Architectural Perspective Drawings and Design Intentions

IN CASE OF FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT AND LE CORBUSIER

GUIDED BY RIYAZ TAYYIBJI

SHALIN BHATT

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Acknowledgements Thank you God for giving me the strength in good and bad times.

I owe a deep sense of gratitude towards my parents and family who have always prayed for my brilliant success and bright future. I am grateful to my Guide Riyaz Tayyibji for his candid guidance and continuous support that helped me to accomplish this mammoth research thesis.

I profusely thank my faculties – Sankalpa, Sachin Soni and Meghal Arya for their valuable comments and suggestions throughout my study that helped me to build up strong perspective for my research.

I extend my appreciation for my colleagues of 2011 batch for making this journey of learning more joyful.

Special thanks to Kartik, Devashree, Srinivas, Manuni, Aman, Krishna, Dhwani, Monik, Dhruvil, Vedanti and Nishita for their help during the compilation of this research work.

I would also like to express my sincere appreciation for my seniors- Vicky, Satyam, Jitesh, Sujan, Neel, Karan and Malay, Hitarth who constantly helped me to learn during this 5 year journey. It is my privilege to thank Bhavin and Muntaha for their discussions which helped me to structure my thesis.

I am also grateful to Aditya, Samarpan for their theoretical inputs and Sharan, Shreya, Sanjana R. and Bhavik for their creative inputs while making illustrations.

I also thank Hiral Joshi for proof reading and editing the thesis.

Last but not least, I would feel incomplete without thanking this campus for giving me this wonderful opportunity of learning and building up my confidence with a creative vision in the design field.

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Contents

Introduction

Aim and Objective

Method Scope and limitation

Significance of the study

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Chapterization 1. Perspective Drawing : Background, application and purpose of representation

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1.1 introduction to different drawing types and their relevance :

Orthographic Projection

Perspective Drawing

Axonometric, Isometric and

Oblique Drawing

1.2 Perspective drawing: Introduction to theory and terminology

1.3 Perspective drawing : historical background and creative use

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2. Design Intentions and Perspective drawing

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2.1 Architectural design Intentions

2.2 Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier : Principles and architectural Intentions

2.3 Intention in Perspective Drawing and Visual perception

2.4 Keywords of Analyzing architectural intentions in Perspective Drawing

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3. Case Studies

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4. Analysis

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5. Inferences

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Appendix

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Illustration credits

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Bibliography

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Overview

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Part 1

The first part begins with an overview about how to read thesis. The second part of this includes introduction to the beginning of the research.

The third part comprises of this includes aim and objectives, scope and limitations and significance of the study.

Part 2

The second part begins with a brief introduction to different drawing types used in architectural drawings for representation. Next, Perspective drawing type is explained in detail with a brief introduction to the technique and the terminology of the same. The history and background of the perspective drawing is studied to create an impression of how perspective drawings were used as a mode of representation in the historical realm in the field of art and architecture.

Part 3

The third part outlines a study of relationship between architectural perspective drawings and design intentions of the architect.

Theoretical background to study architectural perspective drawing is established by the theory of perspective drawing and theory of visual perception known as Gestalt’s Principles and Laws. Design intentions are studied on the basis of architect’s own manifesto or thoughts.

Part 4

The fourth part consists of the analysis of the architectural perspective drawings with a short brief of the readings of the drawing based on the keywords. The drawings are studied individually and then compared on the basis of the scale of the architectural project.

Part 5

This fifth part tries to create concluding arguments for the selected aim as well as future implication of the method derived in this thesis to study architectural perspective drawings in general.

A study to understand relationship between architectural perspective drawings and design intentions of the architect.

Architectural Perspective Drawings Design Intentions

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Historically, Drawings as a mode of representation have been the means of arriving at architecture.

Various methods of drawing have been explored, based on the time in which they were produced, with the intention of ‘architectural ideas’ it embodies.

Through drawings, the architects are able to express the tumult of ideas in a tangible and clearer manner.

Drawings are primary communicating tools of architectural education as well as practice for the meaning they express.

Perspective drawing is three dimensional drawing represented on a two dimensional surface. Perspective drawing remains a pictorial representation method which is the closest to human eye perception . The perspective drawing is created by an addition of the third dimension to a two dimensional drawing that tries to create a pictorial effect wherein the architectural project is represented with its context. (Panofsky,1991) Architectural design intentions are culmination of architect’s thought and visualization. These architectural intentions are visible in one or multiple projects of the architect. Architectural intentions are embodied in the drawings and they are seen through the lenses of observation established based on the theory of perspective drawing and theory of visual perception.

In this case the theory of perspective drawing provides technical information of the drawing and the theory of visual perception creates psychological background for how we see and analyze objects in the drawings.

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Introduction

This research means to question our understanding of architectural perspective drawings and architectural intentions of the architect or architectural firm. Design intentions are directly or indirectly present in the drawings. In fact, without its graphical representation architectural intentions remain inadequate to understand and interpret. Drawing represents the architectural ideas manifested by the architect.

What if, theory of perspective drawing and the theory of visual perception are applied to the architectural perspective drawings to establish a strong link between the representational drawings and architectural intentions of the architect, wherein the architectural intentions are derived from architectural principles that are manifested in the drawings.

Architectural drawings create more impacts, and are not just a matter of discussion between the architect and the client. Drawings remain universal means of representation and therefore one of the ways of visual perception of the world and hence perception of the architecture around us. Representational drawings are not only seen by the clients but a larger group of people or agencies associated with the architectural project.

Therefore representation through drawings remain a medium to create an impact on a larger group of the society.

Observing many of the architectural perspective drawings drives us to analyze their design intentions . On first gaze, There might not be a direct link between design intentions within the scope of the thesis but through certain lenses one realizes the manifestations in drawing and architectural intentions behind them. One or many architectural intentions are represented in the drawing which speak on behalf of the architect.

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To understand the relationship between architectural perspective drawings and architectural intentions of the architect: in case of Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier.

AIM

1.To understand a relationship between architectural perspective drawing and the parameters of perspective drawing.

2.To understand the readings from an existing architectural perspective drawing.

3.To understand the relationship between perspective drawing and visual perception.

4.To understand the relationship between visual perception of drawing and architectural intention of the architect.

5.To understand the relationship between representational perspective drawing and architectural intentions of the architect in case of Le Corbusier and Frank Lloyd Wright.

6.To compare manifestations of architectural intentions in the perspective drawings of Le Corbusier and Frank Lloyd Wright.

OBJECTIVES

The research creates a framework of analysis from the theory of perspective drawing and the theory of visual perception to understand the relationship between perspective drawings and architectural design intentions in architecture (in case of Le Corbusier and Frank Lloyd Wright).

So, to arrive at the keywords of analysis, the research uses the architect’s interpretation of the architectural intentions and set of ideas specific to the time of modernism and tie these ideas with the attributes of perspective drawings as well as visual perception theory based on Gestalt’s Psychology.

Once the keywords are established, drawings of various projects having different scales are analyzed to understand the idea of representation and manifestation of architectural intentions at various scales.

This method is applied to the Le Corbusier and Frank Lloyd Wright’s perspective drawings which are analyzed to find similarities and differences between their representations of architectural intentions.

METHOD

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SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

The drawings selected are largely hard line drawings and are a part of the published or unpublished work of an architect or his firm.

The selected drawings are representational drawings and are not just for the personal use of the architects but mostly prepared for clients as a universal means of representation.

The selected drawings do not include the sketches of conceptual stage or observational sketches because they might be personal in the manner in which they convey their ideas, whereas representational drawings are open to be seen by all the clientele.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Perspective drawing is a drawing type which is created using one station point which is unique in each perspective drawing that brings up concept of how we see he objects and how the objects are seen in the drawing. In this case, building represents the ideas conveyed through the drawing. By reading the drawing through a particular lens we get to know the ways in which architectural intentions are highlighted and therefore the importance of drawing as a tool to show and enhance the architectural intentions.

Perspective drawings are read by the parameters derived using the theory of perspective drawing and the theory of visual perception. Therefore this research aims to study perspective drawings and its impacts on the observer.

Chapter 1: Perspective Drawing : Background, application and the purpose of representation

1.1 Introduction to different drawing type and their relevance in representation

Various kinds of drawing types are used in architectural representation and each one of them enhances specific set of instructions or ideas. Vitruvius has mentioned four drawing types in his architectural books which are plan, section, elevation and perspective. These drawing types have been theorized in different periods of history.

Different drawing types : -Orthographic Projection (Plan, Section, Elevation) -Perspective Drawing -Axonometric, Isometric and Oblique Drawing -Sectional Isometric and Sectional Perspective Drawing

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

ISOMETRIC PROJECTION

AXONOMETRIC PROJECTION

OBLIQUE DRAWING

Fig.1.1.1 Drawing types

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TWO DIMENSIONAL METHODS

Two dimensional drawing method consists of two dimensions of the object at the time. Those dimensions can be length and width, length and height or height and width. Two dimensional drawing is the basis for understanding the object if we want to recreate the object or create a new object. Any three dimensional drawing is made using two dimensional drawing so two dimensional drawings are fundamental drawings for observing, analyzing, conceptualizing or realizing a three dimensional object.

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Fig.1.1.2 Two dimensional methods

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

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Orthographic projection drawing consists of set of three two dimensional drawing interrelated to each other; plan, section and elevation. If three dimensional object is put between the three quadrant planes and it is assumed that when parallel rays falling on a three dimensional object creates projection on these three planes.

The projection which consists of length and height is called elevation, the one which consists of length and width is called plan, and the one which consists of width and height is called side elevation.

When the object is cut horizontally and then projected on the reference plane the projection is called plan at that level and when the object is cut vertically and then projected on the reference plane it is called section. Orthographic projection drawings reveal three dimensional intention of the building so in a way they are two dimensional drawing to be read as a part of three dimensional object. Orthographic projection are presently used universally for the purpose of representation and realization of a project since they represent the true dimension of the object. ( Farelly, 2008)

Three dimensional drawings consists of length, width and height at the same time. Though all the three dimensions drawing techniques do not show all the three dimensions true to its scale. Representation of two dimensional architectural drawings consists of certain conventions which appear as if they are specialized code. Understanding of the object becomes much easier in case of three dimensional drawing for the purpose of its interpretation. ( Farelly, 2008)

THREE DIMENSIONAL METHOD

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Fig.1.1.4 Three dimensional methods

Perspective is a Latin word which means “seeing through”. (Panofsky,1991) Perspective drawing is constructed assuming the rays falling on the object are generated from a point source, So they are not parallel and the projection is received at a plane.

Perspective drawing consists of three attributes: -The object which is to be represented -The observer who observes the object -The picture plane which receives the projection of the object.

This projection is a two dimensional representation of the three dimensional object. So, perspective drawing is a three dimensional object or space represented on a flat surface. A visual image constructed through perspective appears more realistic than other three dimensional method.( Cole,1992)

PERSPECTIVE DRAWING

Fig.1.1.5 Perspective Drawing

Perspective drawing has point of convergence where parallel lines converge, which is called vanishing point. According to the vanishing points Perspective drawings are mainly of three types. One point, two point and three point perspective named after the number of vanishing points where parallel lines converge. According to the eye-level of the observer the perspective views can be categorized in three views, Bird’s eye view, man’s eye view and worm’s eye view.

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SECTIONAL PERSPECTIVE DRAWING

Sectional perspective drawing is constructed using a section and the parallel lines of the section converging into one or more converging points. Sectional perspective drawing is drawn as if the plane parallel to section or plan is cut These drawing are drawn to show the depth of the space along with the activities and part of the structural system.

Fig.1.1.6 Sectional perspective drawing

ISOMETRIC DRAWING

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Fig.1.1.7 Isometric drawing

SECTIONAL ISOMETRIC DRAWING

Fig.1.1.8 Sectional isometric drawing

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Isometric means having equal dimensions.

Isometry is derived from perspective construction in which converging points are at infinite distance from the object so that the parallel lines remain parallel. Isometric drawings came up because there was a desire of making precise drawings which show true scale dimensions in the nineteenth century. (pg.308, Perez-Gomez, 2000) Conventionally Isometric drawing is constructed as three principle axis 120 degree to each other and axonometric drawing is constructed as two axis are making an angle with the horizontal line and one axis perpendicular to horizontal line.

Though the measurement of two sides apart from the vertical show 80 percent reduction than the original measurement. Isometric drawings are preferred to show exterior views with volumetric sense.

Sectional Isometric drawing is a combination of Isometric drawing and Section. The object is drawn using isometric drawing principles and then it is drawn as if it is cut using one or two planes and the profiles are shown as section on those planes.

Sectional Isometric drawings are normally of two types : one in which cutting plane is parallel to plan and the other one in which cutting plane is perpendicular to the section plane. Normally these drawings are used to show furniture layout and activities of interior views and part of the structural system at the same time.

Oblique drawing is a three dimensional drawing in which two of the dimensions are in the true scale, but the third dimension may not necessarily remain in true scale. Oblique drawing is constructed keeping two axes as it is ,the third dimension is added to it in vertical, horizontal or inclined with respect to the other two dimensions.

So, Oblique drawing appears as if the third dimension is added to an orthographic projection.

Some of the oblique drawings appear very similar to an axonometric drawing. Oblique drawings are generally used to show group of objects ; e.g. large numbers of houses and spaces in between them, terrace undulation etc.

Axonometric means along the axes. Axonometric drawings can be isometric, dimetric or trimetric.

Conventionally, axonometric projection is considered as a plan oblique drawing. It is drawn creating two axes making an angle of 45 degree with the horizontal line and one axis perpendicular to the drawing. Axonometric projection can be created using a plan tilted 45 degree to the horizontal line.

Axonometric projection is the only three dimensional drawing method in which we can measure from the drawing. All the measurements are true scale measurement. So these drawings are very helpful when complex object, objects or space is represented using true scale.

Though Isometric drawing was invented much before the axonometric drawing as a part of perspective drawing axonometric drawing is referred more for realization and true scale measurement.

In isometric drawing lines which are not parallel to the axes have to be derived by its projection on the axes which means Isometric drawing is drawn as if the object is carved out of a cube which is subtractive method of creation. On the contrary the axonometric drawing is simple extrusion of plan in vertical direction which means it is drawn as additive method of creation .

OBLIQUE DRAWING

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Fig.1.1.9 Oblique drawing

AXONOMETRIC DRAWING

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Fig.1.1.10 Axonnometric drawing

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1.2 Perspective drawing: Introduction to theory and terminology Perspective drawing is determined by the object, the observer and the picture plane as stated above. In the fig.2, the observer’s position is seen in plan and elevation. The rays are assumed to be generated from the eye of the observer. The projection of the rays hitting the picture plane creates a perspective drawing. Following the drawing there are some terms used in the construction of a perspective drawing.

Fig.1.2.1 Introduction to Perspective Drawing

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Station point is the location of the observer in space. Which means station point is the location of the observer with respect to the object and picture plane. Station point is the unique location for the observer which enhances the unique perspective view which can very if the station point changes.

Station point determines the situation of the observer in the perspective drawing. (pg.8,Berger, 1991)

STATION POINT

In case of drawing as a mean of recording during a travel or site visit the existing fabric of the place provides one certain places to select from where one draws the view. Similarly in case of the representation drawing the architect has the freedom of choosing the station point. That choice talks about the context of the place and also the distance of the station point from the observer.

Method of finding an approximate station point is illustrated in the appendix.

Visual rays from an object pass through a transparent sheet and enters our eyes, and one sees the picture of the object. This transparent plane imagined between the object and the eyes is called picture plane.

The location on the plan in relation to Station point determines the size of the projection. For a fixed picture plane there are two scenarios imagined; 1. If the station point is situated far from the object, the size of the projection will be smaller but the context of the object will be seen more.

2.If the station point is situated nearby the object, the size of the projection will be larger but the context of the object will be seen less.

The horizontal ground plane intersects the picture plane in a line which is called Ground line.

PICTURE PLANE

Fig.1.2.2 Station Point, Picture plane and Ground line

GROUND LINE

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CONE OF VISION

Conventionally the visual field is considered 60 degree within the cone of the eye. Since we have two eyes which receives the visuals of the view, it is a binocular image that we see. Then the visual is processed by the brain to make it a monocular vision.

That is why it is difficult to replicate the view that we see. The cone of vision is the assumed area that becomes a guide for an image and beyond which the objects perceived are distorted. Horizon plane of the eye intersects the picture plane in a line which is called eye-level.

Fig.1.2.3 Cone of Vision

EYE- LEVEL

Fig.1.2.4 Eye level

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Cone of vision is the assumed conical area which depicts the viewable area from the station point.

Horizon plane of the eye intersects the picture plane in a line which is called eye-level. Conventionally it is established as 1.52 meters (5 feet) or 1.67 meters(5 feet six inches) from the ground line but varies depending upon the pictorial representation of space and assumed location of the observer in space it varies. For example if the view is created from the second floor, the eye level is 3meters(height of the first floor)+ 1.52 meters= 4.52 meters.

When eye level is much above the object, it is a Bird’s eye view. It is used for showing a group of buildings, or housing i.e. where the layout is important. A man’s eye view is a normal view when eye level is not above or below the object. It is used for individual buildings.

A worm’s eye view is used for very tall buildings to enhance its scale. (Mulik,1994)

Vanishing point is a point on the horizon line where parallel horizontal lines converge.

VANISHING POINT

Each set of orthogonal lines can have one, two or three vanishing points. One point perspective and two point perspective will have their vanishing points on the horizon line whereas the third point of the three point perspective is not on the horizon line but on the picture plane. A set of parallel lines or orthogonal lines converge to one vanishing points. Lines that are not parallel or inclined will have different vanishing points.

In case of non-parallel lines or curved lines the vanishing points are established first on the plan with reference to the orthogonal objects and then translated in the perspective.

Fig.1.2.5 Vanishing Point

In case of one point perspective the flattening or diminishing depends on the relative positioning of the horizontal lines in the drawing. But in case of two point perspective the location of vanishing point is critical because the distortion of the object is inversely proportional to the distance of vanishing points from the center of the object.

More the distance of vanishing points from the objects more it is flattened. So the appearance of perspective becomes similar to that of elevation in that case. On the contrary if vanishing points are closely spaced with respect to the objects then the amount of distortion increases. In Fig.1.2.5, the distance of the vanishing points increase from the object so the distortion of the object decreases.

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1.3 Perspective drawing and its historical background: “ In this case of flat surfaces lying below the level of the eye, the more remote parts appear higher.

In the case of lines extending forward, those on right seem to be inclined toward the left, and those on the left seem to be inclined toward the right.”

Euclid “The Optics” (pg.10, Perez-Gomez, 2000)

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Perspective drawing is created assuming the object to be drawn, the picture plane on which the projection of the object is received on two-dimensional/flat surface, and observer. Since perspective drawing is based on light rays converging at point, the eye and light play critical role defining the perspective projection. Therefore the concepts of perspective that emerged in the early Renaissance retained implicit connections with classical optics, particularly with its theological and gnoseological connotations of vision and the symbolism of light. (pg.16, Perez-Gomez, 2000) Perspective drawings created before Renaissance were based on observation of landscape or space and were not based on mathematical rules. For example, William Hogarth’s print, “Perspectival Absurdities” shows illogicalities deliberately made in perspective and lighting. Whereas the interior spaces drawn by Jan Van Eyck, a Dutch artist shows intimacy of object and sensitive use of light by strong emphasis on shadows.

(Fig.1.3.1)

Filippo Brunelleschi is credited for the systematic construction of the linear perspective. Alberti added the factor of measurement in the construction of perspective. Masaccio was the first one to realize the concept of mathematical construction of perspective in the fresco Trinity at Santa Maria Novella, Florence (Fig.1.3.2). This example suggested the possibilities of using perspective to create perception and illusion of depth on a flat surface which was later on used by artists like Michel Angelo. The purpose of an artist creating a perspective for the pictorial representation on flat surface is very different from an architect where the object or building is going to be realized in materials. According to the purpose of representation the artists and architects have tried to use perspective in a creative manner.

Fig.1.3.1 Painting by Jan Van Eyck

Fig.1.3.2 Fresco Painting on the wall by Masaccio

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One such example is stated in the advertisement of the American rails(in Fig.1.3.3). According to the rules of one point perspective all the horizontal lines should be parallel. But in this case it is violated using three vanishing points instead of one vanishing point. Eventually drawing seems to show as if it is a juxtaposition of three independently drawn perspective .

Fig.1.3.3 Advertisement of American rails

Perspective drawings used during modernism were drawn flattening out the depth to two-dimensional pattern. So, the depth perceived perpendicular to the picture plane decreases and the horizontals or verticals are exaggerated. Perspective drawing is a system where lines in one axis converge at point opposite to axonometry in which lines in one axis are parallel to each other. Although there was a conflict between the axonometry and perspective during modernism there were three architects; Frank Lloyd Wright, Le Corbusier and Mies Van Der Rohe, who used perspective as a medium of expression and representation.

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Chapter 2 Design Intentions and Perspective drawing 2.1 Architectural Design Intentions : meaning

Architectural intentions have been driving factors for an architectural design project from the conceptual stage to realization. At various stages the intentions are expressed in different mediums and intensities.

Architectural intentions are directly or indirectly related to the ideological framework, manifesto, guiding principles of the architect or any one of them.

They represent the purpose of design in reference to their architectural background.

Architectural Drawing is a tool to express the ideas and motives to be achieved. Therefore the drawing represents architect’s point of view being manifested physically enhancing the impulsion. Though architectural intentions are not merely principles or few statements written in the manifestos or other books, the principles and statements seem very fundamental to understand larger objectives behind the intentions.

It is difficult to understand the architect’s intentions without questioning the tension between the intention and constraints. Architectural intentions can also be influenced by the past of the architect, the mediums of expressions, their contemporary interest to different forms of art but the scope of the thesis is to study the intentions present in the form of drawing which is the representation of the physical manifestation of the architect.

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2.2 Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier : Principles and Architectural Intentions Frank Lloyd Wright: Principles and architectural intentions Frank Lloyd Wright was an architect based in United States of America who was a part of two cultural eras; late nineteenth century and early twentieth century. He initiated his own practice in America which was devoid of any influence of the Greek or any other architectural style. For him the contextual understanding of the place was more important than the style of the building. In fact the style was an individual or subjective approach which was given to a project or building. He proposed strong views on various aspects of addressing the contemporary situations in his time.

Frank Lloyd Wright was very clear about the architectural thoughts about the relationship of man and nature. He was keen to use the new building materials and their potentials. He was known for his approach of strong connection between the built-form and ground. He also believed in the appropriate use of building materials to enhance the materiality as well as the poetics of the built-form. He believed strongly that the character of the building is defined by its function, architectural expression, appropriate use of materials.

Frank Lloyd Wright suggested the idea of decentralization of the growth for American towns and cities which had enough space for development unlike European cities. The decentralization was not merely a general approach but a place specific and contextual response to the growth of the population and a new way to densify the city. It was certainly the low density or suburban approach instead of the high density urban approach. Some of the principles of mentioned in the book ‘A Testament’ by Frank Lloyd Wright are mentioned below: 28

After observing the landscape of prairie, the architect felt a need of strong urge to respond to the context.

Buildings were visualized low, swift, and clean and adapted to the modern machine methods. These buildings would represent the human interpretation of the horizon line suited to the modern machine methods. Objective was appreciation of art and architecture to the Time, Place and Modern Man.

Principle one : Kinship of building to ground.

Organic design is interpreted as a design appropriate to modern tools, the machine and the new human scale. Understanding “nature of nature” with the reverential spirit and awareness of changing time is necessary. The nature of machine is studied carefully to use structural design as a tool and powerful medium of expression.

The decentralization is proposed as a solution of preventing congestion of the city; the city which needs breathing space around the buildings. The quantity of the machine source cannot be used to impede the quality of new resources for human profit and delightful living. The plan of the city like Braodacre is suggested as inevitable to the survival of human individuality.

Principle two: Decentralization.

Significance of any building should express the objective of the building whether it is store, apartment building, bank, church, hotel etc. The character is expressed by imagined design for specific human purpose using natural or synthetic materials naturally. Instead of deadly “efficiency” the consequences of art of building should be imagined with poetic tranquility. The “codes” for designing can be re-written and the buildings that disturbs the image of american landscape can be evaded.

(Wright,1957)

Principle three: Appropriate “character” is inevitable to all architecture if organic.

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Principle four: Tenuity plus continuity.

Tenuity is simply matter of tension. This property of steel permits free use cantilever, a projectile and tensile at the same time in the building design. The cantilever is essentially steel at its most economical use. The idea of central support and extended load balanced with the extended load on the opposite side comes in play which describes the concept of continuity.

The wider spacing between the slender supports emphasizes the idea of within to outwards construction process. The change in proportion allows for liberal and economical planning. Push and pull (compression and tension) become integral strengths to design a building proceeding inside out.

Principle five: Interpretation of the third dimension

The third dimension in organic architecture is not seen as weight or thickness but always depth.

Depth is portrayed as the element of space or third dimension is transformed to a space dimension. The idea of inter-penetrating depth allows a freedom for a combination of inside to out side and outside to inside. The space outside and space inside blend in natural manner. The sense of harmony achieved with the economic elements define the sense of space within which eventually focuses on the idea of “space to be lived within�.

Principle six: Space

Space, elemental in architecture, has now found architectural expression. The materials and the products made with the new construction technology have created possibilities for new space forms. The modern buildings can be expressed as manifestation of the democracy as well as organic architecture.

The intrinsic beauty of space plays greater role for modern buildings. (Wright,1957)

Form of the building cannot be understood without understanding the nature of construction. Slender supports of the building can take the load of the building so that walls can act as non load-bearing element or screens. The centralized support can make an integral pattern and walls can create independent form. Geometrical forms can be chosen according to economics and light material can be used to fill the form habitable.

Principle seven: Form

Shelter is an interior space which represents reality and is more important feature of the building. The enclosure of the building becomes more than just a form of the building. The solidity of the wall vanishes and they become element of shade or screen allowing light. Shelter is required for protecting the building from rain, cold and light, change in light, wear and tear and usage. Shelter is seen not just the quality of the space but the spirit of the place.

Principle eight: Shelter as an inherent human factor

All the materials used in building construction contribute to the form, character and quality of any building. Materials used in the building represent the style of it. Inappropriate use of any material disturbs the integrity of the whole design.

Principle nine: Materials

Primary observation of these principles drives our attention towards the sensitivity of the architect at various scales. Connection of the building to the ground and horizon is emphasized in the principles. Therefore the situation of the building with respect to the ground(landscape) and sky(horizon),Decentralization of system of housing in case of urban design, significance of the character of the building at varying scales, tenuity(tension) and continuity in steel, interpretation of third dimension depth as space dimension, architectural expression of space, form, shelter as inherent human factor, application of materials etc.

(Wright,1957)

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Le corbusier: Principles and architectural intentions Le Corbusier was a Swiss born Architect and City Planner who questioned the scenario of architecture in the twentieth century to arrive at contemporary way of dealing with the problems. He asked adequate questions to the contemporary state of architecture to propose the architectural solution of that time. The proposed ideas, thoughts, devices and configurations were extracted from tradition, history, painting, observation and earlier works including ideal projects.

From these experiences he suggested rational ideas based on simplicity and order. The idea of simple geometry would avoid the unnecessary complexity of the form. The research of scale and proportion led him to establish the modular which would bring the rational tectonics of the architecture. The derived scale and proportion system and the contemporary construction system helped him suggest ideas about fast construction of housing addressing the issues of post world war-I. Le Corbusier represented his ideas and thoughts as parts of a Utopian dream to enhance his aspiration towards the harmony between man, nature and machine.

Le Corbusier wrote about his rational thoughts addressing the issues and needs of his time in the boos and articles. ‘Towards a new architecture’ and ‘Five points towards a new architecture’ are some of the most famous literary manifestations which talks about abstracting the learnings from history and addressing needs of the time. These books represents technical and aesthetic theories, relation of form to function, views on history, the mass production spirit etc. The essence of these books is discussed below which emphasizes the architectural intentions and the physical manifestation.

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Three reminders to Architect: Mass and Surface are the elements by which architecture manifests itself. Mass and surface are determined by plan. The plan is the generator of space. (pg.26, Le corbusier,1931) One can see forms in the presence of light therefore the light and shade determine the forms of the objects. Masses are easily recognized if they have primary forms. Architecture is perceived by the composition of masses visible.

Surface is the cover of the mass. The nature of surface gives each mass a distinct identity. Mass is defined

MASS

SURFACE

by the edges and the strokes it has in the form of surface. In most cases the surfaces are the openings in mass of the buildings. Surface defines the mass by accentuating or destroying the existing character of the mass.

The plan is considered fundamental for creation of the mass and surface. The plan regulates the mass and gives it a certain order. So, the rhythm and expression are achieved through plan. It is considered that plan is merely mathematical and abstract representation of space rather than object of beautification.

PLAN

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Five points of architecture by Le Corbusier: Le Corbusier stated certain points for the modern principles for domestic architecture. He felt a strong need for mass production of houses which act as machine for living in. The houses would be created on the functional basis of the program which is devoid of ornamentation that can accelerate the speed of construction because of simplicity of the design.

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Pilotis

Pilotis are essentially reinforced concrete columns.

Walls are replaced by a set of reinforced concrete columns that can take the structural load of the house.

Free plan

Free plan is achieved through the separation of the load-bearing columns from walls sub-dividing the space.

The house is not supported by any internal walls which means there is no internal obstruction. The use of columns has less footprint compared to a load bearing structure.

Free facade

The facade of the building is separate from the structure therefore it can have multiple shapes of the opening.

Horizontal window

The separation of the structure from the facade allows for the long horizontal sliding window which can light entire room.

The roof garden

The roof garden is the concept of restoring the ground on the roof of the building. So the plants can be grown on the roof.

2.3 Design Intentions in Perspective drawing and Visual perception

Design Intentions in Perspective Drawing:

Architectural intentions are primarily idea or a group of ideas that are supposed to be conveyed to the clientele and perhaps associated agencies with architecture. Not all the intentions are necessarily understood in true sense by the clients. But they are conveyed directly or indirectly. Architectural intentions are unique to each of the building or any form of representation and at the same time they are linked in different projects through the architects’ principles. Although different projects might consist different strategies of using the same architectural intentions, the architectural intentions can be linked through the overarching theme behind them.

Perspective drawing is a drawing type which is created on the basis of the subjective choice of the view of the observer. The location of the observer, the picture plane and the location of the object represents the specific choice of the architect for that particular drawing. The selection of these specific attributes express the rejection of other possibilities or choices. Therefore the selected priority suggests the bias of the architect towards certain aspects.

The inclination of certain aspects in the drawing by architect becomes a method of enhancing certain ideas or intentions. Although other forms of representations like plans or sections of a building also enhance the architectural intentions.

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In order to achieve the desired intentions represented in the drawing attributes are manipulated. In some cases the manipulation is just adjusting the attributes according to the need and in some cases the drawings are technically incorrect. The adjustment of the attributes reflects architect’s ability to handle the controllable measures of the attributes or the detail and expression of the objects drawn. Manipulation is done in multiple ways mentioned below: Multiple vanishing points for parallel lines in one direction in case of one point perspective drawing, the drawing extends beyond vanishing points in case of two point perspective drawing,etc.

For example the manipulation of trees : certain trees are shown only in the plan where the others are shown in full height.

In some cases of there are multiple vanishing points(fig.2.3.1), whereas in the fig.2.3.2, the drawing extends beyond the vanishing points.

Fig.2.3.1 Manipulation of the Drawing by using multiple vanishing points

Fig.2.3.2 Manipulation of the Drawing by extending the drawing beyond vanishig point

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Visual perception: “Seeing comes before words. The child looks and recognizes before it can speak.” (pg.7,Berger, 1972) Visual perception is the ability of perceiving the world by visual means. The manner in which idea spreads across is the way in which we look, observe, analyze and finally represent or reinterpret. Therefore perception plays a critical role in the way we perform our actions and reactions. Although the literary forms of expressions or sensorial expressions are equally important for ourselves to create the perception but the image and experience that is generated through visuals supersede the other ways. In fact the other forms of perception helps to strengthen or recreate the visual perception. Architectural intentions remains merely a part of literature and cognitive perception unless it becomes an entity that is physically visible. Therefore the architectural intentions are represented in the graphical form to create inception of the idea or intension.

Gestalt’s Psychology: Principles and Laws “The whole is other than the sum of parts” - Kurt Koffka (source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_ psychology) Gestalt theory is a theory about perception which was established by German scholars in the twentieth century. The theory emphasizes on the higher order of the cognitive process related to behaviorism. It fundamentally explains the relationship between the part and the whole of visual experience. The visual world offers us many complex visuals but our mind has an ability to cope up with these complex visuals by simplifying it through grouping and ungrouping of objects. This grouping and ungrouping of the objects is seen in the form of unified entity and variety of other entities. In a visual, Some of the entities collectively appear as one whereas others appear distinctly different.

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Gestalt’s Principles

EMERGENCE

When meaningless small components do not make sense, with the help of emergence, eye is able to make sense of the object as a whole. In the fig.2.3.3 it is difficult to identify leopard from its legs, ears, mouth or other body parts. The leopard can only be recognized as a whole. In this case, Whole is more visible than the parts.

REIFICATION

This is the constructive or generative aspect of perception of the object through which we are able to perceive known geometrical forms even if they form the negative part of the image.

In the fig.A the triangle is not drawn, even then the form of triangle is perceived. In case of fig.2.3.4 A and B the shape will be perceived as a single space.

Whereas in fig.C and D one can perceive the three dimensional form. The reification is the experience through illusory forms or contours, which are treated by the visual system as “real” contours.

Fig.2.3.3 Emergence

A

C Fig.2.3.4 Reification

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B

D

(source:http://facweb.cs.depaul.edu/sgrais/gestalt_ principles.htm)

Multi-stability is the tendency of ambiguous perceptual experience to create two or more alternative interpretations. It’s visible in the example of Necker cube, and Rubin’s Figure/Vase illusion. Some examples of the M.C.Escher’s work also represents this principle.

MULTI-STABILITY

Fig.2.3.5 Multi-stability

Simple geometrical objects are recognized even if they are rotated, translated, or scaled which represent the property of perception in which one is able to recognize the elastic deformation of object, different lighting and different component features.

For example in case of fig.2.3.6(A) ; modification of the shape is visible , one is able to recognize the basic shape.

In fig.2.3.6(C) distortion of the shape in perspective is visible, in case of fig.2.3.6(D) the same shape is recognized even if it is done using different graphic techniques.

INVARIANCE

(source:http://facweb.cs.depaul.edu/sgrais/gestalt_ principles.htm) Fig.2.3.6 Invariance

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Gestalt’s Laws LAW OF SIMILARITY

Objects or features that appear similar are related. In case of geometrical two dimensional shape or in case of three dimensional images the objects which are similar in appearance seem grouped together. The repetitive shape of form appear pleasant to our eyes for the purpose of grouping.

Fig.2.3.7 Law of similarity

LAW OF CLOSURE

Fig.2.3.8 Law of closure

LAW OF PROXIMITY

Our mind tend to perceive the objects which are closed rather than the open. In other terms the mind completes the incomplete forms which already exists in our mind as geometrical form. In fig.2.3.8, Even though the triangle does not exist as a complete form in the figure our perception creates a mental image of the triangle which makes it more visible than the other forms.

In fig.2.3.9, the objects which are near to each other.

Even if the objects touch, overlap or combine the grouping of the object is perceived by our mind.

Fig.2.3.9 Law of proximity

LAW OF CONTINUITY

We perceive the contours or lines to read the objects in that line, in which line is visible more in case of continuous line than the abrupt line. So objects placed in a continuous line are read as a group and the objects located on an abrupt line are not easy to recognize.

LAW OF COMMON FATE

We perceive group of objects as lines moving along the smoothest path.

PRAGNANZ

FIGURE AND GROUND

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The simplest and most stable interpretations are favored.

Figure and Ground explains the perception about a figure appearing against a certain background.

Figure ground is perceived in several categories; Smallness,Depth,Light and Shadow.

2.4 Keywords of analyzing Architectural intentions in Perspective Drawing: Questions:

The study of relationship between architectural perspective drawings and architectural intentions needs to have certain parameters to establish the basis for analyzing the drawings. The parameters can help to tie different projects on the basis of the representation of the architectural intentions. The parameters should also be flexible within the scope to compare the work of different architects of modernism.

Are our architectural intentions informed by the representation drawing that we do or is it the other way? What impression can be generated in our mindscapes just by looking at the pictorial representation of the space? What is revealed of the architectural intentions by means of representing drawing? What does composition of different elements of drawing like project of focus, contextual building, natural elements(ground, vegetation, sky, horizon) do to our mind for perceiving architectural intentions?

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Derivation of the Keywords

Background

Object

Foreground Fig.2.4.1 Object,Foreground and Background

Fig.2.4.2 Voids or Openings in the Object

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Since all the architectural drawing do not have the scale all the drawings need to be analyzed on the basis of proportion. The system of perspective drawing refers to proportion as the basis to observe them. The parameters of analysis are derived from the theoretical understanding of the perspective drawing as well as the perceptional understanding of the Gestalt’s Psychology. In case of the building, first the building is seen as a whole to figure out the context of the building. Gradually, the building is observed closely to reveal more details of the buildings which expresses the intentions.

First glance at the drawing creates a quick impression of the drawing. It creates a very preliminary sketch with reference to the relative distance between the objects and the picture plane. Therefore first keyword is proximity.

When an observer looks at the drawing the object of the focus is placed in his mind with reference to the selected frame of the picture plane. The proportion of the focus with respect to the proportion is determined by the size of the object. Therefore composition of the object of focus is the second parameter.

The impression of the building remains in our minds and is stored as a silhouette of the built form. So third parameter is the form. A closer look at the volume shows certain distortion which is the most evident character of the perspective drawing. So, the fourth parameter is depth.

The volumetric composition of form represents their direction of their verticality or horizontality. This gives an idea about the directional relation with respect to the ground and sky as well as each other. Hence , directionality becomes the fifth parameter. The closer look form and volume shows the voids in the volumes. These holes or voids are the openings of the building that gives the approach of creating opening in the mass. Thus, the mass and surface treatment becomes the sixth keyword.

Interpretation of Keywords The architect draws as if his work would be judged “not by the apparent perspective” or “not by deceptive appearances” but “exactly on the basis of controllable measures”. (pg.27, Perez-Gomez, 2000) Proximity Composition Form Depth Directionality Mass and Surface Treatment

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Proximity:

Background

Object

Foreground Fig.2.4.3 Proximity

Following Gestalt’s principles, our mind tries to group objects together on the basis of the distance of the object from the eye as well as objects which are similar in form even in perspective drawings grouped together. Therefore the first glance on the drawing can give us the hazy image of the elements and their grouping. This primordial sketch gives an overall image of the drawing.

The chosen station point decides the relative positioning of the object and the chosen vanishing points determine the distortion of the object.

Composition: Composition of the built-form of focus in relation to the format of the drawing shows inclination or bias of the architect to choose that particular composition.

The relative size of the built form also matters in that case. If the size in relation to the format is small then the station point assumed is far from the object and if the size is bigger than the station point is closer. In case of interior view the composition is the relative placement of different elements of architecture like columns, beams as well as the furniture elements like chairs, and the positioning of human figure.

Fig.2.4.4 Composition

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Proximity and the Composition reveal the idea behind the choice of the station point and vanishing points and the consequence of it. The change in station point suggests the difference in the appearance in the context of the built-form. Detailed appearance of object is seen in case of station point situated far and Overall appearance is seen in case of station point closer to the built-form.

Form: The form is the shape, profile or contour lines which are showing the volumetric composition of the building. Form of the object determines whether the object is one solid or composition of many solid. So, the form defines the boundary of the object. Form informs about the basic architectural elements and their relative placement in space which defines character to the space.

Depth:

Fig.2.4.5 Form

Depth is the most important dimension which adds third dimension in the perspective drawing. Depth is achieved in perspective by distorting or skewing depth is relatively measured by the distortion. If the distortion is more, then the vanishing points are far from the center of the drawing format and if the distortion is less, then the vanishing points are situated closer to the drawing format(within the drawing). Therefore, if the distortion is less, the dimension of depth is very less and the drawing appears like an elevation. Depth is perceived by the consequence of the distortion of the object or repetition of the similar objects.

Fig.2.4.6 Depth

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Directionality:

The directionality of the building is based on the theory of ‘Archetype’s existential expressions of architecture’ by Thomas This Evanson . The direction shown in the form shows the direction or motion of the built form. The directionality is represented in the form of arrows. The arrows made on the form represents the motion. If the vector length is more than the directionality is stronger. The directionality of the form can be studied in three parts: 1.The arrows near the foreground of the built form 2. The arrows within the built form 3. The arrows near the background (in most cases sky).

The directionality of the building inform the relationship of different volumes of built form with the ground and sky.

Fig.2.4.7 Directionality

Mass and Surface treatment:

Fig.2.4.8 Mass and surface treatment

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The mass is the solid form of the building and the Surface is the envelope which shows the voids or openings in the mass, which determines the method of creating opening. Surface treatment of the mass gives an order as well as a language of opening system. The opening system of the built form can be seen with respect to the change in depth. The Surface treatment of the mass defines the manner in which surface treatment of mass is done. For the ease of understanding, the planes distorting towards the right are shown in red, the planes distorting on the left are shown in blue color and the roof or the floor of the built-form is shown in orange color. Curvilinear surfaces or the sloping surfaces are represented in the gradients.

Chapter 3: Case Studies The drawings for the case studies are selected with two main intentions: 1. To understand architect’s intentions manifested at various scales like Residential, Institutional/ Industrial and Urban Design.

2.The projects of similar scale for both the architects’ which can be compared to have a comparative analysis of the intentions at varying scales.

Case Studies of Frank Lloyd Wright’s Projects: 1. Mr. and Mrs. Morris House 2. Rowing Boat House 3.Larkin Building 4. Drive-in Laundry and Dry Cleaning establishment Building 5. Hillside home-school building 6. Cloverleaf Quadruple Housing (Housing Project for One hundred Acre Tract) Case Studies of Le Corbusier‘s Projects: 1. Maisons Locheur 2. Villa Chimanbhai 3. Freehold Maisonete 4..Swiss Pavilion 5. Plan Voisin Paris

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1. Mr. and Mrs. Morris House: Location: San Francisco Status: Unbuilt

Fig.3.1.1 Mr. and Mrs. Morris house

Type:Residential Year: 1945 This ocean front house at San Francisco is planned for a cliff site dropping sheer 110 feet from road level to the tide water. The structure is earthquake proof, built of reinforcing steel and concrete. Concrete slabs are waterproof and covered with soil, planted with grass, flowers and shrubs. The intention of this project was to create a house next to the ocean and a garden to the neighbours. (pg.91,Wright,1948)

Fig.3.1.2 Rowing boathouse

2. Rowing Boat House Location: Buffalo , New York Year: Proposed in 1910 Status: Built later in 2007.

Type: Institution In 1910, at the age of 43, Frank Lloyd Wright traveled to Europe to present what would become his most beloved collection of structure illustrations: the Wasmuth Portfolio. One of these famous drawings was something Wright called “Boathouse for the University of Wisconsin Boat Club.” Twenty years later, the architect included this same boathouse in an international exhibition of six of his greatest works. The boathouse idea was obviously a favorite of Wright’s, featuring design elements seen in other local treasures like the Martin House and the Larkin Building – large vertical piers supporting horizontal planes. (source: http://explorebuffalo.org/event/frank-lloyd-wrights-fontana-boathouse/) 48

3. Larkin Building Location: Buffalo, USA Status: Demolished(dt.1950)

Fig.3.1.2 Larkin building

Type: Commercial - Headquaters-Administration Building Year: 1906 By twentieth century, the Larkin Soap Company of Buffalo, New York expanded beyond soap manufacturing into groceries, dry goods, and furniture. Larkin became a pioneering, national mail-order house with branch stores in Buffalo, New York City and Chicago. It was noted for many innovations, including air conditioning, stained glass windows, built-in desk furniture, and suspended toilet bowls.

Fig.3.1.4 Laundry building

4. Drive-in Laundry and Dry Cleaning Establishment Building: Status: Unbuilt Location: Wisconsin Type: Commercial - Type exploration for a Laundry Building.

Year: 1946 The “drive-in” laundry for Benjamin Adelman & Son was an attempt to put a novel idea in the laundry business into the perfect shape, ideal for its purpose. The dry-cleaning establishment surrounds a central vent shaft standing in the parking space provided for “drive-in” patrons. The building has been planned as a great open center with a plenum-chamber, overheated, filled with warm air in winter, cool air in summer, the air is drawn into the workrooms by the suction of the basement exhaust to which the boiler room is connected. The drive-in feature has been amply provided by sheltered approaches to the delivery room.

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Fig.3.1.5 Hillside home-school 5. Hillside home-school: Location: Wisconsin Year: 1902 Type: Educational The original Hillside Home School was built in 1887. By 1902, the school had outgrown the domestically scaled shingle-style structure, and a new structure was commissioned to accommodate the activities of an expanding student body. The new building featured classrooms, an assembly room with a balcony that served as a library, and a gymnasium featuring a second balcony. A bridge connected the main structure to a physics laboratory and art room. Wright applied many of the design innovations found in his domestic architecture of the period to the school, including the use of low, hipped roofs; broad chimneys; fireplaces; leaded glass casement windows; and a modified cruciform plan.

Fig.3.1.6 Cloverleaf housing project

6. Cloverleaf Quadruple housing: Housing Project for One hundred Acre Tract: Year: 1942 Type: Mass Housing.

Location: Pittsfield, Massachusetts.

It was designed for the ‘Defense Housing Program’ on a hundred-acre tract, in Pittsfield, Massachusetts. These 25 “Fourplex” houses are a home to 100 families of which 7 remained unbuilt. In order to meet the program’s strict cost limit , the houses were planned to be made from standardized precast concrete elements. Each quadrant also incorporates a 16 x 36 ft courtyard. In this scheme, standardization is no barrier to the quality of infinite variety to be observed in nature. Every house is individualistic and does not crossover on the ground floor. Playgrounds for children called sundecks are small roof gardens placed where the mother of the family has direct supervision of the children.

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1. Maisons Locheur Fig.3.1.7 Maisons Locheur Location: Unknown Status:Unbuilt Type: Residential Year: 1929 The design of the “dry house” offers the solution: to build in metal workshops, dry houses by combinable elements , of a minimum weight, transportable easily on wagons. The house leaves the factory on wagon, with all its elements, including the interior equipment, accompanied by its team of assemblers. The assembler draws up the house in a few days, on the spot. The framework of the Maison Loucheur allows multiple combinations. Thus, if the small house of 45 m2 it is suitable for small programs, two frames forming 90 m2 or three forming 135 m2 or four forming 180 m2 will allow to realize houses with programs much larger. Here, in 1929, the house ‘DomIno’ imagined in 1914 was realized.

Fig.3.1.8 Villa Chimanbhai

2.Villa Chimanbhai: Location: Ahmedabad Status:Unbuilt project Type: Residential Year: 1951 The Chimanbhai land is located in Shahibag, a residential and green area of ​​the city, north-east of the River Sabarmati. The main facade faces directly a single vehicular and pedestrian entrance, which provokes a monumental and immediate view of the whole, without detours or temporal sequences. Undergoing several modifications, the villa Chimanbhai thus becomes a sister of the villas built over the years.

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Fig.3.1.9 Freehold Maisonette

3. Freehold Maisonette: Year: 1922 Unknown location; Unbuilt project This housing scheme is a proposal that incorporates the services of the new age machinery replacing human labour. This opens possibilities of active staff of labor for various factory made services. Each maisonette now has various communal services like gymnasium, sports etc. The maisonettes represent a type of housearrangement which is rational and simple, without emphasis in any particular direction, but sufficient and practical. The arrangement of a group of 100 maisonettes disposed in five stories, each maisonette having two floors and its own garden.

Fig.3.1.10 Swiss Pavilion

4..Swiss Pavilion Location: Paris Status:built Type: Housing Year: 1930 The project was commissioned to accommodate Swiss students who were traditionally housed in poor quality studios in the Latin Quarter of Paris. This project would not only provide access to decent housing and food at reasonable prices, but also the cultural and sports facilities of the emerging International City University of Paris (CIUP). The Swiss Pavilion of the City University is a finished paradigm of the emphasis of the modern movement, in which the forms are representative of different functions (form follows function) and simultaneously is an object of plastic treatment as much in its gestation as in its integration to the environment. The work consists of two volumes clearly differentiated.

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Fig.3.1.11 Plan Voisin, Paris

5. Plan Voisin Paris 1925; Paris ; Unbuilt.

Type: Conceptual city The Plan Voisin is a solution for the center of Paris, drawn between 1922 and 1925 by Le Corbusier. The plan for 1925 seems to be a direct transposition of the diagram of Contemporary City for three million drawn in 1922. Included are buildings available in a regular orthogonal grid occupying a very important part of the right bank of the Seine. The space is highly structured with two new traffic arteries pierced through the city, one on the east-west, the other on a north-south. Their role is not limited to the organization of Paris, as were the advances of Haussmann: they pass through the fortifications and the suburban area. They have the ambition to link the capital to the four corners of the country, the major French and European cities. The crossroads at the intersection of these two avenues is the center of the plan, the center of the city in central France.

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Chapter 4 : Analysis This chapter consists of analysis of individual drawing of the architect as well as comparative analysis of drawings of two architects wherein similar scale of buildings are confirmed. The comparative analysis is a relative understanding of the drawings rather than individual analysis or interpretation, because perspective drawings are discussed on the basis of the parameters which maintain their meanings with respect to the proportions. The analysis is done on the exterior perspective views, similarly the analysis for interior perspective views can be done with some modification in the parameters.

(See Appendix Fig.5.2a/b/c/d/e, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6).

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Project: Mr. and Mrs.Morris House, San Francisco, 1945 Type: Residential

Fig.4.1a Mr.and Mrs. Morris House

VP.L

VP.R

Fig.4.1c Mr.and Mrs. Morris House; Vanishing points

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Project: MR. AND MRS. MORRIS HOUSE, San Francisco, 1945 Type: Resedential

Fig.4.1c Mr. and Mrs. Morris house ; Proximity Proximity: The proximity of the drawing shows almost equal dominance of the three entities which are built-form, the foreground and the background. Foreground consists of water and cliff , also the vegetation occupies some part of the foreground and some part of the middle ground which is situated in front of the building. The dominance of the built-form is visible with respect to the context. Since the size of the built-form is more, the built-form appears closer to the observer in this drawing. The vanishing points are also relatively close to the drawing.

Fig.4.1d Mr. and Mrs. Morris house ; Composition

Composition: The composition of the built-form shows that the built-form occupies relatively more width and more height but the profile does not remain constant with respect to the format. In this case , the built-form keeps changing width along with the height. The tapered end at the top and bottom suggest the anchoring of the building with the foreground and the background. The width at the central part is more in width which suggests the anchoring in the middle ground . The portrait format enhances the verticality of the building.

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Fig.4.1e Mr. and Mrs. Morris house ; Form

Form: The form which is connecting the profile of the contour remains a singular large volume. The volumes of the drawing can be differentiated in two parts: bottom part that consists of layered half cylindrical volumes stacked on top of each other and the top part consists of slab above the cylindrical volume. The roof is separated by the columns below.

Fig.4.1f Mr. and Mrs. Morris house ; Depth

Depth: The plane converging to the left is distorted more than the plane converging to the right which means the vanishing point is situated near on the left side and situated a bit far on the right side. The longer face of the volume emphasizes the relationship with the changing levels of the ground. So the building seems to be closely attached to the ground.

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Fig.4.1g Mr. and Mrs. Morris house ; Directionality

Directionality: The directionality can be interpreted considering building in two parts. The part on the left that has layers of semicircular volumes and the part on the right which is a solid mass. The roof of the first part is cantilevered from a larger core which means the vertical vector is dominant. The roof of the right part is cantilevered on the columns which has small vectors and effectively the roof is detached from the volume below as if its floating. The verticals of the left part have longer vectors connected to the ground which establishes a very strong anchoring with the ground.

Fig.4.1h Mr. and Mrs. Morris house ; Mass and Surface Treatment

Mass and Surface Treatment: The figure of mass and surface treatment shows the solid mass concentrated attached to ground in the right side and the left side shows the layered masses put on top of each other. The size of the layered mass of increases going from bottom to top. This indicates the volume and the mass increases from bottom to top and finally the roof is detached from the bottom part; being a cantilevered roof. The gesture of the roof enhances the relief from the mass below. There are very few punctures visible in the mass which enhances the solidity of the built form. Mass is reduced at the top when the cantilevered roof supported by the columns which creates the space that separates the lower mass and the upper mass.

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Fig.4.1i Mr. and Mrs. Morris house ; Collage

Although the drawing is largely occupied by the built-form ; the presence of the nature in form of cliff on the ground is visible because of the anchoring of the building with the ground. The continuity of the vegetation on the roof-top suggests the continuity of the ground on the roof-top of the building. The dominance of the red face is visible even if the vegetation tries to cover it. Two orange roof planes are lifted on a larger mass attached to the bottom. The larger part of the built-form having sky as a background enhances the dominant built-form. The continuity of the ground on the top provides a larger space to the neighborhood.

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Project: Rowing Boat House, Buffalo, New York, 1905 Type: Commercial

Fig.4.2a Rowing Boat house

VP.L

VP.R Fig.4.2b Rowing Boat house; Vanishing Points

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Project: ROWING BOAT HOUSE, Bualo, New York, 1905 Type: Commercial

Fig.4.2c Rowing Boat house; Proximity

Proximity: The proximity drawing suggests that there are four different elements visible in the figure. The built-form which is spread in the width, the foreground that contains the water, the background that has silhouette of the contextual buildings, the sky and the vegetation. The foreground is almost one-third part of the drawing that means the location of the observer is somewhere floating above the water-body. The proximity drawing suggests the location of vanishing point on the right is far from the center of the drawing where as the vanishing point on the left is situated in the drawing.

Fig.4.2d Rowing Boat house; Composition

Composition: The built-form is almost placed at the center of the drawing. The silhouette stretches from left to right nearly in full width. The composition is almost parallel to the horizontal line, also the height is concentrated at the center and not the sides which means the built-form is spread across the width in the foreground. The profile has a notch at the bottom suggesting a lift from the ground.

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Fig.4.2e Rowing Boat house; Form

Form: Form shows a singular volume has been altered by addition of the other volumes. Two of the corners visible in the drawing suggests the piers which are not supporting the roof. The roof is cantilevered both the sides from the central volume. The piers above the roof coming from the central volume adds an iconic expression to the building. The stretch of the building informs the continuity of the built-form in very subtle way on both the sides.

Fig.4.2f Rowing Boat house; Depth

Depth: The distortion of the converging plane on left is more than the distortion of the right plane which enhances the fact that the vanishing point on the left is situated within the drawing whereas the vanishing point on the right is far from the built-form. The depth of the converging plane on the left is relatively so less that the drawing appears as if the distorted elevation has been given thickness. The central volume has openings just below in the roof in which the repetition of the window provides an order to the depth.

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Fig.4.2g Rowing Boat house; Directionality

Directionality: The directionality figure enhances the face that the cantilevered roof is supported by the central volume and the piers at the corners do not touch the roof which means the horizontality of the roof is connected only at the central area with the ground. The built-form in the middle clearly shows that the horizontal vectors are much longer than the vertical ones which shows clear domination of the horizontality of the form. In fact, the spread of the built-form across the width enhances the continuity with the ground and the horizontality is even more expressed.

Fig.4.2h Rowing Boat house; Mass and Surface Treatment

Mass and Surface Treatment: The mass and surface treatment informs clear domination of the red planes of the built-form which means two dimensional drawing (elevation) has been given a depth to represent the space. The openings below the roof in the red plane adds the dimension of depth in the central volume. The vegetation of the low height shrubs ahead of the openings do not disturb the horizontality of the built-form.

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Fig.4.2h Rowing Boat house; Collage

The extension of the built-form in terms of ramps and low height piers of the main building expresses continuity . The built-form composed in the middle suggests the subtle nature of the built-form,which extends till the end of the drawing. Drawing continues beyond the vanishing point on the left which means the drawing is manipulated to create a symmetrical image. The presence of the water indicates the relationship of the building with the water which expresses the function of the boat-house.

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Project:Larkin Building, Buffalo, New York,1906.

Type: Industrial

Fig.4.3a Larkin Building

VP.R

VP.L

Fig.4.3b Larkin Building; Vanishing points

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Project: LARKIN BUILDING, Bualo, New York, 1906 Type: Industrial

Fig.4.3c Larkin Building; Proximity

Proximity : The foreground and the background in this case occupies less area compared to the built-form. Therefore the built-form is very dominant. The vanishing points are located just outside the drawing which leads to more distortion of the built form. The continuity of built-form suggests the built-form is surrounded by other built-forms.

Fig.4.3d Larkin Building; Composition

Composition: The relative size of the composition of the silhouette to the format suggests that the built-form is seen from a closer distance. Therefore the observer is located relatively close to the building. The high rise office building in the volumetric form is enhanced by the format being portrait.

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Fig.4.3e Larkin Building; Form

Form: The form suggests that separate volumes are attached to each other at the corners of the building and their dimension of height is more than the mass at the middle. The left side which is shorter shows more numbers of volumes are placed together although the mass in the middle is recessed.

A

B

Fig.4.3e Larkin Building; Depth

Depth: The distortion of the object is relatively more since the vanishing points are close to the drawing boundary.

The vertical edge AB in the fig.4.3e is located on the left from center of the format which leads to two possibilities: The converging plane on the right is larger in real scale than the left or the distortion of the converging plane on left is more than the right. The repetition of the slender volumes in the mass in the middle of the converging plane on the right enhances the dimension of depth.

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Fig.4.3f Larkin Building; Directionality

Directionality: As per the earlier observation the concentration of volumes happen at the corner having more height which means it emphasizes the vertical direction with the sky. Although the built-form has the strong verticality towards the sky the checkered intersection of the vectors in the middle part of the right plane reduces the overall directionality of the middle part. The volumes showing the compound wall are strengthening the horizontality.

Fig.4.3g Larkin Building; Mass and Surface Treatment

Mass and Surface Treatment: The middle portion of the right side suggests the method of carving the mass is such that the depth in the blue direction is visible. The surface treatment is such that the mass has been carved out to create the opening.

Right side makes the openings more visible and the left side has multiple volumes that create composition.

The opening gives an order to the long facade and breaks the solid nature which is situated at the corners.

Since the mass between the corner piers is having a set back, Four corners act as free standing piers which are holding the mass in the middle.

69

Fig.4.3g Larkin Building; Mass and Surface Treatment

Larkin building is drawn with a closer station point that is suggested by the proximity as well as the composition of the building. That informs about the density of the context in which it was built. The controlled way of creating opening informs the air conditioning of the building as well as protection against the noise of industrial area. It is readable because of the piers or stairwells at the corners of the building are holding the mass in the middle.

70

Project:Laundry Building , Wisconsin,1946.

Type: Commercial

Fig.4.4a Laundry Building

VP.L

VP.R

Fig.4.4b Laundry Building; Vanishing points

71

Project: LAUNDRY BUILDING, Wisconsin, 1946 Type: Commercial

Fig.4.4c Laundry Building; Proximity

Proximity: The proximity drawing suggests that the large part of the drawing is occupied by the foreground. The built form stands out in the middle because the contextual details at the back creates an effect of the backdrop.

The built form appears as a singular large volume that dominates in the width.

Fig.4.4d Laundry Building; Composition

Composition: The composition is such that the built-form is placed more towards the left. The central part of the drawing has some parts of the built-form which are relatively lower than the singular volume. Proximity and composition together inform that the vanishing points are situated far from the built-form.

72

Fig.4.4e Laundry Building; Form

Form: The form of the building is such that the built-form appears like a single object. The semicircular volumes are

situated at both the ends of the form. The concentric cylindrical volumes are extruding out from the singular volume. The cores on the sides allow the singular volume to cantilever at the corners. The central part of the singular volume is covered by small volume. The profile of the road suggests a strong demarcation of the natural landscape and road as well as presence of the vehicular movement in the context.

73

Fig.4.4f Laundry Building; Depth

Depth: The distortion of the object is less since the larger volume of the form is similar on both the edge of the right plane. The distortion is such that the form looks as if it is an isometric drawing. The depth is enhanced by the punctures in the singular volume of the top part. The punctures in the mass also give an order to the building.

74

Fig.4.4g Laundry Building; Directionality

Directionality: The directionality of the top part suggests that the horizontality is more dominant then the verticality of the volume, but the vectors take turn in a semi circular form and turn in the opposite direction. So, the motion of the building is evident because of the dynamic nature of the top part. The bottom part does not have dense network of vectors while top part lacks many vector supports . This observation informs that the cantilevered volume of top part does not have supports in the end and therefore the top part seems to float.

Fig.4.4h Laundry Building; Mass and Surface Treatment

Mass and Surface Treatment: The treatment of the surface of the ground and the roof suggests a clear domination of the roof and floor planes. The mass of the built-from appears more clear because the ground provides guidelines for the depth.

The only glazed opening visible in the built-form is in the center of the singular volume at the top part. That openings have been given an order by the repetition of the fins.

75

Fig.4.4i Laundry Building; Collage

The singular floating mass suggests its purpose as a drive in laundry building. Two sides have a core that come above the roof which holds the heavy floating singular volume. The sky is shown on top of the contextual building to focus on the building. The fins in the building informs the order of the openings of the building.

The emphasis of the ground and road also enhances the idea of the drive-in building.

76

Project: Hillside home-school, Spring green, Wisconsin, 1887 Type: Institution

Fig.4.5a Hillside home-school

VP.L

VP.R

Fig.4.5b Hillside home-school; Vanishing points

77

Project: HILLSIDE HOME SCHOOL, Spring Green, Wisconsin, 1887 Type: Institution

Fig.4.5c Hillside home-school; Proximity

Proximity: Drawing shows that almost half part consists of the foreground. The modulation of the foreground is visible when built-form is taking place on the foreground. The background is also visible because the density of the vegetation is distinctly different from the built-from. The built-form is spread diagonally.

Fig.4.5d Hillside home-school; Composition

Composition: The profile of the built-form is placed on the right side more than the left side. The width of the negative part of the built-form is very less. The change in the profile near the foreground suggests that the built-form is trying to manipulate the ground for the purpose of anchoring.

78

Fig.4.5e Hillside home-school; Form

Form: The form of the building is composed out of three separate parts which are connected by linear forms. The volume in the lower part of these three parts is more and it is recessed where it meets the roof. The overall form suggests response to two different axes.

79

Fig.4.5f Hillside home-school; Depth

Depth: The distortion of the planes is relatively less indicating the vanishing points are situated far. So, the perspective drawing appears as if it is isometric projection drawing with some distortion. The depth is also emphasized by the order of the opening below the sloping roofs.

80

Fig.4.5g Hillside home-school; Directionality

Directionality: The lower part of the built-form informs the vectors near the foreground are longer in size, suggesting stronger horizontality near the base. All the other volumes create a smaller loop of the vectors which is effectively reducing the directionality of the walls of the built-form. The converging lines in the pitched roof are expressing its horizontality. Junctions of the hipped roof vectors are relatively small.

Fig.4.5h Hillside home-school; Mass and Surface Treatment

Mass and Surface Treatment: Relatively equal proportions of the red and blue color suggests that both the planes are equally effective.

Because most of the mass is carved out in such a way that the recessed volume is created in between. The order of the building is visible in case of the recessed volume below the pitched roofs. The corridor connecting two different volume has recessed openings, apart from that the solidity of the mass is kept intact.

81

Fig.4.5i Hillside home-school; Collage

The lower part of the image suggests strong connection of the building with the ground. The figure ground of the upper part suggests strong presence of the vegetation. Three different built-blocks are connected by the corridors that enhances the idea of movement in the drawing, which differentiates the transition space and the main functional spaces .The vegetation on the wall also enhances the idea of extension of the ground at various places on the walls.

82

Project: Cloverleaf housing, Pittsfield, Massachusetts, 1942 Type: Housing

Fig.4.6a Cloverleaf Housing

83

Project: CLOVERLEAF QUADRAPLE HOUSING, PittsďŹ eld, Massachusetts, 1942 Type: Housing

Fig.4.6c Cloverleaf Housing; Proximity

Proximity: The built-form is largely merging with the foreground because of the low height units spread across the site.

The appearance of the sky is less dominant. The view is taken from a higher eye level since the foreground is covering larger part of the drawing.

Fig.4.6d Cloverleaf Housing; Composition

Composition: The individual built-form occupies very small portion of the drawing. Units are spread across the foreground, which informs the individual units are distanced from each other. Each of the dwelling is provided with a foreground for recreational activities.

84

Fig.4.6e Cloverleaf Housing; Form

Form: The drawing suggests that the units are spread across the ground. There are some profiles which are separate from the cloverleaf pattern. They are the common areas for the dwelling units. The cloverleaf pattern is given rotation where it creates variation in the layout. Each of the cloverleaf like element consists of four individual units.

85

Fig.4.6e Cloverleaf Housing; Depth

Depth: In this case the repetition of the block itself creates an order. But the location of vanishing point is outside the drawing. That makes the distortion of the object relatively less. In similar manner, the repetition of the cloverleaf pattern gives an order to the drawing. Although the distortion at the edges is more but individual unit appears relatively less distorted.

86

Fig.4.6f Cloverleaf Housing; Directionality

Directionality: The vector of the individual units are very low in height. The cloverleaf form creates closed loop. The landscape forms in between provide larger vectors which enhances the directionality of the drawing towards the converging direction.

Fig.4.6g Cloverleaf Housing; Mass and Surface Treatment

Mass and Surface Treatment: The dominant orange color suggests that the roofs and the front part of the landscape in the cloverleaf pattern covers most of the area because this is an aerial perspective. Since the area covered includes larger part of the ground and roof, the treatment of the landscape is more visible. The aspect of individuality of the unit is more highlighted.

87

Fig.4.6i Cloverleaf Housing; Collage

The concept of breaking the notion of the standardization of the mass housing is visible in the form of individual houses with landscape as a foreground. The idea of common landscape as well as individual landscape is visible in this case. The repetition of the similar block enhances the idea of mass housing but the distance and the individuality created provide each house an opportunity for individual functions within the domain.

88

Project: Maisons Locheur, 1929 Type: Housing

Fig.4.7a Maisons Locheur

VP.L

VP.R

Fig.4.7b Maisons Locheur; Vanishing Points

89

Project: MAISONS LOCHEUR, 1929 Type: Housing

Fig.4.7c Maisons Locheur; Proximity

Proximity: The proximity figure suggests that the objects are spread across background, middle ground as well as the foreground. The manner in which the foreground and background meet at the horizon shows a very subtle gesture.

Fig.4.7d Maisons Locheur; Composition

Composition: The group of objects are placed in the center of the width and a bit downwards from the center of the height.

This is reflected in the drawing by the evident fact that more of sky is visible compared to the ground. The recessed areas at the bottom of the objects infrom that bottom part of the built-form is treated different at bottom than the top part.

90

Fig.4.7e Maisons Locheur; Form

Form: Form of the building shows simple cuboidal volumes are supported by a thick wall in the middle and columns and a shaft on the sides. The thick wall divides a bigger volume in two parts and the projection of that wall coming outside enhances it as a separate element. The roof and floor of the built-form does not stand out as a separate element in the volumetric projections. The staircases placed outside the built-from enhance the role of circulation and remain separate from the building. The paved part in the pathway is also highlighted by the difference in the texture which shows a very subtle level difference between the landscape and the pathway.

91

2

1

3

Fig.4.7f Maisons Locheur; Depth

Depth: Since the situation of the vanishing point on the left is within the drawing the built-forms have more distortion towards the left. Therefore the builtform1 appears smaller, the built-form3 appears larger and the builtform2 appears the largest among all. The eye level is situated on the ground level. The grooves on the surface shows the repetition by which depth is emphasized.

92

Fig.4.7g Maisons Locheur; Directionality

Directionality: The columns, shafts and the thick wall clearly indicates the dominant vertical vectors. In case of the columns ,the volume sits on top, whereas in case of thick wall the volume seems to be attached to the sides. The vertical vector of the shear wall is stronger than the columns.

Fig.4.7h Maisons Locheur; Mass and Surface Treatment

Mass and Surface Treatment: The mere separation of the roof and floor is seen in the groove pattern on the surface. The pathway connecting the houses is clearly visible connecting the ground floors of the units. The sides of the unit enhances the lifted volumes in which the roof and floor of the built-form do not stand out as an individual entity. The converging planes on left and right show the modular repetition of the panels.

93

Fig.4.7i Maisons Locheur; Collage

The composition of the building suggests the importance of the surroundings. This house is not situated in the dense fabric of the city but somewhere in a remote location away from the city center. Therefore the presence of the natural elements like vegetation, ground and sky are equally important to be shown in the drawing. The texture on the built-form suggests the modular nature of panels or shuttering pattern. Two units are separated by a sharing wall. The units are supported on the stilts from both the sides to have a free ground for recreational activities. The circulation of the building is visible in the form of the staircase. The connectivity within the neighborhood is visible.

94

Project: Villa Chimanbhai, Ahmedabad Type: Residential

Fig.4.8a Villa Chimanbhai

VP.R

Fig.4.8a Villa Chimanbhai; Vanishing points

95

Project: VILLA CHIMANBHAI, Ahmedabad, 1951 Type: Resedential

Fig.4.8c Villa Chimanbhai ; Proximity

Proximity: There is a strong demarcation of three distinct groups. The distant horizon makes the background for the built-form and the vast amount of the foreground suggests that it is located in a place far from the dense fabric of the city while the proximity of the drawing suggests that the object is situated in an isolated environment.

The observer is situated very far since he is able to perceive the vastness of the ground and the sky.

Fig.4.8d Villa Chimanbhai ; Composition

Composition: The built-form is occupied within one-fourth of the area of the format that means the expanse of the landscape is considered as an important aspect to be shown. The built form is placed towards the right side from the center of the format.

96

Fig.4.8e Villa Chimanbhai ; Form

Form: Form consists of a carved out cube and the thick plane situated above it, which leads to the idea of a singular cube being carved out to create volumes. The singular built-form situated in a vast landscape shows dominance of the singular entity of the geometrical form.

Fig.4.8f Villa Chimanbhai ; Depth

Depth: The distortion of the left plane is less compared to the right plane, which means the vanishing point on the right is relatively near. The vanishing point on the left is so far that the drawing appears as if it is a one point perspective drawing. The element of fins is a repetitive element which divides the cuboidal form to attain an order. The distorted appearance of the fins also suggest a strong focus towards the right of the building.

97

Fig.4.8g Villa Chimanbhai ; Directionality

Directionality: Assuming that the lower cuboidal form carved out and the roof-plane above are two different entities, the lower part has many subdivisions in which the converging lines enhance the depth and the vertical vectors of fin like elements that make each floor a distinct one. The roof-plane above distinctly stands above the vectors of the columns of the third floor. That separates the roof from the lower part of the building.

Fig.4.8h Villa Chimanbhai ; Mass and Surface Treatment

Mass and Surface treatment: The lower mass of the building is divided into many parts by the fins. The presence of the fins suggest the urge to allow breeze to flow in the building and the recessed volume hints about the protection against the sun. The separation of the roof from the lower part suggests terrace as a place offering multiple possibilities.

The ratio of the opening to the mass shows that the voids are created in the mass whereas the converging plane on right shows the mass is created from the planes with voids in between. The openings on the blue surface of different proportions enhances the idea of the individuality of the openings.

98

Fig.4.8i Villa Chimanbhai ; Collage

Villa Chimanbhai is also located in the outskirts of the city or located in a place where the context of the city in terms of other buildings is not that dominant. The undulating land is visible since the built-form cuts through that. The method of creating openings in the building is such that the voids are created from planes rather than a single block. But the volume of the roof indicates that a solid is carved out to make the terrace.

The lifted roof at the terrace enhances the idea of the roof as a space to be used for different activities.

99

Project: Freehold Maisonette, Unbuilt Type: Housing

Fig.4.9a Freehold Maisonette

VP.L

VP.R

Fig.4.9b Freehold Maisonette ; Vanishing Points

100

Project: FREEHOLD MASSIONETE, Unbuilt Type: Housing

Fig.4.9c Freehold Maisonette ; Proximity

Proximity

The diagram suggests that the built-form distinctly comes out since the background of the image is very flat and a very small part of the foreground is visible. A large part of the drawing is sky. The built form appears to be a singular object. The observer is located far from the building since the foreground is less.

Fig.4.9d Freehold Maisonette ; Composition

Composition:

The composition of the drawing suggests that a large part is occupied by the built-form. About one third part is occupied by the built-form. The built-form is situated towards the bottom of the drawing. The dominance of the built-form against the sky enhances the verticality of the built-form.

101

Fig.4.9e Freehold Maisonette ; Form

Form: The form of the building is made as one singular cuboid that is sculpted. Both the faces of the built-form has different responses to the street. The longer side of the form has voids which are balconies of the housing blocks responding outwards to the street whereas the shorter side of the form is creating an introvert nature by solid form.

Fig.4.9f Freehold Maissonete ; Depth

Depth:

The distortion of the left plane is more than the right plane. The distortion also emphasizes the longer side of the volume. The location of the vanishing point on the left is located relatively near to the drawing.

The depth of the built-form draws our attention towards the left. The recessed volumes within the singular built-form also enhances the depth by repetition.

102

Fig.4.9g Freehold Maisonette ; Depth

Directionality: The singular volume has longer vectors at the top and the bottom. The openings of the building create smaller loops of the vectors which do not highlight their individual directionality. The shorter side of the built-form has strong verticality because the mass is carved out in such a way that the recessed volumes are equally placed. The longer side of the built-form has horizontality in the direction of convergence.

Fig.4.9h Freehold Maisonette ; Depth

Mass and Surface Treatment:

The longer side of the mass has openings facing towards the street which is having recessed volumes within. Whereas the shorter side of the volume is having openings as if they are cut out on the surface. The shorter part has more solid appearance in terms of mass void perception then the longer side. Therefore shorter side creates an introvert space and the longer side offers extrovert space towards the street. The lower part of the mass is hidden in parts by the vegetation, although the overall mass of the building is still strong to appear as a singular mass.

103

Fig.4.9i Freehold Maissonete ; Conclusion

The figure ground of the image suggests strong nature of the built-form although the vegetation in the front hides the building. The built-form is dominant with the sky as a background. The openings seem to be voids created by the planes. Both the street edges have different response of the built-form ; one has voids in a checkered pattern that creates the order other is a void that occupies four story height with balconies creating horizontal voids within that.

104

Project: Swiss Pavilion, Paris, 1931 Type: Housing

Fig.4.10a Swiss Pavilion

VP.L

VP.R Fig.4.10b Swiss Pavilion; Vanishing points

105

Project: SWISS PAVILION, Paris, 1931 Type: Housing

Fig.4.10c Swiss Pavilion; Proximity

Proximity: Proximity diagram of the building suggests that there is a large part of foreground visible. The built form is also distinctly visible in this diagram. The variation in the volumes suggest two different objects. The presence of the curvilinear element is also visible in the built form.

Fig.4.10d Swiss Pavilion; Composition

Composition: The composition is placed relatively more on the left side. The profile shows that there is gradual increase in the area of profile from left to right which suggests that the vanishing point on the left is relatively near than the right side. The profile on the left side moves continuously on the foreground and as it approaches the center the recessed area is increased. The play of the profile informs about the varying connection with the foreground.

106

Fig.4.10e Swiss Pavilion; Form

Form: The Form is spread across in three different solids. The first solid on the left is the smallest in the size, the second one is a curvilinear form which is smaller in volume in the front part and larger in height at the back part, and the third part is the largest volume at the back. All of them appear as a solid mass. The largest volume of the form is supported on smaller volume.

Fig.4.10f Swiss Pavilion; Depth

Depth: The distortion on the plane converging on the left is more than the right. The composition of the building is such that the longer side enhances the length of the built-form. So, the depth is also enhanced by the lines on the surface of mass as well as the repetition of the windows on the mass.

107

Fig.4.10g Swiss Pavilion; Directionality

Directionality: The directionality of the building is enhanced by the longer and continuous vectors on the top and bottom of the volume on the right. The curvilinear volume enhances the dynamic nature of the block at the middle.

The larger volume on the right is supported by the shorter vectors which enhance the idea of cantilevered volumes from the concrete piers.

Fig.4.10h Swiss Pavilion; Mass and Surface Treatment

Mass and Surface Treatment: The surface treatment of the mass is seen in the form of lines on the masses. The mass is not carved but used as surface to enhance the planner element of it. The openings on the mass are merely the planner cut outs on the mass. Two volumes of the built-form on the left are resting on the ground whereas the volume on the right is lifted above the ground. The edge between the ground and mass is very flat in the sense that the planes of the ground and masses can be separated visually.

108

Fig.4.10i Swiss Pavilion; Collage

The sky is seen more than the ground which enhances the vertical nature of the built-form. The texture on the surface of the building is enhancing the idea of texture of the shuttering material pattern of the reinforced concrete. The openings on the surface are made as if they are punctures on a two dimensional surface. The smaller volume in the front is having full foot-print on the ground whereas the volumes at the back are lifted from the ground.

109

Project: Plan Voisin, Paris, 1931 Type: Urban Design / Conceptual City

Fig.4.11a Plan Voisin

110

Project: PLAN VOISIN PARIS Type: Conceptual City

Fig.4.11c Plan Voisin; Proximity

Proximity: The proximity figure suggests that the middle ground is very dominant because the built-forms in the foreground is very low in height. The objects are grouped on the basis of the foreground and the background.

The foreground shortens from bottom to top of the drawing. The large amount foreground informs that the view is drawn from a higher eye level than the conventional eye level .

Fig.4.11d Plan Voisin; Composition

Composition:

Composition of the drawing suggests that the built-form covers almost entire area of the drawing.

While the void area suggests the negative spaces in between the built-form. The central part has a strong axis visible in an arrow-like shape, and the built-form in the middle is changing the profile at the bottom establishes a relationship with the ground .

111

Fig.4.11e Plan Voisin; Form

Form: The profile of the built-form at front suggests that the volume of a singular high-rise building is carved out to make recessed volumes throughout the mass of the building. The central part shows a high plinth on the axis of the road or a highway. There are similar high-rise volumes placed at some intervals of the depth. The amount of the sky visible because of the higher eye-level is seen evident. Individual high rise built-form is supported by the columns which provides a free ground plane.

Fig.4.11f Plan Voisin; Depth

Depth:

The depth is enhanced by similar elements and voids on the mass of the building. The volume of the built-form also contributes in emphasizing the depth. The converging lines in the direction of the vanishing point give a very strong sense of depth because it starts from the base and hits the horizon.

112

Fig.4.11g Plan Voisin; Directionality

Directionality:

The longer vectors of the high-rise built-form are very strong as well as the converging lines of the drawing has longer vectors in the direction of the high-rise built-form. The mass of the high-rise built form is carved out in such a way that the verticality of the high-rise volume is not reduced. The dominance of the vertical vector informs overall directionality towards the sky.

Fig.4.11h Plan Voisin; Mass and Surface Treatment

Mass and Surface Treatment:

The foreground is evidently visible because of the treatment to the ground. The depth is enhanced by the blue planes in the converging direction. The treatment of the ground is visible in the form of a high plinth and the way that leads towards the vanishing points. Absence of void on the surface of the mass suggests that the conceptual diagram does not highlight the openings but the overall carving of the mass.

113

Mr. and Mrs. Morris House

FORM

COMPOSITION

PROXIMITY

Villa Chimanbhai

Although the station point of the Mr. and Mrs.Morris house is situated far, the relative size of the built-form is large which implies the perspective view is drawn giving a zoomed-in view. Villa Chimanbhai is situated as if it is an object placed in the vast landscape, which means the station point is situated far and the emptiness of the context is enhanced. In case of Morris house, the ground contours of the geography that shapes the building where as in case of the Villa ChimanBhai, the ground does not impact the base of the building since the building is lifted from the ground.

114

Mr. and Mrs. Morris House

MASS SURFACE

DIRECTIONALITY

DEPTH

Villa Chimanbhai

The roof of Morris House is highlighted by its vastness and the smaller supports below it. The anchoring of the building with the ground differs in both the cases. In case of the Morris house the mass is layered in such a way that effectively, the verticality of the house is emphasized. The cantilevered roof projects out of the base mass and establishes the relationship with the sky . Where as in case of the Villa chimanbhai the roof follows a simple cuboidal profile in which mass has been carved out and the roof it is lifted to enhance the simple geometry.

115

Laundry Building

FORM

COMPOSITION

PROXIMITY

Swiss Pavilion

Both the buildings are lifted from the ground for their functional use but in case of Swiss pavilion the entire mass of the largest chunk is seen from a lower eye-level which enhances the verticality of the built-form ,whereas in case of the laundry building the horizontality is expressed by showing the building from the top and the volumetric composition is such that the dominance of the central volume is visible.

The verticality of the Swiss pavilion also emphasizes the use of free ground that provide places for recreational activities and interaction, where as the in case of the laundry building the purpose of drive-in laundry is served.

116

Laundry Building

MASS SURFACE

DIRECTIONALITY

DEPTH

Swiss Pavilion

In case of the Larkin building is the visible part of the sky is more, where as in case of the Laundry building the ground and roof planes are more enhanced expressing the strong horizontality. In case of Swiss pavilion, the openings are created on the surface of the mass which do not have a depth to it , also the openings provide light to individual units. In case of Laundry building, the openings at the first floor level provide light to the larger volume at the ground level.

117

Plan Voison

FORM

COMPOSITION

PROXIMITY

Cloverleaf

The cloverleaf housing project provides the individuality to each dwelling unit because it is spread across the site with ample amount of landscape in front of every individual unit. Where as in case of the plan voisin of Paris the dwelling units are vertically shifted upwards to provide a space at the ground level. The cloverleaf housing provide individuality and avoid general standardization where as the plan voisin is based on standardization since the process of the construction is to be kept fast with the growth of the city.

118

Plan Voison

MASS SURFACE

DIRECTIONALITY

DEPTH

Cloverleaf

The cloverleaf housing is such that the individual unit has directionality equal on all the sides. Where as in the plan voisin drawing, the verticality of the high-rise built-form is highlighted. The cloverleaf housing has equal directionality in case of the roads and the landscape pattern where as the plan voisin shows that the converging planes give directionality to it more because of the continuity till the edge of the drawing.

119

Chapter 5 Inferences Individual assessment of the perspective drawings as well as their comparative study gives a hint about the architects’ design intentions at different scales. It unfolds many things about the architectural perspective drawings, our perception about the drawings and their connections with the design intentions. Carefully tracing the details and integrity of the same, we come across the design intentions of the architect and how they are applied to each scale of the building type.

The study of the perspective drawing informs the significance of the representation of the design intentions in the drawings. The critical look at the projects as well as a creative layer of analysis provides a meaningful achievement to ourselves.

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Although the drawings selected for the thesis form merely a tiny part of the architects’ work, a collective study of the same inform a way in which drawings can be understood individually and in comparison to another drawing. A closer look at all the drawings provide an understanding of the rigor and approach to spread the set of ideas about the design intentions through the drawings. The responsibility as well as the creativity in terms of manipulation of the drawing justify the idea of drawing as a means of representation. The creative use of the drawing enhances certain design intentions very clearly so that the message of the architect is conveyed to the clients or associated agencies. In this case, both the architects are having enormous clarity to identify concerns of the projects, apply their key principles to the projects and represent the design intentions to the observer of the drawing.

Looking at the analysis drawings there are certain findings which are obvious. The perspective drawings studied in reference to the design intentions showcase the representation of the built-from at varying scales. The built-form is never devoid of the context. The analysis shows built-form and its parts, relationship of built-form with the sky, vegetation and ground. For example, Frank Lloyd Wright’s case the built-forms try to anchor with the ground, whereas for Le Corbusier the built-forms separate themselves from the ground. The nature of the floor, wall and roof as a part of mass represents the character of the built-form which is followed by design intentions.

Design intentions can not be simply understood in general as they vary from project to project. But an overall look at the design intentions defines the origins of the design principles in both the architects.

Design intentions are seen as a part of contextual application of the design principles or thoughts.

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Keywords

Proximity

Composition

Readings from the Drawing

Following the principles of Gestalt or mind try to group object together on the basis of the distance of the object from the eye as well as objects which are similar in form even in perspective group together. Therefore the ďŹ rst glance on the drawing can give us he hazy image of the elements and their grouping. This primorial sketch gives an overall image of the drawing.The chosen station point decides the relative positioning of the object and the chosen vanishing points determines the distortion of the object.

Composition of the built-form of focus in relation to the format of the drawing shows inclination or bias of the architect to choose that particular composition.

The relative size of the built form also matters in that case. If the size in relation to the format is small then the station point assumed is far from the object and if the size is bigger than the station point is closer. In case of interior view the composition is the relative placement of dierent elements of architecture like columns, beams as well as the furniture elements like chairs, as well as the positioning of human gure.

Proximity and the Composition reveal the idea behind the choice of the station point and vanishing points and the consequence of it. The change in station point suggests the dierence in the appearance in the context of the built-form.

Detailed appearance of object is seen in case of station point situated far and Overall appearance is seen in case of station point closer to the built-form.

Form

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The form is the shape, proole or contour lines which are showing the volumetric composition of the building. Form of the object determines whether the object is one solid or composition of many solid. So, the form deenes the boundary of the object. Form informs about the basic architectural elements and their relative placement in space that gives character to the space.

Similarities between Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier

Differences betweeen Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier

The foreground in case of the corbusier’s buildings is distinctly different where as foreground in case of the frank lloyd wright’s building guides the built-form.

In case of the Corbusier the proole of the drawing remains as if the object is geometrical the change in the proole is just beacuse of the distortion or because of the supports from the ground whereas in case of frank loyd wright buildings follow the proole of the ground.

The proole of the buildings in case of the frank lloyd wright is informed by the playing with the mass whereas the proole in case of the Corbusier’s building is the simple geometrical form with distortion.

In case of frank lloyd wtight the building is created by using multiple volumes where as in case of corbusier the building appears as single chunk in many cases.

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Keywords

Depth

Readings from the Drawing

Depth is the most important aspect which adds third dimension in the perspective drawing.

Depth is achieved in perspective by distorting or skewing the geometrical form.

Depth is relatively measured by the distortion of the geometrical surface.

If the distortion is more, the vanishing points are far from the center of the drawing format and if the distortion is less, the vanishing points are situated closer to the drawing format(within the drawing). Therefore if the distortion is less the dimension of depth is very less and the drawing appears like an elevation.

The directionality of the building is based on the theory of ‘Archetype's existential expressions of architecture’ by Thomas Thiis Evanson . The direction shown in the form indicates the direction or motion of the built form. The directionality is represented in the form of arrows. The arrows made on the form represent the motion.

Directionality

If the vector length is more continuous then the directionality is stronger.

The directionality of the form can be studied in three parts: 1.The arrows near the foreground of the built form 2. The arrows within the built form 3. The arrows near the background (in most cases sky).

The directionality of the building informs the relationship of different volumes of built form with the ground and sky.

Mass and Surface Treatment

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The mass is the solid form of the building and the surface is the envelope which shows the voids or openings in the mass. Mass and the surface treatment of the built-form determines the method of creating openings. Surface treatment of the mass gives an order as well as a language of the opening system. The opening system of the built-form can be seen with respect to the change in depth.

For the ease of understanding the planes distorting towards the left are shown in blue, the planes distorting on the right are shown in red color and the roof or the floor of the built-form is shown in orange color. Curvilinear surfaces or the sloping surfaces are represented in the gradients.

Similarities between Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier

Differences betweeen Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier

Larkin Building

Maisons Locheur

In case of Frank Lloyd Wright’s building the depth is achieved by the pilasters of the facade where as in case of Le Corbusier’s building the depth is achieved by the grooves of the modular panel of the facade.

Mr. and Mrs. Morris house

Swiss Pavilion

In both the drawings the verticality is enhanced based on the profile of the form. But the of the volume or form is divided in such a way that the overall effective directionality remains the same. This happens in high-rise building where the verticality can be highlighted naturally.

Larkin Building

Freehold Maisonette

Taking mass carving method into consideration the Frank Lloyd Wright’s building appears as if there are voids caved from solid mass, where as in case of Le Corbusier’s building the voids are generated by a repetition and addition of fin like element where the opening are created as a planner element giving a thickness.

Larkin Building

Freehold Maisonette

In case of Le Corbusier’s building the closed loops are formed when larger part of the mass is carved out, whereas In case of Frank Lloyd Wright’s building the mass is carved out in such a manner that the voids do not distrub the directionality.

Larkin Building

Swiss Pavilion

The carving of mass in case of Corbusier is texture of the surface where planner nature of the surface is more enhanced where as in case of Frank the solids and voids of mass is highlighted.

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Conclusion

Looking at the inferences the design intentions are summarized in the form of representation. Certain key aspects are visible keeping an overall look on the projects undertaken by Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier.

In case of Frank Lloyd Wright ; the built-form has strong anchoring with the ground. The built-form is created by sculpting the mass as well as layering of the mass. The openings in the building provide a sense of depth. If the building is supported by the stilts the stilts are not represented until the materiality of the columns is expressed.

Most of the drawing sets produced by him include a perspective view along with the plan that says that the aspect of space and depth is more important to him than the frontality of the elevations. In some of the drawings, the natural elements are dominant because of the low density built-form of the project.

Most of his projects are situated in the United States of America which influence his ideology. Individuality of the built-form in case of mass housing and decentralization of the mass are key factors in case of his approach towards urban design.

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In case of Le Corbusier ; the vast amount of the foreground is shown wherever it is possible to show that the project is located away from the dense fabric of the city or the density of the fabric does not effect the context. In many of the drawings he increases the size of the drawing horizontally to show the horizon.

Functionality of the building is visible in most of the cases since that is the key idea of his design. The concept of free ground is visible by the presence of the stilts. In case of urban design, concept of free ground and highways and vertical development of the mass to accommodate the people in high density areas are taken into consideration. Le Corbusier’s main intention was to create possibilities of rapid construction in post world war situations.

Both the architects agreed to the idea of using new materials and machined products but the individuality of the architect differs due to their principles and ideology.

Parameters established in the thesis work within the scope of the thesis which means the parameters are valid for modernist perspective drawings.

Although the laws of visual perception and the theory of perspective drawing remain unchanged, the parameters of the analysis need to be modified according to the ideology of the architect and the time period of the drawing.

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Fig.5.1a : Station point of a perspective drawing

APPENDIX Finding approximate station point Station point is an important aspect of the perspective drawing. Since every perspective drawing is not published with the plan and elevation or section, it is difficult to find the exact location of the station point.

So, the station point is derived by assuming the picture plane as some reference line pssing through the plan and the plan is tilted for matching the projection on the picture plane.

The location of the station point informs the possible situation of the observer in the perspective drawing. (Fig 5.1a,b,c) In Fig.5.1a one reference line in the perspective drawing is established and the same line is overlaid in the plan.

In Fig.5.1b the reference line in plan is rotated to match the projections of the reference line in

Fig.5.1b : Station point of a perspective drawing

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perspective drawing.

In Fig.5.1c the picture plane is assumed at a certain distance from the building in plan to achieve the approximated station point.

Reference line Picture plane

Fig.5.1c : Station point of a perspective drawing

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Fig.5.3 Larkin Building; Exterior View

Fig.5.2 Larkin Building; Interior View

Fig.5.4 Le quarter de Algier: collage

The process drawings for the research can be categorized in three catagories based on the type of the drawings: 1. Tracing the existing perspective drawing to know the location of the vanishing points and the form of the building.(Fig.5.2,5.3,5.4) 2. Constructing perspective drawing from elevation/ section and plan; which gives clarity about possibilities of station point, picture plane and rotation angle of plan with respect to picture plane.(Fig5.5) 3.Tracing the existing perspective drawing by reducing number of lines in the drawing as well as hatching the built-form. Abstracting the perspective drawing by reducing the number of lines gives clarity about the presence of the intentions as well as intensity of intentions. (Fig5.6) The coloring of the surfaces and making abstract graphic for each of the element(roof, floor,walls) inform the dominance of that particular element.(Fig5.7)

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Fig.5.5 Swiss Pavilion

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Fig.5.6 Swiss Pavilion

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Fig.5.7 Laundry Building

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Fig.5.8a Larkin Building ; Composition

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Fig.5.8b Larkin Building ; Form

Fig.5.8c Larkin Building ; Depth

Fig.5.8d Larkin Building ; Depth

Fig.5.8e Larkin Building ; Directionality

Fig.5.8f Larkin Building ; Mass and Surface Treatment

Application of the keywords on Interior Views of the perspective drawings Parameters of the perspective drawings derived can be used for the interior views with modification in the understanding and representation of the parameters. Although the interior views and exterior views are both perspective drawings; exterior view is constructed considering the building as an object to be represented from the outside where as the interior view is constructed as a space to be experienced from within. The purpose of representation creates major difference in terms of understanding these drawings. The interior view is created by composition of multiple elements like furniture, ceiling as well as humans performing specific activities, whereas in case of exterior perspective the built-form is composed with the natural and manmade context.

The same keywords are applied to see whether they can work to interpret the interior views of the buildings or not. The larkin building is taken for a pilot study for this purpose.(Fig 5.2a, Fig 5.2b, Fig 5.2c, Fig 5.2d,Fig 5.2e, Fig5.2f) The form, depth, directionality , mass and surface treatment remain much easy to interpret but the aspect of composition needs to be modified for understanding the space and design intentions of it. It is visible that the method is applicable for the interior views with certain modification based on the purpose of the study.

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Fig.5.9 Sanatorium Building: collage

Fig.5.10 Soviet Palace: collage

There are some other illustrations of the method applied on the drawings to create a mass and surface treatment collage of the drawings.(Fig 5.3, Fig 5.4, Fig 5.5, Fig5.6) 136

Fig.5.11 Palace de Societe da nation: collage

Fig.5.12 Le quarter de Algier: collage

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Illustration Credits Chapter 1: Fig.1.1.6: https://www.pinterest.com/bettaccia/cad-design/,D.O.A.15th Nov, 2016.

Fig.1.1.8: https://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/masonry-02/deck/12499054, D.O.A.15th Nov., 2016.

Fig.1.2.1,1.2.2,1.2.3,1.2.4,1.2.5 : reworked based on, Mulik, Shankar, “A textbook of Perspective and Sciography”, Allied publishers ltd., Bombay, 1994.

Fig.1.3.1,1.3.2: (pg.14) ,Cole, Alison, “Perspective: eyewitness art: visual guide to the theory and techniques from the renaissance to pop art”, Dorling Kinderslay, London, 1992.

Fig.1.3.3: Watson, Ernest, “ How to use creative perspective”, Reinhold publishing corporation, New York, 1965 Chapter 2: Fig.2.3.1: Reworked based on,Drive-in Laundry and Dry Cleaning Establishment Building Wright, Henry Ed.,”The Architectural Forum: Frank Lloyd Wright”, Times Incorporated, New York, 1948.

Fig.2.3.2: Reworked based on, “Rowing Boat House”, Wright, Frank Lloyd, “Studies and executed buildings by Frank Lloyd Wright”, Architectural Press Ltd, London, 1986.

Fig.2.3.3: https://in.pinterest.com/franktegtmeyer/gestalt-theory/,D.O.A: 15th Nov., 2016.

Fig.2.3.4: https://in.pinterest.com/franktegtmeyer/gestalt-theory/,D.O.A: 15th Nov., 2016.

Fig.2.3.5: https://in.pinterest.com/franktegtmeyer/gestalt-theory/,D.O.A: 15th Nov., 2016.

Fig.2.3.6: https://in.pinterest.com/franktegtmeyer/gestalt-theory/,D.O.A: 15th Nov., 2016.

Fig.2.3.7: https://in.pinterest.com/franktegtmeyer/gestalt-theory/,D.O.A: 15th Nov., 2016.

Fig.2.3.8: https://in.pinterest.com/franktegtmeyer/gestalt-theory/,D.O.A: 15th Nov., 2016.

Fig.2.3.9: https://in.pinterest.com/franktegtmeyer/gestalt-theory/,D.O.A: 15th Nov., 2016.

Chapter 3: Case Studies of Frank Lloyd Wright’s Projects: Fig. 4.1a, Fig. 4.1b, Fig. 4.1c, Fig. 4.1d, Fig. 4.1e, Fig. 4.1f, Fig. 4.1g, Fig. 4.1h, Fig. 4.1i : Reworked based on, Mr. and Mrs. Morris House Wright, Henry Ed.,”The Architectural Forum: Frank Lloyd Wright”, Times Incorporated, New York, 1948.

Fig. 4.2a, Fig. 4.2b, Fig. 4.2c, Fig. 4.2d, Fig. 4.2e, Fig. 4.2f, Fig. 4.2g, Fig. 4.2h, Fig. 4.2i : Reworked based on, “Rowing Boat House”, Wright, Frank Lloyd, “Studies and executed buildings by Frank Lloyd Wright”, Architectural Press Ltd, London, 1986.

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Fig. 4.3a, Fig. 4.3b, Fig. 4.3c, Fig. 4.3d, Fig. 4.3e, Fig. 4.3f, Fig. 4.3g, Fig. 4.3h, Fig. 4.3i : Reworked based on, Larkin Building, Wright, Frank Lloyd, “Studies and executed buildings by Frank Lloyd Wright”, Architectural Press Ltd, London, 1986.

Fig. 4.4a, Fig. 4.4b, Fig. 4.4c, Fig. 4.4d, Fig. 4.4e, Fig. 4.4f, Fig. 4.4g, Fig. 4.4h, Fig. 4.4i: Reworked based on, Drive-in Laundry and Dry Cleaning Establishment Building Wright, Henry Ed.,”The Architectural Forum: Frank Lloyd Wright”, Times Incorporated, New York, 1948.

Fig. 4.5a, Fig. 4.5b, Fig. 4.5c, Fig. 4.5d, Fig. 4.5e, Fig. 4.5f, Fig. 4.5g, Fig. 4.5h, Fig. 4.5i: Reworked based on, Hillside home-school, Wright, Frank Lloyd, “Studies and executed buildings by Frank Lloyd Wright”, Architectural Press Ltd, London, 1986.

Fig. 4.6a, Fig. 4.6b, Fig. 4.6c, Fig. 4.6d, Fig. 4.6e, Fig. 4.6f, Fig. 4.6g, Fig. 4.6h, Fig. 4.6i: Reworked based on, Cloverleaf Quadruple Housing ( Housing Project for One hundred Acre Tract), Wright, Henry Ed.,”The Architectural Forum: Frank Lloyd Wright”, Times Incorporated, New York, 1948.

Case Studies of Le Corbusier‘s Projects: Fig. 4.7a, Fig. 4.7b, Fig. 4.7c, Fig. 4.7d, Fig. 4.7e, Fig. 4.7f, Fig. 4.7g, Fig. 4.7h, Fig. 4.7i: Reworked based on, Maisons Locheur, http://fondationlecorbusier.fr/, D.O.A: 15th Nov.,2016.

Fig. 4.8a, Fig. 4.8b, Fig. 4.8c, Fig. 4.8d, Fig. 4.8e, Fig. 4.8f, Fig. 4.8g, Fig. 4.8h, Fig. 4.8i: Reworked based on, Villa Chimanbhai, http://fondationlecorbusier.fr/, D.O.A: 15th Nov.,2016.

Fig. 4.9a, Fig. 4.9b, Fig. 4.9c, Fig. 4.9d, Fig. 4.9e, Fig. 4.9f, Fig. 4.9g, Fig. 4.9h, Fig. 4.9i: Reworked based on, Freehold Maisonete, http://fondationlecorbusier.fr/, D.O.A: 15th Nov.,2016.

Fig. 4.10a, Fig. 4.10b, Fig. 4.10c, Fig. 4.10d, Fig. 4.10e, Fig. 4.10f, Fig. 4.10g, Fig. 4.10h, Fig. 4.10i: Reworked based on, Swiss Pavilion, http://fondationlecorbusier.fr/, D.O.A: 15th Nov.,2016.

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Fig. 4.11a, Fig. 4.11b, Fig. 4.11c, Fig. 4.11d, Fig. 4.11e, Fig. 4.11f, Fig. 4.11g, Fig. 4.11h: Reworked based on, “Plan Voisin Paris”, http://fondationlecorbusier.fr/, D.O.A: 15th Nov.,2016 .

Chapter 5: Fig.5.1a, Fig.5.1b, Fig.5.1c : Reworked based on, Rowing Boat House, Wright, Frank Lloyd, “Studies and executed buildings by Frank Lloyd Wright”, Architectural Press Ltd, London, 1986.

Fig.5.2,5.3 : Reworked based on, Larkin Building, Wright, Frank Lloyd, “Studies and executed buildings by Frank Lloyd Wright”, Architectural Press Ltd, London, 1986.

Fig.5.4 : Le quartier de la marine algier, Reworked based on, http://fondationlecorbusier.fr/, D.O.A: 15th Nov.,2016.

Fig.5.5,5.6 : Swiss Pavilion, Reworked based on, http://fondationlecorbusier.fr/, D.O.A: 15th Nov.,2016.

Fig.5.7 : Reworked based on, Rowing Boat House, Wright, Frank Lloyd, “Studies and executed buildings by Frank Lloyd Wright”, Architectural Press Ltd, London, 1986.

Fig. 5.8a, Fig. 5.8b, Fig. 5.8c, Fig. 5.8d, Fig. 5.8e, Fig. 5.8f : Reworked based on, Larkin Building, Wright, Frank Lloyd, “Studies and executed buildings by Frank Lloyd Wright”, Architectural Press Ltd, London, 1986.

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Fig5.9 : Sanatorium Building; collage Reworked based on, http://fondationlecorbusier.fr/, D.O.A: 15th Nov.,2016.

Fig5.10 Soviet palace; collage Reworked based on, http://fondationlecorbusier.fr/, D.O.A: 15th Nov.,2016.

Fig5.11 Palais de la societe da nation; collage Reworked based on, http://fondationlecorbusier.fr/, D.O.A: 15th Nov.,2016.

Fig5.12 Le quartier de la marine algier; collage Reworked based on, http://fondationlecorbusier.fr/, D.O.A: 15th Nov.,2016.

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