Landscape in Indian Cinema

l a n d s c a p e i n

i n d i a n

c i n e m a

Landscape in Indian Cinema

Shailaja Sameer Shah Guided by Professor Sandip Patil Co-Guided by Mr. Sanjiv Shah

Masters of Landscape Architecture Faculty of Architecture

May, 2017

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS acknowledgments I would like to thank my father, Sameer Shah, for

I sincerely appreciate the support of Prof. Deepa

introducing me to the world of Hindi cinema - my

Maheshwari for accepting and supporting this

first lens as a child to understand the domain of

thesis. The journey at this institute has always

landscape and architecture.

been a smooth ride because of her.

The thesis is a comprehension of a great deal

Dhwani, Ankit, Radhika, Pankti and Shalini –

of guidance – both mental and practical, from

surviving at CEPT was easier because of you.

Professor Sandip Patil and Mr. Sanjiv Shah.

The process of building and connecting the

Anjali Rajmohan and Shailee Mody – Let us split

various threads of landscape with cinema was

the title of Master in Landscape Architecture in

an evolving process for me as a researcher

three.

which could not have been possible without

Thank You!

their expertise. I would also take this opportunity to thank my teacher, Ar. Aniket Bhagwat

Shalaka Shah and Riya Chandiwala – Thank you

for exposing me to the world of landscape

for helping the book scream cinema.

architecture. The learning at his office has moulded me immensely as a person and will

Lastly, I thank my mother, Tina Shah for being a

always continue to do so.

sous-guide, my sister, Nirja Shah for her honest criticism and Shravan Shah for his immense

I express my deepest gratitude to my panellists, Dr. Sonal Mithal, Dr. Seema Khanwalkar and Professor Anjali Jain for their comments on the research.

support and strength.

undertaking I, Shailaja Sameer Shah, the author of the dissertation titled Landscape in Indian Cinema, hereby declare that this is an independent work of mine, carried out towards partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Masters in Landscape Architecture degree at the Faculty of Architecture, CEPT University, Ahmedabad. This work has not been submitted to any other institution for the award of any degree/diploma.

Shailaja Shah (PA201015) Date: Place:

Disclaimer

This document describes work undertaken as part of the M.Arch/ MLA/ MLD degree at the Faculty of Architecture, CEPT University. All views and opinions expressed therein remain the sole responsibility of the author, and do not necessarily represent those of CEPT University, the Dissertation Guide(s), or the Dissertation Committee.

PREFACE

T

Environmental

Practical

Pictorial

Dramatic

Design

Painting

Land-art

Narrative

Horticulture he realm of landscape design is both

However, it dealt with subjective preferences

diverse and distinct. Not only does it

and thus could be manipulated by individuals.

concern with the making of functional and

Representative art focused on how the art was

productive landscapes but is also deeply engaged

communicated more than what was communicated

with art, aesthetics and people. However, there

(Monaco).

Ecology Religion Architecture

are two parallel discourses that float around in landscape theory which deal with the making

With the advent of recording arts like film,

of these landscapes – the idea of nature and

photography, and sound, the communication

culture.

between art and the observer was considerably

Landscapes

have

been

intrinsically

crafted by superimposing the strata of ‘culture’ on

direct.

‘nature’. At times submissive, subtle and at other

arts depicted reality; they had their own set of

times dominant on nature, man has shaped his

symbols and language. However, the meanings

surroundings. Spatiality of landscape has been

of landscapes conveyed through these art forms

a definer in developing culture and experience

were more direct than the representative arts.

The following is a spectrum of ways of looking at

not lay in the physicality of the landscape itself or

landscape wherein the column on the extreme

the observer of the landscape, but in the interaction

left comprises of elements of landscape whose

between the observer and the landscape (Mcgreevy

meanings

477-479). These interactions could be either tangible

with lesser ambiguous approach and as we

(dealing with the physical changes like rural-urban)

move towards the right end, meanings are

or intangible (dealing with experiential changes)

changed as per the individual/observer of the

(Zube, Sell, and Taylor 1-33). It is this relationship

landscape. Recording arts like cinema and

between the tangible and intangible aspects of

photography cover the entire range of the

landscape which lends it a meaning.

spectrum since it deals with all the aspects

Williams,

the

well-known

could

landscape

be

directly

representation

communicated

and

recording.

cultural

historian, cites ‘art’ as one of the ‘keywords’ – that

Although

must be understood in order to comprehend the

considered dominantly as a pictorial art and

relationships between culture and landscape.

cinematic landscapes could be perceived to be

Historically, art was always considered as a

dramatic in nature, at some level, both these

system of communication. There were no means

arts cover the environmental (as a technical

to preserve this art when it was produced in ‘real

aid to record the landscape), design (for visual

time’. There was a shift in the manner in which

perception)

art was communicated with the development of

representation) aspects of landscape. All the

literary and pictorial arts. Images could be stored;

lenses mentioned here could be perceived to be

stories could be preserved, later to be recalled exactly

an overlap of one another. However, the table only

(Monaco). Landscapes have been represented

establishes the various ways of ‘seeing’ landscape.

through various materials and surfaces; and have been recorded by various lenses. Representative art focused on re-building the desired landscape.

landscape

and

photography

narrative

(for

can

Graphic

Theatre

Literature

Cinema, Photography Figure 1: Spectrum of arts for landscape representation

imagined that the meaning of the landscape does

Raymond

Textile

This did not mean that the recording

of landscape viewer/observer. Hence, it can be

of

Philately

be

experiential

The thesis delves into cinema as an art form

The cognitive paradigm for landscape perception

to find the cultural meanings of landscapes.

in the Indian cinematic space looks at socio-

It looks at landscape in cinema where people,

political and cultural discourses to search for

places, and spaces are re-presented in the

meaning in landscape. The experiential paradigm

cinematic

interaction

considers significant properties of landscape

outcomes between spatiality and experience

based on man-landscape interaction. It allows

of the landscape through the cinematic lens.

landscape to be shaped in this process. This

Landscape and cinema – both rely on vision and

thesis synthesises identities of landscape by

perception for representation (Lukinbeal 3-22).

examining the representation of landscape from

As present in cinema, landscape perception

the cinematic lens through change in its meaning.

depends

vision.

upon

It

investigates

cognitive

and

experiential

paradigms (Zube, Sell, and Taylor 1-33). It is necessary to note that these paradigms help in the construction of landscapes. However, the thesis investigates landscape perception and representation through the cinematic lens.

INTENT Hypothesis

Limitations

The way spaces are used and places are portrayed

• Cinema as a lens to illustrate landscape has

in cinema reflect the prevailing culture, ethics, and

its own limitations. The process of analysing

society.

cinema personal

is

subjective

experience

since and

it

deals

thought

with

process.

Premise

• The attempt here is not to draw parallels of

Landscape and cinema –both rely on vision and

the practice in each field but to understand

perception for re-presentation.

how the manifestation of one (landscape) is used (both as visual and symbolic elements) in the other (cinema). The theories chosen to

Aim

illustrate the same are a subjective decision.

The thesis aims to synthesize various identities of landscape by their perception and representation

• The selection of films is again a personal

in the Indian cinematic space.

choice.

They

are

chosen

as

the

most

appropriate examples as per my knowledge to put forth the analysis and interpretations.

Objectives •

To

landscape

establish in

the

the Indian

centrality cinematic

of

• To correlate the narrative experience of landscape

space

and it’s representation in cinema, the thesis will not look at landscape as ecology, habitat, and

• To illustrate that landscape is the dynamic

system. It will only look at the spatial and visual

encounter

aspects of landscape in cinema. Furthermore,

between

people

and

physical

environment through the lens of Indian cinema

the thesis does look at semantics and semiotics to illustrate the same in Hindi cinema since

Scope • The thesis focuses on narration and representation of landscape in cinema. It does not investigate the technical aspects of cinematic construction.

• The references used to achieve the given aim and objectives will be limited to Hindi (fiction) cinema because of time constraint.

a certain selection of frames/sets/places for the films chosen may be purely coincidental.

• The thesis analyses the films in the form of images and text in relation to eras and not specific years to illustrate the landscape.

COntents contents

2

Preface Intent

1

Identities of Landscape in Hindi Cinema 2.1.1 Landscape as a Place 2.1.2 Landscape as a Spectacle 2.1.3 Landscape as a Space 2.1.4 Landscape as a Metaphor Landscape as a Character 2.1.5 Landscape as a Character- The cinematic city 2.2 Bombay - The default metropolis 2.2.1 2.2.2 Bombay of 1950s: Shree 420 2.2.3 Bombay of 1970s: Deewar 2.1

Landscape and Cinema

Representation of Landscape Painting 1.1.1 Theatre 1.1.2 1.2 Cinema 1.2.1 Inception 1.2.2 Evolution in India 1.1

Cinematic landscapes

1 2 4 7 7 8

3

Conclusion

Epilogue Bibliography List of Figures

11 13 15 17 19 21 23 24 27 45

61

¨

Chapter One Landscape and Cinema

1.1.1: Landscape and Painting Since

the

pre-historic

paintings

At times, these landscapes boasted of fictional

have offered to be a window to everyday

spaces and at the other times, paintings recorded

events happening in a human’s life. These

nuances of the existing landform.

representations

of

times,

landscapes

have

been

acting as records of Indian landscape design.

1.1: Representation of Landscape

T

1. Bhimbetka Caves, Madhya Pradesh (5500BC):

represent themes taken from activities of daily life

These caves are one of the earliest examples of

like cooking, hunting, animal fighting, horse riding,

man’s representation of landscape. They are

dancing and music. Landscapes (the natural rocks)

located on the foothills of Vindhyan Mountains.

were used as a canvas and superimposition of

Five clusters of natural rock are home to paintings

paintings on the same canvas depicted the layer

that date back to the Mesolithic period. These

of culture prevalent over time.

paintings, widely done in red and white paint,

he often ambiguous definition of ‘landscape’

In this chapter, I discuss landscape as seen through

characterises it as a way of seeing the world.

the lens of painting and theatre. Landscape in film

Based on viewpoints of people observing

can be analysed using the same technique as that in

a certain landscape, the representation of the

painting (Lefebvre 61-78) and theatre is considered

same would vary significantly. The graphics thus

to be the immediate predecessor to cinema

produced could vary from a geographer’s precise

(Lukinbeal 3-22).

contoured drawing, to a painter’s abstraction, to an ecologist’s transect through the land or to a poet’s piece of literature, to name a few (Corner 243-275).

Figure 2: Rock paintings of Bhimbetka - Detail Figure 3: Rock as a canvas depicting everyday life

All these ‘lenses’ inform us about that particular landscape even though they may be extremely contrasting in their schema. Each would provide us with different sets of meanings and subsequently alter our perception of the given landscape.

2.

1

Ajanta Caves, Maharashtra (200BC): The

Buddhist paintings at Ajanta caves provide us with early images of palatial gardens of ancient India.

They depict gardens with open porches and lush green vegetation. Legend says that these paintings were used to depict Jataka tales.

Figure 4: A scene of palatial garden, Ajanta Caves Figure 5: A scene of Jataka tale, Ajanta Caves

2

3. Mughal Paintings: The paintings by Bishandas

line. The third image shows a clearer view of the

depict Babur supervising the layout of The Garden

Charbaug depicting the planting of this garden.

4

of Fidelity in Kabul (Afghanistan). The first painting shows Babur watching men altering the course of stream for the garden. The second painting shows the garden enclosure wall with Babur standing at the gate. Inside the enclosure, are workers tracing the traditional ‘Charbaug’ layout with a plumb

1.1.2: Landscape as Theatre

T

he term ‘landscape as theatre’ was coined

1) theatre as a system of communication with its

by J.B. Jackson in 1979. Jackson suggested

own set of rules and symbols, 2) people control

that the term gained momentum from

and design their surroundings as if it were a stage,

the 16th century where landscape was initially

and 3) people consider themselves to occupy the

used as a visual backdrop to enact scenes.

centre stage (Jackson) It is important to consider

The literal meaning of the word ‘scene’ can be

the analogy of theatre for landscape since it offers

considered to be a location, an area or a space

importance to the visual side of environment

where the drama happens. Using theatre as a

along with scaling the ‘scene’ to a specific space

Figure 6: Babur altering the landscape / Figure 7: Charbaug plumbing / Figure 8: Charbaug planting

metaphor for landscape suggests three things:

and time.

4. Picchvai and Mata ni Pachedi: In this Picchvai

divided into 7 or 9 parts. Each part contains a

1. The Theatre at Delphi: Built in the 4th century

painting of Lord Krishna’s Rasleela, Krishna

stand-alone story of the deity or a local narrative

B.C., landscape acted as a natural backdrop to

appears dancing with ‘gopis’ in a garden. Maata

from that society.

the performances held. The theatre was sited

ni Pachedi is usually a narrative scroll, which is

according to this view.

Figure 9: Rasleela / Figure 10: Mata ni Pachedi

3

Figure 11: Backdrop of the extant, Delphi Figure 12: Without the backdrop, Delphi

5 2. Shakuntala: Abhigyanshakuntalam is a well-

Shakuntala’s travel to Hastinapur through a river

known Sanskrit play by Kalidasa. It narrates the

in a canoe ferry. Landscape is an active character

story about Shakuntala, wife of King Dushyant

of the narrative.`

and mother of Emperor Bharata. Adapted by many writers over the years, this scene shows 4. Raja Harishchandra: The film’s story is taken

enacted in a theatre. Landscape provided a space

from the great epic Mahabharata and was an

to let the drama unfold as well as provided a

established tale in theatrical adaptations. The

backdrop

narrative was framed as if the scenes were being

Figure 13: Fictional backdrop, Shakuntala Figure 14: Without the backdrop, Shakuntala

3. Ramlila: A folk re-enactment of Rama’s

space in the narrative. Along with this, different

ten day battle with Ravana, the landscape of

performances of the Ramlila would use different

Ramlila is narrated in the texts of Ramayana.

sets for the same scene. Landscape then becomes

This particular scene shows a dialogue between

an integral part of the larger narrative.

Figure 19: Raja Harishchandra scene, Painting Figure 20: Raja Harishchandra scene, Painting

Rama, Lakshmana and Hanuman. The theatrical backdrop of landscape gives us a sense of

Figure 15: Fictional landscape backdrop, Ramlila Figure 16: Without the backdrop, Ramlila

Figure 21: Raja Harishchandra scene Figure 22: Raja Harishchandra scene w/o backdrop

6 Figure 17: : Different backdrop, Ramlila Figure 18: Different set- same scene, Ramlila

1.2.2: Evolution in India 1.2: Cinema

A

landscape is a cultural image (Mcgreevy 477-479). It is a way of re-presenting and symbolising the surroundings. They

have been represented by various materials and surfaces - land, water, and vegetation and have been recorded by various schemata like painting, theatre, and literature. To understand a built landscape, it is necessary to understand

1.2.1: Inception

landscape can be powerful visual signs and convey

T

messages forcefully (Baker and Biger ). Cinema,

Hotel, Bombay. Filmmakers in the west soon

thus, can be a useful lens to read landscape.

started using Indian culture and exotic scenery

both verbal and visual imagery. In a country like India with rich history but a pre-dominantly illiterate

society,

non-verbal

documents

in

he Lumiere brothers introduced the art of cinematography in 1895 at Paris. The first Indian film shown was ‘The Arrival of a Train

at La Ciotat Station’ on July 7, 1896 at the Watson

in their films like Coconut Fair (1897), Our Indian In this chapter,I look at the history of Hindi cinema

empire (1897), A Panaroma of Indian Scenes and

over the past century. I also probe into the history

Procession (1898), and Poona Races ‘98’ (1898).

of our country since Indian cinema was developed

The very first Indian film by an Indian Filmmaker

in a socio-political context (Ganti).

was Wrestlers in 1899 by Harischandra S. Bhatvadekhar. In 1900, F.B. Thanawala produced Splendid New View of Bombay and Taboot Procession.

On demand of the Indian audience to see Indian characters on screen, in 1912, Pundalik was made but it was shot by a foreigner. The first indigenous feature film, Raja Harishchandra, was made by Dhundiraj Govind Phalke in 1913.. Between 1917 and 1931 several more Indian silent films were shot in all languages. Their content was inspired largely by the puranas and ancient epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata; they also included folklores and fantasies. With the advent of sound, as the perception and experience of cinema changed, so did the content. The first ‘talkie’ of Hindi cinema was Alam Ara (1931).

7

¨

Chapter two TWO Cinematic Landscapes

5. Barber, Stephen.Projected cities: cinema and

Based on my study

urban space. ReaktionBooks, 2002.

of this and viewing a

• When film interacts with city, corporeal,

wide range of films

architectural, cultural, historical and social forms

(See Filmography) of

are projected.

the post-independence

• Physical or sensory dimensions interlock with

era, I arrived at the

the urban space.

following ways in which the

2.1 Identities of Landscape in Hindi Cinema

P

opular Hindi cinema has peculiar ways of addressing landscape. This proposition is based on my perusal of the following literature and theories:

Hindi

cinematic

6. Cosgrove, Denis. “Prospect, perspective and the

landscapes

could

evolution of the landscape idea.” Transactions of

be looked at. While

the Institute of British Geographers (1985): 45-

there may be many

62.

more perspectives to

• Landscape as a geographical context cannot be

understand the same,

free of the ideological overlays of its history as

I will limit myself to

a visual concept unless it subjects landscape of

these five:

interrogation.

1.

Lukinbeal,

Chris.

“Cinematic

landscapes.”Journal

of

Cultural

Geography23.1 (2005): 3-22.

filmmaking, but you can certainly transform the

• Landscape and film are social constructions

representation of the world through film.

• Attachment of landscape is through culture, attitude and experience

• The theatre represents drama. Cinema presents

2. Lowenthal, David. “GEOGRAPHY, EXPERIENCE, AND IMAGINATION: TOWARDS A GEOGRAPHICAL EPISTEMOLOGY 1.”Annals of the association of americangeographers51.3 (1961): 241-260.

it. Novel evokes it.

• In theatre, you understand; in film, you perceive.

8.

• Cinema as an image and industry

Helphand,

Kenneth

I.

“Landscape

films.”Landscape Journal5.1 (1986): 1-8.

• Landscape in cinema could be read as text or image

• Establishes four approaches to represent landscape in cinema –Subject, Setting, Character,

3. Gargi, Balwant.Theatre in India. Theatre arts books, 1962.

• 9 rasas: erotic, comic, pathetic, furious, heroic, terrible, odious, marvellous and spiritual • 9 bhavas: love, laughter, pathos, anger, energy, fear, disgust, wonder, quietude

Symbol • Derived pre-dominantly from Western cinema 9.

Higson,

Andrew.

“Space,

place,

spectacle.”Screen25.4-5 (1984): 2-21.

4. Stephenson, Ralph, and Jean R. Debrix.The cinema as art. Penguin (NonClassics), 1976.

nature

the

internal

thought

external,

and

11

the

thoughts

serve in narrative cinema –Place, Space, Spectacle, • Derived from all kinds of cinema –Western and

• Art springs from an urge to order makes

• Proposes four functions that landscape can Metaphor

• Art consists in reproducing or imitating real life

makes

Asia Books, 1990.

• You cannot transform the world by means of

• Landscape is central in the formation of cinematic space

•Art

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

7. Roberge, Gaston.The subject of Cinema. South

external

internal

and

International

nature

12

Place Space Spectacle Metaphor Character

lANDSCAPE AS Place

2.1.1: Landscape as Place

As specific place and time Refers to the location where the narrative is set Gives a regional sense of place and history Can be established in the master shot Can be established through repetitive use as markers of a city/location Cinematic events need to take ‘place’

The notion of place-making gained importance

somewhere. The term ‘sense of place’

when globalisation entered the Hindi cinematic

refers to the location where the narrative

space. While ‘foreign’ locations were common

is set (Lukinbeal 3-22). Knowledge

for shooting since the 1970s, especially for song

of these ‘places’, whether they are

sequences (Elliott, Payne, and Ploesch) (Silsila

real locations or imaginary settings,

(1981), Chandani (1989), etc.), 1990s marked a

provide a narrative pragmatism to the

discernible shift in the ‘place’-making of cinematic

location’s regional history and culture.

space in Hindi films. This was first done through

John Brinckerhoff Jackson in his book ‘A

Dilwale Dulhaniya Le Jaayenge (1995) (DDLJ

Sense of Place, a Sense of Time’ states

hereafter) where a foreign location (London) was

that the sense of place is a human

used as a setting to mark the Indian middle-class

creation during the course of time.

immigrant population living in such locales. These

These places are often established in

places were as appealing as shown in the earlier

the master shot of the narrative and/

films but they had the layer of ‘realism’ added to it.

or when there is a shift in the narrative

Opening sequence of DDLJ showed the landmarks

which requires another setting. It

of London city like Trafalgar square, the Big Ben,

is established by repeatedly using

the Tower of London and the Buckingham palace.

landmarks of the landscape. They tend

The protagonist, Baldev Singh (Amrish Puri) is

to create a link between narration and

shown to feed pigeons at the Trafalgar square

place. Environmental psychologists like

and as the narrative shifts from London to India,

Fritz Steele link the ‘sense of place’ to

he is shown to do the same in the mustard fields

‘spirit of place’ and ‘setting’. He suggests

of Gurgaon (depicted as Punjab). At some level,

that the experience of a person in a

Baldev Singh creates ‘a sense of India’ on the

particular setting is the combination of

streets of London by retaining his cultural identity.

Figure 23: Baldev strolling through English gardens

Figure 24: The Big Ben

Figure 25: Baldev feeding birds, Mustard fields, India

Figure 26: Baldev feeding birds, Trafalgar Square

Figure 27: Buckingham Palace

Figure 28: Baldev crossing a bridge in London

characteristics that gives the location a special ‘feel’ or personality. Here, setting means a person’s immediate surroundings, including both physical and social elements (Steele).

14

lANDSCAPE AS SPECTACLE

2.1.2: Landscape as Spectacle

Use of spectacular environment Uses the theatrical metaphor Imagines landscape to be a mere visual setting

In DDLJ, Simran, the elder daughter of Baldev, seeks permission to travel around Europe for a month before heading to India for getting

Figure 29: Pastoral landscape of Switzerland

Figure 30: Protagonist standing on a bridge in Switzerland

Figure 31: Protagonists sitting at the ede of a lake in Switzerland

Figure 32: Pastoral landscape of Switzerland

Figure 33: Pastoral landscape in Punjab

Figure 34: Mustard fields in Punjab

Figure 35: Protagonist and Baldev feeding pigeons in the fields of Punjab

Figure 36: Pastoral landscape of Punjab

married. The pastoral landscapes of Europe have been used as a backdrop to the protagonists’ Landscape in cinema can simply be

blooming romance. When there is a plot shift,

aesthetically pleasing. This can be

the fields of Switzerland get translated to

drawn from the metaphor ‘landscape

the fields of Punjab with the same functional

as theatre’ coined by J.B. Jackson. Using

use. At some level, this makes one question

the same, one can imagine landscape

the choice of a given landscape. It makes one

to merely be a scenery – a background

wonder if the ‘place’ was important to the story

upon which events are staged.

As

and if there were other innate qualities of the

multiple

landscape. After probing further, it is clear that

functions in one image (Lukinbeal 3-22).

the film uses ‘fields’ as a backdrop throughout

As for instance, in the master shot,

the narrative for romance to happen. This can

landscape serves as both place and

also be considered to have something to do

spectacle and it is difficult to segregate

with the ‘colour’ of flowers in the Swiss locales;

the two as categories for the same.

which is similar to mustard fields of Punjab.

spectacle,

landscape

has

Interestingly, the landscapes of Switzerland as a spectacle in DDLJ serve an aesthetic purpose while the pastures of Punjab as a spectacular environment create a certain curiosity for the narrative to unfold itself.

16

lANDSCAPE AS SPace

2.1.3: Landscape as Space

An area in which the drama of the film can take place Defines a social place and at some level takes away the importance of location Can be used for multiple narrative purposes Social narration more than geographic realism

From an opening shot of a rural landscape, emerges a dancing

Landscape tends to position these

acrobat leading a tribal group walking in the middle of a bleak

narratives within a definite scale and

landscape. The landscape is composed of huge boulders and

context without which it would be

earth but is surrounded by green vegetation. The female

impossible for the viewers to imagine

protagonist, who is a part of the group, is participating in a

a certain situation (Lukinbeal 3-22).

ritual offering her bearings to the goddess in a local temple of

Space in cinema adds the layer of

that rural setting. After the rituals are performed, the tribal

myth, culture, and politics, to name a

group traverses through a field with tall coconut trees in the

few. Landscape as a ‘space’ thus deals

evening, awaiting a new day symbolising hope. The narrative

with the immediate context of the

when the son of a landlord who is leading a ‘city’ life is sent to

narrative. It serves as a background

the ‘country’ to take care of their fields. The landscape of this

on which events are staged which can

feudal modern-day village offers a space to represent the

be real, theatrical or imaginary. ‘Space’

culture and societal system of a rural life in Shyam Benegal’s

in cinema defines a social space and it

Ankur (1974). Concurrently, the landscape of the fields

focuses on social narration than reality

symbolises power and allows dialogue between the landlord

of the location (Soja). The description

and villagers, water conflicts, and dichotomies of urban-rural

and interpretation of such landscapes

ideologies to take place. The landscape narrative is read as

give us an idea of transformation

a space rather than a definite place and is re-presented by

of natural landscapes to cultural

perceiving landscape as a setting where the drama unfolds.

landscapes.

Figure 37: Tribal group traversing through the bleak landscape

Figure 38: Landscape of power

Figure 39: Channelizing water through the field

Figure 40: Landscape as a backdrop

Figure 41: Harvesting season

Figure 42: Landscape as a space

18

lANDSCAPE AS Character

2.1.4: Landscape as Character

Envisioned as an active element in the story Human-landscape relationship is examined Landscape can either depict the character of an individual or can contrast it

Landscape and Cinema – both rely on vision and perception for narration and representation.

Cinematic landscapes establish the nature of space based on its re-presentation. A landscape has always been a consequential sum of attitudes and actions. The way spaces are used and places are portrayed in cinema reflect the prevailing culture, ethics, and society. It is at this point where ‘landscape’ is envisioned as an active facet of the narrative.

Awaara (1951) is a story of a vagabond who is forced to move to the city after his mother is accused of cheating on his father, a

judge. Judge Raghunath’s wife is kidnapped by Jagga, a crook who is wrongly accused by the Judge on the account of rape. On learning that the judge’s wife is pregnant, Jagga chooses to leave her only to avenge himself later on. After she returns home, the wife is doubted by Judge Raghunath and is abandoned by him after which she moves to Bombay. It is this city of Bombay which moulds the protagonist to join the path of crime. Here, Bombay acts a plot in the narrative not only because it happens coincidently due to the shift from the rural setting, but also due to the opportunities it offers for a ‘better’ living.

Awaara throws light on the socio-political constructs of the city where, post independence, there was a wave of rural migrants coming to the urban city in search of employment and a better life. The film climaxes with protagonist representing the duality of the urban utopia: the conditions of the underprivileged in a seemingly prosperous city.

He blames the exploitation of the poor by the city for pushing him towards a life of crime citing examples of the poor conditions of the chawls with no light, less space, and poor drainage where he has spent most of his childhood.

Figure 43: Poor infrastructure of streets

Figure 44: Street as a space for meeting

Figure 45: Streets of the elite

Figure 46: Poor living conditions of the people

20

lANDSCAPE AS Metaphor

2.1.5: Landscape as Metaphor

Can landscape be depicted beyond physical reality?

What do landscapes mean?

Metaphor in cinematic landscapes can be perceived to be similar to landscape as a spectacle (Lukinbeal 3-22). However, unlike spectacle, landscape metaphor in cinema delves into the hidden meanings of landscape. Some examples of the

Gardens in Hindi cinematic landscapes have

same use landscape very rhetorically. As seen in

been used as a metaphor of romance. The many

Sanjay Leela Bhansali’s Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam,

gardens of Mughal-e-Azam (1960) allowed the

desert is a metaphor for loneliness in the narrative.

protagonists to fall in love with each other. It

Deserts have also been used to symbolise evil

was that uninterrupted space where the actors

and/or the supernatural. The dream sequence

were free from the social constraints. These

of Awaara uses the landscape of heaven and hell

constructed gardens in the narrative were donned

as a metaphor of life. Rain is usually used as a

with flowers, vines, trees, fountains and drew their

metaphor to depict sadness, love and longing

inspiration from the Mughal garden layout.

Figure 47: Garden as metaphor for romance

Figure 48: Constructed garden inspired from Mughal layouts

Figure 49: Garden as metaphor for romance

Figure 50: Constructed garden inspired from Mughal layouts

and at the other times, is used to depict a joyous atmosphere (e.g. during the planting season in rural areas) depending upon what the narrative demands.

22

23

2.2: Landscape as Character- The cinematic city

T

his

chapter

also has to do with

many

investigates the

the association of the

films based on these

Hindi cinema has not

notion of ‘the city’

progressive writers and

backgrounds.

only

in the Hindi cinematic

theatre

independence, by 1950s,

process of urbanisation

space. Some early Hindi

coming

in

cinema in India was

as a struggle towards

cinema from the 1940s

Mumbai/Hindi

films;

considered to be art,

coming to terms with and

saw a lot of changes in

carrying

them

industry and a mode

formulation agendas for

the cinematic texture

an

of

based on the changes

of

happening

‘socialist’

in

the

practitioners to

with

understanding society

from

Filmmakers

political

Kapoor,

cultural

front. This, somewhere,

Mehboob

the

perspective.

country on the socioand

work

like

Guru Khan

Raj Dutt, and

more

made Post-

expansion

of

cities.

portrayed

the

depicting

reality

modernity, but also as

(Rajadhyaksha

20).

reactions to and counter-

Hindi films, since then,

programmes against this

have

process (Kaarsholm).

been

closely

linked with this process of

urbanisation

and

2.2.1: Bombay- The default metropolis

M

umbai

city)

Bombay was, and still is,

was looked upon

considered to be a mosaic

as a place to go

of several kinds of people

to where dreams could

living in the same area

come true. The nature of

and

the city - a melting pot of

services,

identities - also allowed

and amenities. I discuss

people

the

to

(a

break

away

sharing

the

open

same spaces

transformation

of

from their oppressive past

open spaces of Bombay

rooted

city as seen through the

in

socio-cultural

traditions of caste and class. This was done by the choice of landscape the director uses to represent the same, which usually is depicted through the ‘city’.

cinematic lens.

24

2.2.2: Bombay of 1950’s- Shree 420 The landscape of the metropolis of Bombay in Raj Kapoor’s Shree 420 has the power to solve problems through social actions revealing cultural values of that particular city. In the opening shot, the central character is seen walking through a meandering road in a rural landscape symbolising uncertainty in his life.

From open wavering roads of rural India, the narrative undergoes a shift when he enters a busy street in Bombay. He is exposed to various urban issues like agrarian crisis, living on the footpath (lack of infrastructure), need for low-income housing, urban decay, unemployment, and corruption. The city of Bombay is envisioned as an active character throughout the narrative and open spaces of the city are associated with the common man.

Figure 51: Shree 420 film poster

27

30

Part A: Narration The elements that define the space are tall trees, the boulders, the dirt road, soil on either sides and the prominent signage.

The meandering pathway symbolises unsurity in the protagonist’s life.

The sparse tall trees on either sides symbolise hope while the boulders signify difficulties in the path.

It is clear from the image that the protagonist is

This photomontage gives us a glimpse of the

moving through a rural landscape.

dichotomies of an urban and a rural landscape.

However,

the place seems not to matter where precisely, other than being four-hundred twenty miles from

The image shows a shift in the life of the protagonist

Bombay . It is meant to perceive ‘rural landscape’

where the rural landscape will get transformed to cityscape.

as a space.

Figure 53: Traversing through the desert

Figure 52: Traversing through the rural landscape

Figure 55: First impression of the city

Figure 54: Montage of rural and urban life

Rural landscape in this opening sequence of Shree

When Raj, the protagonist, enters the city of

420 is marked with the visual metaphors of Indian

Bombay, his figure is framed by a Coca-Cola sign

tradition and pastures: village women, gypsies,

which marks consumerism that was beginning to

camels, elephants.

penetrate in the aesthetics of the urban city.

The first ‘glimpse’ of an urban life of the city was that of a street.

29

31

32

The courtyard seen in this frame is a central common open space for all the residents of the

Ironically, the protagonist is talking about the basic

‘chawl’.

necessities of life being food, shelter, and clothes which is ‘staged’ in front of a high-end housing.

The space is defined by a huge tree under which the female protagonist educates the kids of the

This scene on Chowpatty Beach (as anticipated;

nearby area. This directly links us to the older

it could be any other beach) stylizes the way

system of education where teaching was done

politicians cheat the citizens through talking.

under a tree.

Throughout the entire narrative, landscape (open Also, it is important to consider that the ‘chawl’

space) sets the setting for the common man while

dwellers were migrants from the rural village.

the dialogues between the elite happen with

Hence, their way of living, (teaching, in this case)

architecture as a backdrop.

reflects the traditional lifestyle.

While observing the courtyard throughout the

At some level, it also represents country’s

narrative, one can perceive it to be a square

transition from its traditional grounding to

defined by the Neem tree.

modern government.

Figure 56: Living on the footpath

Figure 59: Street as a space for private meetings

Figure 57: Courtyard as a multifunctional space

Figure 58: Beach as a space for demonstration

To spend the night, the protagonist then reaches

Shree 420 extensively uses landscape as a

a space set against the backdrop of a huge house.

metaphor. In this particular scene, the elements that define the space is the curving street, the

One can notice people living on the footpath with

blurred buildings, street lights, and the rain.

typical village homes as compared to the grand house of the rich.

Water is a metaphor for fluidity of time and also symbolises change.

This opens up the issue of class conflict, urban poverty, and need for housing which was prevalent

There is a difference between use of actual

during those times.

locations (as in the previously mentioned scene) and ‘constructed’ locations; like this one and the one with Coca-Cola sign.

34

The first character in this scene is money which symbolises the craving for upliftment of social status. The second is the female protagonist who clearly is in denial of the same.

The backdrop of a rural landscape makes the third character even though subtle, it is significant. This landscape represents the modest background of the poor.

It also posits the ‘old/traditional/rural’ (and therefore of value) against the ‘new/modern/ urban’ which is crass and amoral. This was the

Figure 60: Architecture of the elite

dominant discourse in the era - of the ills that

From landscape being an active character, it

urbanisation/

translates into being just a mere backdrop and

modernization/

industrialization

brought to the traditional lifestyles.

allows the drama to unfold.

Figure 61: Negative aspect of urbanisation

Figure 62: ‘Wadi’ settlement as a backdrop

Figure 63: Interiors of a house of the rich

As mentioned earlier, Shree 420 uses architectural

Entering a grand architectural space by the

grandeur as a backdrop to signify power of the

protagonist signifies the shift in his lifestyle that is

rich.

about to happen.

Space here acts a foreground with huge classical fenestrations and details while the protagonist is placed in the background.

33

35

Part B: Open Spaces of Bombay- STREET

36 Chawl

Chawl

Road

Pedestrian Path

Pedestrian Path Mills

Figure 64: Section through the node Pedestrian Path

Figure 69: Imagined plan for the space

Street

Landscape Observations:

Cinematic Observations:

• The quality of enclosed space is defined by the

• The first ‘glimpse’ of an urban life of the city,

sound of the people in the market, the variety

for the protagonist was that of a street evoking

of activities happening on the junction and the

a feeling of confusion since there were too many

various modes of transportation which fill up the

things happening in the space.

space.

• The extent of overcrowding on streets during Figure 65: Small scale shops for trade

Figure 66: Street vendor

• Streets here are a space for trade, social

the 1950s led to a blur between public and private

interaction, provide a space for earning during the

spaces. The streets were a place for all and there

day and at night, they transform to a place to live.

was a certain sense of ownership of space by the people using that street.

• Along the narrow street, there are specific patterns in which the traders set up their wares. It

• These streets were primarily inhabited by the

is set in a manner in which the buyer gets to view

poor. They also saw variation in usage during

all the objects which are up for sale.

various parts of the day. While morning saw trade, the immigrants of Bombay spilled into living on

Figure 67: Living on the footpath

Figure 68: A space for private meetings

• Along with street vendors, one can also view

the streets (footpaths) due to lack of space to live

small scale shops.

at night.

37

Part B: Open Spaces of Bombay- CHAWL

Figure 70: Elevation of the chawl

Chawl

Courtyard

Road

Pitched roof home

Figure 75: Imagined plan for the chawl Court

Verandah

Figure 71: Backdrop of ‘village’ settlement

Street

Stairs

Figure 72: Verandah of a chawl-home

Landscape Observations:

Cinematic Observations:

• The Veranda is a welcoming space in front of the house. Some chawls have bigger balconies which serve the dual use of a welcoming area before entering inside the house apart from being a circulation space.

• There was a need to cater to the high migrant influx due to employment opportunities in the city.

• It can be observed that verandas have evolved over a period of time from being the buffer spaces of a chawl unit into an extended house, thus encouraging the idea of living together as family with neighbouring units.

• The courtyards are a space where human occurrence with social interaction is prominent and gives sense of social harmony in the community.

Figure 73: Courtyard - A multifunctional space

Figure 74: Layout of the open space in a chawl

• Courtyards show various occupancy patterns during a course of a day including playgrounds for children in mornings and evenings to household activities as well as small scale industries run by group of housewives in the afternoon time.

• ‘Wadis’ were pieces of land which were developed into clusters of many households which would evoke a sense of neighbourhood living.

• Chawl, during those times, seemed to be an appropriate option since it provided a room as an apartment with facilities like shared toilets and open spaces.

• These corridors/verandas overlooked an open courtyard or the road (gullies). The various common areas especially the central courtyards and the common balconies were the epicentre of activities and recreation.

38

39

Part B: Open Spaces of Bombay- MARINE DRIVE

Home for the elite

Figure 76: Beach as a public space

Apartments for the elite under construction

Street

Road

Beach

Sea

Beach as a public space

Figure 77: Aerial view of the space

Figure 79: Imagined plan for the sea

Landscape Observations:

Cinematic Observations:

• There is a direct connection between the sea and

• Regular processions, demonstrations and public

the built.

meetings contributed to the landscape as shown in the film.

• The pedestrian pathway creates an interactive Median

Pedestrian walkway

Seat

Beach

association with the sea with seats acting as a

• In the context of over-crowding, the beach served

resting space for both active and passive activities.

a place for large social and political interactions.

As a matter of fact, the beach as a theatre of political demonstration gained momentum during the 1950s.

Figure 78: A space for political interaction

40

41

Part B: Open Spaces of BombaySEA AS A RECREATIONAL SPACE

Figure 80: Palm and other plantation backdrop of the beach

Figure 81: Houses and fortified wall overlooking the sea

Landscape Observations:

Cinematic Observations:

• The natural water edge of the city is fortified by

• The sea is used for both public and private

a wall.

recreational purposes.

• The space is characterised by the clusters of

• The protagonist spends the night at the beach

old houses, palm trees and other plantations

under a fisherman’s boat since he does not have

as a backdrop. However, the beach is not linked

a place to live. During the time he spends there,

directly to the plantation.

he sees a group of girls enjoying the sea, children building castles from sand and people exercising.

• The sense of the place is open and seems to be cut off from the urbanism of the city.

Figure 82: Group of girls having a dip in the sea

Figure 83: Children making sand art

42

43

44 Courtyards – a multifunctional space

Traversing through the rural landscape Traversing through the rural landscape

Street as the first ‘urban’ image Bazaar Node

Streets as a private space

Backbay Reclamation

Lack of living spaces in Bombay

Beach as a recreational space

Beach as a place for public communication

Beginning of chawl culture in Bombay

‘The Nehruvian Bombay’

Shared living space – ‘village otta’ Figure 84: Open Spaces of Shree 420 - A montage

Part C: Film Conclusion From the local ‘Kolis’, the fisher folk, who were

Set in Bombay of the 1950s, Shree 420 aims

In its use of settings and images it also gives us

The ‘village’ square which now was called ‘node’

believed to be Dravidians and the first people

to become the ‘master narrative’ struggles of

an insight to the kind of open spaces that were

accommodated the weekly market. The ‘village

who settled in what was known as Bombay

a newly Independent India. By looking at the

prevalent during 1950s. The concept of open

otla’ could be doubled for footpaths which

– to the generations of migrants from across

contradictions of the ‘city’, between the rich and

space in India can be said to have originated from

provided space for daily activities to happen. Their

the country who came here in search for a

the poor, the slums and the palatial homes of

the image of a shared village space. The streets,

importance stemmed from their adaptability to

better future; Bombay represents a unique

the rich, the exploiters and the exploited the film

nodes, sea, the ‘village’ tree of the courtyard,

varied functions, adjusting to varied celebrations,

coming together of diverse identities and ideas.

argues for a socialist path to modernity achieved

the ‘settlement’ of chawl were common spaces.

suiting

It can be imagined as a montage of several

through shared resources and collective efforts.

Streets became processional paths during the day

development of the beaches like Marine Drive and

ethnicities and cultures, a place where the

In the end, it offers a re-imagined Bombay as

and at night became secret rendezvous points.

Chowpatty with promenades that were inspired

old and new meet, despair and hope co-exist.

a modern utopia in the ‘Nehruvian’ model.

varied

purposes.

from European images.

1950s

also

saw

45

46

2.2.3: Bombay of 1970’s- Deewaar Deewar is a story of two brothers who move to the ‘city’ from the ‘country’ in order to survive. Here, the industrial Bombay affects the lives of the protagonists wherein the older brother leaves his education unfinished to support the family and educate the younger brother.

47

In the process, he gets involved in crime and smuggling and earns money from the same. The younger brother, symbolises ethical living and faces unemployment till he becomes a police officer. The landscape of the film looks at alternative use of open spaces, homelessness, dockyards and streets as an active character in the lives of the poor. Deewar also mocks the disparities in the lives of people wherein the rich become richer and the poor become poorer.

Figure 85: Deewaar film poster

50

Part A: Narration

The family of a mother and her two sons migrate to the city after the father, a leader of the union of coal mines, is humiliated by fellow villagers.

The middle-class family of the village, now lives under a bridge with other migrants to survive in the city.

The move to Bombay is represented by a calendar photo hanging on the walls of their home as if it

This opens up the many discussions about

is utopia.

alternative use of open spaces in the city.

Figure 87: Aerial view of Marine Drive

Figure 86: Calendar photo of Marine Drive as Utopia

49

Figure 89: Street adjoining the bridge

Figure 88: Living under a bridge due to poverty

The calendar photo then comes alive and the

During the day time, these streets and spaces in

family of three are shown to walk on the Marine

the city which served as a space for living at night,

drive of Bombay in search of home.

become a space for trade and transportation.

52

The older child does odd jobs to meet the family needs of surviving in the city. Once again, it is the streets of Bombay which serve as a space to earn a living.

The mother is a labourer for a construction

The train, here, not only acts as a metaphor for

company

transportation, but also marks ‘industrialisation’

marking

the

rapid

development

at its peak during the era.

happening.

Figure 93: Migrants as workers of Bombay docks

Figure 91: Trade on streets - Nukkad

Figure 90: Service on streets by underage children

Along with streets, other corners called ‘nukkads’

Figure 92: Metaphor of industrialisation

As the narrative skips years, the older brother is

also start developing as a business for the migrants.

shown working as a ‘coolie’ at the Bombay docks.

They can be perceived to be a recreational space

The dockyard exposes the life of a working class

and generally act as a connection between the

labour in the city of Bombay when Rahim Chacha,

built and the streets.

another coolie at the docks says that ‘nothing has changed for the past 25 years in the lives of the workers.’

51

54

In contrast to Vijay, the working class figure who ‘makes it’ in the world through smuggling and crime, his brother Ravi Verma is a symbol of

lower

middle

and

middle

class

youth.

Supported in his education by Vijay his elder brother and his mother, he faces the unemployment since he does not have the ‘connections’ to get a job.

The family, after initially living under the bridge, is then shown to live in a chawl when the older son earns money to sustain a modest one room tenement.

In many ways, it represents the lives of the mill

As

mentioned,

bungalows

and

workers and other labourers who migrated to

symbolise the rich. This is demonstrated by the open space area they use.

Bombay.

Figure 95: Backbay reclamation

Figure 94: Emerging chawl typology

apartments

Figure 97: Bridge as a metaphor of roots

Figure 96: Open space of the privileged

The apartments symbolise the reclamation at the

As the polarities in life between the rich and

Marine Drive where high rise apartments form

the poor is demonstrated through the lives of

the new skyline of the city. It is the elite who can

the brothers who have chosen two contrasting

afford such spaces of architecture over looking

paths, the narrative brings them to the same

the urban landscape in contrast to the streets

bridge where both of them had begun their lives.

used by the poor.

The bridge, thus, is a metaphor of roots.

53

55

Part B: Open Spaces of Bombay- MARINE DRIVE

Tetrapods Parapet Promenade Road Median Road Road

Figure 98: Marine Drive

Walkway

Median

Walkway

Road Walkway

Tetrapods Parapet

Built

Figure 101: Imagined plan for the space

Tetrapods

Parapet

Walkway

Benches

Figure 99: Walkway

Landscape Observations:

Cinematic Observations:

• A wide promenade creates a buffer between

• To mark urbanity, the protagonists are shown

the road and the edge of the sea. This offers a

walking helplessly across the urban realm on the

flexible land use.

Marine Drive promenade. When there is a shift in the plot, the protagonist is shown to enjoy the

• Benches allow people to face the promenade, for

same view from the high rise marking a sense of

active ‘people watching’. It also allows one to face

achievement ‘over’ the city.

the sea and the infinite for solitary introspection.

• During this era, there was Backbay reclamation • The parapet sits atop a retaining wall. Between

going on which celebrated the new urban

the sea and the retaining wall are concrete tetra

development of Bombay marking a beginning of

pods. These not only break the waves and prevent

urban lifestyle.

them from crashing against the retaining wall; but also serve as a measure of the tides and

• Apartments and high rise buildings looked

changes in the sea.

up to the grand promenades and other towers indicating power • These buildings juxtaposed with the lower class housing and formed a new skyline of Bombay with

Figure 100: Recreational spaces of the elite

56

urban and rural in conjunction.

• The recreational spaces in these high-rise buildings usually had the sea as a vantage point.

Part B: Open Spaces of Bombay- UNDERBRIDGE LIVING

57

Connection Underbridge Living

Figure 102: Section through the street

Tertiary street

Bridge

Secondary Street

House for elite

Figure 107: Imagined plan for the space

Street

Connectivity

Street

Landscape Observations:

Cinematic Observations:

• The very layout of these spaces of living stimulate

• The protagonists live under the bridge when

the characteristics of visual connect. The space

they first shift to Bombay denoting the mother’s

under the bridge undergoes an adaptive re-use to

unemployment and lack of money to find a shelter.

provide shelter to the poor and homeless.

At some level ‘living under a bridge’ also signifies that the protagonists were hiding their past and

• The streets act as spill-over space for household

identity from the people.

activities as well as space for trade during the day time.

• The scene shows the urban disparity between the elites & the downtrodden / those coming from

• All the ‘dwellings’ are observed to be facing

rural areas.

each other which open up to the street. Elderly Figure 103: Living space of the poor

Figure 104: Tertiary street - a space for daily chores

occupants of the ‘bridge’ prefer using these streets

• The development of spaces like these for living

as breakout spaces thought the day.

may be attributed to the fact that there was a requirement for mass and low cost housings

• Children playing, visitors entering the building

typology in a growing city like Mumbai. A

are under the elderly surveillance, thus making

singular space acts as an entire household cum

the place alive and safe always.

neighbourhood, losing sense of privacy, & the feeling of being intruded by outsiders from time to time.

Figure 105: Multiple families living in the same space

Figure 106: Middle class housing

58

• It also shows a lack of basic amenities (housing, food , water)

Part B: Open Spaces of Bombay- TRADE ON STREETS

Walkway

Walkway

Nukkad House for elite

Road

House for elite

Figure 111: Imagined plan for the space Nukkad

Walkway

Road

Figure 108: Section through the street

Landscape Observations:

Cinematic Observations:

• Wide walkways between the road and the living

• The streets of Deewar actively participate with the

areas allow the space to be used for trade to

lives of people. They provide space for livelihood

happen.

as well as active recreation.

• The walkways are flanked by avenue of trees

• The street - a seemingly democratic space is

which makes it easier for commerce. These main

turned into a power show the haves and the

streets see different classes of people throughout

have-nots are shown in a power sequence with

the day.

background of the then modern & upcoming Bombay.

Figure 109: Streets as a space for trade

Figure 110: Nukkad

• A busy street also gives rise to ‘nukkads’. It is a term used for a less prominent junction or a space which connects the smaller streets to the larger ones. These street corners usually have a teastall with newspaper stand or spaces created on the street or under a tree. This is meant to be a common recreational niche between public and

59

the private areas.

60

61

Part B: Open Spaces of Bombay- DOCKS

Figures 112 / 113 / 114: Bombay docks

Part B: Open Spaces of Bombay- TEMPLE

Figure 115: Temple precinct

Landscape Observations:

Cinematic Observations:

Landscape Observations:

Cinematic Observations:

• The ships and warehouses make a tall volume of

• The scene shows a modern Indian that is run on

• The high fence of trees maintains the privacy of

• A religious segregation can be noted in the chawl

space for the workers. There is a certain sense of

the shoulders of the downtrodden.

the residents while giving a sense of porosity to

development.

enclosure marked due to these heavy machinery marking the onset of industrialisation.

the edge of the pavement.

•

Dockyards

and

warehouses

provided

• A place of worship can be found at a prominent

employment to the poor migrants. These spaces

• The dense canopy of trees is an extremely

place and centrally located which allows ease of

were usually spaces of confrontation and conflicts

inviting feature and the temple sit between these

its use. Such areas are suitable background for

marking the insecurities in the lives of these

canopies.

celebrating festivals and cultural functions.

workers.

• The temple here is located on a higher plinth so as to symbolise the authority of religion over the residents.

62

63

64

Apartments and High rise looking over the sea Emerging chawl typology

Urbanity of Bombay Docks

Migrants as workers

Recreational space for the elite looking over the sea

Trade on streets

Shared living space

Figure 116: Open Spaces of Deewar - A montage

Part C: Film Conclusion Narratives in popular Indian films have conflicts

The bridge where Raju and Vidya in Shree 420 sing

The symbols of ‘modernity’ of the 1950s like that

dense and crowded and recreational spaces were

at their core: between the old and the young,

the song ‘Pyar Hua Iqraar Hua’ can be imagined to

of the trains and rail lines transform into sites of

concentrated collectively into those like swimming

the rich and the poor, tradition and modernity.

resemble the bridge under which Ravi and Vijay

action and conflict. The workers, unions and the

pools and clubs. Single level residences were

Cultural and social identities are interrelated and

of Deewar grow up. The streets of Shree 420 set

docks emerge as new players and spaces in the

replaced by tiny and cramped cubicles to house the

these have been portrayed in the popular Hindi

the base for homelessness, labour and a space for

1970s that define the industrial Bombay. It could

many that migrated in everyday. Streets became

cinema. They often also include a strong notion

trade to happen. Deewar takes the narrative from

be rightly said that it was the landscape which

narrower, courtyards were lost, land cleared and

of ‘utopia’, particularly in the resolution of the

there and represents the streets, docks and the

caused these conflicts. Both the films here were

land made for new settlements. Temples also

conflict they offer. The landscape (or the setting)

sea as an active part in the lives of such migrants

a representation of ideas that were happening

became places for religious ’theatre’. They were

of the film the director uses becomes one of the

who move to the city in search of livelihood.

during that era.

public places without (almost) any restriction,

elements to represent this conflict.

The division between the rich and poor is more

The social transitions happening in the city

shared places for the community. (Godbole 54)

Both Deewar and Shree 420, at their core, examine

visible. Unlike Shree 420, where the poor were

influenced the nature of open spaces. The ‘new

The promenade at Marine Drive and Chowpatty

the incongruities of independent India and use

far more optimistic about the city, the poor in

elite’ as they rose above the ‘common’, focused

still remained as a recreational space for common

spaces/landscapes to unfold the ‘master narrative’

Deewar are struggling to survive. Homelessness

on the ‘elitist’ ways within ‘sophisticated’ spaces.

people.

– the footpath, the bridge and the housing projects.

changes to unsympathetic life on the footpath.

Areas that were sparsely populated became

66

¨

Chapter tHREE THREE CONCLUSION

From this, I conclude the following three notions of landscape in Hindi cinema.

1. Landscapes can be created for cinema:

T

hrough my research, I have argued that

responding to the quality and sense of landscape.

the usage of spaces and portrayal of places

Meanings of landscapes can be acknowledged by

in cinema reflects the prevailing culture,

identifying landscape as a metaphor.

ethics, and society.

Cinema also makes the observer interact with the social space that it seeks to depict. The observer,

Studying

the

use

and

representation

of

as a flaneur, responds to the style of landscape and

landscapes in paintings and theatre gave me an

changes in the physicality of space. This is when

understanding of how spatial experiences could

landscape, like a character, is an active participant

be communicated. Based on this, I synthesised

in the cinematic space. The thesis researches

various identities of landscape in Hindi cinema:

the same by considering different environments

place, space, spectacle, character and metaphor.

used for cinematic representation – rural, urban,

Landscape as space and place suggest the process

ecological, and human-centric to name a few. I

of looking at the image-ability and identity of

investigate the urban landscape by examining

landscapes. Landscapes have been used for

the city of Bombay as seen in Hindi Cinema. My

narration by turning a place to space. This can

research finds that films have not only used the

be represented by conveying landscape as a

landscape as a setting, but it also has reflected our

spectacle and/or metaphor. When landscape is

changing attitudes towards life.

a. Through sets that draw

inspirations from the real world

(Pather Panchali) or are completely

imaginative(Saawariya).

b. Through computer aided

generation (Baahubali)

2. The use of landscape could either be realistic (Satya) or depict fantasy (Hum Aapke Hai Kaun) and would solely depend upon the filmmaker’s vision and the genre of the film. This can also be done through dislocation of landscapes (Kabhi Khushi Kabhi Gham).

3. The perceptions of landscapes of the observer depend upon the above mentioned points and there are the following possibilities in perceiving such landscapes:

a. Landscape as an appropriation of

images in the lived environment

b. Desire to live in a space as

projected in cinema

c. Aspiration of visiting the

landscape shown in cinema

used as spectacle in cinema, the observer starts

65

Landscape is central in formation of Hindi (any) cinematic spaces and the impact of cinema on the audience can structure social, cultural, and environmental experiences.

EPILOGUE

Considering this as a base and looking back on my research process, I learnt the following. a. Landscapes surround –They permit movement and exploration of the situation and force the observer to become a participant. b. Landscapes could provide information through multiple senses and are

A

perceived simultaneously.

s a landscape architect , I was deeply interested in how landscapes could be

c. Landscapes provide peripheral as well as central information.

perceived through and from the cinematic

Information is received from behind the participant as well as from in front,

medium. Today, when ‘Bollywood’ – the tongue-

from outside the focus of attention as well as within.

in-cheek term for Hindi cinema is questioned for its cinematic quality, I argue that Hindi

d. Landscapes provide more information than can be used. They

cinema provided a rich database for landscape

can simultaneously provide redundant, inadequate, ambiguous, and

perception and representation. Looking at cinema

contradictory information.

is important since it is one of the most powerful ways of transmitting images. While there is a lot

e. Landscape perception always involves action. Landscapes cannot be

of existing literature on landscape perception,

passively observed, they provide opportunities for action, organisation and

Ittelson (1973) drew three general conclusions

manipulation.

for landscape perception in his seminar titled ‘Environment and Cognition’ which could be taken

f. Landscapes provide symbolic meanings and messages that can call forth

into consideration for cinematic perception.

purposeful actions.

1. “perceiving is relatively free from direct control of the stimulus”

g. Landscapes always have an ambience. They are always encountered as

2. “it is inseparably linked to, and indeed indistinguishable from, other

part of a social activity and have a definite aesthetic quality.

aspects of psychological functioning” 3. “perceiving is relevant and appropriate to the environmental context in

h. Landscapes separate – They look at compositional qualities of the

which it occurs”

physical space and thus define the social space.

The first four points were derived from the

The intent of this research was to identify various

existing perception theories and have always

paradigms of landscape in Hindi cinema. The

been a part of research.

The last four points

research proposes that just like painting, literature

on action, meaning, ambience and separation

and theatre, one should also look at cinema to

could be considered as additions for landscape

decipher meanings of landscape since it could

perceptions

possibly fill the voids present in landscape theory.

since

they

address

products.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Aitken, Stuart, and Leo Zonn. “Re-Presenting the Place Pastiche.” Place, power, situation and spectacle: A geography of film (1994): 3-25. Print.

2. Appleton, J (I975) The experience of landscape, London: Wiley 3. Baker, Alan RH, and Gideon Biger. Ideology and Landscape in Historical Perspective: Essays on the Meanings of some Places in the Past. 18 Vol. Cambridge University Press, 2006. Print.

4. Barber, Stephen.Projected cities: cinema and urban space. ReaktionBooks, 2002.

5. Baudrillard, Jean.Simulacra and simulation. University of Michigan press, 1994.

6. Bois, Yves-Alain, and M. Glenny. “Montage and Architecture Sergei M. Eisenstein.” Assemblage 10 (1989): 110-31. Print.

7. Bruno, Giuliana. “Site-seeing: architecture and the moving image.”Wide Angle19.4 (1997): 8-24.

8. Cairns, Graham. “Crossing the boundaries of film and architectural pedagogy.”Journal of Pedagogic Development2.2 (2012).

9. Corner, James. “Representation and Landscape: Drawing and Making in the

14. Francis, Mark, and Randolph T. Hester.The meaning of gardens: Idea, place, and action. MitPress, 1990.

15. Ganti, Tejaswini. Bollywood: A Guidebook to Popular Hindi Cinema.

Routledge, 2013. Print.

16. Gargi, Balwant.Theatre in India. Theatre arts books, 1962.

17. Godbole, Nandita. “PUBLIC OPEN SPACES AND GROWTH: BOMBAY/ MUMBAI”. City, Space Globalization: An International Perspective: Proceedings of an International Symposium, College of Architecture and Urban Planning, the University of Michigan, February 26-28, 1998. College of , 1998. 54. Print.

18. Helphand, Kenneth I. “Landscape films.”Landscape Journal5.1 (1986): 1-8.

19. Higson, Andrew. “Space, place, spectacle.”Screen25.4-5 (1984): 2-21.

20. Ittelson, William H. “Environment and Cognition.”.Seminar Press , 1973.

Print.

21. Jackson, John Brinkerhoff. “Landscape as theater.”Landscape23.1 (1979): 3-7.

22. Jackson, John Brinckerhoff. The Necessity for Ruins, and Other Topics. Univ of Massachusetts Press, 1980. Print.

Landscape Medium.” Word & Image 8.3 (1992): 243-75. Print.

23. Kaarsholm, Preben. Unreal City. Seagull Books, 2004. Print.

10. Cosgrove, Denis, and Stephen Daniels. The Iconography of Landscape:

24. Kennedy, Christina, and Christopher Lukinbeal. “Towards a holistic

Essays on the Symbolic Representation, Design and use of Past Environments. 9 Vol. Cambridge University Press, 1988. Print.

11. Cosgrove, Denis. “Prospect, Perspective and the Evolution of the Landscape Idea.” Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers (1985): 45-62.

Print.

12. Dwyer, Rachel. “Bollywood’sIndia: Hindi cinema as a guide to modern india.”Asian Affairs41.3 (2010): 381-398.

13. Elliott, Emory, Jasmine Payne, and Patricia Ploesch. Global Migration, Social Change, and Cultural Transformation. Springer, 2007. Print.

approach to geographic research on film.”Progress in Human Geography21.1 (1997): 33-50.

25. Kern, Stephen. The Culture of Time and Space, 1880-1918: With a New Preface. Harvard University Press, 2003. Print.

26. Khan, Shahnaz. “Recovering the past in JodhaaAkbar: Masculinities, femininities and cultural politics in Bombay cinema.”feminist review99.1 (2011): 131-146.

27. Knowles, J. Gary, and Ardra L. Cole. Handbook of the Arts in Qualitative Research: Perspectives, Methodologies, Examples, and Issues. Sage, 2008. Print.

28. Lefebvre, Martin. “On Landscape in Narrative Cinema.” Revue canadienne

40. Rajadhyaksha, Ashish. “Neo-Traditionalism-Film as Popular Art in India.”

d’études cinématographiques/Canadian Journal of Film Studies (2011): 61-78.

Framework.32 (1986): 20. Print.

Print.

41. Rayner, Jonathan, and Graham Harper, eds.Film landscapes: cinema, 29. Lowenthal, David. “GEOGRAPHY, EXPERIENCE, AND IMAGINATION:

environment and visual culture. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2014.

TOWARDS A GEOGRAPHICAL EPISTEMOLOGY 1.”Annals of the association of americangeographers51.3 (1961): 241-260.

42. Roberge, Gaston.The subject of Cinema. South Asia Books, 1990.

30. Lukinbeal, Chris. “Cinematic Landscapes.” Journal of Cultural Geography

43. Richardson, Tim, and Ole B. Jensen. “Linking discourse and space:

23.1 (2005): 3-22. Print.

Towards a cultural sociology of space in analysing spatial policy discourses.”Urban Studies40.1 (2003): 7-22.

31. Mcgreevy, P. THE ICONOGRAPHY OF LANDSCAPE - ESSAYS ON THE SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION, DESIGN, AND USE OF PAST ENVIRONMENTS - COSGROVE,D,

44. Sharpe, Jenny. “Gender, Nation, and Globalization in Monsoon Wedding

DANIELS,S. 79 Vol. , 1989. Print.

and DilwaleDulhaniaLe Jayenge.”Global Migration, Social Change, and Cultural Transformation. Palgrave Macmillan US, 2007. 37-57.

32. Mehta, Monika. “Globalizing Bombay cinema: Reproducing the Indian state and family.”Cultural Dynamics17.2 (2005): 135-154.

45. Soja, Edward W. Postmodern Geographies: The Reassertion of Space in Critical Social Theory. Verso, 1989. Print.

33. Metcalf, Barbara D., and Thomas R. Metcalf.A concise history of modern India. Cambridge University Press, 2006.

46. Steele, Fritz. The Sense of Place. Cbi Pub Co, 1981. Print.

34. Meinig, Donald W. “The Beholding Eye: Ten Versions of the Same Scene.”

47. Stephenson, Ralph, and Jean R. Debrix.The cinema as art. Penguin (Non-

The interpretation of ordinary landscapes: Geographical essays (1979): 33-48.

Classics), 1976.

Print.

48. Zube, Ervin H., James L. Sell, and Jonathan G. Taylor. “Landscape 35. Monaco, James. How to Read a Film: The World of Movies, Media, and

Perception: Research, Application and Theory.” Landscape planning 9.1

Multimedia: Language, History, Theory. Oxford University Press, USA, 2000.

(1982): 1-33. Print.

Print.

36. Parker, Joshua, LucieTunkrová, and Mohamed Bakari, eds.

Metamorphosis and Place. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009.

37. Pick, Zuzana. “Cinema as Sign and Language.”CTheory5.1-2 (1981): 199207.

38. Prakash, Gyan.Mumbai fables. Princeton University Press, 2010.

39. Prasad, Madhava. “Realism and Fantasy in Representations of Metropolitan Life in Indian Cinema.” City flicks: Indian cinema and the urban experience.22 (2004): 83. Print.

Digital source Source digital

FILMOGRAPHY Filmography

1. https://uiowa.edu/indiancinema/shri-420

1. Ankur. Dir. Shyam Benegal. Blaze Film Enterprises, 1974.

2. http://shekhar.cc/1998/12/11/shri-420/http://bollywood-andbeyond.blogspot.in

2. Awaara. Dir. Raj Kapoor. R.K. Films, 1951.

3. http://www.gardenvisit.com/gardens/anguri_bagh_grape_garden

3. Baahubali: The Beginning. Dir. S. S. Rajamouli. Arka Productions, Dharma Productions, 2015.

4. https://historicalgardenasfilmset.wordpress.com

4. Deewar. Dir. Yash Chopra. Trimurti Films Pvt. Ltd., 1975.

5. https://uiowa.edu/indiancinema/awara

5. Dharavi. Dir. Sudhir Mishra. NFDC-Doordarshan, 1993.

6. http://www.holidify.com/blog/books-on-indian-landscapes/

6. Dilwale Dulhaniya Le Jayenge. Dir. Aditya Chopra. Yash Raj Films, 1995.

7. Highway. Dir. Imtiaz Ali. UTV Motion Pictures, 2014.

8. Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam. Dir. Sanjay Leela Bhansali. SLB Films, 1999.

9. Kaala Patthar. Dir. YashChopra. YashRaj Films, 1979.

10. Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham. Dir. Karan Johar. Dharma Productions, 2001.

11. Lagaan. Dir. Ashutosh Gowariker. Sony Entertainment Television, 2001.

12. Lootera. Dir. Vikramaditya Motwane. Balaji Motion Picture, 2013.

13. Manhattan. Dir. Woody Allen. United Artist, 1979.

14. Manthan. Dir. Shyam Benegal. Gujarat Co-operative Milk Marketing Federation Ltd., 1976.

15. Mohenjo Daro. Dir. Ashutosh Gowariker. UTV Motion Pictures, 2016.

16. Mughal-e-Azam. Dir. K. Asif. Sterling Investment Corporation, 1960.

17. Nanook of the North. Dir. Robert Flaherty. Pathe Exchange, 1922.

18. Raja Harishchandra. Dir. Dadasaheb Phalke. Phalke’s Films, 1913.

19. Rang De Basanti. Dir. Rakeysh Omprakash Mehra. UTV Motion Pictures, 2006.

20. Salaam Bombay!. Dir. Mira Nair. Cinecom Pictures, 1988.

21. Shree 420. Dir. Raj Kapoor. R.K. Films, 1955.

22. Swades. Dir. Ashutosh Gowariker. UTV Motion Pictures, 2004.

23. Veer Zaara. Dir. Yash Chopra. Yash Raj Films, 2004.

LIST OF FIGURES Preface: Figure 1: Spectrum of arts for landscape representation Source: Author Chapter One: Landscape and Cinema (2) Figure 2: Rock paintings of Bhimbetka - Detail Source: http://www.wondermondo.com/Countries/As/India/MadhyaPradesh/ Bhimbetka.htm Figure 3: Rock as a canvas depicting everyday life Source: http://www.wondermondo.com/Best/As/IndMedCavePaint.htm Figure 4: A scene of palatial garden, Ajanta Caves Source: http://www.gardenvisit.com/gardens/ajanta_caves_gardens Figure 5: A scene of Jataka tale, Ajanta Caves

Figure 16: Without the backdrop, Ramlila Source: Author Figure 17: : Different backdrop, Ramlila Source: https://i.ytimg.com/vi/ Figure 18: Different set- same scene, Ramlila Source: http://media-cdn.list.ly/production/ Figure 19: Raja Harishchandra scene, Painting Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Harishchandra_ by_RRV.jpg Figure 20: Raja Harishchandra scene, Painting Source: https://i.ytimg.com/vi/D1YmOHwG-qg/hqdefault.jpg Figure 21: Raja Harishchandra scene Source: Raja Harishchandra, Film Figure 22: Raja Harishchandra scene w/o backdrop Source: Author

Source: http://www.gardenvisit.com/gardens/ajanta_caves_gardens Figure 6: Babur altering the landscape Source: https://archive.org/stream/baburnamaImages Figure 7: Charbaug plumbing Source: https://archive.org/stream/baburnamaImages Figure 8: Charbaug planting Source: https://archive.org/stream/baburnamaImages Figure 9: Rasleela Source: https://lordkrishna-handicrafts.com/product/rasleela-pichwaipainting/#sthash.QCsJQRui.dpuf Figure 10: Mata ni Pachedi Source: http://thegujaratblog.blogspot.in/2013/09/mata-ni-pachedi-gujaratssacred-fabric.html Figure 11: Backdrop of the extant, Delphi Source: http://ancient-greece.org/architecture/delphi-theater.html Figure 12: Without the backdrop, Delphi Source: Author Figure 13: Fictional backdrop, Shakuntala Source: http://adventurecrew.co.in/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/IMG_9710-7. jpg Figure 14: Without the backdrop, Shakuntala Source: Author Figure 15: Fictional landscape backdrop, Ramlila Source: https://i.ytimg.com/vi/b6EqHOG8YwA/maxresdefault.jpg

Chapter Two: Cinematic Landscapes Landscape as Place Source: Dilwale Dulhaniya Le Jaayenge, Film (14) Figure 23: Baldev strolling through English gardens Figure 24: The Big Ben Figure 25: Baldev feeding birds, Mustard fields, India Figure 26: Baldev feeding birds, Trafalgar Square Figure 27: Buckingham Palace Figure 28: Baldev crossing a bridge in London Landscape as Spectacle Source: DIlwale Dulhaniya Le Jaayenge, Film (16) Figure 29: Pastoral landscape of Switzerland Figure 30: Protagonist standing on a bridge of Switzerland Figure 31: Protagonists sitting at the ede of a lake in Switzerland Figure 32: Pastoral landscape of Switzerland Figure 33: Pastoral landscape of Punjab Figure 34: Mustard fields of Punjab Figure 35: Protagonist and Baldev feeding pigeons in the fields of Punjab Figure 36: Pastoral landscape of Punjab

Landscape as Space -

Figure 64: Section through the node

Source: Ankur, Film (18)

Source: Author

Figure 37: Tribal group traversing through the bleak landscape

Figure 65: Small scale shops for trade

Figure 38: Landscape of power

Figure 66: Street vendor

Figure 39: Channelizing water through the field

Figure 67: Living on the footpath

Figure 40: Landscape as a backdrop

Figure 68: A space for private meetings

Figure 41: Harvesting season

Figure 69: Imagined plan for the space

Figure 42: Landscape as a space

Source: Author Figure 70: Elevation of the chawl

Landscape as Character -

Figure 71: Backdrop of ‘village’ settlement

Source: Awara, Film (20)

Figure 72: Verandah of a chawl-home

Figure 43: Poor infrastructure of streets

Figure 73: Courtyard - A multifunctional space

Figure 44: Street as a space for meeting

Figure 74: Layout of the open space in a chawl

Figure 45: Streets of the elite

Figure 75: Imagined plan for the chawl

Figure 46: Poor living conditions of the people

Source: Author Figure 76: Beach as a public space

Landscape as Metaphor -

Figure 77: Aerial view of the space

Source: Mughal-e-Azam, Film (22)

Figure 78: A space for political interaction

Figure 47: Garden as metaphor for romance

Figure 79: Imagined plan for the sea

Figure 48: Constructed garden inspired from Mughal layouts

Source: Author

Figure 49: Garden as metaphor for romance

Figure 80: Palm and other plantation backdrop of the beach

Figure 50: Constructed garden inspired from Mughal layouts

Figure 81: Houses and fortified wall overlooking the sea Figure 82: Group of girls having a dip in the sea

Nationalist Bombay of the 1950s: Shree 420 (27)

Figure 83: Children making sand art

Source: Shree 420, Film (unless specified)

Figure 84: Open Spaces of Shree 420 - A montage

Figure 51: Shree 420 film poster

Source: Author

Source: https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/cd/42/ff/ cd42ff364bdc8dc17824d55b58d7a1e3.jpg

Industrialist Bombay of the 1970s: Deewar (45)

Figure 52: Traversing through the rural landscape

Source: Deewar, Film (unless specified)

Figure 53: Traversing through the desert

Figure 85: Deewar film poster

Figure 54: Montage of rural and urban life

Source: https://learningandcreativity.com/silhouette/wp-content/uploads/

Figure 55: First impression of the city

sites/3/2014/04/Deewar2.jpg

Figure 56: Living on the footpath

Figure 86: Calendar photo of Marine Drive as Utopia

Figure 57: Courtyard as a multifunctional space

Figure 87: Aerial view of Marine Drive

Figure 58: Beach as a space for demonstration

Figure 88: Living under a bridge due to poverty

Figure 59: Street as a space for private meetings

Figure 89: Street adjoining the bridge

Figure 60: Architecture of the elite

Figure 90: Service on streets by underage children

Figure 61: Negative aspect of urbanisation

Figure 91: Trade on streets - Nukkad

Figure 62: ‘Wadi’ settlement as a backdrop

Figure 92: Metaphor of industrialisation

Figure 63: Interiors of a house of the rich

Figure 93: Migrants as workers of Bombay docks

Figure 94: Emerging chawl typology Figure 95: Backbay reclamation Figure 96: Open space of the privileged Figure 97: Bridge as a metaphor of root Figure 98: Marine Drive Source: Author Figure 99: Walkway Source: Author Figure 100: Recreational spaces of the elite Figure 101: Imagined plan for the space Source: Author Figure 102: Section through the street Source: Author Figure 103: Living space of the poor Figure 104: Tertiary street - a space for daily chores Figure 105: Multiple families living in the same space Figure 106: Middle class housing Figure 107: Imagined plan for the space Source: Author Figure 108: Section through the street Figure 109: Streets as a space for trade Figure 110: Nukkad Figure 111: Imagined plan for the space Figure 112: Bombay Docks Figure 113: Bombay Docks Figure 114: Bombay Docks Figure 115: Temple precinct Figure 116: Open Spaces of Deewar - A montage Source: Author