I’ll be all around in the dark – I’ll be everywhere. Wherever you can look – wherever there’s a fight, so hungry people can eat, I’ll be there. Wherever there’s a cop beatin’ up a guy, I’ll be there.’

Revision: Tom Joad runs away from his forlorn mother to escape murder charges.

Tom leaves his mother with hope, saying “I’ll be all around in the dark – I’ll be everywhere. Wherever you can look – wherever there’s a fight, so hungry people can eat, I’ll be there. Wherever there’s a cop beatin’ up a guy, I’ll be there.”

97

Do not use unnecessarily wordy or pretentious language.

Remove verbal “padding.” This does not mean to avoid sophisticated diction. The most appropriate word should be used regardless of length or “level.”

Example with error:

Use clear, concise language.

Formal writing does not “sound” smart. It is smart when author chooses the best possible word to express her meaning in clear, concise terms. Words that are big, showy, or evasive should be replaced with more direct phrasing.

Revision:

To truly recognize the complexity of Gatsby’s character, one must carefully observe his myriad of foils and their unique patterns of behavior which contrast strikingly with his own.

Gatsby’s behavior can be compared to his three foils: Nick, Tom, and George.

Do not offer meaningless value judgments.

Use analysis to support specific conclusions.

Analysis does mean expressing a preference or a guess about a work of literature, so it is usually unnecessary express an opinion

Literary analysis looks closely at textual evidence to explain key ideas present in the work.

Example with error: Thoreau is quite correct when he observes that all lives come to an end, but he is too emotional about nature.

Do not make broad generalizations that oversimplify a complex period, author, topic, or idea.

Most blanket statements are so broad that they either provide no useful information (“Many scholars believe…”) or are simply false (“Througout history…”)

Example with error: Throughout history women have been marginalized and treated like they are less than men, but this is not true of Janie Starks.

evision: Thoreau draws comfort from nature to reconcile himself to the reality that all lives end.

Use necessary information about your particular topic.

Analytical writing uses correct, precise, and relevant information, even in introductory sentences.

Revision: Writing in the wake of the women’s suffrage movement and opening of educational opportunities to black women in the Harlem Renaissance, Zora Neale Hurston presents Janie Starks as a dynamic, independent woman who is still criticized by the more traditional women on her community.

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Do not use the passive voice when it can be avoided.

In passive voice, the action of a sentence is not carried out by the subject, and a compound verb phrase is created. Overuse of passive voice weakens the impact of writing and can be unnecessarily wordy.

Use the active voice and action verbs whenever possible.

Replacing passive voice with strong, active verbs and subjects often requires re-writing the sentence, but encourages specific wording and a focused tone.

Example with error:

Revision:

Social conventions are broken by Janie when she wears overalls and braids her hair.

Janie breaks social conventions by wearing overalls

Do not overuse “be” verbs.

Use strong action verbs.

Overuse of “be” verbs (“is”/”are”/”were”) weakens the

Action verbs carry weight and convey tone more

tone of formal writing.

effectively than “be” verbs.

Example with error:

Revision:

Vergible “Teacake” Woods is very fun-loving. Janie is attracted to his energy and willingness to make her equal.

Teacake attracts Janie with his fun-loving energy and willingness to treat Janie as his equal.

Do not “say what you will say” or explain that you are

Go directly to analysis.

explaining.

It is unnecessary to state when analysis is occurring, and this phrasing is clumsy.

Examples with error: This essay will prove that Holden is never truly mad, but enacting a deliberate performance of madness in the hospital.

instead of dresses and by braiding her hair instead of straightening it.

It is assumed that essays are interpretive and analytical, and this fact will be self-evident in the strongest writing. Effective writers do not need to state what they are doing because they are busy doing it!

Revision: Holden is never truly mad, but enacting a deliberate performance of madness in the hospital.

My writing is appropriate for academic contexts because…

It is technically correct. There are no distracting errors or casual expressions that make it difficult for my audience to focus on my ideas.

I am here to inform, not fill a page. Every sentence is necessary and develops my argument.

I am here to inform, not to show-off. The most specific words I can because they express exactly what I mean, but I NEVER use “fancy” or wordy phrases that I think “sound” like smart writing.

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I am here to inform, not to entertain. I am never sarcastic or silly, and I never use slang.

I re-read my writing and ask myself “How can I make it easier for my reader to understand what I mean?

What else do they need to know to follow my ideas? Is this the best way to present my information?�

Many of these revisions reflect more than a single, simplistic change. Formal writing requires consistent awareness of diction, syntax, and purpose. The best formal writing is produced by conscious, thoughtful authors who take revision seriously and are attentive to both voice and content at all stages in the writing process.

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USING FORMAL VOICE: AN OVERUSED WORD FUNERAL Some words just should not be in a formal paper. Today, we are going to pay tribute to their little word lives and then bury them. Here they are: NEVER AGAIN use the following in your formal writing. Points will be deducted!

Don’t Use These Words!

Why?

I

Me

My

First person pronouns add subjectivity to formal analysis. Avoid them.

We

Our

Us

Mine

I think . . .

I feel . . .

These kinds of phrases are slow wind-ups that weaken the point of a sentence. The sentence will probably be stronger without them.

I believe . . .

In life . . .

In my opinion . . .

You Your Yours

Second person pronouns often tell the reader what he thinks.

The reader . . .

This word is usually used to tell the reader what he thinks.

One

This word is usually used to try and get away with telling a reader what he thinks (“One can see that . . .” ). Just don’t.

Quote Essay Thesis Paragraph Book

Deliberate acknowledgement of the structure of your paper is artless. Especially distasteful is “This quote shows that . . .”

Couldn’t, shouldn’t, can’t, don’t, won’t, wouldn’t, isn’t, weren’t, wasn’t

Contractions are short cuts. Short cuts are not appropriate in formal writing.

Things, stuff

This diction is too casual for a formal paper.

This, it

IF USED ALONE AT THE BEGINNING OF A SENTENCE -- these words

(“You can see that . . .”) This is inappropriate in formal analysis.

The quote cannot do anything. The author of the quote is the one doing something.

often create a pronoun antecedent error. (We can’t tell what “this” or “it” is.) definitions

Don’t define literary terms. Assume the reader knows what they mean.

in today’s world

Trite and overused; eliminate completely

in today’s society

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There is There was There are There were This is

These phrases used at the beginnings of clauses or sentences are called expletives. They have no grammatical function in the sentence. Look for the real subject and verb after these phrases.

Very, really, totally, quite

Adding the adverbs very, really, totally before an adjective is a clear indicator to find a stronger adjective (ex. Very afraid=terrified; very big=immense; very large=colossal)

Due to the fact that

Using this phrase is a sure sign that your sentence is in trouble and wordy. Did you mean because? Due to is acceptable after a linking verb (The team's failure was due to illness among the stars.); otherwise, avoid it.

A lot, lots

“A lot” (referring to quantity) is always two words and often misspelled. Eliminate it entirely from your writing to avoid the mistake and be more precise. “Allot” (one word) means to give a portion or share.

Did you know? You can use Ctrl+F to search for each of these words. If you find one (that’s not in a quote) rewrite your sentence to take it out!

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ZERO TOLERANCE ERRORS

The following errors will result in the deduction of points from your grade each time they occur:  

     

      

Run-on sentences or fragments A lack of uniform or sophisticated style in a paragraph, including: too many simple sentences, lack of flow or transition from one sentence or paragraph to another, or awkward or incorrect syntax Too much plot summary, especially without sufficient analysis of text Non-parallel structure of words, clauses, or phrases Inconsistent verb tense or subject-verb agreement Improper possessive forms (apostrophe errors) Comma and semi-colon errors “Hanging” quotations (quotations from the text that are not worked into a sentence of your own explaining the relevance of the quotation and, preferably, suggesting some analytical purpose) Incorrect formatting of quotations, including citation format and style/usage errors Use of passive voice except where it contributes to style Improper use of informal language or argumentation Failure to cite the title of a book, play, or story properly (by italicizing, underlining, etc.)

Failure to refer to the author by first and last name on first reference and last name only on subsequent references Failure to place punctuation inside the quotation marks and outside in-text citations.

Expletive openings. (e.g. There are many political, ethical, and social debates.)

These errors will result in failure of the essay:  Failure to provide at least two appropriate quoted words or phrases with an analytical explanation in each body paragraph. (Note that two is a minimum, not a suggestion of when you’ve written enough)  Failure to organize and address a valid textual issue in the paper as a whole—in other words, failure to write a complete, persuasive, and well thought-out formal essay  Failure to answer the question or essay topic.

Usage a lot

However, allot is a word. It means "to give a share or portion."

When you mean "a bunch," it is always two words. Alot is not a word.

here/hear here means a place 103

hear is the sense that uses ears

to open their mind. It needs to be: Everyone needs to open his or her mind.

there/their/they're

Naked “This”

there is a place or an expletive (a word with little or no meaning or function grammatically that serves as a placeholder for a subject)

When "This" is used as the subject of a sentence, its antecedent is the most recent noun. If the desired antecedent is the preceding paragraph or some other object, then a noun should be inserted, as in "This discussion implies" or "This inequality implies" instead of merely "This implies". One way to understand this issue is to view "this" only as an adjective, not as a pronoun.

(ex. There are grammatical errors in this paper.) their is the possessive pronoun they're is the contraction of "they are" your/you’re your is the possessive pronoun

Capitalization/Punctuation

you’re is the contraction of you are Capitalize the beginning of every sentence.

its/it's

Place an end mark (period, question mark, exclamation mark) at the end of every sentence.

its is the possessive pronoun it's is the contraction of "it is" due to

Spelling

use when it can be replaced by “attributable to” or “caused by”

Literature

never used at the beginning of a sentence.

Language

Because is saying “Pick me! Pick me!”

Author’s names

Pronouns

Titles of works

Be sure to use singular indefinite pronouns with singular verbs and singular pronouns. Ex: Everyone needs

Kearney Knight

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THE TWENTY SENTENCE PATTERNS adapted from The Art of Styling Sentences

COMPOUND CONSTRUCTIONS PATTERN 1: SV;SV Examples: He who knows others is wise; he who knows himself is enlightened. –Laotzu Note: no conjunction joining the two clauses PATTERN 1A: SV;HOWEVER,SV Examples: She exercised every day and cut back on her food; however, she didn’t lose any weight.

PATTERN 1B: SV;SV, AND SV OR SV, BUT SV; SV Examples: The rain kept falling; Joan saw the roof begin to leak, and she put out a bucket to catch the water.

I didn’t do it; John said he didn’t do it, but the vase was certainly broken.

PATTERN 1C: SV;SV;SV Examples: John got an A; Jennie also got an A; unfortunately, George got a C. Dad is a skinflint; when I ask for a loan, he doesn’t listen; Mom isn’t any help either.

PATTERN 2: SV DO OR SC; S OMITTED VERB, DO OR SC. Examples: The mother and son each had a goal; hers, educational; his, recreational.

Lou Williams was in for adultery; John Jones for gambling.

PATTERN 3: GENERAL STATEMENT (IDEA) : SPECIFIC STATEMENT (EXAMPLE).

(AN INDEPENDENT CLAUSE) (AN INDEPENDENT CLAUSE) Examples: A lizard never worries about losing its tail: It can always grow another.

Weekdays are very similar to identical suitcases: They are all the same size, but some people can pack more into them than others.

SENTENCES WITH SERIES PATTERN 4: A,B,C Examples: The United States has a government of the people, by the people, for the people.

It took courage, skill, knowledge—and he had them all.

I like big burgers with everything on ‘em: pickles, onions, tomato, lettuce, plenty of mustard.

PATTERN 4A: A OR B OR C. (IN ANY PLACE IN THE SENTENCE)

A and B and C. (in any place in the sentence)

Examples: Looking down from the Empire State Building, Jeannie felt thrilled and amazed—and scared.

As long as rivers shall run down to the sea, or touch the mountains, or stars graze in th vault of heaven, so long shall your honor, your name, praises endure.—Virgil (using pattern 4a for 1st series, pattern 54 for 2nd series)

PATTERN 5: A AND B, C AND D, E AND F.

(May be in any slot in the sentence)

Examples: The textbook clearly showed the distinctions between prose and poetry, denotation and connotation, deduction and induction.

PATTERN 6: APPOSITIVE, APPOSITIVE, APPOSITIVE—SUMMARY WORD SV.

( Key summary words may be—such, all, those, this, many, each, which, what, these, something, someone. Sometimes this summary word will be the subject but other times it will merely modify the subject.)

Examples: The depressed, the stressed, the lonely, the fearful—all have trouble coping with problems.

What it comes down to is this: the butcher, the baker, the merchant, the landlord, the druggist, the liquor dealer, the policeman, the doctor, the city father and the politician —these are the people who make money out of prostitution, these are the real reapers of sin. –Polly Adler PATTERN 7: S –OR ( APPOSITIVE, APPOSITIVE, APPOSITIVE –OR ) V S—OR( MODIFIER, MODIFIER, MODIFIER—OR ) V Examples: My favorite books—To Kill a Mockingbird, Jane Eyre, and Their Eyes Were Watching God—feature girls and women coming of age.

The basic writing skills (good vocabulary, knowledge of grammar, sense of style) can be learned by almost everyone.

PATTERN 7A: S -- OR ( OR , APPOSITIVE – OR ) OR , V Examples: The sudden burst of light—a camera flash—startled me.

Many people (especially ecologists) say that we need to do something about global warming. The first man to walk on the moon, Neil Alden Armstrong, is a man the world will never forget.

PATTERN 8: IF . . ., IF . . . , IF . . ., THEN SV. WHEN . . ., WHEN . . ., WHEN . . ., SV. SV THAT . . ., THAT. . ., THAT . . . .

(omit the 3rd clause and have just 2, if you wish)

Examples: Because it may seem difficult at first, because it may sound awkward or forced, because it often creates lengthy sentences where the thought “gets lost,” this pattern seems forbidding to some writers, but it isn’t all that hard; try it.

REPETITIONS

Pattern 9: SV key term – or , repeated key term.

(use em-dash or comma before

repetition)

Examples: We live in an uncertain world—the inner world, the world of the mind.

The tree of knowledge will remain forever, as it was in the beginning, a tree to be desired to make one wise. --A.E. Houseman Note The repetition must be a phrase not a clause!!!!!

Wrong: He was part of the older generation, his generation was born before the Depression.

Right: He was part of the older generation, a generation born before the Depression.

PATTERN 9A: SV REPEATED KEY WORD IN SAME POSITION OF THE SENTENCE. Examples: Rodin’s The Thinker presents the perfect figure in the perfect pose.

His greatest discoveries, his greatest successes, his greatest influence upon the world’s daily life came to Edison only after repeated failure.

PATTERN 10: SV WORD: THE APPOSITIVE (THE SECOND NAMING). (with or without modifiers)

Examples: Her room contained a collection of trash: old clothes, soda cans, McDonald’s wrappers.

Airport thieves have a common target: unwary travelers.

Note: Check the words before the colon; be sure they make a complete sentence.

PATTERN 10A: SV WORD – THE APPOSITIVE.

(echoed idea or second naming)

Examples: Many traditional philosophies echo the ideas of Plato.

E-mail is wonderful and so easy to send but also represents a major problem—answering it.

Note: A second naming must be a true appositive; don’t just stick in a dash or a colon before you get to the end of the sentence. If you do, you may create an error in punctuation, not a true appositive.

Example: Wrong: One class of teenagers can be labeled—students.

Correct: One label would fit almost any teenager—student.

Also note: A dash cannot separate two complete thoughts.

Wrong: Mary Shelley spent a full year at Marlow writing Frankenstein—her monster has survived better than some of her husband’s poems.

Correct: Mary Shelley spent a full year at Marlow writing Frankenstein—creating a monster that has survived better than some of her husband’s poem.

MODIFIERS PATTERN 11: S, MODIFER, V. S – MODIFER – V. S (MODIFIER THAT WHISPERS) V. Examples: A small drop of ink, falling (as Byron said) like dew upon a thought, can make millions think.

Donuts and Danish pastries, popular breakfast foods, contain little nutrition.

PATTERN 11A: S – A FULL SENTENCE—V. S ( A FULL SENTENCE) V. Examples: Juliet’s famous question—early in the balcony scene she asks, “Wherefore art thou Romeo?”—is often misunderstood; she meant not “where” but “why.”

He leaped at the chance (too impetuously, I thought) to go whitewater rafting.

PATTERN 12: PARTICIPIAL PHRASE, SV. SV, PARTICIPIAL PHRASE. Examples: Expecting a spectacular display, the crowd eagerly awaited the fireworks. Note: Do not dangle participles!

Wrong: Walking onto the stage, the spotlight followed the singer.

PATTERN 13: MODIFIER, SV. (MODIFIER MAY BE IN OTHER POSITIONS) Examples: Below, the traffic looked like a necklace of ants.

INVERSIONS Note: Be careful when using inversions. It may lead to awkwardness. Inverting the natural order should always result in a graceful sentence, not one that seems forced or looks like a gimmick.

PATTERN 14: PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE SV (OR VS).

Examples: After a long pause, the teacher continued.

From the mist emerged a figure playing a flute.

Note: sometimes a comma is necessary after the prepositional phrase, sometimes not. The sound and meaning of your sentence will guide you.

PATTERN 15: OBJECT OR SUBJECT COMPLEMENT SV. Examples: His kind of sarcasm I do not like.

PATTERN 15A: OBJECT OR COMPLEMENT OR MODIFIER VS. Examples: Down the field and through the weeds pranced the little puppy.

Never before have we had so little time to do so much. – FDR ASSORTMENT OF PATTERNS PATTERN 16: NOT ONLY SV, BUT ALSO SV. (ALSO MAY BE OMITTED) JUST AS SV, SO TOO SV. (MAY BE SO ALSO OR SIMPLY SO) THE MORE SV, THE MORE SV. (MAY ALSO BE LESS) THE FORMER SV, THE LATTER SV. IF NOT , AT LEAST .

Examples: Reluctantly, every dieter looks for a favorable verdict from the bathroom scale; if not a pound less, at least not an ounce more. *Note: Remember these constructions come in pairs and that means “two.” Don’t give the reader a signal suggesting two items and then provide only one.

Caution: Put both conjunctions of a pair in logical places so that what follows each one will be parallel.

Wrong: The prisoner was not only found guilty of murder but also of robbery. (NO parallel verb here) Correct: The prisoner was found guilty not only of robbery but also of murder.

PATTERN 16A: A “THIS, NOT THAT” OR “NOT THIS, BUT THAT” CONSTRUCTION. Examples: For some hummingbirds, migration involves a much smaller range, measured in hundreds, not thousands, of miles.

I believe that man will not merely endure; he will prevail. –William Faulkner PATTERN 17: S (DEPENDENT CLAUSE AS SUBJECT) V. SV [DEPENDENT CLAUSE AS OBJECT OR COMPLEMENT].

Examples: How he did that is still amazing to me.

He finally finished what he had started over a year ago.

Note: The dependent (or subordinate) clause can NEVER stand alone—it is only a portion of your sentence.

PATTERN 18: ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION, SV. S, OR – OR ( ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION, OR – OR ) V. Examples: The snow having stopped, we were able to continue our journey.

I want to go away to college (my parents willing) as soon as I graduate from high school.

Note: An absolute construction uses a noun or pronoun plus a participle and has no grammatical connection to the rest of the sentence.

PATTERN 19: SV. Examples: Jesus wept. –The Bible Make my day. Clint Eastwood Note: This pattern can provide intense clarity, but being brief alone will not make it dramatic. This pattern will be effective only when you use it after several long sentences.

PATTERN 19A: (INTERROGATIVE WORD) AUXILIARY VERB SV? (INTERROGATIVE WORD STANDING ALONE) ?

(QUESTION BASED SOLELY ON INTONATION) ?

AUXILIARY VERB SV ?

Examples: Can we get it?

What if E.T. calls?

Note: Avoid scattering these around because they are easy; make them serve some purpose.

PATTERN 20: MERELY A PART OF A SENTENCE Examples: Fair enough.

Absolute power corrupting once more.

Note: If you are in the habit of writing fragments, don’t think you have mastered this pattern! Use it only as a deliberate styling device. Use sparingly & precisely.

BASIC PUNCTUATION RULES Source: Utah State University Writing Center Correct punctuation is essential for clear and effective writing. The following list contains some of the most critical punctuation rules.

COMMAS Commas separate parts of a sentence. They tell readers to pause between words, and they can clarify the meanings of sentences.

Commas are used to separate three or more words or phrases in a series.

EXAMPLE: Practice will be held before school, in the afternoon, and at night.

Commas are used after introductory words and introductory dependent clauses (groups of words before the subject of a sentence that do not form complete sentences).

EXAMPLES: If your friends enjoy Chinese food, they will love this restaurant. Incidentally, I was not late this morning.

Hoping for a bigger fish, Rob spent three more hours fishing.

Commas are used between independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so).

EXAMPLE: My dog had fleas, so we gave him a bath.

Commas set off nonessential phrases or clauses. EXAMPLE: The man, I think, had a funny laugh. Tanya, Debbie's sister, gave a brilliant speech last night.

END OF SENTENCE PUNCTUATION End of sentence punctuation is used to let the reader know when a thought is finished.

PERIODS A statement (or declarative sentence) is followed by a period. EXAMPLE: Orem is the home of Utah Valley University. Question Marks A direct question (or interrogative sentence) is followed by a question mark. EXAMPLE: When did Joe buy a red shirt?

Do not use a question mark after a declarative sentence that contains an indirect question. EXAMPLE: Marie wants to know when Joe bought a red shirt.

EXCLAMATION POINTS An exclamatory sentence is followed by an exclamation point. EXAMPLE: What a good movie!

Use exclamation marks sparingly because they can unnecessarily exaggerate sentences or create an informal tone.

EXAMPLE: Monet was the most influential painter of his time! (Most emphasizes influential painter; therefore, an exclamation point is not needed.)

SEMICOLONS Semicolons are used to separate clauses or phrases that are related and that receive equal emphasis.

Semicolons join independent clauses in a compound sentence if no coordinating conjunction is used.

EXAMPLE: Michael seemed preoccupied; he answered our questions abruptly.

Semicolons are used before a conjunctive adverb (transition word) that joins the clauses of a compound sentence.

EXAMPLE: The emergency room was crowded; however, Warren was helped immediately.

Semicolons help avoid confusion in lists where there are commas within the listed items.

EXAMPLE: We traveled to London, England; Paris, France; Berlin, Germany; and Sofia, Bulgaria.

COLONS Colons follow independent clauses and are used to call attention to the information that comes after them. EXAMPLE: Joe has only one thing on his mind: girls. (word) Joe has only one thing on his mind: the girl next door. (phrase) Joe has only one thing on his mind: he wants to go out with Linda. (clause) Joe has several things on his mind: his finals, his job, and Linda. (list) Never use a colon after a verb that directly introduces a list.

INCORRECT: CORRECT:

The things on Joe’s mind are: finals, work, and Linda.

The things on Joe’s mind are finals, work, and Linda.

HYPHENS Hyphens are used to form compound words and to join prefixes, suffixes, and letters to words.

Use hyphens with compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine and with fractions used as modifiers.

EXAMPLES: forty-two applicants two-thirds majority (two-thirds is an adjective modifying majority) three-fourths empty (three-fourths is an adverb modifying empty) two thirds of the voters (two thirds is not being used as an adjective here because thirds is a noun being modified by two) Use hyphens in a compound adjective only when the adjective comes before the word it modifies.

However, some compound adjectives are always hyphenated, such as well-balanced. Look up compound adjectives in the dictionary if you are unsure whether or not to hyphenate them.

EXAMPLES: a well-liked author an author who is well liked a world-renowned composer a composer who is world renowned Use hyphens with the prefixes ex-, self-, and all-; with the suffix -elect; and with all prefixes before a proper noun or proper adjective.

EXAMPLES: all-star ex-mayor pro-Canadian senator-elect anti-Semitic non- European self-control self-image

MORE ABOUT COMMAS COMPOUND SENTENCES Use a comma along with a coordinating conjunction between the independent clauses in a compound sentence: I didn’t believe a word Nick said, and I told him so Remember that the comma along produces a comma splice.

SERIES Use a comma when listing a series of three or more sentence elements: We gossiped, laughed, and sang the old songs at our class reunion.

We hunted in the basement, in the attic, and through all the storage rooms, to no avail.

The serial comma, the one before and, is optional; however, usage—either with or without it—must be consistent.

INTRODUCTORY DEPENDENT CLAUSE Use a comma to set off an introductory dependent clause: When the riot started, the police fired tear gas into the crowd.

SENTENCE-ENDING CLAUSES Use a comma to set off a dependent adverbial clause following the main clause if the adverbial clause has no effect on the outcome of the main clause: Some people refused to leave, even though the hurricane winds had started.

Note that in the following sentences the idea in the main clause will not be realize without the adverbial clause; therefore, we do not use a comma: I’ll pack up and leave if you tell me to.

We left the area because we were afraid to stay.

INTRODUCTORY VERB PHRASES (INFINITIVAL AND PARTICIPIAL) Use a comma to set off any introductory phrase that contains a verb form: After studying all weekend, I felt absolutely prepared for the midterm exam.

Having worked at McDonald’s for the past four summers, Max felt confident when he applied for the job of assistant manager.

To get in shape for ski season, my roommate works out on the NordicTrack.

Note: In most cases the subject of the sentence must also be the subject of the verb in that introductory phrases; otherwise, the sentence has a dangling modifier. Exceptions occur with set phrases: Speaking of the weather, let’s have a picnic.

To tell the truth, I have never read Silas Marner.

INTRODUCTORY PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES Use a comma to set off adverbial prepositional phrases of approximately six or more words: Toward the end of the semester, everyone starts to study seriously. prepositional phrases, especially if you think the reader should pause.

For example, information of specific dates is sometimes set off: In 1990, the official dismantling of the Berlin Wall began.

In making the decision about such commas, consider the punctuation in the rest of the sentence: Don’toverload the sentence with commas. Set off any prepositional phrase that might cause a misreading: During summer, vacation plans are our main topic of conversation.

OTHER SENTENCE MODIFIERS Set off words and phrases that modify the whole sentence, serve as transitions or have parenthetical meaning—at both the beginning and end of the sentence: A.

Adverbs

Luckily, we escaped without a scratch. We escaped without a scratch, luckily.

Meanwhile, there was nothing to do but wait.

B.

Yes and no:

Yes, he’s the culprit.

C.

No, I can’t go.

Transitional prepositional phrases

In fact, there was nothing I could do about her problem. In the meantime, I listened to her sad tale.

D.

Absolute phrases

Money in our pockets, we headed to town.

Ginny relaxed before the fire, her feet propped on the footstool.

NONRESTRICTIVE ELEMENTS Use commas to set off non-restrictive (commenting) elements such as nonrestrictive appositives and adjectival clauses.

My oldest brother, a history major, spends every night in the library. Now, in the twenty-first century, we have different challenges.

Steve Jobs, who co-founded Apple in the 1970s, was known for his entrepreneurial savvy.

COORDINATE ADJECTIVES Use commas in the noun phrase between coordinate adjectives in the preheadword position. Coordinate refers to adjectives of the same class—for example, subjective qualities: a tender, delightful story an easy, winning smile If the adjective are of different class, no comma is necessary. a tall young man

a huge red ball

A good general rule for making a decision about commas between these pronoun modifiers is this: If you could insert and or but, use a comma: a tender and delightful love story Notice that the two phrases without commas contain adjectives from different classes (height, age, size, color)—so they will not be separated: a tall and young man

a huge and red ball

NOUNS OF DIRECT ADDRESS Use a comma to set off vocatives in both opening and closing positions: Students, your time is up.

Put your pencils down, everyone.

DIRECT QUOTATIONS Use commas to set off direct quotations after verbs such as say and reply: The waiter said, “Good evening. My name is Pierre.” Harold replied, “I’m Harold. This is Joyce.”

Note: This is actually an exception to the punctuation rule you learned: “Do not mark the boundaries of the basic sentence units with commas.” When the direct object is a direct quotation, we do mark the boundary.

Direct quotations can also be introduced with colons: Harold replied: “I’m Harold, and this is Joyce.”

Note: The end punctuation appears inside the quotations marks if it is a comma or period, except in sentences ending with citations, in which case the period would go outside the close parentheses.

STATE AND YEAR Use commas to set of the name of a state when it follows the name of a city: I was surprised to learn that Cheyenne, Wyoming, isn’t a larger city.

Also set off the year in a complete date: Born on August 13, 1899, Alfred Hitchcock was the youngest of three children.

PUNCTUATING TITLES It's easy for students to forget that different types of titles require different typographical features. It is even harder to remember which type of title requires which type of punctuation. Despair not! If you remember these two handy rules, you can keep the difference straight: Short works and parts of long works are usually in quotation marks.

Long works and collections of short works are usually put in italics (or underlined when submitting publication work to editors).

It's easy for students to forget that different types of titles require different typographical features. It is even harder to remember which type of title requires which type of punctuation. Despair not! If you remember these two handy rules, you can keep the difference straight: 1. Short works and parts of long works are usually in quotation marks.

2. Long works and collections of short works are usually put in italics (or underlined when submitting publication work to editors).

"SHORT WORKS" & "SECTIONS OF LONGER WORKS"

LONG WORKS & COLLECTION OF SHORT WORKS

TITLE OF A SHORT POEM

TITLE OF AN EPIC OR BOOK-LENGTH POEM

Ex. “The Raven”

Ex. The Odyssey

TITLE OF A SHORT STORY

TITLE OF A BOOK

Ex. “Young Goodman Brown”

Ex. The Scarlet Letter

TITLE OF AN ESSAY

TITLE OF A COLLECTION OR ANTHOLOGY

Ex. “The Short Fiction of Langston Hughes”

Ex. Modern Writers and Their Readers

TITLE OF A SONG

TITLE OF A CD, CASSETTE, OR ALBUM

Ex. “Jingle Bells”

The Razor’s Edge by AC/DC

TITLE OF A SKIT OR MONOLOGUE

TITLE OF A BALLET OR OPERA

Ex. “Madmen’s Lament”

The Nutcracker Suite or Die Fliedermaus

SHORT COMMERCIAL

TITLE OF LONG CLASSICAL OR INSTRUMENTAL COMPOSITIONS IDENTIFIED BY NAME, RATHER THAN NUMBER.

Ex. “Obey Your Thirst” TITLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL EPISODE IN A TV SERIES Ex. “The One with the Wedding Dress” TITLE OF A CHAPTER IN A BOOK Ex. “Welsh Mountains” ENCYCLOPEDIA ARTICLE Ex. “Mountains and Plateaus” TITLE OF A MAGAZINE OR JOURNAL ARTICLE Ex. “Training Your New Puppy” TITLE OF AN ARTICLE IN A NEWSPAPER Ex. “Search Underway for Suspect in Death of

Ex: Wagner's The Flight of the Valkyries TITLE OF A FILM Ex. Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones TITLE OF A PLAY Ex. The Importance of Being Earnest TITLE OF A TV SERIES AS A WHOLE Ex. Friends TITLE OF AN ENCYCLOPEDIA Ex. Encyclopedia of Animals TITLE OF MAGAZINE or JOURNAL

Clutter Family”

Ex. Teen Vogue

ONE OR TWO PAGE HANDOUT

Ex. Journal of American Literature

Ex. “Old English Verbs: A One-Page Guide”

TITLE OF NEWSPAPER Ex. The New York Times TITLE OF PAMPHLET Ex. The Coming of the Kingdom of God and the Millennium

A FEW FINAL NOTES: In past editions of MLA, underlining a title and italicizing it were considered synonymous. That is no longer the case, and the current edition of MLA favors italics. If you submit articles for publication, some proofreaders and copy editors prefer underlining to italics. The arrival of word-processing has made italics fairly easy to make, and many people think they look classier than underlining.

Traditional religious works that are foundational to a religious group or culture are capitalized, but not italicized or underlined. For instance, note the Torah, the Bible, the Koran, the Book of Mormon, and the Vedas [no italics or quotation marks].

Visual artwork, including paintings, sculptures, drawings, mixed media, and whatnot, is italicized, never put in quotation marks. Thus, Van Gogh's Starry Night and Rodin's The Thinker both have italics.

Book and film series have neither punctuation: the Harry Potter series, the Godfather movies, the Star Wars series The title of your own unpublished student essay at the top of the first page. You do not need to underline your own title or put it in quotation marks.

CAPITALIZATION OF TITLES Normally, most words in a title are capitalized. The most common rule is that all "important" words should be capitalized, which I think isn't helpful as a criterion. In actual practice, MLA requires the first and last word in the title is capitalized, along with every noun and every verb, every adjective, and every adverb. MLA typically does not capitalize prepositions and articles; however, outside of MLA requirements, many other guidelines call for capitalizing every word that is more than three letters long. Another common rule of thumb is to capitalize the first and last words of the title, and then capitalize everything else except for prepositions and articles. Sometimes, especially in short titles, every single word might optionally be capitalized.

Examples: The Planet of the Apes [The words "of" and "the" are not capitalized.]

The Land that Time Forgot "Why Not Me?" [Since title is so short, all the words are capitalized.]

"Losing My Religion" [Since title is so short, all the words are capitalized.]

SECTION 3 | INTEGRATING AND DOCUMENTING SOURCES DIFFERENCES IN QUOTING, PARAPHRASING AND SUMMARIZING

Quotation

Paraphrase

Summary

Difference

Difference

Difference



Matches the source word for word.



Matches the source in terms of meaning.



Sums up the central point of the source.



You use the source’s words.



You use your own words.



You use your own words.



Exact same length as the source, unless you follow the rules for adding or deleting material from a quote.

Approximately the same length, though often shorter than the source.



Much shorter than the source.

Purpose 

To provide credibility for what you are saying (you support your point by quoting an authority).



To get someone’s exact words (when HOW someone said something is as important as WHAT they said).

Purpose 

To get down the meaning of someone else’s words when:



To get down the gist of someone else’s work.

1.

Their exact words are not important



2.

Their exact words are not appropriate (style too dense or too simple for example) or useful (what they emphasize is different from what you want to emphasize).

To avoid unnecessary details when the main point is all you need.



To show that you have command of the material (not a slave to the original author’s word).



To “shorten” a section from the source that is too long to quote.



To demonstrate comprehension (independent assignment).

How to 

Copy the source’s words exactly.



There are special rules for capitalization and punctuation within quotes. See Writing Lab for handouts or a tutor for help.

Cite it according to whatever style your instructor requires (e.g. MLA)

Purpose

To show that you understand what the source is saying. 

To refresh the reader’s memory if they have read the source.



To give your audience a general introduction to the source.

How to 

Carefully read the section of the source you are going to paraphrase.

Put it away and write down in your own words what the source is saying. Then go back and check to see if you missed anything.



Cite it just like a quote.



Appears on Works Cited page.

121

How to 

Carefully read the section of the source you are going to paraphrase. Put it away and write down the main point(s) of the source. Do not be a slave to the source’s organization—you decide what the main points are.



First sentence: “[John Doe]‘s essay [‘Wild Gift’] states that...”

C ommon knowledge includes whatever an educated person would be expected to know or could locate in an ordinary encyclopedia and does not need to be cited. For example:    

Easily observable behavior (Heat makes people tired in the summer; puppies display tremendous energy) Commonly reported facts (Oranges contain vitamin C; Napoleon’s army was decimated by the winter march on Moscow during the War of 1812) Common sayings (“You are what you eat;” “Look before you leap”) Information easily found within general reference sources (Franklin D. Roosevelt was born on January 30, 1882)

But beware: while common knowledge need not be cited, specific expression of common knowledge must be identified. For example, you may mention without citation, as above, that Napoleon’s army suffered ruinous losses during the winter march on Moscow. However, if your source says, “Napoleon’s army froze in droves as it struggled toward Moscow,” you must use quotation marks and cite the source of those words if you include them. Therefore, if you use someone’s words, you must quote and cite them, even if they contain an idea that is common knowledge.

122

(From “The Plagiarism Handbook” by Robert A. Harris (Pyrczak Publishing, 2001)

TRANSITIONS TO INCORPORATE QUOTATIONS INTO PARAGRAPHS If you get tired of stating over and over again that "Jones says'. . .’”, try some of the following variations.

They work equally well with direct quotations or paraphrases, and when combined with a bit of basic information about the source of your material, they kill two birds with one stone by both introducing and crediting your information (often eliminating the need for a parenthetical citation), as in this example: Jones notes in the November 2002 issue of Psychology Today that ". . . . Other suggested variations: Jones found in

that . . .

,

"

demonstrates “

“

“

"

reports

"

"

"

suggests

“

“

“

"

observes

“

“

“

"

asserts

"

"

"

•"

emphasizes

“

"

"

"

declares

"

"

"

"

holds

"

"

"

"

maintains

"

“

“

"

In his controversial book, The Naked Ape, Desmond Morris argues that.... demonstrates maintains.... suggests.... .

In a 2001 (book, “article,” or whatever) entitled . . . , So-and-so examines the subject of catfish and observes that. . . .

According to Jones, . .

Jones' view . . . . opinion,. . estimation,. . . .

Jones contradicts this view in a 2003 Saturday Review essay in which he argues that . . .

However, Jones maintains that. . . .

123

Although Jones opines that . . . , Smith suggests another theory:. . . .

A (book, “article,”” essay, “”speech,” etc.) by Jones, which is (summarized, referred to, alluded to, mentioned, included in a discussion) i In one of Joe Moholzer’s New York Times’ editorials makes the point that . . . .

As reported by Jones in the October 22, 1968 Seattle Post-Intelligencer, . . . .

124

INTEGRATING QUOTES SMOOTHLY INTO TEXTS There are three main ways to TIE quotations smoothly into text: “T” tag (attribution comes after the quotation) "You brute. You brute," Holden mutters as he leaves the compound where he and Ameera have spent many happy hours.

"Secretly, of course--I was all for the Burmese," Orwell confides.

“I” introduce (attribution comes before the quotation) As Holden leaves the compound where he and Ameera have spent many happy hours, he mutters, "You brute. You brute."

Orwell confided he "was all for the Burmese."

“E” embed (quotation is embedded between attribution and explanation) Holden mutters, "You brute. You brute," as he leaves the compound where he and Ameera have spent many happy hours.

Orwell was "all for the Burmese" and hated working as an agent of the British Empire in Burma .

Generally, long quotations are to be avoided. When a long quotation is absolutely essential (generally, only in a formal paper), it should be set off from the text. Still, it is important to introduce the quotation.

Usually "set off" text is preceded by a colon: George Orwell had a difficult time acting as a police officer in Lower Burma . As demonstrated in the following excerpt from “Shooting an Elephant,”) he was frustrated by his conflicting need to maintain law and order while remaining faithful to the idea that the Burmese had the right to be free: All this was perplexing and upsetting. For at that time I had already made up my mind that imperialism was an evil thing and the sooner I chucked up my job and got out of it the Better. Theoretically--and secretly, of course--I was all for the Burmese and all against their oppressors, the British. (p. 4) Notice when quotations are set off from text they do not require quotation marks. Indent each line of the quote 10 spaces from the left margin (15 when starting a new paragraph). Right margin remains the same as the body of the paper. Spacing is the same as the body of the paper.

All quotations must be tied to text! Do not simply sprinkle them in like confetti. Smooth integration is the mark of a mature writer and makes a paper flow.

This handout is adapted from a handout by Michelle Garbis of Stoneham Douglas High School in Florida, 2003.

125

FAYETTE COUNTY SCHOOLS PLAGIARISM AND ACADEMIC DISHONESTY STATEMENT (9-12) Rationale: Plagiarism and academic dishonesty are serious violations of the principles of academic integrity. They represent a form of theft rather than genuine learning, and undermine the learning process. Plagiarism and academic dishonesty demonstrate a breach of character that is at odds with the values and goals of Fayette County Public Schools as an agency of college and career readiness. Students must become adept at gathering information, evaluating sources, citing material accurately, reporting findings from their research, and analyzing sources in a clear and cogent manner. Plagiarism and academic dishonesty will not be tolerated.

Plagiarism and Academic Dishonesty include the: 

 

 

representation of another’s ideas or writing as one’s own, by withholding credit through the omission of parenthetical documentation and/or a works cited page submission of work copied in part or whole from the work of someone else and submitting it as one’s own, by withholding credit through the omission of parenthetical documentation, specific source citations on a works cited page, and/or works cited page use of material—copied directly, cut and pasted, summarized, or paraphrased--without providing the author’s name and title of source submission of purchased papers or papers downloaded from the Internet as one’s own submission of papers written by some other person—including tutors, parents, siblings, or friends--as one’s own provision of one’s work in any discipline or subject matter to others, whether one believes the work will be copied or not unless the teacher has given specific permission for collaborative effort stealing of examination or course materials or cheating on an examination falsifying of records, laboratory results, or other data assistance of another student in any of the areas above, including assistance in an arrangement whereby any work, classroom performance, examination, or other activity is submitted or performed by a person other than the student under whose name the work is submitted or performed.

Penalties for Plagiarism: A. B.

C.

D.

A student who has plagiarized all or any part of a major writing assignment in any class will receive no credit for the assignment. No substitute assignment will be given.

A student who submits an assignment that requires documentation with no parenthetical citation and/or works cited has effectively and purposefully committed plagiarism; therefore, the student will receive a grade of zero for the entire research or writing assignment. No substitute assignment will be given.

A student who allows another student to copy his or her assignment in any discipline, or assists in the act of plagiarism or academic dishonesty, will be subject to disciplinary action and will receive a grade of zero for the assignment. No substitute assignment will be given.

All incidents of plagiarism will result in a disciplinary referral, parents will be notified, and the assignment will receive a grade of zero for the assignment. No substitute assignment will be given.

NOTE TO PARENTS: “County Guidelines for Student Behavior” outlines the punishments for academic dishonesty; plagiarism is academic dishonesty. Teachers give instruction orally, in writing, and through specific examples as to what constitutes plagiarism to all students.

Revised 07/2013

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SECTION 4 | READING ANALYTICALLY B-H-H READING

127

PREPARING TO DISCUSS A TEXT

Directions: After reading your selection, choose ______ of the sentence stems and complete them to write a response to what you have read.

This story is about This story is told by I notice I liked the way The writer wants me to know The writer thinks I already know This writer claims Something that confirmed my thinking is Something that challenged my thinking is Something that changed my thinking is Something that changed my feeling or thinking about the world is I learned about myself that I learned about others that My actions of feeling which change because

128

129

GUIDELINES FOR SOCRATIC SEMINARS The Socratic method of teaching is based on Socrates' theory that it is more important to enable students to think for themselves than to merely fill their heads with "right" answers. Therefore, he regularly engaged his pupils in dialogues by responding to their questions with questions, instead of answers. This process encourages independent thinking and close analysis. The goal of our Socratic seminars is to help you learn to think through any question.

BASIC SETUP OF THE SOCRATIC SEMINAR  Half of the class will be in the inner circle and half the class will be in the outer circle.  The inner circle will be given a specific amount of time to answer the first half of the questions on the handout. I will keep you informed about how much time you have left, but it is your responsibility to respectfully and equally discuss the questions with every member of your group. You need to make sure that you have enough time to get through all the questions and to provide the best answers possible. Every person in the group should speak.  The outer circle will sit quietly and listen carefully to your conversation.  ALL STUDENTS SHOULD BE TAKING NOTES ON THE ANSWERS AND DISCUSSION RELATED TO THE QUESTIONS, ON THEIR HANDOUTS, REGARDLESS OF WHETHER THEY ARE IN THE INNER OR OUTER CIRCLE.  Each member of the outer circle will be given an index card with a specific question that requires them to listen to the inner circle’s discussion and analyze it in order to give an answer.  You are not "learning a subject"; your goal is to understand the ideas, issues, and values reflected in the text.  The outer circle will share their answers to the question on the index card with the entire class after the inner circle completes their discussion.  Then the outer circle and inner circle will switch places and roles. The new inner circle will cover the second half of the discussion questions on the handout.

GUIDELINES FOR PARTICIPANTS IN A SOCRATIC SEMINAR 1. Refer to the text when needed during the discussion. A seminar is not a test of memory.

2. It's OK to "pass" when asked to contribute.

3. Do not participate if you are not prepared.

4. A seminar should not be a bull session.

5. Do not stay confused; ask for clarification.

6. Stick to the point currently under discussion; make notes about ideas you want to come back to. Don't raise hands; take turns speaking.

7. Listen carefully to each other and be incredibly respectful.

8. Speak up so that all can hear you… including the people in the outer circle.

9. Talk to each other, not just to the leader or teacher.

10. Discuss ideas rather than each other's opinions.

11. You are responsible for the seminar, even if you don't know it or admit it.

130

EXPECTATIONS OF PARTICIPANTS IN A SOCRATIC SEMINAR When I evaluate your Socratic Seminar participation, I will ask myself the following questions.

Did they group and the individual students….            

Speak loudly and clearly?

Cite reasons and evidence for their statements?

Use the text to find support?

Listen to others respectfully?

Stick with the subject?

Talk to each other, not just to the leader?

Paraphrase accurately?

Ask for help to clear up confusion?

Support each other?

Avoid hostile exchanges?

Question others in a civil manner?

Seem prepared?

DIALOGUE VERSUS DEBATE Dialogue is...

Debate is...

collaborative

oppositional

about understanding

about proving others wrong

listening for deeper meaning

listening for flaws

re-evaluating assumptions

defending assumptions

open-minded

close-minded

about temporarily suspending beliefs

about defending beliefs

searching for strength or validity in all ideas

searching for weaknesses in ideas

about respecting all participants

about belittling or demeaning others

exploring different possibilities

having one right

answer open-ended

demands a conclusion 131

SOCRATIC SEMINAR RUBRIC FOR INDIVIDUAL PARTICIPANTS

Exemplary      

reads closely, takes notes, and develops high-level questions before the seminar uses prepared text, notes, and questions to contribute to the dialogue moves the conversation forward asks for clarification when needed asks probing questions for higher level thinking speaks to all participants and is

       

heard clearly thinks before answering refers directly to the text makes connections to other speakers builds on others’ comments considers all opinions writes down thoughts and questions listens actively demonstrates patience and respect toward others’ opinions/ideas

Competent    

comes prepared with marked text, notes, and questions contributes to the dialogue responds to questions refers to text

    

offers interesting ideas asks questions takes notes pays attention is respectful of others’ ideas

 

repeats some ideas asks a few questions and/or questions are lower level takes some notes loses track of conversation judges others’ ideas

Developing    

comes with some text preparation emphasizes own ideas; may lean toward debate rather than dialogue ideas not always connected refers to text

  

Needs Improvement   

 

does not participate or participation is inappropriate repeats same ideas few or no notes taken

132

no questions asked seems lost/overwhelmed with the seminar

SOAPSTONE—AN ACRONYM FOR ANALYZING TEXTS FOR POINT OF VIEW

Subject: The general topic, content, and ideas contained in the text. This can be stated in a few words or a phrase.

Occasion: Where and when did the story take place? In what context. What is the rhetorical occasion of the text? Is it a memory, a description, an observation, a valedictory, an argument, a diatribe, an elegy, a declaration, a critique, etc.? Note the larger occasion, that is, the broad issue which is the center of ideas and emotions. Also note the immediate occasion, that is, the issue that catches the writer’s attention and triggers a response.

Audience: Toward whom is the text directed? Does the author identify an audience? Is it one individual, a group, many groups? What assumptions can you make about the intended audience?

Purpose: What is the speaker's reason for writing the text? Considering the purpose is important so that the reader can examine the writer’s argument and the logic of it. In what ways does the author convey the message of the purpose? What is the message? How does the speaker try to spark a reaction in the audience? How is the text supposed to make the audience feel? What is its intended effect?

Speaker: (The voice telling the story). Is someone identified as the speaker? What assumptions can you make about the speaker? (e.g., age, gender, class, emotional state, etc.)

The author and the speaker are not necessarily the same. The author may tell the story from many different points of view. So who is telling the story? How do you know this? How does the writer present his/her narration?

Assess the character of the speaker. These are crucial considerations. Are the author and speaker a different gender. Do not be confused by the gender of the author and assume the speaker must be the same. Let the facts lead you to the speaker. What does the speaker believe? Do not assume that the author believes what the speaker believes.

If the text is non-fiction, do not simply identify the speaker/author by name. Include important facts about the speaker that will help the reader (the audience) make judgments about the speaker’s position (the speaker’s point of view).

Stylistic and Linguistic Elements: syntax, language, literary devices, imagery, diction, detail.

Tone: What is the author's attitude toward the subject? What emotional sense do you take from the piece? The spoken word can convey the speaker’s attitude and help impart meaning through tone of voice. However, with the written word, tone extends meaningast the literal. How does the diction (choice of words), point to tone? How does syntax (sentence construction) point to tone? Finally, how does imagery (vivid descriptions that appeal to the senses) point to tone?

Organization: How is the text organized? How does the writer arrange his/her content?

Narrative Style: How does the writer tell the “story” ? What does the writer reveal? What does he/she conceal?

What does (s)he invert/subvert? Is the writing “dramatic,” almost play-like in its use of dialogue or theatrical conventions ? How does the writer treat time?

Evidence: What kind of diction dominates the text? What is the source of the images (e.g, nature, weapons, law, science, theology, love, architecture, etc.). What do sound devices contribute to the work?

SIMPLE GUIDE TO TEXT ANNOTATION

HOW SHOULD I ANNOTATE?

Here are some steps to applying annotation to texts: Skim through the chapter. Note the organization of the chapter (are there subheadings, pictures, graphs, etc.)

Skim the introduction, THEN the conclusion, before reading the entire chapter. This will help you get a sense as to what exactly you should know before diving in and reading.

Read one or more paragraphs. Then STOP. The amount of text you can read will vary from text to text, according to difficulty and organization.

Think about the key ideas that you have read—what is the author arguing, or how is the author supporting the argument?

Briefly write the key ideas in the margin, looking for the following:       

Definitions Examples Lists Causes and effects Characteristics Likenesses/differences Names or dates or other important information

Check your annotations to be sure that they make sense to you.

Go on to the next section or paragraph. Remember, not every paragraph will have a key concept that should be annotated, but every page or section usually does.

How can you study based on this system?      

Cover the text.

Read your annotations. Ask yourself the following questions: Do my annotations make sense?

Do I understand the concepts identified?

If not, uncover the text and reread only the key material. Do not reread the entire section.

In essence, you want to talk yourself through the entire chapter/text and actively learn the material

Adapted from Dan Progreba

SAMPLE ANNOTATION

.

A GLOSSARY OF LITERARY TERMS LITERARY DEVICES Alliteration: The repetition of initial consonant sounds used especially in poetry to emphasize and link words as well as to create pleasing, musical sounds. Example—the fair breeze blew, the white foam flew.

Allusion: A reference to a well-known person, place, event, literary work, or work of art to enrich the reading experience by adding meaning.

Characterization: Techniques a writer uses to create and develop a character by what: 

he/she does or says,



other characters say about him/her, or how they react to him/her



the author reveals directly or through a narrator.

Dialect: Speech that reflects pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar typical of a geographical region.

Flashback: Interruption of the chronological (time) order to present something that occurred before the beginning of the story.

Figurative Language: Language that has meaning beyond the literal meaning; also known as “figures of speech.” 

Simile: comparison of two things using the words “like” or “as,” e.g. “Her smile was as cold as ice.”



Metaphor comparison of two things essentially different but with some commonalities; does not use “like” or “as,” e.g. “Her smile was ice.”



Hyperbole: a purposeful exaggeration for emphasis or humor.



Personification: human qualities attributed to an animal, object, or idea, e.g. “The wind exhaled.”

Free Verse: Poetry that does not conform to a regular meter or rhyme scheme. Poets who write in free verse try to reproduce the natural rhythms of spoken language.

Foreshadowing: Important hints that an author drops to prepare the reader for what is to come, and help the reader anticipate the outcome.

Imagery: Words or phrases that appeal to the reader’s senses.

Humor: The quality of a literary or informative work that makes the character and/or situations seem funny, amusing, or ludicrous.

Irony: A technique that involves surprising, interesting, or amusing contradictions or contrasts. Verbal irony occurs when words are used to suggest the opposite of their usual meaning. An irony of situation is when an event occurs that directly contradicts expectations.

Onomatopoeia: The use of words that imitate sounds. Examples would be hiss, buzz, swish, and crunch.

Point of View: Perspective from which the story is told 

First-person: narrator is a character in the story; uses “I,” “we,” etc.



Third-person: narrator outside the story; uses “he,” “she,” “they”



Third-person limited: narrator tells only what one character perceives



Third-person omniscient: narrator can see into the minds of all characters.

Satire: Writing that comments humorously on human flaws, ideas, social customs, or institutions in order to change them

and in the end are rewarded or punished as they deserve.

Style: The distinctive way that a writer uses language including such factors as word choice, sentence length, arrangement, and complexity, and the use of figurative language and imagery.

Historical Fiction: A made-up story that is based on a real time and place in history, so fact is mixed with fiction.

Suspense: A feeling of excitement, curiosity, or expectation about what will happen.

Symbol: Person, place, or thing that represents something beyond itself, most often something concrete or tangible that represents anabstract idea.

LITERARY FORMS Autobiography: A writer’s story of his or her own life.

Biography: A writer’s account of some other person’s life.

Comedy: Writing that deals with life in a humorous way, often poking fun at people’s mistakes.

Drama: Also called a play, this writing form uses dialogue to share its message and is meant to be performed in front of an audience.

Essay: A short piece of nonfiction that expresses the writer’s opinion or shares information about a subject Fable: A short story that often uses talking animals as the main characters and teaches an explicit moral or lesson.

Fantasy: A story set in an imaginary world in which the characters usually have supernatural powers or abilities.

Folktale: A story originally passed from one generation to another by word of mouth only.

The characters are usually all good or all bad

Myth: A traditional story intended to explain some mystery of nature, religious doctrine, or cultural belief. The gods and goddesses of mythology have supernatural powers, but the human characters usually do not.

Novel: A book-length, fictional prose story.

Because of its length, a novel’s characters and plot are usually more developed than those of a short story.

Poetry: A literary work that uses concise, colorful, often rhythmic language to express ideas or emotions. Examples: ballad, blank verse, free verse, elegy, limerick, sonnet.

Prose: A literary work that uses the familiar spoken form of language, sentence after sentence.

Realistic Fiction: Writing that attempts to show life as it really is.

Science Fiction: Writing based on real or imaginary scientific developments and often set in the future.

Short Story: Shorter than a novel, this piece of literature can usually be read in one sitting.

Because of its le ngth, it has only a few characters and focuses on one problem or conflict.

Tall Tale: A humorous, exaggerated story often based on the life of a real person. The exaggerations build until the character can accomplish impossible things.

LITERARY ELEMENTS Action: Everything that happens in a story.

Antagonist: The person or force that works against the hero of the story. (See protagonist)

Plot: The action that makes up the story, following a plan called the plot line.

Character: One of the people (or animals) in a story.

Plot line: The planned action or series of events in a story. There are five parts: exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution.

Climax: The high point in the action of a story.

Conflict: A problem or struggle between two opposing forces in a story. There are four basic conflicts: •

Person Against Person: A problem between characters.

•

Person Against Self: A problem within a character’s own mind.

•

Person Against Society: A problem between a character and society, school, the law, or some tradition.

•

Person Against Nature: A problem between a character and some element of nature-a blizzard, a hurricane, a mountain climb, etc.

Dialogue: The conversations that characters have with one another.

Exposition: The part of the story, usually near the beginning, in which the characters are introduced, the background is explained, and the setting is described.

Falling Action: The action and dialogue following the climax that lead the reader into the story’s end.

Mood: The feeling a piece of literature is intended to create in a reader.

Moral: The lesson a story teaches.

Narrator: The person or character who actually tells the story, filling in the background information and bridging the gaps between dialogue. (See Point of View.)

Protagonist: The main character in a story, often a good or heroic type.

Resolution: The part of the story in which the problems are solved and the action comes to a satisfying end.

Rising Action: The central part of the story during which various problems arise after a conflict is introduced.

Setting: The place and the time frame in which a story takes place.

Style: The distinctive way that a writer uses language including such factors as word choice, sentence length, arrangement, and complexity, and the use of figurative language and imagery.

Theme: The message about life or human nature that is “the focus” in the story that the writer tells.

ADDITIONAL VOCABULARY Article: A complete piece of writing, as a report or essay, that is part of a newspaper, magazine, or book.

Atlas: A book of maps.

Encyclopedia: A book that contains information on many subjects; or comprehensive information in a particular field of knowledge; usually arranged alphabetically.

Fiction: A literary work whose content is based on the imagination and not on fact.

Glossary: An alphabetical listing of difficult, technical, or foreign terms with definitions or

translation; usually found at the end of a book.

Index: An alphabetical listing that gives page numbers or books where information can be found.

Mystery: A novel, story, or play involving a crime or secret activity and its gradual solution.

Nonfiction: True writing, based on factual information.

Periodical: Another word for magazine.

Reference: A type of book that provides information arranged for easy access.

Series: Several books related in subject, or dealing with the same characters.

Table of Contents: The part of a book which lists the chapters or contents within the book.

SECTION 5 | RUBRICS FOUR POINT HOLISTIC RUBRIC GENRE: NARRATIVE Description

The Narrative writing task examines the writer’s ability to effectively develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective techniques, descriptive details, and clear event sequences.

Students are responsible for language conventions learned in their current grade as well as in prior grades.

Refer to the language skills for each grade to

Points 4

3

2

Criteria The student’s response is a well-developed narrative that fully develops a real or imagined experience based on a text as a stimulus (when designated).

•Effectively establishes a situation, one or more points of view, and introduces a narrator and/or characters •Creates a smooth progression of events •Effectively uses multiple narrative techniques, such as dialogue, description, pacing, reflection, and plot to develop rich, interesting experiences, events, and/or characters •Uses a variety of techniques consistently to sequence events that build on one another •Uses precise words and phrases, details, and sensory language consistently to convey a vivid picture of the events •Provides a conclusion that follows from the narrated experiences or events •Integrates ideas and details from source material effectively (when applicable) •Has no errors in usage and/or conventions The student’s response is a complete narrative that develops a real or imagined experience based on a text as a stimulus (when designated).

•Establishes a situation, a point of view, and introduces one or more characters •Organizes events in a clear, logical order •Uses some narrative techniques, such as dialogue, description, pacing, reflection, and plot to develop experiences, events, and/or characters •Uses words and/or phrases to indicate sequence •Uses words, phrases, and details to convey a picture of the events •Provides an appropriate conclusion •Integrates some ideas and/or details from source material (when applicable) •Has a few minor errors in usage and/or conventions The student’s response is an incomplete or oversimplified narrative based on a text as a stimulus (when designated).

•Introduces a vague situation and at least one character •Organizes events in a sequence but with some gaps or ambiguity •Attempts to use a narrative technique, such as dialogue, description, reflection, and plot to develop experiences, events, and/or characters •Inconsistently uses occasional signal words to indicate sequence •Inconsistently uses some words or phrases to convey a picture of the events •Provides a weak or ambiguous conclusion •Attempts to integrate ideas or details from source material (when applicable) •Has frequent or major errors in usage and conventions

determine the gradelevel expectations for grammar, syntax, capitalization, punctuation, and spelling.

1

The student’s response provides evidence of an attempt to write a narrative based on a text as a stimulus (when designated).

•Provides a weak or minimal introduction •May be too brief to demonstrate a complete sequence of events •Shows little or no attempt to use dialogue or description •Uses words that are inappropriate, overly simple, or unclear •Provides few if any words that convey a picture of the events, signal shifts in time or setting, or show relationships among experiences or events •Provides a minimal or no conclusion •May use few if any ideas or details from source material (when applicable) •Has frequent or major errors in usage and conventions that interfere with meaning •The response is completely irrelevant or incorrect, or there is no response.

•The student merely copies the text in the prompt.

•The student copies so much text from the passages that there is not sufficient original work to be scored.

0

FAYETTE COUNTY SEVEN POINT TWO-TRAIT RUBRIC INFORMATIONAL/EXPLANATORY GENRE

4

Idea Development, Organization, and Coherence This trait examines the writer’s ability to effectively establish a controlling topic and to support the topic with evidence from the text(s) read and to elaborate on the topic with examples, illustrations, facts, and other details. The writer must integrate the information from the text(s) into his/her own words and arrange the ideas and supporting evidence in order to create cohesion for an informative/explanatory essay.

3

The student’s response is a well-developed informative/explanatory text that examines a topic in depth and presents related information based on text as a stimulus (when designated).

• Effectively introduces the topic and main idea(s) to be examined.

• Effectively uses an organizational strategy to present information and to maintain focus and to make important connections and distinctions.

•Thoroughly develops the topic with well-chosen, relevant, and sufficient facts, extended definitions, concrete details, quotations, or other information and examples that are appropriate for the audience.

• Uses appropriate and varied transitions to create cohesion, to link major section(s) of the text, and to clarify the relationship among ideas • Effectively uses precise language and domain-specific vocabulary appropriate to the audience and complexity of the topic.

• Establishes and maintains a formal style and objective tone.

• Provides a strong concluding statement or section that logically follows from the ideas presented and goes beyond summary.

• Includes accurate information.

The student’s response is a complete informative/explanatory text that examines a topic and presents information based on text as a stimulus (when designated).

• Introduces the topic and main idea(s) to be examined.

• Has an organizational strategy to group information and provide focus, but sometimes connections and distinctions are not clear.

• Uses a few pieces of relevant information from source(s) to develop topic.

• Uses some transitions to connect and clarify relationships among ideas, but relationships may not always be clear.

• Uses some precise language and domain-specific vocabulary to explain the topic.

• Usually uses a formal style and objective tone.

• Provides a concluding statement or section that follows from the ideas presented.

2

1

0

3 Language, Usage, and Conventions This trait examines the writer’s ability to demonstrate control of sentence formation, usage and mechanics as embodied in the grade-level expectations of the language standards.

Students are responsible for language conventions learned in their current grade as well as in prior grades. Refer to the language skills for each grade to

2

1

• Includes accurate information.

The student’s response is an incomplete or oversimplified informative/explanatory text that cursorily examines a topic based on text as a stimulus (when designated).

•Attempts to introduce a topic or main idea.

•Ineffectively organizes ideas, concepts and information.

•Develops topic, sometimes unevenly, little relevant information.

•Attempts to link ideas and concepts, but cohesion is inconsistent.

•Uses limited precise language and/or domain-specific vocabulary to manage the topic.

•Attempts to establish formal style and objective tone but struggles to maintain.

•Provides a weak concluding statement or section.

• Includes inaccurate information.

The student’s response is a weak attempt to write an informative/explanatory text that examines a topic based on text as a stimulus (when designated).

•May not introduce a topic or main idea, or the topic or main idea must be inferred.

•May be too brief to demonstrate an organizational structure, or no structure is evident.

•Provides minimal information to develop the topic, little or none of which is from sources.

•Struggles to link some ideas and concepts, but cohesion is weak throughout.

•Uses vague, ambiguous, inexact, or repetitive language.

•Lacks appropriate formal style and tone.

•Provides a minimal or no concluding statement or section.

• Includes inaccurate information.

•The response is completely irrelevant or incorrect, or there is no response.

•The student merely copies the text in the prompt.

•The student copies so much text from the passages that there is not sufficient original work to be scored.

The student’s response demonstrates full command of language, usage, and conventions.

• Uses clear and complete sentence structure, with appropriate range and variety.

• Correctly and consistently attributes and integrates paraphrases and direct quotations to their sources via in-text or parenthetical citations.

• Has almost no errors in usage and/or conventions.

• Fully adheres to MLA formatting and documentation guidelines.

The student’s response demonstrates partial command of language, usage, and conventions.

•Uses complete sentences, with some variety.

•Attributes and integrates paraphrases and direct quotations inconsistently to their sources via in text or parenthetical citations.

•Has minor errors in usage and/or conventions.

• Adheres to MLA formatting and documentation guidelines.

The student’s response demonstrates weak command of language, usage, and conventions.

•Has fragments, run-ons, and/or other sentence structure errors.

•Makes little if any attempt to attribute and/or integrate paraphrases

determine the grade-level expectations for grammar, syntax, capitalization, punctuation, and spelling.

and direct quotations to their sources.

•Has frequent or major errors in usage and conventions.

• Attempts to adhere to MLA formatting and documentation guidelines.

•The student’s response has many errors that affect the overall meaning, or the response is too brief to determine a score.

0 •The student copies so much text from the passages that there is not sufficient original work to be scored.

Students will lose credit for failure to use the assigned number of credible and appropriate sources that are quoted and/or integrated and documented in the Works Cited page. The final grade will be based on the percentage of required sources actually used with each source carrying equal weight.

FAYETTE COUNTY SEVEN POINT TWO-TRAIT RUBRIC ARGUMENTATIVE GENRE

4

Idea Development, Organization, and Coherence This trait examines the writer’s ability to effectively establish a claim as well as to address counterclaims, to support the claim with evidence from the text(s) read, and to elaborate on the claim with examples, illustrations, facts, and other details. The writer must integrate the information from the text(s) into his/her own words and arrange the ideas and supporting evidence in order to

3

The student’s response is a well-developed argument that develops and supports claims with multiple, clear reasons and abundant, relevant evidence based on text as a stimulus (when designated).

•Effectively introduces a claim or claims and engages the audience •Has a clear, valid, and original claim that takes a position on a substantive topic •Uses an organizational strategy to establish clear relationships among claim(s), counterclaims, reasons and relevant evidence •Uses specific and well-chosen facts, details, definitions, examples, and/or other information from sources to develop claim(s) and counterclaims fully and fairly and to point out strengths and limitations of both while anticipating the audience’s knowledge and concerns •Acknowledges and counters opposing claims, as appropriate •Uses words, phrases, and clauses that effectively connect the major sections of the text and clarify relationships between claim(s) and reasons, between reasons and evidence, and between claim(s) and counterclaims •Intentionally uses and maintains a style and tone that is appropriate for task, purpose, and audience •Provides a strong concluding statement or section that follows from and supports the argument presented • Includes accurate information The student’s response is a complete argument that relates and supports claims with reasons and evidence based on text as a stimulus (when designated).

•Clearly introduces a claim or claims •Has a claim that states a position on an issue •Uses an organizational strategy to present claims, reasons, and evidence •Uses multiple pieces of relevant information from sources adequately to develop claim(s) and counterclaims and to clarify relationships between claims, reasons, evidence, and counterclaims while attempting to attend to the audience’s knowledge or concerns •Attempts to acknowledge and counter opposing claims, as appropriate •Uses words and/or phrases to connect ideas •Uses a tone and style appropriate for task, purpose, and audience •Provides a concluding statement or section that follows from the argument presented • Includes accurate information The student’s response is an incomplete or oversimplified argument that partially supports claims with reasons and evidence loosely-related to the text (when designated).

create cohesion for an argument essay.

2

1

0

3 Language, Usage, and Conventions This trait examines the writer’s ability to demonstrate control of sentence formation, usage and mechanics as embodied in the grade-level expectations of the language standards.

Students are responsible for language conventions

2

1

•Attempts to introduce a claim, but the claim may be unclear •Has a claim that identifies an issue but author’s positon is unclear •Attempts to use an organizational structure, which may be formulaic •Develops, sometimes unevenly, reasons and/or evidence to support a claim and present opposing claims but shows little awareness of the audience’s knowledge or concerns •Makes reference to opposing claims •Attempts to use words and/or phrases to connect claims, counterclaims, reasons, evidence, but cohesion is inconsistent or weak •Attempts a tone and style that are appropriate for task, purpose, and audience •Provides a weak concluding statement or section • includes inaccurate information The student’s response is a weak attempt to write an argument and does not support claims with adequate reasons and evidence based on the text as stimulus (when designated).

•May not introduce a claim, or the claim must be inferred •Has no clear claim •May be too brief to demonstrate an organizational structure, or no structure is evident •Provides minimal information to develop the claim(s), little or none of which is from sources and fails to attend to the audience’s knowledge or concerns •Makes no attempt to reference, acknowledge, or counter opposing claims •Makes no attempt to use words and/or phrases to connect claims and reasons, reasons and evidence, and claims and counterclaims •Uses a style and tone that are inappropriate and/or ineffective •Provides a minimal or no concluding statement or section • Includes inaccurate information •The response is completely irrelevant or incorrect, or there is no response.

•The student merely copies the text in the prompt.

•The student copies so much text from the passages that there is not sufficient original work to be scored.

The student’s response demonstrates full command of language, usage, and conventions.

• Uses clear and complete sentence structure, with appropriate range and variety.

• Correctly and consistently attributes and integrates paraphrases and direct quotations to their sources via in-text or parenthetical citations.

• Has almost no errors in usage and/or conventions.

• Fully adheres to MLA formatting and documentation guidelines.

The student’s response demonstrates partial command of language, usage, and conventions.

•Uses complete sentences, with some variety.

•Attributes and integrates paraphrases and direct quotations inconsistently to their sources via in text or parenthetical citations.

•Has minor errors in usage and/or conventions.

• Adheres to MLA formatting and documentation guidelines.

The student’s response demonstrates weak command of language, usage, and conventions.

•Has fragments, run-ons, and/or other sentence structure errors.

•Makes little if any attempt to attribute and/or integrate paraphrases and direct quotations to their sources.

•Has frequent or major errors in usage and conventions.

• Attempts to adhere to MLA formatting and documentation guidelines.

learned in their current grade as well as in prior grades. Refer to the language skills for each grade to determine the grade-level expectations for grammar, syntax, capitalization, punctuation, and spelling.

0

•The student’s response has many errors that affect the overall meaning, or the response is too brief to determine a score. •The student copies so much text from the passages that there is not sufficient original work to be scored.

Students will lose credit for failure to use the assigned number of credible and appropriate sources that are quoted and/or integrated and documented in the Works Cited page. The final grade will be based on the percentage of required sources actually used with each source carrying equal weight.

AP ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION RUBRICS Knight/Kearney THINK PIECE ASSESSMENT Name _____________________________________ Think Piece # ______ Date ___________ Topic _______________________________________________________________________________ Genre _______________________________________________________________________________ How does the genre reflect/impact the topic?

Ideas

Organization

Language and Style

Conventions

Exceeds Depth of thought is immediately present. The text represents fully developed ideas that question, challenge, or reframe the topic in new and interesting ways.

Complexity and nuance are present.

20 18

Meets Depth of thought is present, although the ideas presented may lack development and/or nuance. Attempts at complexity and nuance are made, but may not be fully achieved.

The organization of the text enhances the message/purpose of the text. The text effectively transitions between ideas in a logical manner appropriate for the genre.

10 9

The organization of the text is generally logical. Some transitions are present, although they could be more effective in connecting ideas as is appropriate for the genre.

The diction and syntax of the text enhances the ideas presented. The text is incorporates rhetorical strategies and/or figurative language in interesting ways, and the tone is effective for the purpose and genre of the text.

10 9 The text is generally free of grammar and usage errors.

10

Comments:

NINE-POINT RUBRIC

9

16

14

8 7 The diction and syntax of the text are generally effective. The text attempts to incorporate rhetorical strategies and/or figurative language, but they may not be effective. The tone is appropriate for the purpose and genre.

8 7 The text may demonstrate some grammar and usage errors, but they are not distracting.

8

7

Does Not Meet Depth of thought is not present.

The text is simplistic, superficial, and/or lacks development. The text may recycle old ideas, or may focus solely on topics discussed in class.

12 10 The organization of the text is not logical or is difficult to follow. Transitions are lacking.

The organization distracts from the ideas.

6

5

The diction and syntax are not effective and/or distracting. No rhetorical strategies and/or figurative language are used, or the rhetorical strategies and/or figurative language are ineffective. The tone may not be appropriate for the purpose or genre.

6 5 The text is plagued by major errors in grammar and/or usage that distract from the text.

6

5

AP English Language and Composition Rubric Effective 9

8

7

Essays earning a score of 9 meet the criteria for a score of 8 and, in addition, are especially sophisticated in their analysis or argument, thorough in their development or impressive in their control of language.

Essays earning a score of 8 effectively present the requirements of the prompt. They develop their analysis or argument with evidence and explanations that are appropriate and convincing, adhering to the requirements of the prompt. The prose demonstrates a consistent ability to control a wide range of the elements of effective writing but is not necessarily flawless.

Essays earning a score of 7 fit the description of 6 essays but provide a more complete analysis or demonstrate a more mature prose style.

Adequate 6

5

Essays earning a score of 6 adequately present the requirements of the prompt. They develop their analysis or argument with evidence and explanations that are appropriate and sufficient, adhering to the requirements of the prompt. The writing may contain lapses in diction or syntax, but generally the prose is clear.

Essays earning a score of 5 present the requirements of the prompt. The evidence or explanations used may be uneven, inconsistent or limited. The writing may contain lapses in diction or syntax, but it usually conveys the student’s ideas.

Inadequate 4

3

Essays earning a score of 4 inadequately present the requirements of the prompt. These essays may misunderstand the passage, or fail to completely present the requirements of the prompt. The evidence or explanations used may be inappropriate, insufficient or less convincing. The prose generally conveys the student’s ideas but may be less consistent in controlling the elements of effective writing.

Essays earning a score of 3 meet the criteria for a score of 4 but demonstrate less success in presenting the requirements of the prompt. They are less perceptive in their understanding of the passage or the requirements of the prompt, or the explanation or examples may be particularly limited or simplistic. The essays may show less maturity in control of writing.

Little Success 2

Essays earning a score of 2 demonstrate little success in presenting the requirements of the prompt. These essays may misunderstand the prompt, misread the passage, fail to present the requirements of the prompt, or substitute a simpler task by responding to the prompt tangentially with unrelated, inaccurate or inappropriate explanation. The prose often demonstrates consistent weaknesses in writing, such as grammatical problems, a lack of development or organization, or a lack of control.

1 0

Essays earning a score of 1 meet criteria for a 2 but are especially simplistic in their discussion or weak in their control of language.

Indicates an on-topic response that receives no credit, such as one that merely repeats the prompt, or presents a narrative of a personal experience.

GRADING SCALE

Grading Scale

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

---

1st Nine Weeks

100

97

94

91

88

85

82

79

76

0

2nd Nine Weeks

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

0

3rd Nine Weeks

100

93

86

79

72

65

58

51

44

0

4th Nine Weeks

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

0

PRACTICE MULTIPLE CHOICE GRADING SCALE

13 Questions

12 Questions

6 or less

75

6 or less

75

7-8

80

7

80

9-10

85

8-9

85

11

90

10

90

12

95

11

95

13

100

12

100

14 Questions

10 Questions

7 or less

75

5 or less

75

8-9

80

6

80

10

85

7

85

11

90

8

90

12-13

95

9

95

14

100

10

100

15 Questions

16 Questions

7 or less

75

8 or less

75

8-9

80

9-10

80

10-11

85

11-12

85

12-13

90

13-14

90

14

95

15

95

15

100

16

100

SUMMATIVE MULTIPLE CHOICE GRADING SCALE

5 point deduction per question missed if score below 70 13 Questions

12 Questions

6

70

6

70

7

75

7

75

8

80

8

80

9-10

85

9

85

11

90

10

90

12

95

11

95

13

100

12

100

14 Questions

10 Questions

7

70

5

75

8

75

6

80

9-10

80

7

85

11

85

8

90

12

90

9

95

13

95

10

100

14

100

15 Questions

16 Questions

7

70

8

70

8

75

9

75

9-10

80

10

80

11

85

11

85

12

90

12

90

13-14

95

13-14

95

15

100

15-16

100

MULTIPLE CHOICE FULL TEST SCORE GUIDE

Multiple Choice Score

AP Score

Scaled Score

Example

# Correct

30 Correct

2

3

4

5

70-73

74-79

80-89

90-100

0-26

27-38

39-51

52-65

X x

1.3043 = 39

1.3043

80% 0-10 = 70

27-28 =74

39 = 80

52 = 90

11-15 = 71

30-31 =75

40 = 81

53 = 91

16-20 = 72

32-33 = 76

42 = 82

54 = 92

21-26 = 73

34-35 = 77

43 = 83

55 = 93

36-37 = 78

44 = 84

56 = 94

38 = 79

45 = 85

57 = 95

46 = 86

58 = 96

47 = 87

59 = 97

48-49 = 88

60-61 = 98

49-51 = 89

62-63 = 99 64-65 = 100

SECTION 6 | GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS OUTLINE

TOPIC______________________________________________________

Subtopic

A.

Supporting

1.

details

2.

3.

4.

Subtopic

B.

Supporting

1.

details

2.

3.

4.

Subtopic

C.

Supporting

1.

details

2.

3.

4.

Subtopic

D.

Supporting

1.

details

2.

3.

4.

ESSAY ORGANIZER

Name:

Date:

INTRODUCTION Hook: Thesis (what you will prove): Background Information: Three pieces of supporting evidence: Body 1 Body 2 Body 3 Claim:

Body #1 Evidence #1 Details: 1 2 3 Quote: Explain how quote supports reason: Conclusion sentence:

Body #2 Evidence #2 Details: 1 2 3 Quote: Explain how quote supports reason: Conclusion sentence:

CONCLUSION Restate thesis:

Summarize your evidence: 1 2 3 Extend, go beyond, larger meaning or universal truth

AUDIENCE ANALYSIS Writer’s claim/position What does the writer say?

Audience

Characteristics

Motives and/or Interests

Required Response

Describe the key traits of this audience (age, education, community, region, gender, class, ethnicity).

Describe what is important to this audience. What do they want?

Describe what the writer wants this audience to do (make a decision, take action, change beliefs, etc.).

World View What values, beliefs, or assumptions might members of this audience share?

Quick Write How would you describe the audience of this text? How are the writer’s rhetorical choices (eg. language, structure, evidence, appeals, etc. suited to the needs, interests, expectations of this audience? Explain.

PURPOSE ANALYSIS WRITER’S CLAIM/POSITION What does the writer say?

Purpose

IDEAS

FEELINGS

ACTIONS

Describe what the writer wants the audience to know or understand

Describe the emotions the writer wants the audience to feel.

Describe what the writer wants the audience to do.

PAST, PRESENT, OR FUTURE Explain whether the writer wants the audience to make a judgment about the past, understand a statement about the present, or decide a course of action for the future.

Quick Write How would you describe the purpose of this text? What do you think the writer hopes to accomplish through his or her argument?

Does the argument serve multiple purposes? If so, which one(s) is/are most important?

ETHOS ANALYSIS WRITER’S CLAIM/POSITION What does the writer say?

Support & Evidence

PERSONAL EXAMPLES

CREDENTIALS/QUALIFICATIONS

ROLES/RESPONSIBILITIES

List any personal stories or anecdotes the writer shares.

List any words that have strong emotional connotations.

List any special jobs, life experiences, or social roles that are part of the writer’s identity (e.g., being a mother or an immigrant).

Quick Write How would you describe the writer’s image or ethos? What adjectives would you use to describe the writer’s persona? What kind of person does the writer seem to be? Do you trust this person? Do you like or admire this person?

i

PATHOS ANALYSIS AUTHOR’S CLAIM/POSITION

Support & Evidence

PERSONAL EXAMPLES/ANECDOTES List any human interest stories or personal experiences the writer shares.

LOADED LANGUAGE List any words that have strong emotional connotations.

HUMOR, IRONY, AND/OR SARCASM List any jokes or funny/sarcastic remarks the writer makes.

Quick Write Describe the overall emotional impact of this text. How did the writer make you feel? Happy? Sad? Afraid? Hurt? Enthusiastic?

Suspicious? Excited? Irritated? Brave? Angry? Amused? Concerned? How strong were your feelings while reading this text?

LOGOS ANALYSIS AUTHOR’S CLAIM/POSITION

Support & Evidence

AUTHORITY/EXPERTS

FACTS/STATISTICS

QUALIFIERS/TRANSITIONS

List any expert testimony the writer includes.

List any numerical data or scientific evidence the writer uses.

List words and phrases like “some,” “often,” “perhaps,” “as a result,” or “on the other hand” that qualify claims or signal logical relationships.

COUNTERARGUMENTS List any opposing views the writer mentions

Quick Write How reasonable does this writer seem to you? Is the writer careful to make claims that can be supported by evidence? Does the writer seem fair and unbiased? Does the writer consider different viewpoints? Make concessions?

KAIROS ANALYSIS WRITER’S CLAIM/POSITION What does the writer day?

Context/Occasion

TIME

PLACE

SOCIAL EXPECTATIONS

Describe what’s special about this moment in time (e.g. holiday, historical event, election, scientific discovery, or once-in-a-lifetime opportunity).

Describe what makes the location unique (e.g., a private home, public space, natural setting, university, business, city, region, or nation).

Describe the behavior people consider appropriate for this occasion (e.g.,rules and manners).

THE LANGUAGE OF KAIROS List any words or phrases in the text that suggest the importance of time.

Quick Write How would you describe the kairos of this text? How do time, place, and social expectations impact the writer’s argument? Do you think the writer has chosen the best opportunity to make his or her argument? Explain your thinking.

A

B

a lot · 101 AP English Language and Composition Rubric · 142 AP English Language and Composition Rubrics · 141 Apostrophes · 107 Audience Analysis · 152

Basic Punctuation Rules · 108 B-H-H Reading · 123

C CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE WRITING · 77 Claim Sentences · 84 Closed Thesis Statement · 88

COMMA OMISSION · 89 COMMA SPLICE · 89 Common knowledge · 118 Common Writing Errors · 89 Comparison/Contrast · 17 Counterargument Thesis Statement · 88

Key Words for Essay Scores · 143

D

M

DANGLING MODIFIER – · 90 Differences in Quoting, Paraphrasing and Summarizing · 117 due to · 101

Missteps on the Road to “Mature Academ · 46 MODES OF DISCOURSE · 8 Analysis · 10 Argument and Persuasion · 12 Cause and effect · 19 Classification · 14 Comparison/Contrast · 17 Definition · 18 DESCRIPTION · 8 Exemplification · 10 NARRATION · 9 Process analysis · 15 MORE ABOUT COMMAS · 110 Multiple Choice Full Test Score Guide · 145

E ESSAY ORGANIZER · 149 Ethos Analysis · 156

F Fayette County Schools Plagiarism and Academic Dishonesty Statement · 122 Fayette County Seven Point Two-Trait Rubric · 136, 138 Five Types of Claims · 82

L Logos Analysis · 160

N Naked “This · 101

G

O

Grading Scale · 143 Guide to Formal Academic Voice · 94 Guidelines for Socratic Seminars · 125

Open Thesis Statement · 88 Outline · 147

H

P

here/hear · 101 How should I annotate? · 130

Paraphrase · 117 Pathos Analysis · 158 PATTERNS OF ORGANIZATION AND THEIR CUE WORDS · 21 Practice Multiple Choice Grading Scale · 144 Précis Examples · 24 Preparing to Discuss a Text · 124 PRONOUN/ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT ERROR · 90 Pronouns · 101 Punctuating Titles · 114 Purpose Analysis · 154

I Integrating Quotes Smoothly Into Texts · 121 its/it's · 101

K Kairos Analysis · 162 KEY TERMS USED IN ESSAY QUESTIONS · 22

Q Quotation · 117

R Rhetorical Framework · 32 RHETORICAL PRECIS FORMAT · 23 RUN-ON SENTENCES · 89

there/their/they're · 101 Think Piece Assessment · 141 Tone words · 60 Transitions to Incorporate Quotations Into Paragraphs · 119 Types of Thesis Statements · 88 TYPES OF WRITING · 7

U Usage · 101 Using Formal Voice: An Overused Word FUNeral · 98

S SAMPLE ANNOTATION · 131 Sample Claims · 83 Sample Introductions high scoring AP Essays · 40 Section 4 | reading analytically · 123 SECTION 6 | Graphic organizers · 147 SENTENCE FRAGMENT · 89 SHIFT IN PERSON · 90 SHIFT IN VERB TENSE · 90 Simple Guide to Text Annotation · 129 SOAPSTONE · 128 Socratic Seminar Rubric for Individual Participants · 127 Spelling · 116 SUBJECT/VERB AGREEMENT ERROR · 90 Summary · 117 Summative Multiple Choice Grading Scale · 145

W Writing a Timed Essay · 36 Writing Body Paragraphs for AP Argument and Synthesis Essays · 41 Writing Conclusions · 49 Writing vocabulary · 81

Y your/you’re · 101

Z Zero Tolerance Errors · 100

T The Twenty Sentence Patterns · 102