Introduction to counseling voices from the field 8th edition ebook pdf version

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vi

CONTENTS CHAPTER

2

Foundations of Counseling 25 Basics of History and Research 25 The Identity of Counseling 26 History of Counseling 29

The Ancient Philosophers 30 The First Psychiatrists 30 Influences from Psychology 32 The Guidance Era 33 The Counseling Era 35 The Era of Counseling 40 Licensing and Regulation in Counseling

Research Foundations of Counseling Counselors as Scientist-Practitioners Research for the Counselor 44

41

43

43

Two Different Approaches to Research

46

Quantitative Research: Measuring Experiences 46 Qualitative Research: Exploring Experiences 47 Counseling and Research Process 48

Becoming an Informed Consumer of Research Summary 50 Self-Guided Explorations For Homework 51 Suggested Readings 51 CHAPTER

3

49

51

Settings for Counselors 53 What Counselors Have in Common

55

A Unique Identity 56 Many Different Roles 56 A Set of Generic Skills 59 A Set of Common Goals 60 Both Developmental and Remedial Orientation Teamwork 62

A Day in the Life

60

63

High School 63 Private Practice 65 Preschool 67 Mental Health Center 69 Crisis Center 70 Street Ministry 71 University Counseling Center Counseling in Industry 74

73

The Future Is Now: New Issues in Counseling Counseling on the Internet

75

75

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CONTENTS

78

The Value of a Flexible Specialty

Guidelines for Selecting a Counseling Specialty

Summary

82

Self-Guided Explorations For Homework 83 Suggested Readings 83 CHAPTER

4

vii

80

82

The Therapeutic Relationship 84 Qualities of Counseling Relationships 85 Perspectives on Helping Relationships 89 A Bit More of History 89 Congruence, Positive Regard, and Empathy Working Alliance 91 Multiple Models of Relationship 92

90

Counselors as Relationship Specialists 93 Practical Dimensions of the Therapeutic Relationship Commitment 96 Trust 97 Empathy 97 Confidentiality 98 Benevolent Power 99 Reciprocal Effects in the Helping Relationships 100 Experiencing the Therapeutic Relationship as a Client

Basic Relationship Skills

102

Significance of Attending Skills Listening Skills 103 Exploration Skills 104

Summary

96

101

102

106

Self-Guided Explorations 106 For Homework 107 Suggested Readings 107 PART 2

CHAPTER

5

C O U N S E L I N G A P P R O A C H E S 109 Insight-Oriented Approaches 111 Introduction to Theory Construction Approximation of Truth and Reality

Person-Centered Counseling

112

114

116

Aliases: Nondirective, Person-centered, Humanistic, Rogerian, Emotion-Focused 116 Basic Assumptions 116

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CONTENTS

Favorite Techniques 118 Criticisms of Person-Centered Counseling Personal Applications 121

Existential Counseling

120

121

Aliases: Humanistic, Phenomenological, Experiential Premises of Existential Counseling 123 Criticisms of Existential Counseling 124 Personal Applications 125

Psychoanalytic Counseling

121

126

Aliases: Psychoanalysis, Psychodynamic Therapy, Object Relations Theory, Attachment Theory 126 Basic Psychoanalytic Concepts 126 Layers of Awareness 127 Stages of Personal Development 127 Structure of the Psyche 128 Defense Mechanisms 128 Attachment Theory 131 Criticisms of Psychoanalytic Counseling 134 Personal Applications 135

Gestalt Counseling

135

Narrative Therapy

139

Originators and Basic Concepts 135 Techniques of Gestalt Counseling 137 Criticisms of Gestalt Counseling 138 Basic Premises 140 Techniques of Narrative Therapy 141 Criticisms of Narrative Counseling 143 Personal Applications 143

Honorable Mentions

144

Adlerian Counseling 145 Feminist Therapies 146

The Future Is Now: New Issues in Counseling Interpersonal Neurobiology

Summary

148

148

149

Self-Guided Explorations 149 For Homework 150 Suggested Readings 150

CHAPTER

6

Action-Oriented Approaches 152 Behavioral Counseling

154

Aliases: Behaviorism, Behavior Modification, Behavior Therapy Early Background 155 Behavioral Technology 156 Criticisms of the Behavioral Approach 159

154

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CONTENTS

ix

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy 160 Aliases: CBT, COG-B, REBT, Rational Behavior Therapy, Cognitive Restructuring 160 Basic Points of CBT 162 Criticisms of Cognitive-Based Therapies 165 Personal Applications 166

167

Solution-Focused Counseling

Aliases: Solution-Oriented Counseling, Single-Session Therapy, Problem-Solving Therapy, Brief Therapy 167 Criticisms of Solution-Focused Counseling 170 Personal Applications 171

Honorable Mentions

172

Multimodal Counseling 172 Reality Therapy 173 Expressive Therapies 174

The Future Is Now: New Issues in Counseling Mindfulness

Summary

177

177

179

Self-Guided Explorations 180 For Homework 180 Suggested Readings 180

CHAPTER

7

Integrating Theory and Counseling Skills 182 Movement toward Integration 183 The Future Is Now: New Issues in Counseling 184

Transpersonal Psychology

Grabbing Truth by the Tail A Personal Theory 187

184

186

Criteria of Effectiveness 187 Guidelines for Usefulness 189

Stages in Developing a Personal Theory Entry 189 Mentorhood 191 Eclecticism 192 Experimentation 192 Pragmatism 193 Evidence-Based Practice

189

194

How Are You Doing so Far?

197

Theoretical Dilemmas Inventory

198

Stages of the Counseling Process

200

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CONTENTS

Assessment 200 Exploration 200 Understanding 201 Action 201 Evaluation 202

Being Intentional and Consistent Summary 203

202

Self-Guided Explorations 203 For Homework 203 Suggested Readings 204

CHAPTER

8

Assessment, Testing, and the Diagnostic Process 205 Listening Versus Assessing 207 What Is Assessment? 209 The Role of Testing in the Assessment Process 212

Technology and Assessment Why Study Testing? 212

Standardized Measures

210

213

Tests of Ability 215 Tests of Aptitude 216 Tests of Achievement 216 Tests of Typical Performance Selecting Tests 218

Nonstandarized Measures Observational Assessment Rating Scales 220 Self-Assessment 220

217

219 219

Using Assessment Methods in Counseling

221

Test Interpretation 221 Summary of Assessment Principles 222 Critical Applications of Assessment Principles: Recognizing Red Flags Reporting Child Abuse 224 Clients at Risk of Harming Themselves or Others 226

Formal and Functional Diagnosis Diagnosis and the DSM-5 229

223

227

Using the DSM-5 233 Ethical Concerns 236

Summary

239

Self-Guided Explorations 239 For Homework 239 Suggested Readings 240

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CONTENTS PART 3

CHAPTER

9

xi

C O U N S E L I N G A P P L I C A T I O N S 241 Group Counseling 243 Survey of Groups

244

Psychoeducational and Task Groups 247 A Psychoeducational Group in Action 248 Counseling Groups 248 A Counseling Group in Action 249 Therapy Groups 250 A Therapy Group in Action 250 Self-Help and Support Groups 250

Some Considerations in the Use of Group Modalities Counteracting Potential Limitations 253 Advantages of Group Work 253 Cost-Efficiency 253 Spectator Effects 253 Stimulation Value 254 Opportunities for Feedback Support 256 Structured Practice 256

254

Basic Assumptions about Groups Group Process Stages

251

261

257

High-Functioning Groups 264 Cues for Intervention 265

Abusive Behavior 265 Rambling and Digressions 265 Withdrawal and Passivity 266 Lethargy and Boredom 266 Sensitivity to Language 267

Specialized Skills of Group Work Special Training

Summary

268

267

269

Self-Guided Explorations 269 For Homework 270 Suggested Readings 270 CHAPTER

10

Family, Couples, and Sex Counseling 271 Family Versus Individual Counseling Family Counseling Theories 275 Power in Relationships 277 Symptoms as Solutions 280

273

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xii

CONTENTS

Diagnostic Questions Reframing 282 Directives 284

281

Forcing the Spontaneous 285 Opposition Through Compliance Slowing Down 286

Couples Counseling

287

Goals of Couples Counseling Dealing with Anger 289

285

288

Theories of Couples Counseling Behavior Change Models 291 Empathy-Based Models 292

291

Ethical Issues in Couples and Family Counseling Sex Counseling 297 Sensate Focus

Summary

296

298

299

Self-Guided Explorations 299 For Homework 300 Suggested Readings 300 CHAPTER

11

Career Counseling 301 Career Development: A Case Example The Functions of Work 305 Roles of Counseling 306

302

Facilitating Self-Awareness 307 Becoming Familiar with the World of Work Teaching Decision-Making Skills 309 Teaching Employability Skills 309 Life Coaching 310

Theories of Career Development Donald Super’s Theory 311 John Holland’s Theory 313 Anne Roe’s Theory 314 John Krumboltz’s Theory 316 Linda Gottfredson’s Theory 317 Postmodern Theories 318

Career Education Abilities 321 Interests 321 Values 321

308

311

320

Career Decision Making

321

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CONTENTS

Trends and Issues in Career Counseling Changes in the Workplace Work and Leisure 324

323

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323

324

Career Counseling in Hard Times The Impact of Technology 326 Summary 327 Self-Guided Explorations 327 For Homework 328 Suggested Readings 328

CHAPTER

12

Neuroscience, Addictions Counseling, and Psychopharmacology 330 The Basics of Neuroscience

330

The Neuron and Its Pathways 331 The Neurotransmitters 333 Implications for Counselors 334

The Pervasive Condition of Addiction 335 Symptoms of Addiction 336 Drug Use and Drug Abuse 337 Our Drug Culture 340 Effects of Drug Abuse 341 Adolescent Drug Use 341 Prevention 342 The Future Is Now: New Issues in Counseling Internet Addiction 344 Cybersex 345 Treatment of Internet Addiction

344

345

Principles for Counseling the Chemically Dependent Medical Model 346 AA/NA Model 348 Therapeutic Model 350 Relapse Prevention 352

346

Psychopharmacology for Counselors 355 Psychopharmacological Treatment for Emotional Disorders Medications for Depression 358 Medications for Bipolar Disorders 360 Medications for Anxiety 361 Medications for Psychotic Disorders 362

Psychopharmacology and Children Counselor Self-Reflection 364

358

363

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CONTENTS

Summary

365

Self-Guided Explorations 366 For Homework 366 Suggested Readings 367 CHAPTER

13

Counseling Diverse Clients 368 Multiple Conceptions of Culture Being Culturally Sensitive 371 Influence of Biases 373 Identity Issues 378 Confronting Your Biases

369

378

Counselors as Advocates for Social Justice 380 Counseling Women 384 Counseling Men 388 Counseling Ethnic Minorities 391 Counseling the Aged 395 Counseling Lesbians and Gay Men 399 Counseling Clients Who Are Physically Challenged 402 Counseling Clients with Strong Religious/Spiritual Values Summary 407

403

Self-Guided Explorations 407 For Homework 407 Suggested Readings 408

PART 4

CHAPTER

14

P R O F E S S I O N A L P R A C T I C E 411 Ethical and Legal Issues 413 Client Rights 414 Professional Codes 415 Divided Loyalties 417 Areas of Ethical Difficulty

417

Multiple Relationships 418 Sexual Improprieties 421 Clinical Misjudgments and Failures 422 Deception and Informed Consent 424 Confidentiality and Privileged Communication Recent Trends 427

Making Ethical Decisions

426

431

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CONTENTS

Legal Issues in Counseling 434 The Future Is Now: New Issues in Counseling Ethical Issues in Technology and Telehealth

Summary

438

xv

438

441

Self-Guided Explorations 441 For Homework 441 Suggested Readings 442 CHAPTER

15

Toward Closure: Advice for the Passionately Committed Counseling Student 443 Be Self-Directed 443 Read 444 Find a Mentor 444 Network 445 Volunteer to Do Research 445 Ask Questions 446 Challenge Your Teachers 446 Challenge Yourself 447 Experience Counseling as a Client 447 Personalize Everything 447 Expand Your World 448 Become Active in Professional Organizations Develop a Flexible Specialty 449 Resist Burnout 450 Confront Your Fears of Failure 451 Get the Most from Supervision 451 Seize the Day 452

449

What Most Students Don’t Learn Until It Is Way Too Late Variations on a Theme 456

452

A Closing Voice from the Field 457 Self-Guided Explorations 457 Suggested Readings 458

APPENDIX A

American Counseling Association (ACA) Code of Ethics 459 REFERENCES INDEX

506

526

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Preface

This text was originally created out of a very personal need to create a studentcentered introduction to our field. We felt frustrated at times because the personalized warmth and sensitivity that are the basis of our profession have not been reflected in academic experiences. Too often, education emphasizes theoretical knowledge and scholarly inquiry to the exclusion of student involvement. It has been our intention that this book would not only meet the stringent demands of scholarship but also provide a lively and dynamic overview of the counseling profession that fully engages the student in the process.

This text speaks directly to you, the student; it challenges you to explore your personal motives for choosing counseling as your area of interest and helps you to personally integrate much of the research and theoretical concepts. More than ever before, the voices of beginning and experienced counselors are used to reflect the realities of practice, make the ideas come alive, and help you personalize the content in such a way that it becomes immediately applicable to your life. In fact, there is no other profession that not only allows you to personalize concepts to your own life but encourages you to do so; almost everything you read about in this text has implications and applications to what you do on a daily basis. You will find innumerable ways to improve immediately not only your counseling skills but also your personal relationships.

WHAT YOU CAN DO One of the distinguishing features of this text, which makes it unique in the field, is its student-oriented focus on the realities of counseling practice. In addition to presenting the major historical, theoretical, and research foundations in a highly readable style, we try to engage you in a dialogue about the counseling profession, its underlying concepts, and your personal goals for the future. xvii Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).

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xviii PREFACE

It is so often the relationships we develop with people that become the foundation for a meaningful effort to change. This is as true in relationships between authors and readers as it is between a counselor and clients, or between an instructor and students. More than ever before, we strive to connect with readers in such a way that they are likely to explore the process of counseling as well as its content.

In order to make the complex conceptual ideas of counseling come alive, the book contains over 150 “Voices from the Field.” In these excerpts from interviews, beginning and experienced practitioners speak openly and honestly about the challenges they face and the ways they have resolved difficulties. They present practical advice based on their experiences. When these voices are added to those of the authors, readers are exposed to the realities of counseling practice in such a way that they can make informed choices about where and how to practice new skills and knowledge. You would be well advised to use this material as a springboard for your own interviews with practitioners.

One of the assignments we routinely give when we teach this class is to ask students to interview a minimum of 6 to 10 counselors in the field, representing at least three different specialty areas. We can think of few other learning experiences that are more revealing than talking to people who are doing what you someday hope to do yourself. Ask them for advice. Find out what they love and hate about their work. It is not unusual that you will even make contacts that may someday turn into an internship placement or even a job offer.

The end of each chapter contains a series of experiential and reflective exercises that will further help you to personalize material. These introspective activities can be a used as a structured journal in which you can apply to your own life the concepts discussed in class and in the text. In addition, these activities may be helpful as questions to be explored in cooperative learning groups in class.

Whether you use the exercises or not, you will find it helpful to use a journal throughout the semester to keep track of important ideas, make sense of complex ideas, and personalize material in a way that is useful to you.

WHAT TO EXPECT Introduction to Counseling: Voices from the Field is designed for initial courses in human service programs that have titles such as “Principles of Counseling,” “Professional Orientation,” “Counseling Theory and Practice,” “Introduction to Helping,” and “Human Resource Development.” The book emphasizes the development of a professional identity, ethical standards for practice, basic process skills, the counseling relationship, personal theory building, and understanding of meaningful research. We are also especially concerned with presenting a contemporary “cutting-edge” focus on the practical realities of counseling. Too often students complain that their courses and texts did not prepare them for the daily grit and grind of what it means to be a counselor.

Particular attention is devoted to the major specialties and diverse settings in which counseling takes place, such as schools and clinics and medical, industrial, mental health, community agency, and private-practice settings. We quite deliberately

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PREFACE

xix

made the size of the book realistic for a semester’s work and planned the number and length of chapters to be manageable for the student struggling to digest a new world of terminology and concepts.

The book is organized into four broad focus areas: professional identity factors, theoretical and research foundations, counseling applications, and issues in professional practice. Whereas the first two sections (Chapters 1 through 8) help you to learn the foundations of counseling, the latter two sections (Chapters 9 through 15) apply these concepts to the various specialties within the field. You are thus encouraged to master the field’s basic theory and research, become familiar with the generic counseling skills, and begin thinking about the realities of developing a flexible specialty, making yourself marketable, finding suitable employment, and staying passionately committed to the profession.

WHAT’S NEW One of the most exciting and disorienting aspects of counseling is how rapidly the field changes. This evolution in theory and research parallels the changes that practitioners experience so often. As professional counselors, we sometimes wish we could send “recall notices” to all the clients we’ve seen in the past, notifying them that however we may once have helped them, the method is now obsolete and they should return for new, improved methods that no longer resemble the ways we once operated.

Consistent with the mood of our times, we continue to emphasize a philosophy of counselor education and training that Jeffrey and his friend and coauthor, Bob Brown (now deceased), first proposed a number of years ago—one that is integrative and pragmatic and that seeks to combine the best of existing approaches. As in previous editions, the text includes detailed discussions on today’s major issues: multicultural sensitivity, historical roots of our profession, current counseling interventions, licensure and credentialing, constructivist thinking, family violence, sexism and age discrimination, computer applications, managed care and brief therapies, legal and ethical conflicts, and gender issues, to name a few.

For this edition, we have added a number of new and exciting features: •

•

•

The chapter on insight-oriented theories has been significantly expanded to include attachment theory, reflecting the increasing impact attachment theory is having on our field as both a way of conceptualizing client difficulties and understanding what goes on between client and counselor in the counseling relationship.

The chapter on addictions and psychopharmacology now begins with a new section on the basics of neuroscience. The field of neuroscience has become increasingly significant in counseling research and is shedding light on the biological underpinnings of the issues clients face. This section provides a basic understanding of how the neurotransmitter system and key brain structures work—the most important aspects of neuroscience for counselors.

This edition now covers the DSM-5, instead of its predecessor, the DSMIV-TR. This comprehensive introduction to the DSM-5 provides a basic understanding of how to use it in diagnosing clients, reviews the ethical issues

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xx

PREFACE

•

•

• •

surrounding the use of the DSM, and, in case vignettes, demonstrates the impact the DSM can have on the lives of clients.

The section on evidence-based practice in Chapter 7 has been revised to reflect the rapid movement in all the mental health fields toward selecting treatments whose efficacy is supported in empirical research. The section offers help to the reader in implementing evidence-based practices. Finally, it addresses the controversy over what constitutes “evidence-based,” as well as reviewing concerns raised in the counseling literature over the selection of treatments based on statistical studies.

The role of the Internet and telehealth in the counseling field has been significantly revised and expanded throughout the text, including the section on e-therapy in the chapter on settings. Also revised are the discussion of the latest thinking on Internet addiction and treatment in the chapter on addictions; and the review of the ethical issues associated with telehealth in the chapter on ethics.

The chapter on culture now contains stories of how actual counselors are putting social justice advocacy into action through the projects they have developed and implemented throughout the United States.

The entire book has been completely updated with over 150 new references and expanded lists of suggested readings that include fiction, nonfiction, and films, in addition to counseling and social science literature.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We want to thank the “Voices from the Field” who agreed to be interviewed for this book and who were willing to be so honest and open about their experiences in the trenches. More than anything else in this text, it is your stories that give life and realism to the theory, research, and concepts presented.

We are grateful for the assistance of Steve Bornstein, Jennifer Cunningham, and Ashley Faytol, who helped with the research for this edition.

We appreciate the helpful suggestions of those who reviewed the manuscript: Chaunda Scott (University of Detroit), Mercy Sally Hage (Columbia University), Cyrus Ellis (Governors State University), Lisa Hawley (Oakland University), Mike Chaney (Oakland University), Jesse DeEsch (Rider University), and Trevor Milliron (Lee University).

We are also grateful to the following faculty members who provided input and feedback: Dana Comstock (St. Mary’s University), Leila Vaughn (Troy University), Frank Browning (Troy University), Conni Sharp (Pittsburg State University), Jean Jirovec (Lakeland College), Casey Tobin (Troy University), Sandra Lopez-Baez (University of Virginia), Mary Kesler (Winona State University), Karen Estrella (Lesley University), Bill Schiller (Northeastern State University), Shane Haberstroh (University of Texas at San Antonio), Shawn Spurgeon (Western Kentucky University), Kan Chandras (Fort Valley State University), Bill McManus (North Greenville University), Joy Whitman (DePaul University), Yolanda Turner (Eastern University), Debra Wilson (Troy University), David Kleist (Idaho State University), Heather Lyons (Loyola College in Maryland), Donald Nims (Western Kentucky University), Nancy Nolan (Vanderbilt University), Adam Zagelbaum (Sonoma State University),

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PREFACE

xxi

Brian Tilley (National University), Angela Redwine, (Tennessee Technological University), Rose Borunda (California State University, Sacramento), Susan Renes (University of Alaska Fairbanks), and Glenda Reynolds (Auburn University Montgomery and UWA).

Finally, we would like to thank our editor, Julie Martinez, and all her staff, for their help and support.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES Introduction to Counseling: Voices from the Field is accompanied by a wide array of supplements prepared to create the best possible learning environment for both the instructor and the student, inside and outside the classroom.

Online Instructor’s Resource Manual with Test Bank. The manual includes tips for instructors on how to best utilize this text, discussion questions and a test bank that contains multiple-choice questions.

The CourseMate for Introduction to Counseling: Voices from the Field brings course concepts to life with interactive learning, study, and exam preparation tools that support the printed textbook. Access an integrated eBook, quizzes, and more in the CourseMate for Introduction to Counseling: Voices from the Field. Go to CengageBrain.com to register or purchase access.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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Courtesy of Jeffrey Kottler

About the Authors

Jeffrey A. Kottler has authored over 80 books in the field for counselors, therapists, teachers, and the public, including On Being a Therapist, Counseling Skills for Teachers, Bad Therapy: Master Therapists Share Their Worst Failures, The Client Who Changed Me: Stories of Therapist Personal Transformation, Changing People’s Lives While Transforming Your Own: Paths to Social Justice and Global Human Rights, Creative Breakthroughs in Therapy: Tales of Transformation and Astonishment, The Therapist’s Workbook: Self-Assessment, Self-Care, and SelfImprovement Exercises for Mental Health Professionals, and Change: What Leads to Personal Transformation.

Jeffrey has worked as a teacher, counselor, and therapist in a preschool, middle school, mental health center, crisis center, university, community college, and private practice. He has served as a Fulbright Scholar and Senior Lecturer in Peru and Iceland, teaching counseling theory and practice. He has also served as a visiting professor in New Zealand, Australia, Hong Kong, and Nepal. He is currently Professor of Counseling at California State University, Fullerton, and President of Empower Nepali Girls (www.EmpowerNepaliGirls.org), an organization that provides educational scholarships for at-risk girls in Nepal.

David S. Shepard has been practicing as an individual and couples counselor in the Los Angeles area for over two decades, working with the full range of issues clients bring to counselors, including adjustment problems, relationship issues, struggles with substance abuse, depression, anxiety, and personality disorders. Prior to his counseling career, David worked as a screenwriter in the film and television xxiii

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xxiv ABOUT THE AUTHORS

industry, where he specialized in children’s animation. He is currently Associate Professor of Counseling at California State University, Fullerton, where he does research on men’s issues in counseling, couples counseling, and the use of creativity in counselor education. In addition to numerous book chapters and articles, he is the co-editor (with Michele Harway) of Engaging Men in Couples Therapy. He is also co-director of the Center for Boys & Men at California State University, Fullerton.

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The Professional Counselor

PART

1

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What Counseling Is and How It Works

CHAPTER

1

KEY CONCEPTS Personal motives for altruism Making a difference in others’ lives Countertransference Informed consent Tolerating anxiety Personal growth and professional development Neutral posture Subjugating personal needs Tolerating ambiguity and uncertainty Process definition of counseling Movement toward synthesis and integration Significance of self

WHY BE A COUNSELOR? It is both interesting and useful to begin the systematic study of the counseling profession by exploring your own motives for entering the profession. The decision to become a counselor is just as complex and multifaceted as any of the issues your clients might bring to you. You will expect—even demand—that your clients be completely honest with themselves, that they confront their self-deceptions, ambivalence, and motives behind actions. It is only fair that you attempt to be honest with yourself as well.

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Students enter the counseling field, as they do any other profession, for a variety of reasons. Some people genuinely wish to save the world; others, more modestly, wish to save themselves. Many deliberately choose this field because there are so many opportunities to apply classroom and book studies to their own lives.

Others quite unabashedly admit that it was a toss-up for them between going to see a counselor for their own problems and becoming one.

The personal motives behind career decisions are indeed important to examine as we begin this introduction to counseling. Such an understanding will permit a more thoughtful and clear-headed approach to the material presented. A typical class often includes students who see themselves as missionaries. They choose to study counseling because they have a strong desire to help others: to make a difference in the lives of those who are suffering. They frequently have a kind of empathy that comes from personal experience. They suffered and were saved; now the roles can be reversed. They wish to make the world a bit more civilized. Perhaps this reason belongs, even slightly, to any of us who select this path; it certainly plays a huge role in people’s decisions to become a helping professional. You might be enrolled in this program for a variety of reasons, all related to making a difference in the world:

rubberball/Getty Images.

1. You have some natural talent or interest toward helping others. Maybe you have served that role throughout your life.

2. You enjoy touching others’ lives, knowing that you have influenced or impacted someone.

3. You derive tremendous satisfaction from the kind of close, intimate relationships that take place in helping encounters.

People choose to be counselors for a variety of reasons, foremost of which is that they wish to make a difference in the world, to help those who are most in need. It is through helping others learn and grow that we are often permitted to do so ourselves.

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WHAT COUNSELING IS AND HOW IT WORKS

5

VOICE FROM THE FIELD I always knew that I wanted to help people, though thought originally about a medical career. It wasn’t until I faced the realities of what was involved in getting into and graduating from medical school that I began considering alternatives. You see, ever since I was a kid my worth was measured by what I could do for others. You might consider this part of my family culture. It is just understood that each of us will do something that involves helping others.

I would not be altogether truthful if I didn’t mention that being a counselor means a heck of a lot more to me than helping people. That is important and all but so are some other reasons that I don’t ordinarily admit. For instance, I have this thing

about being in control. I have often felt that way in most of my relationships, so I am excited about learning ways to build trust with people. This will help me in my work but I know it will also help me with my friends and my boyfriend. I quite like the idea that after I graduate I will be much better at getting people to like and respect me.

I am also somewhat of a busybody, meaning I like to know what other people are up to. When I find out that somebody else is having problems or doing strange things, in a perverse way it makes me feel better, that maybe I’m not so strange myself. I think it is really exciting that we get to hear about people’s most intimate secrets.

4. You may have experienced a number of personal challenges and difficulties in your life and wish to use what you learned to assist others.

5. You are able to gain broadened perspectives on the meaning of life as a result of your searching conversations with others.

6. You are able to give something back to your community, to use your own learning experiences to benefit others.

7. You pass on a legacy to others as part of your commitment and dedication to service.

8. You help yourself by helping others.

Yet there are many other reasons people choose counseling as a profession.

The selection could be pragmatic: Grades or test scores may prevent a move into what is perceived as a more highly competitive medical or legal education. Or the time commitments required by some disciplines may seem excessive or overwhelming. Counseling seems a reasonable compromise; the program can be completed in a few years and then the credentials will permit practice in many attractive settings.

It is also true that some people have very self-centered motivations for entering the helping professions. The counselor is able to satisfy unfulfilled nurturing needs by rescuing people with problems—and able to participate in intimate relationships as well—while always maintaining control (Herron & Rouslin, 1984; Kottler, 2010; Robertiello, 1978). Some people are attracted to counseling because they enjoy the power they can wield in influencing other people’s lives (Hoyt, 2005).

Counselors and other therapeutic practitioners have, in many ways, become power brokers in our society. They have become the oracles, the witch doctors, the gurus, the wizards, the mentors. In almost every culture of the world, there are professionals designated as counselors or shamans whose main job is to promote healing by harnessing forces of the natural, spiritual, physical, and psychological domains.

They listen with compassion and speak with authority. They have the answers, and although they may not reveal them directly, if clients behave and do what they are supposed to, they will be gently prodded to discover truth for themselves.

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CHAPTER 1

VOICE FROM THE FIELD I had a lot of grief at a young age. Since then I’ve felt drawn to those who are hurting, especially those who are dying. I know this sounds morbid, but I really do like working at the hospice with cancer patients and their families. I’m so impressed with the ones who die with dignity and good humor.

Early on, I thought my motivations were purely altruistic. Hah! I know better now. I’m more realistic and honest about what drives me and also what pushes my buttons. The truth is that this work makes me feel needed. This is especially true with my dying patients. If this work ever stops meeting my needs, I’ll stop doing it.

Students also select counseling for many of the same practical reasons that lead to any other career. They need the degree for a pay raise or promotion. During tough economic times they can’t find suitable employment. They are after prestige and status. The courses are offered at convenient times. Tests are infrequent or the program doesn’t appear too demanding. And, indeed, counseling does not at first glance seem as rigorous as training in engineering, nuclear physics, or neurosurgery.

But don’t be fooled. A counseling program is about the most challenging emotional experience a student can undertake. Although some counseling programs may not create intense academic pressure, all emphasize skill mastery and performance competencies. Counseling programs are interested not only in your ability to succeed at academic tasks but also in your ability to translate book and classroom learning into action. The bottom line for success in a counseling program is what you can do and what you can deliver.

Another large part of the work you do will involve addressing your own personal reactions to your work, often called countertransference reactions. This refers to the phenomenon, originally described by Sigmund Freud (1912), in which clinicians lose their objectivity and clarity because of their own personal issues, which interfere with their work. Their perceptions of their clients become distorted and their interpretations polluted by their own personal stuff. While countertransference is often not addressed nearly as much in training as it should be, it is absolutely critical that you have a handle on your own biases, unresolved issues, and strong emotional reactions that may interfere with your ability to think clearly and respond helpfully to clients.

It is also important to understand that the personal reactions you have to your clients can become a therapeutic benefit, as well as a delightful side effect of being a member of the counseling profession. In one study of how prominent therapists were changed by their clients (Kottler & Carlson, 2005a), a number of leaders in the field described a multitude of new ways in which they were challenged to grow—not just professionally but also personally. In many ways, their clients became their best teachers, prompting them to make significant changes in their own lives.

Just consider, for example, some of the opinions or values you hold as most sacred. How do you feel about the death penalty, or abortion, or gun control, or gay rights, or even your deepest religious (or nonreligious) convictions? Now imagine that someone walks in your office door and presents a point of view that is the

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WHAT COUNSELING IS AND HOW IT WORKS

7

VOICE FROM THE FIELD I don’t have kids, and I don’t think I ever will. But there are hundreds, probably thousands of children, whom I have worked with during the past years. I’d like to think some of them will remember me for a very long time. Maybe until the day they die.

I know that there are several mentors and teachers who influenced me in ways that I’ll never forget. They

live inside me. Their words still echo in my mind. At times I even smile when I catch myself saying something just the way that they would.

It gives me chills to think that others might someday feel so grateful for my efforts to help them.

Maybe long after I’m not around anymore I will still live inside the children I worked with.

direct opposite of what you believe. Will you be able to respond to this person with compassion and caring, free from personal biases that may cloud your judgments?

The constant and often difficult inward journey necessary for growth and counseling skill development are well worth the effort. This profession offers the student more advantages on both a personal and a professional level than almost any other field. Where else can all life experiences—books, films, travels, relationships, fantasies, jobs, losses, disasters, and triumphs—help the professional to be more effective? Everything and everyone teaches a counselor to understand the human world better, to have more compassion, to be a better communicator, to comprehend more completely the intricate complexities of behavior. Every experience allows you to teach from what you know.

In one study conducted with first-year counseling students (Melton, NofzingerCollins, Wynne, & Susman, 2005), participants were asked to record their innermost thoughts and feelings during simulated sessions with a client. Consistently, the students reported struggles with controlling their anger and frustration when clients didn’t cooperate or meet their expectations, and reported having to manage their disappointment over missed opportunities for deeper exploration. They described fears over feeling incompetent, and elation over feeling that they were helpful in some way. These are typical reactions that you will learn to deal with over time, assuming that you remain reflective and self-critical in constructive ways.

What other profession teaches skills and competencies applicable to work that can also be so easily applied to your personal world? Counseling trains people to be more passionate consumers of life. Intensive training in observing nonverbal behavior, analyzing motives, handling confrontations, and reflecting feelings helps counselors to be more attractive human beings, helps them be experts at efficiently developing trusting, productive relationships. If counselors can do that in their offices, they can certainly do it with their friends, colleagues, children, siblings, partners, spouses, and parents.

Counseling inspires the student to be a knowledgeable generalist, a Renaissance scholar, a devourer of “truth” in any palatable form. We are not restricted to our texts for learning. We read literature, history, anthropology, sociology, biology, biochemistry, education, psychology, and philosophy, and they are all beneficial— even necessary—if we are truly to understand this abstract thing called the human mind.

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Counseling permits practitioners to make a difference in people’s lives and to see the results in their own lifetimes. One of the ways in which we attempt to confront our own mortality is by preserving our spirit long after physical death. Certainly the principal reward for a dedicated teacher, counselor, or therapist is the knowledge that a generation of clients will remember and use the help that was offered, even after we are gone. Our profession allows us to productively face our own fears of death by leaving behind those who, because of our efforts, feel less pain.

Counselors become more wise and self-aware with every client they see. Each presented concern forces us to consider introspectively our own degree of stability.

Every discussed problem reminds us of those issues that we still have not fully resolved. A client complains of periodic urges to break out of the mold and run away, while the counselor silently considers his or her own rebellious impulses. A boring relationship, fear of failure, career stagnation, sexual frustrations, loneliness, parental dependence—all subjects that are commonly presented—force the counselor to resolve them, once and for all, in his or her own life. The profession thus continually encourages its practitioners to upgrade their personal effectiveness.

Counseling enables us to appreciate how we are all interconnected. A client shares a painful experience or difficult conflict in her life, and we think to ourselves, “It’s so amazing that this person’s story so relates to my own life.” And then we realize that it is no coincidence, but rather a reminder that despite the fact that we and our clients may have important differences in our life experiences and backgrounds, we are all struggling together to make meaning of our lives and reach our fullest potential. David Orlinsky, a well-known therapist and author, wrote, “I would even say that doing psychotherapy provides an opportunity to worship, to celebrate our fundamental and energizing interdependence. There are moments in therapy when this energy and human beauty meet … and where, when they meet, a healing influence resonates in all directions, into the therapist as well as the patient, and to others closely involved in the patient’s life” (Orlinsky, 2005, pp. 1005–1006).

At this very moment, you may want to examine your personal motives for studying counseling. (Note: This is one of several reflective questions that you may wish to address in your journal.) Better yet, talk to other students about what motivates them as well—not just the socially acceptable and politically correct reasons, but also the deeper, more personal drives. Although you may never fully understand all the factors, needs, interests, values, and unconscious processes that are influencing your decision, the quest is nevertheless valuable. It is likely that only years after graduation—and perhaps after your own experiences as a client—will you have a focused picture of your honest motives. This process of self-inquiry, once begun, is self-perpetuating because of the growth it fosters. And the beginning is now.

TO BE A COUNSELOR Choosing counseling as a career sets into motion a chain of events and leads to a series of direct and indirect consequences, the impact of which is often initially unclear. The choice to be a counselor, for example, not only dramatically affects the education, training, and molding of the student who made the decision but also affects that individual’s family and friends. Imagine, for example, that you

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WHAT COUNSELING IS AND HOW IT WORKS

9

VOICE FROM THE FIELD I was filled with so much anxiety almost every moment of my beginning years as a counselor. First, I wondered constantly if I had whatever it took to be good at this job. I compared myself to others and usually found myself wanting in some way. I wasn’t smart enough.

I couldn’t express myself as well as others. I didn’t have nearly the same life experiences, or academic background, as those who seemed so far ahead of me.

And then when I started seeing clients, I felt so anxious that I wouldn’t be able to help them.

I didn’t know if I’d say or do the right thing. I had this vision that even though I was pretending to know what I was doing, the client would see right through me and know I was clueless.

Even after all these years, I still feel anxious every time a new client walks in. I wonder if I can help him or her. I worry about whether I know enough, or whether someone else might do a better job. So you see, the anxiety lessens a bit but it never goes away.

simply studied the impact of birth order on personality development. How can you not look at your life and your relationships with family members differently after that? Or consider the very real possibility that, in any given week in your professional life, you will listen to clients struggle with fears of dying, infidelity, loneliness, dependency, boredom, suicidal thoughts, and a hundred other issues that have haunted you throughout your life.

We have always thought that if we were to present you with a fully disclosing “informed consent” (an ethical concept you will learn about later that refers to disclosure of risks so you can make knowledgeable decisions about your participation), we would have to tell you that deciding to be a counselor has huge implications for your life in a number of ways. For one thing, all your relationships will change. You will develop new expectations and standards for intimacy. You will learn skills that enable you to develop closer levels of intimacy with others, and you will want to use that newfound ability to enrich your family and work relationships. In a sense, you will be ruined—forever dissatisfied with superficial encounters. After all, how can you settle for rather inane interactions when you talk to people daily about their most intimate secrets, their most powerful insights, and their most meaningful feelings? The truth is that your love relationships may very well change forever and many of your friendships may be outgrown. You are not only choosing a new profession but a new way of being, a new way of relating to yourself, to others, and to the world.

Choosing to be a counselor means opening yourself up to intense self-scrutiny and personal growth. It means examining your strengths and limitations as a human being, exploring your vulnerabilities, and identifying those aspects of your functioning that you need to improve. All these changes emerge as the consequence of simply selecting studies in counseling. A number of other implications flow from choosing to be a counselor.

Dealing with Anxiety We are not referring yet to the anxiety of your clients but rather to your own internal pressure and apprehensions about this work. Anxiety is not only an expected

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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller, without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who, as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.

FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER” (Sarcopsylla penetrans)

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley, some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing, but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature, from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,

or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.

Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?

The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both “off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the craving for tobacco in the tropics.

Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to

an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and lemon-juice.

Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment, that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.

Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.

My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari; consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had

bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding, consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us, seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten years to come.

Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch: Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9 × 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.

How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his mutilated finger-tips.

Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.

The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface, however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day such a fire is a grand sight.

Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction, sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.

Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush, and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the

western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.

It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki suits had not escaped scatheless.

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR MAHUTA

I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process

may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe— not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more, between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them— cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes, perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.

This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the secondary bush.

After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact, receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains, where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were accustomed to rule.

But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and

lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible, impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and come back to his starting point.

The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.

According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast, to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however, correct.

The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau, instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks and springs of the low country.

“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.

He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a stillborn child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which

was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In course of time, the couple had many more children, and called themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams, for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest wateringplace; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”

The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?

Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short, woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood, ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia, Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably) would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded

by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.

The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.

Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.

This knowledge is crystallized in the ancestral warning against settling in the valleys and near the great waters, the dwelling-places of disease and death. At the same time, for security against the hostile Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted that every settlement must be not less than a certain distance from the southern edge of the plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the present day. It is not such a bad one, and certainly they are both safer and more comfortable than the Makua, the recent intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain, especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the

most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.

The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.

It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding out how the back door is fastened.

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of “Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have