Margarine or Butter? : The future of plastics in building and construction.

!

Margarine or Butter?

The Future of Plastics in Building and Construction!

!

by: Muhammad Shamim Bin Mohd Padzil

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

201392239 Department of Architecture Faculty of Engineering University of Strathclyde

!

13th March 2014 !

1

Declaration AB 420 Dissertation 2013/14 BSc Honours Architectural Studies BSc Honours Architectural Studies with International Study Pg Diploma in Architectural Studies

Declaration “I hereby declare that this dissertation submission is my own work and has been composed by myself. It contains no unacknowledged text and has not been submitted in any previous context. All quotations have been distinguished by quotation marks and all sources of information, text, illustration, tables, images etc. have been specifically acknowledged.

I accept that if having signed this Declaration my work should be found at Examination to show evidence of academic dishonesty the work will fail and I will be liable to face the University Senate Discipline Committee.�

MUHAMMAD SHAMIM BIN MOHD PADZIL

Name:

_____________________________________________________________

Signed:

_____________________________________________________________

Date:

13 MARCH 2014 _____________________________________________________________

shamim

! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Department)of)Architecture!

131!ROTTENROW! Glasgow!G4!0NG!

t:+!44!(0)!!141!548!3023/4219! f:+!44!(0)!!141!552!3997! e:!contactLarchitecture@strath.ac.uk!! !

Head!of!Department:!

Professor!Sergio!Porta!PhD! ! !

The place of useful learning The University of Strathclyde is a charitable body, registered in Scotland, number SC015263

2

ABSTRACT

!

Plastics are special material that have become important to our everyday lives although plastics have only been commonly available for about the last one hundred years. Nowadays, plastics can be found around us with many different forms and applications. In architecture, plastics give us the opportunity to create interesting form and flexible design capabilities. However, usage of plastics as part of construction may also risk human health as well as being harmful to the environment. This study was to identify and understand the usage of plastics in the field of architecture and construction industry. Advantages and disadvantages of the usage of plastics will be discussed. Then, materials other than plastics will be investigate in order to find out materials that may be better or as alternatives for plastics. Investigation was done by data compilation from books, Internet, articles and research sources. In conclusion, studies that have been done is expected to provide recommendations or alternatives based on both the benefits and problems created by plastic. Finally, this study is expected to improve the usage of plastic in architecture and construction industry in a way that can benefit both human and most importantly, the environment.

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

3

TABLE OF CONTENT

!

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

6

1.1 Statement of the Problem

8

1.2 Purpose of the Study

10

1.3 Aim and objectives of research

10

1.4 Research methodology

11

CHAPTER 2: ABOUT PLASTIC

12

2.1 Properties of Plastics

12

2.2 Type of Plastics

13

2.3 Production of Plastics

15

CHAPTER 3: PLASTICS IN CONSTRUCTION

17

CHAPTER 4: ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PLASTIC

19

4.1 Advantages of Plastic

19

4.2 Disadvantages of Plastics

20

CHAPTER 5: DATA ANALYSIS

26

5.1 Embodied Energy

26

5.2 Hazardous Plastic

31

5.3 Bioplastic 5.4 Case Study

34

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

36

!

BIBLIOGRAPHY

39

! !

4

LIST OF FIGURES

! !

Figure 1: Monomers are linked to form polymers, in this case, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) (ginnynorman.files.wordpress.com)

12

Figure 2: The polymer chains of thermoplastic form a random, unordered structure while polymer chains of thermosetting plastic are tightly connected by atomic bonds (www.acsa-arch.org)

14

Figure 3: Types and uses of plastic (Fried, 2003)

15

Figure 4: Acronyms for plastics to DIN EN ISO 1043-1 (basic polymers) and ISO 1629 (rubber and latices) (Engelsmann & Spalding et al., 2010)

16

Figure 5: The use of plastics in Germany 2007 (Engelsmann & Spalding et al., 2010)

16

Figure 6: The application of plastics in construction in Germany (Engelsmann & Spalding et al., 2010)

17

Table 7: The application of plastics in contraction industry (Engelsmann & Spalding et al., 2010) 18 Table 8: Embodied energy in building materials (Source: Baird & Alcorn et al.,1997)

27

Table 9: Embodied energy of plastics

29

Table 10: Classification of plastic

31

Figure 11: Image of Arboskin Pavilion (image source: http://www.dezeen.com/2013/11/09/ arboskin-spiky-pavilion-with-facademade-from-bioplastics-by-itke/)

34

Figure 12: Process of production and recycling of Arbobend (image source: http:// www.dezeen.com/2013/11/09/arboskin-spiky-pavilion-with-facademade-from-bioplastics-by-itke/)35

! ! ! ! ! !

5

CHAPTER 1:

INTRODUCTION

A few years ago, rumours about margarine is only one molecule away of being a plastic spread out in the internets as chained emails. In this email, the downside of margarine was discussed and the purpose of the email was to educated people about the harmful of margarine. However, yet, there is still no official proof or study being made on margarine as being only one molecule away of being a plastic. Nevertheless, margarine which is made from highly synthetic unsaturated fat (vegetable oils) was created as a substitute for butter which is a natural food made up from saturated fat by fermentation of animal’s milk. Raw margarine is actually grey in colour which colouring is used in order to imitate the colour of butter whereas no colouring is used in the production of butter. In fact butter taste much more better and contain natural ingredient that can be benefit for human health whereas margarine can be harmful for human health. This is due to the reason of the fact that margarine is made from combination of unnatural substances and chemicals. In term of decomposition, margarine can last longer as it would not grow mould, not smell or even attract flies. On the other hand, butter will decompose naturally as would as other natural food in this world.

!

In relation with plastic, the author would like to use margarine as a metaphor for plastic. This is basically due to the fact that plastic is basically a substitute material for other natural material available in this world such as timber, metal, glass, leather, paper and rubber. In addition, most of the today’s production of plastic is basically made artificially rather that being made naturally.

The processes of repeating a few molecular units or ‘monomers’ that are connected to each other by chemical bonds will eventually formed a large molecule called a polymer. Proteins, cellulose in trees and paper, DNA, rubber and anything plastics are common example of polymers. Plastic is a material that is made up from any synthetic or semi-synthetic organic polymer. Although plastics may be made from any organic polymer, today, most of the industrial plastics are made from petrochemicals or artificially produced due to the economical aspect.

!

6

As a material, plastics are very important as part of our daily life and has been used from clothing, food and beverage packaging, transportation boxes, household’s products to construction of building. Plastics are described as high-performance materials in which their properties and forms can be varies depending on their application. In architecture, plastics have been used as building envelope, building structure, window frames, gutters, walls, external cladding, ceilings, floors as well as interior furniture. The role of plastics in construction is important due to the fact that plastics are strong, durable, do not corrode, lightweight, easy to install and offer design freedom.

!

Hosler et. al (1999) has stated that, the ancient Mesoamericans have benefited from the use of polymers since 1600 BC when they processed natural rubber into balls figurines and bands.

According to Englesmann et. al (2010), though natural rubber (harvested from the gum tree) has been known for over 500 years, plastics are comparatively recent material despite of the natural rubber being its precursor. The expansion of plastics started back to the period of early industrialisation where artificial material are needed to substitute the usage of the expensive value of natural raw material (Englesmann et al 2010).

!

Historically, the usage of plastic in building construction has dated back to the 1940’s where lack of conventional building materials after the Second World War created the idea of building a series of prefabricated buildings using plastics. However, these ideas were never made into production.

Englesmann et. al (2010) also stated that the first ever usage of plastic type material in architecture was the glass reinforced-fibre (GRP) in 1954 which is used for military radar dome.

!

Nowadays, plastics are being used extensively in the field of architecture and construction. British Plastics Federation (BPF) has identified that the second largest market for plastics is the construction industry consuming 25% of all the plastics produced in the UK.

! !

7

1.1

Statement of the Problem

Malaysia realised that the construction industry plays an important part in a developing country.

Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB) Malaysia (2007) stated that over the last 20 years, the industry has been consistently contributing between 3% - 5% of the national GDP. However, it is known that this industry contributes to negative impacts upon the environment such as soil erosion and sedimentation, flash floods, destruction of vegetation and dust pollution, depletion of natural resources and the use of building materials harmful to human health (Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB) Malaysia, 2007). As urged by the 5th Prime Minister of Malaysia, “Malaysian should not forget the importance of managing and utilising its natural resources in a sustainable manner and developers are warned to ensure that environment must not be sacrificed in favour of economic development� (Chin, 2005). According to Plessis (2007) stated that the challenge for the construction sector is not just to respond to the need for adequate housing and rapid urbanisation, but also in term of socially and ecologically responsible.

!

Nevertheless, it is known that the awareness of sustainable construction in Malaysia is currently at a pioneering stage. According to (Abidin, 2009) Malaysia construction industry is still at infancy when dealing with sustainable matters. Promotions from government and non-governmental institution on the awareness of sustainability are hoped that sustainability among the construction practitioners will improved greatly in the near future.

!

In term of the production of plastic, plastic is known for its very wide applications because of its versatility, flexibility and durability. In the building and construction sector, PlasticsEurope has stated that the use of plastics may saves energy, reduces costs, enhances quality of life and helps to protect the environment, ease of installation and also require minimal maintenance. Basically, this is because in the production of plastic, different kind of elements and chemicals can be added into plastic in order to create a product that can have its own desired properties.

8

However, the usage of plastics as material has created many controversial statements especially in term of ecological and sustainability approaches due to its properties of being nonbiodegradable which consequently, creating pollution such as waste problems. According to Mudgal (2011), the state of plastic waste is notoriously hard to measure and for example, it is estimated that in 2008 EU-27, Norway and Switzerland produced about 24.9 megatons of plastic waste, but its distribution is difficult to ascertain.

!

Though, according to The Waste and Resource Action Programme, UK (WRAP), construction is the second largest user of plastic in the UK after packaging, consuming 23% of all the plastic.

Therefore it can be concluded that plastics are playing a major role in the building and construction industry today.

!

British Plastic Federation (BPF) has stated that nearly all types of plastics can be recycled, however the extent to which they are recycled depends upon technical, economic and logistic factors. Such plastics that are commonly being recycled include polyethylene terephthalate (PET) which is commonly used as plastic bottles, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and the most common plastic that is being recycled is high-density polyethylene (HDPE).

! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

9

1.2

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study is to identify and understand the need for addressing material aspects of architecture; how plastic contribute towards the construction and architecture industry. From the investigation, it is expected to raise awareness among architects, public and even professionals regarding the significance and the impact of using plastics as part of current and even in the future of architecture and construction industry mainly. This investigation was done by, first, understanding the development of plastics in architecture and also in the construction industry throughout the world. Consequently, by analysis on advantages and disadvantages of plastic is done in order to develop knowledge about plastic. Lastly, case studies on how plastics are being used in the current buildings construction or even ideas in the future that are related may occur.

1.3

Aim and objectives of research

The aim of the study is to study how far the development and even the impacts of plastic in the field of architecture and construction. This is done by data compilation from books, Internet, and article and research sources. From the data compilation, it would be possible to analyse and determine the most appropriate way to utilise plastic as part of sustainable construction and possibly avoiding the undesirable negative impacts of usage of plastic in the future. In line with the aim, the objectives of the study are listed below: • To gain information about the history and the current usage of plastic in the architecture and construction fields.

• To establish the level of awareness among architects, public and construction player about the benefit or detriment of plastics as part of building’s material.

• To find out if plastic can help to be part of sustainable architecture and construction.

• To provide alternative or option for designer when choosing material in a way that can benefit both human and the environment.

!

10

1.4

Research methodology

Firstly, investigation was done by identifying current scenario of the usage of plastic in construction industry. Then, understanding the benefit of plastic as part of sustainable construction. This is done by data complication from books, Internet, article and research sources. Consequently, observing and understanding of case studies in local context about adaptation of plastic as part of construction and in comparison with various case studies from overseas.

In depth, the research methods are done by gathering information related towards the subject of plastics and its application. This study uses the approach of qualitative as the research approach as the research involve in studying information based from field works and numerous case studies to enable comparison between different criteria related to sustainable construction. The information is collected from various mediums such as from journals, Internet, books, articles and reports. The collection from various mediums is to ensure method for doing this research. Preliminary steps are taken by extracting definitions from important keywords related to this research. Then, the findings are analysed so that the information gathered are valid and do not go out of the proposal topic.

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

11

CHAPTER 2:

ABOUT PLASTICS

Plastic is the general common term for material that is basically made up of synthetic or semisynthetic organic polymer used in various range of applications. According to Plastics Australia, the term “plastic” derived from the Greek word “plastikos” which means to be able to be shaped or moulded by heat for example, wax, clay, asphalt and amber. Shaping plastics by using heat is essential in the production of most plastics in the world.

2.1

Properties of Plastics

Primarily, plastics consist of the elements carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O). Other elements may also be present such as sulphur (S), nitrogen (N), chlorine (CL), fluorine (F) silicon (Si) or boron (B) can also be present. While most plastics consists only of a few elements, different plastics can have different properties regarding to their molecular structure. According to Engelsmann & Spalding et al. (2010) the frequency and distribution of individual elements influence the bonding strength the polymer chains and with it their arrangement and cohesion with the overall structure. The structure between the polymer chains varies, depending on their thermal behaviour, workability, hardness or transparency. !

! ! ! ! !

Figure 1: Monomers are linked to form polymers, in this case, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) (ginnynorman.files.wordpress.com)

!

12

Plastic Historical Society, UK (PHS) has stated that, to fully understand the properties of plastics, it is necessary to understand the basic structure of polymer. Polymers are large molecules made up of repeating molecular unit called monomer. ‘Poly’ means many and ‘mer’ means units. There are hundreds of thousands of monomers in a single polymer. By this understanding, in the production of plastics, monomers are synthesised into polymers forming the base material such as granulate or powder which later can be manufactured to different shapes and products by several mechanical means, as for example, extruding and moulding (Christensen et al 2011). However, PHS has also stated that the base materials will be change by adding other materials to give them unique properties depending on their needs such as to be resistant to sunlight, or very flexible or even cheap. This is why they are seldom used in their pure form. Therefore, using different types of additives to the base properties can extend the range of use of the base polymer.

2.2

Type of Plastics

Plastic is the general common term for material that is basically made up of synthetic or semisynthetic organic polymer used in various range of applications.

Synthetic plastics are normally made up from the breaking down of carbon-based materials so that their molecular structure will change (PHS). These kinds of plastics are generally done in petrochemical refineries under heat and pressure. In particular, these carbon-based materials are usually crude oil, coal or gas. These types of plastics are basically the most commonly occurring plastics at our present day.

On the other hand, plastics that are made from natural occurring materials that have been modified or changed but at the same time, mixing other materials into them are called semi-synthetic plastics (PHS). For example, a reaction of cellulose fibre and acetic acid will produce a cellulose acetate, a semi-synthetic type of plastic and usually used to make cinema film.

Synthetic and semi synthetic plastics can be divided into two main groups based on their thermal processing behaviour, which are the thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics.

Thermoplastics are plastics that can be shaped and soften in the presence of heat. They will take up the shape that they have been moulded when cool. This type of plastics can be heated and 13

reshaped over and over again. For instance, acrylic and styrene are the most basic type of thermoplastics that can be found a lot and been used in our daily life (PHS). Thermoplastics are the largest amount of plastics being produced which is around 80% (Christensen & Fruergaard, 2011). Common examples of thermoplastics include polyethylene (PE), polystyrene (PS), polypropylene (PP) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). These types of plastics are chemically stable over a high value temperature range thus making them very attractive to be used and also suitable for recycling.

Thermosetting plastics are basically polymer made up of grid structure (Christensen & Fruergaard, 2011). Initially, thermosetting plastics, when being heat they will soften and then, be moulded into desired shape and finally will solidify into the moulded shape when cool (PHS).

However, when heat is reapplied, they will not soften again, but will permanently stay in the shape that they have been set into (PHS). For examples, some of thermosetting plastics are polyster resins which have been used in glass reinforced plastics work and Formica, for kitchen work surface that are basically made up of melamine formaldehyde. Common thermosetting plastics are phenoplasts, aminoplasts, unsaturated polyster (UP), epoxide (EP), and polyurethane (PUR) (Christensen & Fruergaard, 2011).

! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

!

Figure 2: The polymer chains of thermoplastic form a random, unordered structure while polymer chains of thermosetting plastic are tightly connected by atomic bonds (www.acsa-arch.org)

14

2.3

Production of Plastics

In the production of plastics, polymerisation is the process of connecting monomers to form polymers by using synthesising techniques. Heat control, catalysts and pressure of the synthesising process can influence the polymer chains or the molecular structures form (PHS).

Thus, making the production of plastics much more flexible depending on the specific properties needed.

The three main processes used to produce plastics or in other word; synthesising techniques are polymerisation, polyaddition and polycondensation (Engelsmann & Spalding et al., 2010). It is not always possible to determine which plastics were synthesised with which methods after the polymerisation process. Engelsmann & Spalding et al. (2010) have stated that in certain exceptional cases, a specific polymer can be manufactured using polymerisation, polyaddition or polycondensation. On the other hand, different synthesising methods may occur at different stages of the reaction during the synthesising of plastic.

In a polymerisation reactor, monomers like ethylene and propylene are linked together to form long polymers chains. Each polymer has its own properties, structure and size depending on the various types of basic monomers used.

! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Plastic(type Thermoplastics High%density%polyethylene Low%density%polyethylene

Abbreviation Use

Polypropylene Polyethylene%terephtalate Polystyrene

PP PET PS

Expanded%polystyrene

EPS

Polyamide

PA

Acrylonitrile/but%adiene/styrene PolyinylDchloride

ABS PVC

PolymethylDmetacrylate

PMMA

Thermosets Epoxide Unsaturated%polyster

EP UP

Polyurethane Aminoplast Phenoplasts

HDPE LDPE

PUR

Containers,%toys,%house%wares,%industrial%wrappings,%gas%pipes Pallets,%agriculture%films,%bags,%toys,%coatings,%containers,%pipes,% %%%wrappings,%films Film,%electrical%components,%battery%cases,%containers,%crates Bottles%for%carbonated%soft%drinks,%textile%fibers,%film%food%packaging Thermal%insulation,%tape%cassettes,%cups,%electrical%appliances,%cups, %%plates,%toys Foam%insulation,%building%material,%cycle%helmet,%packaging%of %%foodstuffs,%medical%supplies,%electrical%consumer%goods Films%for%packaging%of%food%waste,%highDtemperature%engineering% %%applications,%textile%fibers General%appliance%moldings,%e.g.%housings,%telephones,%toys Window%frames,%pipes,%flooring,%wallpaper,%bottles,%toys,%guttering,% %%cable%insulation,%credit%cards,%medical%products Transparent%allDweather%sheet,%electrical%insulators,%bathroom%units

Protective%coatings,%composite%matrices,%adhesives Construction%and%marine%applications,%e.g.%filter%for%glass%fiber%in %%sailing%boats Mattresses,%vehicles%seats,%cushions,%finishes,%coatings Treatment%of%textile%fibers%and%paper,%moulding,%laminates,%adhesive %%applications,%electrical%switches%and%plugs,%insulating%foam Plywood%manufacture,%insulation,%lacqures,%varnishes,%molding,% %%laminates

!

Figure 3: Types and uses of plastic (Fried, 2003) 15

! ! !

!Acronym ABS ACM ACS ASA AU BR CA CH CR CSF EP EPDM EPM ETFE EU EVAC IIR IR LCP MF MPF MUF NBR NR PA PAC PAEK PAN PB PBT PC PE

`

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Chemical.name Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene Acrylic-rubber Acrylonitrile-chloroprene5styrene Acrylonitrile-styrene-acrylate Polyurethane-rubber Butadiene-rubber Cellulose-acetate Hydrated-cellulose,-cellulose-film-(cellophane) Chloroprene-rubber-(neoprene) Cassein-formaldehyde-(casein-plastic) Epoxy-resin Ethylene-propylene-diene-rubber Ethylene-propylene-rubber Ethylene-tetrafluoroethylene Polyether-urethane-rubber Ethylene-vinyl-acetate Butyl-rubber Isoprene-rubber Liquid-crystal-polymer Melamine-formaldehyde-resin Melamine-phenol-formaldehyde-resin Melamine-urea-formaldehyde-resin Nitrile-butadiene-rubber Natural-rubber Polymide Polyacetylene Polyacryletherketone Polyacrylonitrile Polybutylene Polybutylene-terephthalate Polycarbonate Polyethylene

Acronym PE5HD PE5LD PE5LLD PE5MD PE5UHMW PE5ULD PE5VLD PEEK PEK PET PET5G PF PI PMA PMMA PMMI POM PP PPE PS PTFE PUR PVAC PVB PVC SAN SB SP TPE UF UP

Chemical.name Polyethylene-high-density Polyethylene-low-density Polyethylene-linear-low-density Polyethylene-medium-density Polyethylene-ultra-high-molecular-weight Polyethylene-ultra-low-density Polyethylene-very-low-density Polyetheretherketone Polyetherketone Polyethylene-terephthalate Polyethylene-terephthalate-modified-with-glycol Phenol-formaldehyde-resin Polyimide Polymethylacrylate Polymethyl-metacrylate Polymethyl-metacrylimide Polyoxymethylene-(-=-polyacetal-resin) Polypropylene Polyphenylene-ether Polystyrene Polytetrafluoroethylene Polyurethane Polyvinyl-acetate Polyvinyl-butyral Polyvinyl-chloride Styrene-acrylonitrile Styrene-Butadiene Aromatic-(saturated)-polyester Thermoplastic-elastomer Urea-formaldehyde Unsaturated-polyester

Figure 4: Acronyms for plastics to DIN EN ISO 1043-1 (basic polymers) and ISO 1629 (rubber and latices) (Engelsmann & Spalding et al., 2010)

!

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

! !

!

Figure 5: The use of plastics in Germany 2007 (Engelsmann & Spalding et al., 2010)

16

CHAPTER 3:

PLASTICS IN CONSTRUCTION

The usage of plastics in construction industry range from seals, profiles such as windows and doors, pipes, guttering, cables, floor coverings, wall coverings, exterior building’s skin and insulation. Based on an article from British Plastic Federation, the largest application of plastics in the construction industry are used for piping and conduit which consume 35 percent of the whole production. On the other hand, study in German has shown that profiles are the largest user in the application of plastics in construction.

!

! The application of plastics in construction in Germany (Engelsmann & Spalding et al., 2010) Figure 6:

! !

Since there are many types of plastics that are being produced, each type of plastic give unique characteristics in order to suit its desired usage. Details application of plastics are discussed as follows:

! !

17

Plastic Type POLYCARBONATE (PC)

Characteristics

Usage

• PC is highly transparent and can be used as a

• Panels and corrugated

• •

• Single and multi wall

substitute for glass Available in different degrees of transparency Has glossy surface

panels for facades sheeting

• Shatterproof components of laminated glass

POLYMETHYL METACRYLATE (PMMA)

POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC)

• • • • • •

POLYTETRAFLUOROETH YLENE (PTFE)

panels for facades

• Light domes • Light prisms and light deflection lamellae

• Translucent insulation

plasticisers leach out of the material can lead to the product become brittle Extensively being recycled.

• Amorphous • Hard thermoplastic with a high light transmittance that • • • •

POLYURETHANE (PUR)

• Panels and corrugated

• Widely used in construction • Panels and corrugated panels for facades • Amorphous • PVC is classified into two types which is hard (PVC-U) • Window profiles or soft (PVC-P) • Roller shutter • Hard PVC (PVC-U) is strong, have high modulus of • Pipes elasticity, prone to stress cracking and flame resistant • Guttering • Disadvantages of Hard PVC (PVC-U) are low • Roof membranes abrasion resistance and becomes increasingly brittle • Joining strips at sub-zero temperatures • Handrails • Soft PVC (PVC-P) is more resilient than hard PVC at • Cable sheaths low temperature • Wall and floor covering • Disadvantage or Soft PVC (PVC-P) is volatile liquid •

POLYSTYRENE (PS)

Commonly used in construction High transparency High UV stability Weather resistance Best light transmittance of all plastics.

Can be recycle

can be made transparent, clear semi-finished products Low water absorption Brittle and prone to stress cracking Easily flammable Inexpensive material

• Insulation made of

expanded polystyrene

• Model building • Illuminated displays

• High tensile and flexural strength • Good abrasion resistance • Tear resistance (as a foil or membrane)

• Insulation material • Cell-free PUR materials

• • • • • •

• Membrane material in the

High chemical and thermal stability Weather resistance Non-flammable Hardly ever to become brittle Resist buckling Do not absorb water

are also available in the form of paints, coatings and adhesives. form of textiles

• Coating for glass-fibre textiles

• External envelope • Ideals for outdoor use

ETHYLENE TETRAFLUOROETHYLEN E (ETFE)

• Addition of ethylene improve its thermoplastic

• Used in the form of thin

•

• External envelope • Ideals for outdoor use

ETHYLENE PROPYLENE DIENE RUBBER (EPDM)

• EPDM is widely used in the field of construction • Has excellent ageing stability, weather and chemical

!

•

workability Improved tensile strength and tear resistance

resistance Ideal for outdoor usage since it has excellent UV and ozone stability

membranes or foils

• Sealing strips in windows and facades

• Waterproofing materials •

such as membranes for flat roofs Joint expansion strips for joints between concrete building elements

Table 7: The application of plastics in construction industry. (Source: Engelsmann & Spalding et al., 2010) 18

CHAPTER 4:

4.1

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PLASTICS

Benefits of Plastics

According to BPF, plastics industry only consumes 4% of the world’s oil production as feedstock while the rest are basically for energy and transport. In addition, as claimed by BPF, production of most plastic products is not energy intensive compared to metals, glass and paper. Below are the major roles of plastics in saving energy and power safety in relation with the construction industry (http://www.bpf.co.uk): • PVC-U double-glazed windows and doors are essential for energy efficient home. They have a minimum 35 years life and are easily maintained. The BRE’s Green Guide has given PVC-U windows an A rating.

• Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) insulation has a key role to play with the heating and cooling of buildings accounting for half of Europe’s total energy consumption.

• Durable and flexible plastic pipes prevent leakage of valuable water. 772 miles of London cracked Victorian water mains are being replaced by blue plastic pipes.

• Plastics do not conduct electricity so PVC is widely used to insulate wiring, while thermosets are used for switches, light fittings and handles.

Fundamental benefits of using plastics in relation to construction industry according to BPF (http:// www.bpf.co.uk): • Strong: Durable, knock and scratch resistant with excellent weather ability and do not rot or corrode.

• Design freedom: Limitless forms and shapes are possible, products can be coloured or transparent and rigid or flexible.

• Lightweight: Ease of transportation, manoeuvre handle and fewer accidents.

19

• Easy to install: Lightweight and snap-fit. • Promote energy efficiency: Low conductors of heat and tight seals achievable. • Low maintenance: Plastics building products can be easily repaired and do not need painting.

4.2

Disadvantages of Plastics

1. Waste The vast application of plastics has contributed to an increasing volume in the solid waste stream in which the assorted mixture of plastics has contaminated the solid waste and making challenges in identification, segregation and purification of plastic waste (Siddique & Khatib et al., 2008). In addition, plastics waste is not biodegradable. Study by Gagino (2012) found out that polyvinyl chloride (PVC) films do not decompose for 100 years in contact with natural agents, low density polyethylene (LDPE) bags do not decompose for 150 years and polyethylene-terephtalate (PET) soft drink bottles and polypropylene (PP) recipients do not decompose for 1000 years. In particular, plastics did not biodegrade but they photo degrade which means they are broken down into smaller particles by the sun. Theses particles are basically toxic which are degraded into the

environment thus creating land, air and water pollution.

A study in South Africa by Bashir (2013), has shown that the country uses 8 billion plastic bags a year. The fact that plastics are not biodegradable, these vast usage of plastics bags has created an ugly sight throughout the country.

In the construction field, Plastic Europe has reported that insulation materials were the largest amount of plastic waste and closely followed by pipes and ducts and also flooring and wall coverings. The main question here is wether or not these plastic waste can be recycled. If not, what will happen to these non biodegradable plastic waste? Since plastic are non biodegradable, if these plastic waste are going to the landfill, it will then create toxic and poisonous elements that will slowly harm our environment.

!

20

2. Marine Plastics also create debris that is harmful to the marine lives. A study of pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris done by Derraik (2002) shows that there is overwhelming evidence that plastic pollution is a threat to marine biodiversity, which is, however, the evidence is basically still anecdotal. In addition, the author also stated that, less conspicuous small plastic pellets and granules create aesthetically distasteful plastics litter and also a threat to marine biota. Studies have revealed that marine lives have ingested plastics due to the reason that plastic debris might be thought for food. A study done on 11 neuston samples shows that 35% of the fish studied had ingested plastic, averaging 2.1 pieces per fish (Boerger et. al, 2010). Another study found that individuals from 55% of the species recorded from 1033 birds off the coast of North Carolina in the USA had plastic particles in their guts.

!

3. Health Plastics create problems for human health. In general, humans are exposed to poisonous plasticisers elements such as phthalates, BPA and dioxin through skin contact, direct injection, ingestion or inhalation.

It all began with the production of the plastic itself. It is known that most of the plastics are made from petroleum with different combination of chemicals such as plasticisers, lubricants, pigments and stabilisers in order to create their own unique characteristics. According to Eureka Recycling, an nonprofit organisation from Minnesota, USA, which specialises in zero waste, there are about 82,000 synthetic chemicals are registered for use in commerce and these chemicals are not being tested for safety. Only 200 of these chemicals has required for safety testing by the Environment Protection Agency (EPA) and from these chemicals, only five have been officially banned from production which include asbestos and dioxin. It can be said that, production of plastics are faster than we human can study or understand about on how actually different plastics can affect our health and the environment.

Basically the most common known substances that are poisonous to our health that are found in plastics are Bisphenol-A (BPA), phthalates and dioxin.

BPA is a basic chemical found in 21

polycarbonate plastics which is often being used as food and beverage containers. Trough time, and when heat is applied, BPA can leach out of plastics. BPA affects human by interfering with the hormones and affects prostate gland of foetuses, infants and children. Another poisonous substances that can be found in plastic is phthalates which can be found commonly in polyvinyl chloride or simply known as PVC. PVC has created environmental issues and considered as bad plastics which has been discussed as follows: • PVC releases high qualities of hydrochloric acid (HCI) after combustion. If this amount of acid should be neutralised in the flue gas cleaning system of an incinerator, this would produce about 0.4-1.7 of air pollution residue per 1.0t of PVC incinerated dependant on the type of cleaning process (Schmidt, 2006).

• Soft PVC contains high quantities of phthalates, which may wash out into liquid when PVC is landfilled. Additionally, exposure to phthalates may happen through toys, wall paper, car seats, etc (Christensen & Fruergaard, 2011). According to Environmental Protection Agency, US (EPA), phthalates are group of chemicals used as plasticisers, which provide flexibility and durability to plastics. Phthalates are hormone-like compounds and it is claimed they potentially damage reproduction (Christensen & Fruergaard, 2011). Report by EPA has stated that exposure to phthalates may increase incidence of developmental abnormalities such as cleft palate and skeletal malformations and increased fatal death. Countries in Europe and Japan have banned phthalates in PVC toys (Christensen & Fruergaard, 2011).

• In the production of PVC, lead is used as stabiliser and cadmium used as a pigment for red and yellow colours (Christensen & Fruergaard, 2011).

• PVC created dioxins during combustion or in fires (Christensen & Fruergaard, 2011).

Another poisonous substances that can be found from plastic is dioxin. World Health Organisation, US has stated that dioxin is considered as “human carcinogen” and may cause a lifetime cancer risk up to as one in 1000 which is considered higher than the generally “acceptable” risk level.

Besides cancer,

dioxin also can affect both human and animals reproductive, developmental,

immunological and endocrine system. According to an article by Center for Health, Environment and Justice, USA, has shown that exposure of dioxin on children can results with decreasing level 22

of IQ, delays in psychomotor, neurodevelopment and caused hyperactivity. Whereas studies in workers has shown that dioxin can affects the reproduction system by decreasing of testis size and eventually birth defects in offspring.

In conclusion, below is the summary on how poisonous is plastic to human and the environment: • Production and incineration of plastic put workers exposed to toxic chemicals and caused air and water pollution near the factories.

• PVC is the poison plastic which produced phthalates in which this substance can interfere with the human’s hormone systems and male that are exposed to phthalates can delay pregnancy of their female partner.

• Dioxin is the production from manufacturing, disposal and incineration of products made up of PVC which eventually will emitted into the environment and stay in the atmosphere and land.

Dioxin is a known carcinogen which lead to decreased of birth weight, retardation of children, problems in immune system and hormone disruption.

• Styrene is a toxic that leach out from products made up of polystyrene plastic. This toxic can caused problems to our brain and nervous system.

• Bisphenol-A (BPA) can leach out from products that are made from polycarbonate plastic. This is one of the toxics that is considered as hormone-disrupting chemical (HDC) which create false oestrogen effect in a way it mimic the action of the human hormone oestrogen. This toxic will interfere wit the hormone of human body as an endocrine disruptors. BPA is responsible for genetic damage, lowering sperm count and can stimulates certain cancer such as prostate cancer and breast cancer.

4. Recycling In general, recycle is good rather than throwing out waste to nowhere., burning of waste or even burying waste. Recycling means converting waste into reusable product. However, is it really a good step to simply recycle plastic waste? According to an article made by the Eureka Recycling, when recycling plastic, they are basically melted down into smaller substances and resulting in releasing of chemicals substances that are used to make the plastic. During this process, humans

23

are exposed to inhalation of toxic fumes that were produced such as hydrocarbons (in the case of PVC), which resulting to skin and respiratory problem. This process also lead to releasing of toxins that will spread around the world through air or ocean which eventually creating global contaminant.

Another thing, the properties of the plastic will be downgraded after the process of recycling due the fact that plastic will degrade after a series process of heating. Often, recycled product cannot be recycled again into another recycled product. For example, waste from plastic bottle will be recycled into carpet, fleece, plastic lumber or other product that will never be recycled again.

5. High Embodied Energy Plastic is considered as a high embodied energy. Embodied energy simply means the amount of energy needed to produce a material. According to (Baird & Alcorn et al., 1997), when performing an action, there will be some effect on the environment in which the more energy that is used in order to achieve or produce that action, the greater the impact on the environment. In case of plastics, according to a study in New Zealand on energy embodied in building materials has shown that plastic has a higher value compared to other organic material such as timber and softwood.

For instance, insulation material made up of cellulose has a very low embodied energy of only 3.3MJ/kg whereas insulation made up of polyester and polystyrene have embodied energy of 53.7MJ/kg and 117MJ/kg respectively (Baird & Alcorn et al., 1997). Discussion on this embodied energy materials will be discussed further in the Data and Analysis chapter.

6. Finite Resources A study by Hopewell & Dvorak et al (2009) on recycling of plastics has shown that plastic are being produced by around 4 percent of world oil and gas production, which is known as a finite resource.

Then, another 3-4 percent of the oil and gas are being used to provide energy for the production of plastic. Unfortunately, most of the plastic that are being produced are designed to be used for a single used product or short-lived products which in the end, these items will be discarded at the end of its usage. This study has clearly shown that our usage of plastics is not sustainable and we are wasting our valuable non-renewable resources which are oil and gas.

24

In Europe, according to Plastic Europe, 20 percent of the usage of plastics are for the building and construction sector and out of all the plastic waste produced in Europe, building and construction sector is responsible for 5.5 percent of it. Even though only 5.5 percent plastics waste are coming from the building and construction industry the evidence shows that if these plastic waste are not properly managed, they will eventually create environment problem due to the fact that they will produce toxin that will be released into the environment. One question that needs to be asked, however, is wether or not these plastic waste can be recycled into reusable products in order to compensate back our valuable non-renewable resources which are oil and gas.

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

25

CHAPTER 5:

5.1

DATA ANALYSIS

Embodied energy

Every material for building has different amount of embodied energy. Embodied energy is the energy needed in a production of a material. The higher the value, the higher the impact on the environment. In order to reduce the environmental impact, knowledge on the embodied energy of different materials is vital. This will give ideas for designers to choose the best material for their building that can reduce the environmental impact. On the next page is the table on embodied energy in building materials by Baird & Alcorn et al., (1997) :

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

26

Table 8: Embodied Energy in Building Materials (Source: Baird & Alcorn et al., 1997) MATERIAL Aggregate, general

MJ/kg

MATERIAL

MJ/kg

0.10 Ceramic

virgin rock

0.04

brick

2.5

river

0.02

brick, glazed

7.2

191

pipe

6.3

extruded

201

tile

2.5

extruded, anodised

227 Concrete

extruded, factory painted

218

block

0.94

foil

204

brick

0.97

sheet

199

GRC

7.6

8.1

paver

1.2 2.0

Aluminium, virgin

Aluminium, recycled extruded

17.3

pre-cast

extruded, anodised

42.9

roofing tile

extruded, factory painted

34.3

ready mix 17.5 MPa

foil

20.1

30 MPa

1.3

sheet

14.8

40 MPa

1.6

Asphalt (paving)

0.81

3.4 Copper

1.0

70.6

Bitumen

44.1 Earth, raw

Brass

62.0

adobe block, straw stabilised

0.47

Carpet

72.4

adobe, bitumen stabilised

0.29

felt underlay

18.6

adobe, cement stabilised

0.42

nylon

148

rammed soil cement

0.80

polyester

53.7

pressed block

0.42

polyethylterephthalate (PET)

107 Fabric

polypropylene

95.4

cotton

143

wool

106

polyester

53.7

Cement

7.8 Glass

cement mortar

2.0

float

15.9

fibre cement board

9.5

toughened

26.2

0.42

laminated

16.3

tinted

14.9

soil-cement

Insulation

Sealants and adhesives 27

MATERIAL

MJ/kg

MATERIAL

MJ/kg

cellulose

3.3

fibreglass

30.3

polyester

53.7 Steel, recycled

polystyrene wool (recycled) Lead Linoleum Paint

117 14.6

phenol formaldehyde

87.0

urea formaldehyde

78.2

reinforcing, sections wire rod

90.4

32.0

galvanised

34.8

imported, structural

35.0

solvent based

98.1 Stone, dimension

water based

88.5

local

36.4

imported

Paper

8.9 12.5

35.1 Steel, virgin, general 116

10.1

0.79 6.8

building

25.5 Straw, baled

0.24

kraft

12.6 Timber, softwood

recycled

23.4

air dried, rough-sawn

0.3

wall

36.4

kiln dried, rough-sawn

1.6

Plaster, gypsum

4.5

air dried, dressed

1.16

Plaster board

6.1

kiln dried, dressed

2.5

mouldings, etc

3.1

Plastics ABS

111

hardboard

24.2

HDPE(high density polyethelene)

103

MDF

11.9

LDPE(low density polyethelene)

103

glulam

4.6

polyester

53.7

particle board

8.0

polypropylene

64.0

plywood

10.4

117

shingles

9.0

polystyrene, expanded polyurethane

74.0 Timber, hardwood

PVC

70.0

Rubber natural latex synthetic Sand

air dried, rough-sawn

0.50

kiln dried, rough-sawn

2.0

67.5 Vinyl 110

flooring

0.10 Zinc galvanising (per kg steel)

79.1 51.0 2.8

28

As illustrated in Table 8, the top three highest value of embodied energy were Aluminium; extruded and anodised (227) followed by Aluminium; extruded and factory painted (218) and Aluminium foil (204). On the other hand, the top three lowest embodied energy were Aggregate; river (0.02), Aggregate; virgin rock (0.04) and followed by Sand (0.10).

!

Plastics ABS

111

HDPE(high density polyethelene)

103

LDPE(low density polyethelene)

103

polyester

53.7

polypropylene

64.0

polystyrene, expanded

117

polyurethane

74.0

PVC

70.0

Vinyl flooring

79.1

Insulation polyester

53.7

polystyrene

117

Sealants and adhesives phenol formaldehyde

87.0

urea formaldehyde

78.2

Carpet

72.4

nylon

148

polyester

53.7

polyethylterephthalate (PET)

107

polypropylene

95.4

Fabric polyester

53.7

!

Table 9: Embodied energy of plastic (Source: Baird & Alcorn et al., 1997) 29

!

For plastic, as illustrated in Table 9, the top three highest embodied energy made by plastic were nylon (148) followed by polystyrene (117) and ABS (111). For the top lowest embodied energy made by plastic were polyester (53.7), followed by polypropylene (64) and PVC (70).

It can be concluded that, although, plastic material does not have the highest embodied energy, it can still consider as relatively high as all of the material made by plastic has value higher than 50 and the highest reach up to about 150. This study also has shown that, there are still other organic material that has a lower value of embodied energy such as cellulose (3.3) as an alternative for polyester (53.7) and polystyrene (117) which in this case, as for insulation material. Other than that, most of the materials made of timber also have shown a very low value of embodied energy which most of them have relatively value 10 of embodied energy exempt for hardboard which has a higher value of 24. Besides that, material from concrete can also be considered as low as all them have lower value than 8.

In conclusion, study from Baird & Alcorn et al., (1997) has shown that, in term of embodied energy, there other material than plastic that may be an alternatives choice for a lower embodied energy material rather than choosing plastic.

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

30

5.2

Hazardous Plastic

Table 10: Classification of plastic

Class

Name

Usage

Plastic #1:!

Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)

• Food and beverage

Plastic #2:!

High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)

• Food and beverage

container.

•

container.!

Cosmetics, shampoo and detergent container.!

Groceries bag.

• Widely used in

• •

construction industry for piping, windows, guttering and membranes.!

Medical container.!

Furniture, toys.

Plastic #4: Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE)

• Bags for various

Plastic #5: Polypropylene (PP)

• Food and beverage

Plastic #6:!

Polystyrene (PS)

• Widely used in the

•

•

•

Plastic #7:!

Other

• Considered as safe plastic.!

• Antimony which is a toxic substance may leaches out from PET as the rate of leakage increases with temperature.

• Plastic #3:!

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

Notes

• Considered as low hazard plastic.!

• May release estrogenic activity (EA) which can caused alteration of human cells, thus risking hazardous potential to infants and children.

• Considered as hazardous plastic.!

• Released phthalates which is very harmful to human.!

• Release toxins that can harm the environment.

• Considered as low hazard

product.!

Food and beverage container.

plastic.

• Considered as safe plastic.

container.!

Medical container.

construction industry for insulation.!

Food and beverage container.

• Considered as hazardous plastic.!

• Styrene which a toxic substance •

can leach out from the product made of PS.!

Styrene is suspected as carcinogen and harmful to both human and environment.

• Usage varies as this is • Bio-plastics, polycarbonate, coplastic that is not categorised into #1-6 categories.

• •

polyester, acrylic, polyamide and product made from combination of different plastics type.!

Bio-plastics is considered as safe plastic.!

Others might be hazardous such as polycarbonate and polyurethanes.

31

Table 10 shows the classification of plastics according to their class and name. This classification is important in order to understand which plastic need to be avoid, and which plastic can be considered as safe. In conclusions, this classification of plastics are discussed as below:

!

1. Plastic #3, #6, and #7 should be avoided at all time and at all cost.

2. Plastics #1, #2, #4 and #5 are plastics that are safe or at least relatively safe.

3. Specifically, hazardous plastics consists of polyurethanes (PUR), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and Polystyrene (PS). These plastics did not just affect human health but also harm the environment.

!

In conclusion, by understanding this classification can help designers to choose which plastic is considered as safe to be used and which type should be avoided as part of building material.

However, further study on other type of plastic is needed as there is still many other type of plastics that are not known how they can affect human and the environment.

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

32

5.3

Bioplastic

!

Bioplastic is biodegradable plastic that is produced from renewable resources such as corn starch, cane sugar and vegetable oil which is commonly used for single-usage item or disposal item for examples, cutlery, cups, straws, shopping bags and foils (Christensen & Fruergaard, 2011).

However, not all bioplastic is biodegradable. Some are non biodegradable and commonly design for long-life products such as automotive parts, cellular phone cabins and sport shoes. Ideally, bioplastic is designed in order to reduce the usage of non renewable sources such as oil and gas for the production of plastic. According to Christensen & Fruergaard, (2011), the main types of bioplastics are discussed as follows:

• Starch-based plastic (based on corn starch) is the most comment type of bioplastics.

• Polylactic acid plastic (PLA; based on cane sugar) resembles PE and PP. • Poly-3 hydroxybuturate plastic (PHB; based on glucose or starch) which is basically a type of polyester, can be degrade but hardly to degrade and has similar characteristics to PP.

• Polyamide 11 (PA 11; based on vegetable oil) non biodegradable and has similar characteristics to PA-12.

• Bio-derived polyethylene (based on bioethanol) non biodegradable and has similar characteristics to PE.

!

In conclusion, the most important idea for product made of bioplastic is that so that they can reduced the usage of fossil fuels and also being biodegradable when discarded to the nature. which some of the product might decompose a lot slower than other natural based product. As such, many starch-based bioplastics and PLA-based plastics are already known for being biodegradable (Christensen & Fruergaard, 2011). However, it is hope in the future, all bioplastic products are biodegradable when discarded in the nature. !

! ! ! !

33

5.4

Case Study

!Arboskin Pavilion, Stuttgart, Germany.

Figure 11: Image of Arboskin Pavilion (image source: http://www.dezeen.com/2013/11/09/arboskin-spikypavilion-with-facademade-from-bioplastics-by-itke/)

!

Arboskin Pavilion is a mock-up project made by Institute for Building Construction and Structural Design (ITKE) located in Stuttgart, Germany. This building which is made of spiky modules is done in order to demonstrate the usage of the new bioplastic that is hope can be used in the future of construction industry. The bioplastic, called Arboblend was produced by a German company called Tecnaro. The bioplastic was made by combination of different biopolymers such as “lignin� which is actually a by-product of the wood pulping process mix with natural reinforcing fibres. ITKE has claimed that this product is made by 90 percent renewable material.

!

Construction Method Bioplastic granules are being extrude into sheets to form a single module. Each module is then undergoes thermoform process in order to achieve the desired surface qualities and structures.

This will eventually produce various moulded components. By linking the pyramids together, double curved skin is formed with bracing rings and joists helping to create load-bearing walls.

34

Excess material due to the trimming process will undergoes through re-granulated and used back into the production process. Then, finally, all the plastic sheets can be decomposed at the end of their life.

!

!

Figure 12: Process of production and recycling of Arbobend (image source: http://www.dezeen.com/ 2013/11/09/arboskin-spiky-pavilion-with-facademade-from-bioplastics-by-itke/)

!

Advantages of this case studies:

• Material shows the capability to feed demand for resource-efficient and sustainable building materials.

• Shows the possibilities of designing complex double-curved geometries and planar facade components with 3D effects.

• Material can be recycled through the process of regranulation.

• Bioplastic shows the capabilities of being durable and suitable for construction material.

• Bioplastic reduced the usage of non renewable resource which is oil or gas.

!

In conclusion, this case study has shows that the capabilities of bioplastic to be part of sustainable construction material. However, wether or not this material is a potential hazardous to human health is still unknown. Nevertheless, this bioplastic shows the possibility to reduced the dependency of plastic production made by oil or gas. The fact that this bioplastic can be degrade naturally conclude that usage of material made of bioplastic is a better choice in the future to be used in the building and construction industry.

35

CHAPTER 6:

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

This dissertation is a study about the development of plastics and how the impact of plastics affects the architecture and construction world. It is no doubt that plastics contributed a lot in our modern world, which have made plastics such a necessity to the architecture and construction world. The facts that plastics are strong, durable, cheap and flexible strengthen the idea of plastics being part of architecture and construction industries.

However, plastics might as well present problems to human health and can be harmful towards the environment. Carcinogen toxins are created from product made up of plastics which can risk human’s health. These toxins can even leach out into the environment in which will affect our ecosystem entirely. Even from the early stage of production, products made of plastic consists of relatively high embodied energy in which can give high impact towards the environment. Then, once their functions has come to the end, plastic will create waste that are not easy to be managed. Most of the plastic products are not biodegradable. Their durability make them very resistant to degradation, which eventually will create pollutions. Recycling of plastic can also give negative impacts to the humans and the environment by releasing toxins into the atmosphere.

Most importantly, plastics are basically made up from oil, natural gas or coal, which are very limited, and these are all natural resources that are not renewable and must be conserved. Some plastics are produced for short life use which eventually will be discarded at end of their product life. This shows that we are wasting our finite resources and producing plastics from oil is not worth the amount of recourses that has been used.

It can be concluded that, consideration in designing plastics and using plastics as part of architecture and construction are very important. In particular, designers need to understand the benefits and downside of plastic as well as alternatives of plastics before selecting a building material. Factors like embodied energy, waste management, availability of resources, health risk and impacts towards environment need to be considered really well before considering any material. In addition on selecting the best material, according to Curwell (2002), basically the main questions needed to be asked when selecting a material or component are discussed as follows:

36

1. What are the main generic materials used in the building?

2. Where is the application in the building?

3. What alternative materials are available for the application?

4. Will the technical performance and appearance of the alternatives be adequate?

5. What are the comparative health hazards for all the alternatives?

6. What is the environmental impact of using each alternative?

7. What are the comparative costs?

8. What action should be taken when deleterious material is discovered in an existing building?

!

For embodied energy, if there is alternative with a lower embodied energy, choose the lowest that is possible, regarding the effectiveness as reducing the negative towards the environment should be the primary concerns. For example, despite of using a normal plastic type of insulation (polystyrene or foam) use natural cellulose (wood fibre) type of insulation which have a lower value of embodied energy. In addition, natural cellulose will not produce any toxins that can harm the nature and can be decompose naturally if being discarded.

In term of hazardous plastic, products made up of PVC and polystyrene should be avoided at all cost as these two type of plastics are known as poisonous and carcinogens. According to Healthy Building Network, in relation to alternatives materials that is relatively safer and not hazardous for different kind of applications are discussed as follows :

• Piping - Cast iron, steel, concrete vitrified clay, copper and plastics such as HDPE (high density polyethylene).

• Siding - Fiber-cement board, stucco, recycled or reclaimed or FSC (Forest Stewardship Council) certified sustainably harvested wood, OSB (oriented strand board), brick, polypropylene.

• Roofing Membranes - TPO (thermoplastic polyolefin), EPDM (ethylene propylene diene monomer), FPO (flexible polyolefin alloy), NBP (nitrile butadiene polymer), low-slope metal roofing.

37

• Flooring & Carpet - Linoleum, bamboo, ceramic-tile, carpeting with natural fibre backing or polyolefin’s, reclaimed FSC certified sustainability harvested wood, cork, rubber, concrete, non chlorinated plastic polymer.

• Wall Coverings and Furniture - Natural fibres (such as wood and wool), polyethylene, polyester and paint.

• Electrical Insulation and Sheathing - Halogen free XLP and XLPE (thermoset cross linked polyethylene) and LLDPE (linear low-density polyethylene)

• Windows and Doors - FSC certified wood, fibreglass and aluminium. (source from: http://www.healthybuilding.net) On the other hand, if plastics are still need to be used, choose products that are made of bioplastic (biodegradable type). This is an important step in order to reduce or even completely banned the usage of our finite resources such as oil and gas for the production of plastic. Besides that, the fact that bioplastic can be degrade naturally with nature can reduce the impact of poor waste management that has clearly been a major problem in this world due to plastic waste. In the future, it is hope that every plastic should be biodegradable or non biodegradable should be banned in order to focus on bioplastic as part of construction material rather than oil based production.

Finally, in conclusion, plastics do have good properties in order to fit as substitution of other material for construction. However, plastics tend to create a lot of negative impact towards the environment. Not to worry, there are still plenty of other alternative materials that can be considered when choosing the best material that can benefit both the building and the environment. Choosing of alternative material for plastics should consider the embodied energy, availability of resources, waste management and hazardous level towards human and the environment. In depth, the choice is there and as designers or architects, we are required to consider each of the options in order to make the best decision when selecting material. The choice could be between artificial or natural? In other words, like the stories of margarine and butter, what would you choose? Margarine or butter?

! !

38

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Abidin, N. Z. (2009). Sustainable construction in Malaysia: developers' awareness.

Baird, G., Alcorn, A. & Haslam, P. (1997). The energy embodied in building materialsupdated nz coefficients and their significance. p. 89.

!

Bashir, N. H. (2013). Plastic problem in africa. Japanese Journal Of Veterinary Research, 61 (Supplement), pp. 1–11.

!

Boerger, C. M., Lattin, G. L., Moore, S. L. & Moore, C. J. (2010). Plastic ingestion by planktivorous fishes in the north pacific central. Marine pollution bulletin, 60 pp.

2275-2278. [Accessed: 6 Jan 2014].

Bpf: british plastics federation - the uk's leading plastic trade association. [online] Retrieved from: http://www.bpf.co.uk Plastics in construction: a guide for architects and specifiers. British plastics federation, Retrieved from: http://www.bpf.co.uk Chin, K. (2005). Major challenges in protecting biodiversity. New straits times, 25 January.

Christensen, T. H. & Fruergaard, T. (2011). Recycling of plastics. Solid waste and management, pp. 220-233.

Cidb.gov.my. [online] Retrieved from: https://www.cidb.gov.my/ Curwell, S. R. (2002). Hazardous building materials. London: Spon Press.

!

Derraik, J. G. (2002). The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review.

Marine pollution bulletin, 44 pp. 842-852. [Accessed: 6 Jan 2014].

Engelsmann, S., Spalding, V., Peters, S. & Stein, R. (2010). Plastics. Basel: Birkhäuser.

Eureka Recycling. (2011). Plastic in depth: recycling, disposal, toxicity, health impacts, and more. [online] Retrieved from: http://www.eurekarecycling.org [Accessed: 10 Feb 2014].

!

Fried, J. (2003). Polymer science and technology, second edition. Pearson education, inc, New York, Usa. Gaggino, R. (2012). Water-resistant panels made from recycled plastics and resin.

Construction and building materials., 35 pp. 468-482.

Healthy Building Network retrieved from http://www.healthybuilding.net Hopewell, J., Dvorak, R. & Kosior, E. (2009). Plastics recycling: challenges and opportunities. Philosophical Transactions Of The Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364 (1526), pp. 2115--2126.

!

Hosler, D., Burkett, S. L. & Tarkanian, M. J. (1999). Prehistoric polymers: rubber processing in ancient mesoamerica. Science, 284 pp. 1988-1991.

Institute for Building Construction and Structural Design (ITKE) retrieved from http:// www.itke.uni-stuttgart.de 39

Mudgal, S., Lyons, L., Bain, J., Dias, D., Faninger, T. & Johansson, L. (2011). Plastic waste in the environment. Revised final report for european commission dg environment. bio intelligence service, Retrieved from: http://www.ec.europa.eu/ environment/waste/studies/ pdf/plastics.pdf.

Plastic Europe. (2012). Analysis of recovery of plastic waste in the building and construction. [online] Retrieved from: http://www.plasticseurope.org/documents/document/ 20120316100543-summary_of_plastic_b&c_waste_management_analysis160312.pdf [Accessed: 5 Mar 2014].

!

Plastiquarian.com. The plastics historical society - home. [online] Retrieved from: http:// www.plastiquarian.com Plessis, C. D. (2007). A strategic framework for sustainable construction in developing country. Construction management and economics, 25 pp. 67-76.

Schmidt, A. (2006). Environmental and health conditions of plastic materials. Danish Environmental Protection Agency, Copenhagen, Denmark, Siddique, R., Khatib, J. & Kaur, I. (2008). Use of recycled plastic in concrete: a review.

Waste management, 28 pp. 1835-1852.

WRAP. Using recycled plastic products in construction. Waste and resources action programme (wrap), Retrieved from: http://www.wrap.org.uk/sites/files/wrap/ ReConstructPlastic.2031.pdf.

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

40