Shannon Tan
Playground of Homo Deus
Supervisor: Ar. Chaw Chih Wen
Second Reader: Professor Thomas Kong
江湖: A New Censorship
Vanishing Voices: Censorship and the erosion of Autonomy
Semester 1 AY 2024/2025
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my grattitude to the following groups of people; of which without this thesis would not have been possible:
My thesis advisor, Ar. Chaw Chih Wen for his endless patience and invaluable advice throughout me pursuing this thesis topic, and in my architecture education journey;
Professor Thomas Kong for agreeing to be my second reader, and his interesting insights during his weekly Archival Futures class;
Professor Wong Zihao for his feedback and suggestions on drawing for my thesis research;
My studio mates, Theodore, Wan Hong and Yim Fung, for the discussions and dynamic studio culture, and for your unwavering support and encouragement;
Josephine, Clara, Amy, Vicky and Uncle Andrew for allowing me, an outsider, your insights on Hong Kong;
My various architecture friends, Isaac, Rachel, Jieying, Wenxin, Megan, Caleb, Melinda, Arkar, Adrian, Pearl, Daryl, Darren, Crystalyn, Eujuin, and many more, for your company and friendship, without which I may not have made it this far;
And lastly, to my family, whose support and love throughout this architecture journey has been immense.
Student
Shannon Tan
A0220901X
Advisors
Prof Chaw Chih Wen (Thesis Advisor)
Prof Thomas Kong (Second Reader)
Acknowledgements
Research
Research Abstract
Research Introduction
1.1 One Country, Two Systems, Multiple Censors
1.2 香港人 - A Hybrid Identity [heung gong yahn]
The Censorship Playbook: Tactics to Silence the Collective
2.1 A History of Demonstrations
2.2 Digital Memorialisation
2.3 Subverting Censorship: Protest Tactics by Localists
2.4 Mapping Surveillance and Palimpsests
The Censorship Paradox: When Tactics Backfire
3.1 The Censorship Paradox
3.2 An Architecture of Forgetting
2047: A New Censorship
4.1 F ilm Analysis - The jianghu genre
ACT 01 – 關係 as a Base
ACT 02 - Establishing 關係 through instrumental 礼 li
ACT 03 - Formation of 江湖 jianghu
ACT 04 - Corruption and Decay [腐敗 fu bai]
4.2 A Tale of Two Cities
4.3 Situating the new 江湖: Hong Kong Island
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Research Abstract
As a Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China (PRC), Hong Kong has positioned itself as a bastion of autonomy, a stark juxtaposition from the PRC, as its residents benefited from liberties including electoral rights, unrestricted internet access, and the entitlement to free expression. Due to its longstanding history under British colonial rule, and the binary ideological struggle arising from the “One Country, Two Systems” framework, it was inevitable that an independent Hong Kong identity would begin to emerge.
This Hong Kong identity, characterised by discontentment towards the colonial government and rising scepticism in the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), would manifest in the form of social divisions and eventually opposing social movements in the 1960s. This series of demonstrations would undoubtedly mark the beginning of a culture of resistance that would be heavily embedded into the urban fabric for decades to come.
However, This culture of resistance has been clamped down by authorities through various censorship tactics – examples include the banning and controlling certain media outlets, erasing evidence of dissent – both online and in physical protest sites, and the suppression of demonstrations in public spaces. In 2020, Beijing introduced the National Security Law, effectively criminalising “secession, subversion, terrorist activities, and collusion with a foreign country or with external elements to endanger national security”, adding another layer of censorship over Hong Kong and further eroding the autonomy and freedoms previously afforded to the citizens of Hong Kong.
In 2047, the “One Country, Two Systems” framework is set to expire. With China slowly chipping away at Hong Kong’s autonomy, this thesis aims to investigate architecture’s role in the tension between suppression and resistance under a culture of censorship and how culture persists despite deliberate erasure.
(285 Words)
Keywords: Censorship, Erasure, Collective Memory, Palimpsests
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1.1 One Country, Two Systems, Multiple Censors
Hong Kong, with its unique position under the “ One Country, Two Systems” framework and its status as a Special Administrative Region (SAR)– following the enactment and implementation of the Basic Law in 1990 and 1997 respectively – has enjoyed its status as Asia’s World City, boasting a high degree of autonomy. Perhaps owing to its hybrid character, Hong Kong has become a global trade hub for China and one of Asia’s “four Dragons”. In the vicinity of 1961 and 1997, the GDP of Hong Kong grew by 180 times, establishing it as one of the wealthiest regions in the world. 1
Emerging from the convergence of Western and Chinese influence in the early 19th century, Hong Kong’s political hybrid system affords it economic success, political freedoms, and expression of speech not afforded to those living in the mainland. The Basic Law authorises the Hong Kong SAR to “exercise a high degree of autonomy and enjoy executive, legislative and independent judicial power”.2 However, recent legislation by the Beijing government has been viewed to be an erosion of that autonomy and interference into the “One Country, Two Systems” framework.
On 20 June 2022, the National Security Law [NSL] in Hong Kong was introduced, effectively criminalising “secession, subversion, terrorist activities, and collusion with a foreign country or with external elements to endanger national security.”3 This law was implemented following a series of widespread protests in 2019 opposing the Anti-Extradition Law Amendment Bill.
The legislation had extensive implications, including the suppression of large-scale public demonstrations, reluctance among major technology firms to comply with its provisions— resulting in the restriction of services—and the closure of numerous local businesses. Additionally, it has fostered a climate of self-censorship among Hong Kongers over the fear of prosecution and legal repercussions.
1 Dangayach and Gupta, “Four Asian Dragons – Evolution and Their Growth.”
2 “Hong Kong E-Legislation.”
3 Wut et al., “National Security Law in Hong Kong.”
Hong Kong’s branding as Asia’s World City - it has served as a gateway to the Mainland in terms of finance, trade, investment, tourism, transport and communications, especially due to its strategic location.
DISTRICTS OF HONG KONG
Hong Kong adminstratively consists of three areas:
1. Hong Kong Island
2. Kowloon
3. New Territories
It is further divided into 18 districts.
In 1842, the Treaty of Nanking was signed, ceding Hong Kong Island to the British, establishing it as a Crown colony. Following that, in 1860 and 1898 respectively, the first and second convention of Peking was signed and the Kowloon Peninsula/ Stonecutters Island and New Territories was then ceded to the British as well.
PUBLIC ORDER EVENT STATISTICS
CITY OF PROTEST CURBED
While the 2019 E-LAB protests garnered significant global attention, they were merely the latest and largest iteration of an ongoing series of demonstrations dating back to the 1960s. According to the Hong Kong Police statistics, there were 1304 public processions in 2016. However, following the introduction of the National Security Law in 2020, that number has significantly dwindled, reaching its lowest in 2022.
ASIA’S WORLD CITY
1.2 香港人 [heung gong yahn] - A Hybrid Identity
The concept of local identity in Hong Kong did not fully emerge until the 1960s, amidst a “double struggle” against colonial rule and the impending transition to Chinese sovereignty.
In the 1980s, Sino-British negotiations confirmed China’s reclamation of Hong Kong would happen in 1997, once again re-establishing the country’s undeniable history and link to the mainland. However, the looming certainty of the colonial government’s “expiry date” in 1997 did not quell the sense of unease among the locals. As reforms increased interactions between the mainland and Hong Kong, vast cultural differences between the two regions became increasingly apparent. At that point in time, Hong Kong wielded greater economic influence compared to the mainland, which maintained unchallenged political authority.
The post-colonial identity in Hong Kong was enveloped in complex identity politics, as the hybridity of identities in Hong Kong emerging under this uncertainty fell under two broad categories: “Hong Kong as a Part of China” or “Hong Kong as Apart from China”.1
For many, Hong Kong’s interlinked cultural history with the mainland and inevitable return to China meant that those advocating for true autonomy had to work within the framework of the Basic Law. The belief was that by expanding political participation and supporting pro-democracy parties, autonomy could be realised within the structure of the Basic Law to resist Communist interference. This resistance to the CCP regime also translated into support for the democracy movement in China. In 1989, the democratic movement and subsequent Tiananmen Square massacre in China saw demonstrations by Hongkongers actively supporting the pro-democracy cause.2
For many, this was their first engagement in identifying as “Chinese,” albeit with the explicit rejection of the CCP regime.
At the same time, there was also growing dissatisfaction with the political stagnation in Hong Kong. The Pan-Democrats faced a long struggle because of Beijing’s desire for democratic display without substance, resulting in a form of “transition fatigue” and the rise of localist movements.3
As a result, localism has started to take on a political dimension. Many Hong Kongers harbour fears that mainland-Hong Kong integration provides greater opportunities for Beijing to exert political control over Hong Kong, resulting in the loss of local identity.
The term deja disparu, coined by Ackbar Abbas (1997)4, captures this sense of unease - that Hong Kong as we know it is but a series of “shock and radical changes”. This rapid shifting of the political climate and cultural space lends itself to creating a form of dislocation within Hong Kong - one that disrupts the continuity of everyday life and the shared understanding of what it means to be a part of this space. For many, there is a need to hold onto fragments of the city’s past, traditions, and freedoms, even as these elements are under threat of erasure. This has manifested in various resistance tactics, ranging from non-violent to radical, and resulted in a series of political protests.
1 Zhang, “ The Myth of the Other: China in the Eyes of the West.” 2 羅永生, “香港本土運動的興起與轉折 : The Trajectories of Hong Kong Localist Movement.”
3 Kwong, “The Growth of ‘Localism’ in Hong Kong: A New Path for the Democracy Movement?”
4 Abbas, “Hong Kong: Culture and Politics of Disappearance.”
two.
the censorship playbook: to silence the collective
Colonial Hong Kong
Under British rule, Hong Kong held a vibrant media landscape reflecting its complex political and cultural landscape at the time. Newspapers were often divided into different categories according to their political alignment. There were proCommunist papers such as Ta Kung Pao (大公報), Wen Wei Po (文匯報) and New Evening Post (新晚報), pro-Nationalist papers such as Sing Tao Daily (星島日報), Wah Kiu Yat Po (華僑日報), and Independent Newspapers such as South China Morning Post and Ming Pao (明報) 1
Even then, there were still censorship efforts to erase evidence of the protests and suppress newspapers by the colonial government. During the 1967 leftist riots, there were government crackdowns on the pro-CCP newspapers and much of the original documentation and records were either lost or destroyed. 2
Post-Colonial Hong Kong
Hong Kong’s Basic Law, established in 1997, purports that “Hong Kong residents shall have freedom of speech, of the press and publication; freedom of association, of assembly, of procession and of demonstration; and the right and freedom to form and join trade unions, and to strike”. These freedoms, which do not exist in mainland China, allowed Hong Kong the optics of press freedom. In 2002, it ranked 18 out of 139 countries in an index by RSF for press freedom, while China ranked 138, followed only by North Korea. However, that number has steadily declined, to 61 in 2014 and 73 in 2019. After introducing the National Security Law, its position dropped over 60 places to 148 out of 180 countries in 2022.3
Censorship during the Digital Era
1 University of Hong Kong Libraries. “Hong Kong Newspapers: A Pathfinder.”
2 Lo, Connie, dir. Vanished Archives. 2017. Documentary Film.
3 Reporters Without Borders. “Index.”
With the advent of the digital age, censorship began to take new forms as social media gave rise to citizen journalism, and the protests started to capture global attention. Encrypted messaging platforms such as telegram, peerto-peer networking services like FireChat were used to evade government tracking, and anonymous forums such as LIHKG were used to spread information.4 There were many applications developed at the time with the purpose of relaying information related to the protests, such as hkmap.live, an application that functioned similarly to Waze, informing protestors during the 2019 anti-ELAB movement where there were police presence and the release of teargas.
However, following the enactment of the National Security Law and Article 23, many of these applications have been taken down, various posts have been erased, and independent news outlets such as Apple Daily and Stand News have been shut down.5 The introduction of these legislations have resulted in a culture of self-censorship, a stark difference from the resistant Hong Kong identity so prevalent in the many years before.
4 Postinger, Nik. “Umbrella Organisation: How FireChat Facilitated the Hong Kong Protests.”
5 Reporters Without Borders. “Hong Kong: RSF Appalled by Prolonged Detention of Apple Daily Staff Three Years After Media Shutdown.”
Censorship and suppression of dissent in Hong Kong has existed since colonial times - the 1967 leftist riots are one example.
Both the authorities and the protestors acted as censors in this case - the colonial government placed pressure on many pro-Communist newspapers, amd at the same time, many leftists burned and destroyed pro-Nationalist papers such as Wah Kiu Yat Po and Sing Tao Daily, as a symbolic act of counter censorship.
2.1 A History of Demonstrations
The “protest” in Hong Kong dates back to 1956 when tensions between the pro-Nationalists and pro-Communist factions in Tsuen Wan culminated in the first significant form of mass public demonstration—the Double Ten riots. 1
Since then, Hong Kong’s modern protest culture has evolved and adapted accordingly to Hong Kong’s shifting political and social climate. The most recent and significant protest, the anti-ELAB movement, occurred following the proposal of the Anti-Extradition Bill in Hong Kong by Carrie Lam, allowing the transfer of criminal subjects to jurisdictions with which
1 Li, Chu Wai, and 朱維理. “More than a Potential Threat: The PRC’s Intervention During the Double Tenth Incident / 中共在雙十暴動 中的介入及對英國治港政策的威脅.”
Vanishing Voices: Censorship and the Erosion of Autonomy
Hong Kong has no formal extradition agreements, such as mainland China. The Anti-ELAB movement consisted of various decentralised protests, a tactic inspired by the Bruce Lee philosophy “Be Water (上善若水)”, describing the fluid movement of the protestors, making it difficult for the government to suppress the movement by targetting specific individuals.2
2 Holbig, Heike. “Be Water, My Friend: Hong Kong’s 2019 Anti-Extradition Protests.”
2.2 Digital Memorialisation:
An Evidence of Physical Censorship
With the advent of the digital age, Hong Kongers have begun consciously integrating art and spectacle into protests to capture viral moments. The generation and sharing of viral images on social media result in a wave of support, sparking hashtags and trends that gained global attention, putting increased pressure on the Hong Kong government to comply with the demands of the anti-ELAB movement.
Google Street Imaging and Surveillance
Through identifying and geo-locating these viral images, one could track the physical traces left behind and observe the scrubbing of these traces through time. The remnants of graffiti, the painted over signs, and the varying textures between the old and the new can be seen through these images - providing a form of memorialisation of that period.
Vanishing Voices: Censorship and the Erosion of Autonomy
VIRAL IMAGES 2014 UMBRELLA MOVEMENT
BAIDU MAPS SATELLITE IMAGING 2017
GOOGLE MAPS SATELLITE IMAGING 2019
GOOGLE MAPS SATELLITE IMAGING 2024
VIRAL IMAGES 2019 E-LAB PROTESTS
VIRAL IMAGES 2019 E-LAB PROTESTS
GOOGLE MAPS SATELLITE IMAGING
HARCOURT ROAD
HARCOURT ROAD
LENNON WALLS
CHASER ROAD
VIRAL IMAGES 2019 E-LAB PROTESTS
GOOGLE MAPS SATELLITE IMAGING 2019
GOOGLE MAPS SATELLITE IMAGING 2024
VIRAL IMAGES 2011 OCCUPY PROTESTS
HSBC
HEADQUARTERS
GOOGLE MAPS SATELLITE IMAGING 2024
HENNESSEY ROAD
VIRAL IMAGES 2019 E-LAB PROTESTS
GOOGLE MAPS SATELLITE IMAGING 2019
GOOGLE MAPS SATELLITE IMAGING 2024
VICTORIA PARK
VIRAL IMAGES 2019 E-LAB PROTESTS
GOOGLE MAPS SATELLITE IMAGING 2024
GOOGLE MAPS SATELLITE IMAGING 2019
IMAGES 2019 E-LAB PROTESTS
GOOGLE MAPS SATELLITE IMAGING 2019
2024
PRINCE EDWARD
VIRAL
GOOGLE MAPS SATELLITE IMAGING
VIRAL IMAGES 2019 E-LAB PROTESTS
GOOGLE MAPS SATELLITE IMAGING 2019
GOOGLE MAPS SATELLITE IMAGING 2019
GOOGLE MAPS SATELLITE IMAGING 2024
BANK OF CHINA
SALISBURY ROAD
YAU MA TEI
GOOGLE MAPS
GOOGLE
GOOGLE MAPS
GOOGLE
GOOGLE
2.3 Subverting Censorship - Protest Tactics by Localists
Urban Furnitures Repurposed
The art of protest in Hong Kong has engendered a novel form of urbanism, fundamentally reshaping the streets, a reality that became inherently apparent in the 2019 anti-ELAB movement. Throughout this period of protest, the city’s mobility infrastructure was hijacked, & the sheer density of the crowds reclaimed public space from the conventional transport systems.
In this, the elements of the urban landscape became instruments for the public to commandeer. Various components of the urban environment, such as railings and bricks were ripped from the fabric of the landscape to use as barriers and weapons. Phonebooths transformed into strategic points of surveillance—offering elevated vantage pointto monitor the movements of approaching authorities. Planters were repurposed as resource hubs, with the foliage providing the perfect hiding spot for weapons, masks, etc.
Through a mapping exercise analysing the traces of the protests, four main categories of urban furniture were identified, each reflecting different dimensions of the protest context:
1. Traces of Resistance: Urban Furniture that displays emergent forms of resistance, in spite of the introduction of the NSL
2. Traces of Suppression: Tactics employed by authorities to suppress demonstrative movements and dissent.
3. Old versus New: Observable juxtaposition between the newly constructed or repaired urban furniture and the remnants of the old, undamaged urban fabric
4. Not Cleaned: Furniture exhibiting visible disfigurement indicative of protest-related actions, which have yet to be repaired or replaced.
Yellow Economic Circle
The Yellow Economic Circle that emerged in 2019 was an unprecedented, widely adopted form of consumerism—one in which Hong Kongers participated in political consumerism, “buycotting” from yellow businesses and boycotting blue businesses. The yellow businesses, which showed support by displaying pro-movement decorations, donating to pro-movement causes, and publicly aligning with the movement, were usually run by small and medium enterprises. At the same time, most blue shops are conglomerates that have developed intimate political and business ties with the mainland.1
Economically, Hong Kong’s prosperity has historically hinged on China’s exclusion from the world economy. Hong Kong has been a gateway or proxy for China into international markets. However, as China continues opening up, it is often assumed that China would no longer be dependent on this economic function of Hong Kong. By subverting the economy in the Yellow Economic Circle, it sent a powerful statement—one that attempts to counter Beijing’s supported economic integration with Hong Kong.
Many of these yellow businesses continue to exist, albeit under the radar, and have become a place of solace and open discussion for localists amidst the prevalent suppression by authorities and the growing culture of censorship.
1 Pit Hok-yau, “A Reflection on Hong Kong’s Yellow Economic Circle.”
2.4 Mapping Surveillance and Palimpsests
Identifying four different hotspots of high protest activity, the data was extrapolated to map out surveillance in the city via the identification of Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) and traces/palimpsests of urban furniture used in the protests.
1. Harcourt Road - Hong Kong Island
Vanishing Voices: Censorship and the Erosion of Autonomy
2. Prince Edward station - Kowloon City
During the 2019 anti-ELAB protests, even public transport infrastructure was transformed into a battlefields. On the evening of August 31 2019, following a protest march on Hong Kong island, conflicts broke out within the metro train. Prince Edward station was used as a site of intervention as the police force carried out arrests within the station. The clash was broadcasted via television and online media outlets, transforming both the event and a date into a significant one in the memories of the Hong Kong people.1
3. Hennessey Road - Hong Kong Island
In the heart of the Central Business District, Hennessey Road serves as a principal thoroughfare frequently utilized by demonstrators during various protests and marches. As a road with high density of vehicular flow, during the 2019 anti-ELAB protests, the road was completely transformed as demonstrators took to the streets, effectively obstructing the conventional flow of the streets.
4. Mong Kok station - Kowloon City
Mong Kok is an area characterised by high crime activity, as such, there is a high level of surveillance. Besides being a protest hotspot in the 2019 anti-ELAB, it was the starting point for the 2016 Mong Kok riots, a significant demonstration which many localists took part in as they viewed intervention in Mong Kok as government erasure of local traditions.
1 Lee, Francis Lf. “Social media and the spread of fake news during a social movement: The 2019 Anti-ELAB protests in Hong Kong.”
Vanishing Voices: Censorship and the Erosion of Autonomy
Vanishing Voices: Censorship and the Erosion of Autonomy
“But if you peer deeper into this new germ of justice you can discern a tiny spot that is spreading like the mounting tendency to impose what is just through what is unjust, and perhaps this is the germ of an immense metropolis. . . ”
– Italo Calvino, Invisible Cities
three.
the censorship paradox: when tactics backfire
3.1 The Censorship Paradox
Observing the Hong Kong government’s efforts to censor and suppress all signs of dissent presents an interesting phenomenon. Despite the silence and self-censorship, the collective memory perseveres. Hong Kong and its people, despite the erasure, do not forget.
The censorship and tactics of suppression serve a form of irony - a censorship paradox in which “its authority to prohibit can never be separated from its need to include”.1 By presenting Hong Kong-ers with a set of contradictions and suppressions - for example, signs which prohibit unusual actions such as “Don’t Climb” on the bus stops, inadvertently serve as a reminder or indicator that those actions did, in fact, occur in the past. Even subtle acts of suppression, such as the presence of a mesh on the bridges, trigger a memory - one in which such elements did not exist before.
Furthermore, the irony of censorship is that it predictably creates sophisticated audiences. A reader aware of the presence of censorship cannot approach a text with naivety; there exists a mutual awareness among the citizens of Hong Kong regarding the very actions the government seeks to suppress. The tactics employed by the state can often be subverted; for instance, individuals may utilize Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) to circumvent restrictions on platforms such as TikTok and ChatGPT. In the context of protests, demonstrators have resorted to using encrypted messaging applications like Telegram and decentralised organising methods to evade detection.
3.2 An Architecture of Forgetting
The Western tradition denotes an assumption that material objects - whether natural or artificial can act as the analogues of human memory. If objects are made to stand for memory, their decay or destruction is taken to imply forgetting. However, Adrian Forty debunks this notion in “the Art of Forgetting”positing that object permanence is not a necessary feature of its existence.2 In Hong Kong, despite pervasive censorship and sanitisation efforts that occur within the city, the memory of the various events are not wiped. The brief moments of exposure through objects and traces serve merely as ephemeral affirmations of shared cultural knowledge, rather than necessitating overt reminders.
In Sigmund Freud’s theory of mental processes, he states that “in mental life nothing that has once been formed can perish - everything is preserved and in suitable circumstance can be brought to life”3. As such, in the case of Hong Kong, a “borrowed place on borrowed time”, the discourse surrounding collective memory transcends mere preservation, and instead starts to cemter on the strategic design of the circumstances that catalyse this collective memory.
1 Holquist, “Introduction: Corrupt Originals: The Paradox of Censorship.”
2 Forty and Küchler, The Art of Forgetting. 3 Freud, “Civilization and Its Discontents.”
2047: A New Censorship
4.1 The genre of 江湖: filmic analysis
The trajectory of Hong Kong cinema, particularly from the 1970s onwards, serves as a lens to examine the city’s spirit and traditions. This period, often referred to as the Golden Age of Cinema, encapsulates the complexities of Hong Kong’s socio-cultural identity. The binarisms that characterize these depictions are aptly summarized in Ackbar’s concept of déjà disparu, wherein he articulates the sentiment that “the feeling that what is new and unique about the situation is always already gone, and we are left holding a handful of clichés.”1 The affectivity and relationships forged within and through the viewing of such movies reflect a deep-seated longing among Hong Kongers for a romanticised vision of their city’s past. Simultaneously, these cinematic narratives articulate their aspirations and desires for the future of Hong Kong. This interplay of nostalgia and speculation is crucial to understanding the ongoing dynamics within Hong Kong’s socio-cultural landscape.
One trend that emerged within the transitory period of the 90s and post-colonial Hong Kong was the emergence of Hong Kong crime and gangster films, in which, the concept of 江湖 (jianghu) and 關係 (guanxi) was especially pervasive in the themes and relationships within the films.
關係 is a form of social capital that facilitates the navigation of social and economic landscapes in Chinese society and refers to the concept of drawing on established connections to secure favours in personal relationships. Jiang and Associates define 關 係 as the embodiment of an institutionalized behavioral pattern in interpersonal relationships involved with human affective components and human obligations under Confucianism and an institutional structure.2
關係 is often used as a business strategy for Hong Kong business elites to build relationships and business connections in China, reflecting Hong Kong’s role as an economic gateway to China. As the economic integration between Hong Kong and China strengthens, the concept of 關係 plays a crucial role in shaping social interactions and hierarchies between the two regions. Promoting 關係-like behaviours can establish a control mechanism by defining implicit boundaries of acceptable discourse, further adding a layer of self-censorship in the Hong Kong-China society in terms of behavioural norms.
江湖 is a concept originally coined in Daoist philosophy, and appears as a frequent feature in wuxia fiction, describing a realm that is either parallel to or intersecting with mainstream society. Literally translated to “rivers and lakes”, it denotes a non-hierarchical, dynamic organization of human existence, representing a counter realm that exists beyond established social structures and conventions.3 In this, it imagines the potential of a space or refuge to evade government control and censorship. In the context of Hong Kong and their protests, the concept of “Be Water” in the 2019 anti-ELAB protests could be interpreted as a manifestation of this counter realm in which the roads and highways were transformed into the “rivers and lakes” of 江湖, subverting normative behaviors and serving as a means to challenge the pervasive oversight of the state government, effectively de-territorialising state power.4
To further analyse the creation of 江湖 and the dynamics of social capital in the formation of 關係 relationships, a filmic study was done through the establishment of four different acts through analysis of four different films: Lee Rock I and II, Chasing the Dragon, and Infernal Affairs.
1 Abbas, “Hong Kong: Culture and Politics of Disappearance.”
2 Jiang et al. “Formation and Trend of Guanxi Practice and Guanxi Phenomenon.”
3 Lorenz, “Anonymity in Jianghu: Hong Kong’s Urban Space in Times of Crisis.”
4 Assis, Paulo de, and Paolo Giudici, eds. Machinic Assemblages of Desire: Deleuze and Artistic Research 3.
act 01: establishing the basis of 關係
The foundational premise underlying all 關係 (guanxi) relationships is the existence of a base - a commonality of shared attributes, identity, or origin. These bases can be categorised into three distinct types:
1. Ascribed bases
Individuals in the relationship share pre-existing qualities inherited at birth, such as locality, kinship, or dialect.
2. Social bases
Encompasses relationships between colleagues, classmates/ alumni, students/teachers and other social associations. Social bases can be established voluntarily and associations are based on mutual interests or objectives.
3. Third-party bases
In instances where one or both parties lack shared identities, a third-party intermediary is essential in establishing 關係
While the presence of a base does not inherently signify the existence of a full-fledged 關係 relation; it does serve as a preliminary condition that enables the potential to build a substantive relationship.
Mechanisms in establishing 關係
Two primary mechanisms are vital in establishing 關係:
感情 (ganqing)and 人情(renqing).
感情 refers to the affective dimension of 關係 and is the emotional nature of guanxi that tends to tie people together and includes a commonly understood commitment to aid in the realisation of one’s interest.
Constrastingly, 人情 refers to the social obligation component of 關係. Most systems of reciprocal aid are predicated on the concept of “人情”. Because of the norm of reciprocity, this unpaid obligation will lead to a series of exchanges, ultimately resulting in the formation of a 關係-based relationship.
Conditioning Factors
Some factors affect the strength of a 關係 relationship: face and trust. A breakdown of these two factors may lead to the discontinuation of 關係
1. Face [面子]
Face or 面子 is defined as “the positive social value a person effectively claims for himself by the line others assume he has taken during a particular contact.”
2. Trust
Trust is essential in the maintenance of 關係. The higher the level of trust between involved parties, the greater the probability of a long-term relationship. 關係 engaged in opportunistic behaviours (i.e. low trust) is quickly discontinued.
ACT 01 - THE BASIS OF 關係
act 02: establishing 關係 through instrumental 礼
礼 (li) refers to certain traditional norms that govern human conduct, and it can be observed through daily interaction rituals. These interaction rituals are integral to the formation and maintenance of 關係 relationships as demonstrations to boost one’s reputation and preserve face 面子. Proper use of ritual largely improves the quality of guanxi and can be a strategic social investment.1
1 Ruan, Ji. 2017. “Interaction Rituals in Guanxi Practice and the Role of Instrumental Li.” Asian Studies Review 41 (4): 664–78. doi:10.1080/10 357823.2017.1372363.
There are three categories that these interaction rituals fall under.
1. Instrumental Gift-Giving
2. Instrumental Banqueting
3. Instrumental Face-giving
These interaction rituals produce shared emotion and awareness, solidarity, symbolism, individual emotional energy and social trust, and close business networks are usually formed through spaces of ritualised leisure.
DINING TABLE AS SPACE OF EXCHANGE
Chair as buffer
Spectator becomes participant
Reciprocity/Intangibility/Transferability
Furniture as boundaries
At the point when Ho expresses his loyalty, boundaries are broken, fighting occurs as bodies are thrown across tables and chairs
act 03: creation of 江湖
While 關係 refers to social obligations and leveraging on transactions to create a connection, 江湖 offers a contrasting form of relationship. The concept of 江湖 originates from wuxia novels such as “Water Margin” and refers to the networks of brotherhood and sworn loyalty forged in the space of nature away from the constraints of court politics and formal authority.
In the context of 江湖, relationships extend beyond the transactional nature of 人情 (renqing) and are founded on authentic affection (感情) and a collective sense of belonging. Within this framework, the social constructs of losing face hold significantly less weight, as the bonds formed in 江湖 are steeped in sacrifice and loyalty.
Within the films, there are moments that capture points of sacrifice, suggesting a potential in which a spatial condition could trigger a shift in motivation from social obligation to one of authentic kinship and 感情
These moments are usually found in highly charged spaces of “enemy territory” - and are centred around the use of furniture (tables and chairs) as symbols of social boundaries.
At a point where tensions run high, there is usually a trigger moment which causes these boundaries to be broken, and the use of these furnitures are subverted. Rather than being used for conventional functions such as seating or dining, they are instead used as weapons, vantage points, etc., symbolic of how the urban furniture were repurposed as weapons or barriers during the 2019 anti-ELAB protests.
High visibility - becomes focal point of spectactorship
Sacrifice through Shame
Furniture as boundaries
Using furniture as vantage points to jump on and attack
Furniture used as weapons
Rigid Seating Hierarchy
Once master shifts away from his “rightful seat”, becomes vulnerable to attack
Participant becomes specator
act
04: Corruption and Decay 腐敗
Conversely, the relationships in 關係 networks are not impervious to external influences and remain vulnerable to degradation. As a culturally defined phenomenon, 關 係 relies heavily on the reciprocal benefits conferred to all parties involved. However, when individual desires eclipse the obligations owed to others, the potential for corruption or moral decay (腐敗, fu bai) emerges within the relationship. In this, external temptations that cannot be attained in the relationship might cause one to defect, leading to fragmentation and disintegration of social ties.
Within the films, moments which signify a point of defection or corruption usually centre around the idea of mental isolation. An analysis of the spatial conditions usually indicate a lack of visibility, and the presence or awareness of a temptation/desire nearby.
Hierarchy of
NIGHTCLUB AS SPACE OF TEMPTATION
Awareness of temptation
Drinks/ cigarettes/drugs are laid out on the table
Lack of visibility
Furniture
Point of temptation is not directly visible, hidden away
Furniture is laid against a wall, Hunter is at centre point = authority?
4.2 A Tale of Two Cities
In 2047, the “One Country, Two Systems” framework is set to expire, and with it, the autonomy that the Hong Kong-ers have been so desperately fighting to retain. China’s vision for Hong Kong is clearly set out in the 2030 Masterplan1 which lists three building blocks to sustain Hong Kong as “Asia’s World City”:
1. enhancing Hong Kong’s position as a multi-modal transportation hub where people, goods and ideas converge and hence a global and regional nodal point for doing business.
2. fostering an enabling environment for innovation and technology development and creating a new momentum for economic growth
3. providing a conducive environment for enhancing and optimising human capital
These three building blocks highlight the PRC’s intention to leverage Hong Kong as an economic gateway to foreign investment in the innovation and technology centre. With its close proximity to Shen Zhen, also known as China’s emerging “Silicon Valley”, the integration of Hong Kong’s economy is vital to boosting China’s financial status.
Twin Cities, Three Circle
With the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area becoming the driving force of regional development, the integration of Hong Kong and Shen Zhen is set through the development of the Northern Metropolis, which will involve the establishment of three circles:
1. Shenzhen Bay Quality Development Circle
In this circle, within Hong Kong, the Western Economic Corridor will link up the North-West New Territories, North Lantau and the Kau Yi Chau Artificial Islands. Qianhai, Shekou and Houhai of Shenzhen will connect with Tin Shui Wai, Yuen Long and Hung Shui Kiu of Hong Kong, turning the current fringe area of Hong Kong to a central gateway to Shenzhen West.
1 “Hong Kong 2030+: Towards a Planning Vision and Strategy Transcending 2030.”
2. Hong Kong-Shen Zhen integration circle
The Hong Kong-Shenzhen Close Interaction Circle serves as an area for Hong Kong and Shenzhen to jointly develop the I&T industry. It includes several ports, e.g. Luohu, Lok Ma Chau, Huanggang and Man Kam To and connects Luohu and Futian in Shenzhen with San Tin, Kwu Tung North, Fanling, Sheung Shui and the New Territories North new town in Hong Kong.
3. Mirs Bay/Yan Chau Tong Eco-recreation/tourism Circle
Comprising of Sha Tau Kok and Lin Ma Hang on the Hong Kong side, with Yantian and the Dapeng Peninsula on the Shenzhen side. The masterplan proposes the transformation of this area into a tourism spot given its rich cultural heritage, as well as a the establishment of a shopping cooperation zone within Sha Tau Kok which will provide more opportunities for retail businesses.
The PRC’s agenda for Hong Kong is in its role as a “superconnector (超級聯絡人)”2 in its One Belt, One Road initiative. With the construction of new transportation infrastructure, and the development of various Commercial Business Districts within Kowloon and the Lantau islands, the integration between Hong Kong and China is well underway through the collaboration with Shenzhen to foster innovation and economic development.
2
HONG KONG-SHENZHEN INTEGRATION MASTERPLAN PROPOSAL
THREE BUILDING BLOCKS
The three building blocks outlined in the Hong Kong 2030+ Masterplan offer a glimpse into China’s aspirations for Hong Kong and the value it could offer the country. The economic benefits of absorbing Hong Kong into the mainland and creating an efficient, attractive hub for foreign investments.
“普天之下，莫非王土；率土之濱，莫非王臣。”
“Under the vast heavens, all lands belong to the king; to the edges of the earth, all are subjects of the king.”
– on the concept of 天下, from the Book of Songs (詩經)
4.3 Situating the new 江湖: Hong Kong Island
This thesis posits a post-2047 scenario in which the Hong Kong-Shenzhen integration aims to create a unified megacity focusing on the mutual integration of New Territiories, Kowloon City and Shenzhen. As the integration between Hong Kong and Shen Zhen deepens, the development of an innovation and technology hub is likely to exacerbate socio-economic disparities. Local residents, particularly those aligned with localist sentiments and individuals who are unable to bear the rising costs associated with this rapid development, may find themselves marginalised or displaced. In this context, Hong Kong Island—currently outside the immediate scope of the Hong Kong-Shenzhen integration initiative—could emerge as a critical refuge.
This potential refuge explores the potential in the emergence of a 江湖 (jianghu) realm, suggesting the existence of a liminal space located at the border of the unified megacity. As the first territory to be ceded to the British in the 1840s, coupled with its legacy of heightened protest activity, Hong Kong Island serves as an ideal backdrop for the design of context and the emergence of moments of 江湖
For this thesis, my site selection investigates Lan Kwai Fong, situated in Central, Hong Kong. Lan Kwai Fong is in close proximity to the streets that have historically served as venues for protests and is also home to numerous heritage and colonialera buildings. As a popular haunt among expatriates, the area is filled with many nightclubs and drinking establishments, providing the potential to insert programmes of desire.
HONG KONG COLONIAL ERA
As a Special Administrative Region, Hong Kong has a long colonial history since the 1840s, whereby many buildings were built during this era. Despite many buildings being demolished and rebuilt due to rapid industrialisation, many colonial-era buildings are listed as Historical Grade, and kept under conservation.
Victorian Period [1800s-1900]
Edwardian Period [1900s-1920s]
Modern Period [1930 - 1990]
Protest Street
ROADS AND HIGHWAYS, RIVERS AND LAKES
Similar to the “rivers and lakes” of 江湖, the roads and highways have served as points where normative behavior is subverted and authority is challenged. The symbolism of these spaces of transit, can be repurposed to serve as realms of solace, respite, and memory for the localists post 2047.
Roads and highways as potential for 江湖
Normative spaces of 關係
Spaces for Temptation
SPACES OF DESIRE
With various drinking establishments, nightclubs, entertainment lounges, a myriad of desires exist within Lan Kwai Fong as a site.
KTV Nightclubs
Fringeclub
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image index.
Figure 1: Shannon Tan. “Districts of Hong Kong.” September 25, 2024. Digital Illustration. Page 9.
Figure 2: Shannon Tan. “Asia’s World City.” September 27, 2024. Digital Illustration. Page 9.
Figure 3: Shannon Tan. “Public Order Event Statistics Table” reinterpreted from Hong Kong Police Force. [https://www.police.gov.hk/ppp_ en/09_statistics/poes.html] September 27, 2024. Bar Chart. Page 9.
Figure 4: Shannon Tan. “Social, Politicial and Economic Consequences of One Country, Two Systems.” September 25, 2024. Mind Map. Page 10.
Figure 5: Lo, Connie. “Vanished Archives.” Film Poster. Page 13.
Figure 6: 華僑日報 and 香港工商日報. “Scanned Newspapers from period of 1967 riots” retrieved from [https://archive.org/] Augst 15, 2024. Newspaper scans. Page 13.
Figure 7: Shannon Tan. “Press Freedom Index of Hong Kong from 20152024 line chart” re-interpreted from Reporters San Frontieres. Page 13.
Figure 8: Shannon Tan. “Demonstrations in Hong Kong.” August 15, 2024. Map and table. Page 14-15.
Figure 9: Shannon Tan. “Digital Memorialisation of Viral moments in Hong Kong island”. Map and compendium of edited images. August 23, 2024. Page 16-17.
Figure 10: Shannon Tan. “Digital Memorialisation of Harcourt Road” August 30, 2024. Compendium of edited images. Page 18.
Figure 11: Shannon Tan. “Digital Memorialisation of Chaser Road/HSBC Headquarters.” August 30, 2024. Compendium of edited images. Page 18.
Figure 12: Shannon Tan. “Digital Memorialisation of Hennessey Road.” August 30, 2024. Compendium of edited images. Page 19.
Figure 13: Shannon Tan. “Digital Memorialisation of Victoria Park.” August 30, 2024. Compendium of edited images. Page 20.
Figure 14: Shannon Tan. “Digital Memorialisation of Viral moments in Kowloon.” August 30, 2024. Map and Compendium of edited images. Page 21-22.
Figure 15: Shannon Tan. “Digital Memorialisation of Prince Edward Station.” August 30, 2024. Compendium of edited images. Page 23.
Figure 16: Shannon Tan. “Digital Memorialisation of Mong Kok Station.” August 30, 2024. Compendium of edited images. Page 24.
Figure 17: Shannon Tan. “Digital Memorialisation of Bank of China, Yau Ma Tei, Salisbury Road.” August 30, 2024. Compendium of edited images. Page 25.
Figure 18: Shannon Tan. “Catalog of Urban Furnitures.” September 7, 2024. Digital Illustration. Page 26.
Figure 19: Shannon Tan. “Yellow Economic Circle.” November 5, 2024. Digital Illustration. Page 27.
Figure 20: Shannon Tan. “Mapping Surveillance and Palimpsests in Harcourt Road.” September 12, 2024. Compendium of edited images, Axonometric Illustration. Page 28-29.
Figure 21: Shannon Tan. “Mapping Surveillance and Palimpsests in Prince Edward.” September 12, 2024. Compendium of edited images, Axonometric Illustration. Site Plan Illustration. Page 30-31.
Figure 22: Shannon Tan. “Mapping Surveillance and Palimpsests in Wan Chai.” September 12, 2024. Compendium of edited images, Axonometric Illustration. Site Plan Illustration. Elevation. Page 32.
Figure 23: Shannon Tan. “Mapping Surveillance and Palimpsests in Wan Chai.” September 12, 2024. Compendium of edited images. Site Plan Illustration. Elevation. Page 33.
Figure 24: Shannon Tan. “The Censorship Paradox: Prince Edward Before and After” Novemeber 7, 2024. Top image: https://www.alamy.com/ Bottom image: taken by author. Page 34.
Figure 25: Shannon Tan. “The Censorhip Paradox: Speculations of Scenarios in 2047.” September 11, 2024. Digital Illustration. Page 36-37.
Figure 26: Shannon Tan. “Act 1: Guanxi Bases and their characteristics.” September 20, 2024. Infographic. Page 39.
Figure 27: Shannon Tan. “Act 2: Establishing a Guanxi Relationship.” Infographic. Edited Film Stills and Analysis. September 20, 2024. Page 40.
Figure 28: Shannon Tan. “Dining Table as a Space of Exchange.” Spatial Analysis of “Chasing the Dragon”. September 27, 2024. Page 41.
Figure 29: Shannon Tan. “Act 3: Creation of a Jianghu.” Infographic. Edited Film Stills and Analysis. September 20, 2024. Page 42.
Figure 30: Shannon Tan. “Dining Hall as Space of Confrontation, Shame, Enemy Hideout as Point of Sacrifice.” Spatial Analysis of “Chasing the Dragon” and “Lee Rock.”. September 27, 2024. Page 42-43.
Figure 31: Shannon Tan. “Act 4: Corruption and Decay.” Infographic. Edited Film Stills and Analysis. September 20, 2024. Page 44.
Figure 32: Shannon Tan. “Space of Betrayal and Temptation.” Spatial Analysis of “Chasing the Dragon”. September 27, 2024. Page 44-45.
Figure 33: Shannon Tan. “A Tale of Two Cities.” Annotated Map for 2030 Masterplan. September 27, 2024. Page 47.
Figure 34: Hong Kong 2030+ Masterplan. “Three Building Blocks.” Retrieved from Hong Kong Planning Department website. September 27, 2024. Page 48.
Figure 35: Shannon Tan. “Hong Kong Historical Grade Buildings.” Map. September 30, 2024. Page 50.
Figure 36: Shannon Tan. “Projected Points of Intervention” Siteplan. November 4, 2024. Page 50.
Figure 37: Shannon Tan. “Lan Kwai Fong Site plan” Annotated Siteplan. September 27, 2024. Page 51.
Figure 37: Retrieved from Google. “Programmes in Lan Kwai Fong” Images. September 27, 2024. Page 51.
sel-disclosure of research.
I certify that except where due acknowledgement has been made, the work is that of the author alone; the work has not been submitted previously, in whole or in part, to qualify for any other academic award; the content of the project is the result of work which has been carried out since the official commencement date of the approved research program, any editorial work, paid or unpaid carried out by a third party is acknowledged, ethics procedures and guidelines have been followed.
Intellectual Property Rights are retained by Shannon Tan, who asserts moral rights and all other rights to be identified as the author of this work. I have acknowledged all copyright holders on the images and other references used.
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江湖: A New Censorship Year 5
Playground for Homo Deus
Ar. Chaw Chih Wen
Master of Architecture Programme
AY2024/2025
Department of Architecture
College of Design and Engineering
