DSP 2014-2015 Dissertations

Class of 2014 Distinguished Scholars Program Dissertations

2700 West Sam Houston Parkway North Houston, Texas 77043 www.houstonchristian.org

Table of Contents Catherine-Ann Stirling Cater The Applications of Encryption and the Security of Information...........................................................................5

Kevin K. Chin The Risks, Costs, and Ethics of the Pursuit of Genetic Therapy in the Healing and Enhancement of the Human Body............................................................................................................................ 21 Charles C. Duffy

The History, Influence, and Symbiotic Relationship of Religion in America ..................................................41 William A. Hendricks

Literary Patterns of Time Travel and Their Quantum Mechanics......................................................................59 Stephen Charles Hirschbuehler

Rome and America: Similarities of Decline and Evaluation of Comparison...................................................77

Erica Swain

Generational Differences and their Effects on Communication in the Workplace.......................................95

The Applications of Encryption and the Security of Information Catherine-Ann Stirling Cater

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Table of Contents

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Encryption and Security of Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 The Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Uses in History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Review of Related Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Security of Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Effective Encryption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Transmission of Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Clipper Chip System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Decryption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 SEPP Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Personal Identification Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Participants & Sampling Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Research Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Experimental Instrumentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Data Collections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Data Analysis Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Ethical Consideration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Findings and Observations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Remaining Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Biblical Connection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Appendix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Summary of Responses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

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Abstract

The researcher examined the applications of encryption and the security of information.

After researching the history of encryption and RSA, the current method used, the researcher wanted to look into Personal Identification Numbers because of their use in protecting personal information. The research took a convenience sample of PIN numbers and tested the null hypothesis, “There are no common PIN numbers.” The researcher found statistically significant evidence to reject this null hypothesis and accept the alternate hypothesis, “There are common PIN numbers.” After researching PIN numbers, the researcher looked into government spying the possibility of “Big Brother.” There are more cameras and even a government facility in Utah with the capability of breaking any encryption. With this ability, information is no longer private and the use of encryption is futile.

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Encryption and Security of Information

Cryptography, although an ancient art, remains vital in keeping information secure in today’s world. From the beginnings of civilizations, messages have needed to be sent and have been sent; some of these messages needed to be kept secret. The need for private communication has been observed through history and currently provides protection to information (Jacobsmeyer, 2007). Keeping messages and information secret is crucial. Without secrecy, the wrong information could end up in the wrong set of hands. A process called cryptography helps keep information undisclosed.

Without cryptology, messages could not be easily transmitted in secret.

Cryptology is the science and practice of encoding data in order for the message to only be read by the specific intended individuals (Mikusch, 2005). The modern uses of cryptography are based on algorithms in order to scramble the message into what looks like gibberish (Columbia University, 2011). Cryptology comes from the Greek words kryptós meaning hidden and lógos meaning word (Cryptology, n.d.). Historically speaking, military officials and rulers generally only used this process; however, currently, this process protects all information on electronics to keep information secure (Columbia University, 2011). Cryptography is a process without which information could not be secured.

The Process The process of cryptography is not as complex, as it may seem. The original message or plaintext is written (Teitelbaum, n.d.b). This message is then encrypted using a method of the sender’s choosing (Teitelbaum, n.d.a).

The message is sent and then received by the other party; the message is decrypted and returned back to the plaintext and read (Teitelbaum, n.d.b). There are many different ways to encrypt a message. Some ways include substitution where every letter becomes a different letter, symbol, or number with a key or pattern to decrypt it, and transposition where consecutive letters are reversed with a key to decrypt (Teitelbaum, n.d.a).

The process of cryptography is essential in protecting and securing messages and information.

Uses in History This process of cryptography has been used throughout many ages civilizations. Although not exactly cryptography, the Greeks did transmit secret messages. Stenography encodes messages that can still be seen but not decoded without the key (O’Neal, 2008). This was used for military communications if there was worry that the message would fall into enemy hands (O’Neal, 2008). For example, a message is written on a board, covered with wax, and appears as an unused wax tablet but the message can be found if the wax is removed; a message tattooed on a slave’s head, hair grew out, sent to recipient who shave the slave’s head and received the message (O’Neal, 2008). The Greeks were able to develop steganography as a way to protect information. However, they were not alone in keeping messages secret.

The Romans used cryptography to keep their messages secret. Julius Caesar used a mono-alphabetic substitution cipher throughout his military career (Mikucsh, 2005). These messages were encrypted by the replacement of a letter of the alphabet with another letter a set distance from the original letter (Mikucsh, 2005). Although the Romans used a fairly simple form of cryptography to encrypt their messages, the Arabs started learning how to decrypt messages. Using the process of cryptanalysis, they analyzed the frequency of letters in a code to determine the plaintext (Teitelbaum, n.d.a). The use of cryptography became widely used by the early 1300s as countries would send their ambassadors messages (Teitelbaum, n.d.a).

The use of cryptography can be seen through the centuries and different cultures.

11 Cryptography currently affects the world. It is the way information is kept secure. However, this process still not completely secure. Using cryptanalysis, cipher texts can be broken. The need for using cryptography has existed since man needed to keep information and messages safe.

Man still has the need to keep messages safe. This leads to the question: Is information safe using encryption, and what, if any, are the flaws in this system?

Review of Related Literature Keeping information safe is far more than sending a coded message; it is protecting personal and secure information from outside eyes. Although theories remain the same, the use of cryptography is widely used and embedded in all electronics (Mikusch, 2005). Any breech to a secure system can be a threat to national security (Cryptography, 2005). Even though encryption is thought to keep information safe, a method called wiretapping can be used to gain information from a source (Cryptography, 2005). There is an endless source of information and the security and protection of it can never be truly guaranteed.

Security of Information Security of information is becoming more important than ever and more discussed than ever. Security is a critical factor in every situation and not just a throw away item (Miller, 2006). Everything from a smartphone to hospital systems, a gaming system to the local Automatic Teller Machine (ATM) all have a level of encryption that is vital to keeping information secure (Conn, 2013). With a vast majority of electronics going wireless, the need for encryption is crucial and without it, information is leaked, stolen, or lost (Miller, 2006). Without security and encryption, the world would be a very different place.

Effective Encryption Information not only needs to be secured at a certain point, as in at the sender and receiver, but along the entire process including en route of transmission. Data can be encrypted in transmission or at rest, or the information is encrypted or the transmission line is secured; however, the use of both of these is expensive, slow, and usually not essential in protecting data (Miller, 2006). The key to effective encryption is its structure and organization (Miller, 2006). Most Internet systems have a digital key to encrypt and decrypt simply; although efficient and easy, this is not as secure as a more complex key as a symmetric key (Cryptography, 2005). With a simpler key, encryption and decryption is efficient, but no necessarily secure; on the other hand, a more complex key is not as efficient to encrypt and decrypt but is more secure.

Even over “non-secure” lines, a somewhat secure form of communication can be established. By using a public-key encryption, data can be securely shared over an insecure computer or storage server (Doneh, Sahai & Waters, 2012). This is a valuable method of securing communication lines of Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS), Secure Shell (SSH), voice traffic, and other additional confidential files (Doneh, Sahai & Waters, 2012). Communicating and being able to send data securely is not just limited to individuals but is being used more and more by companies.

The two main types of encryption are the Transparent Data Encryption (TDE) and third-party enterprise encryption (Kamaraju, 2011). These encryptions include broad platform support, scalability, and transparency (Kamaraju, 2011). Only users with a specific decryption key can access the encrypted data (Doneh, Sahai & Waters, 2012). Adding another level of encryption can help secure communication and data even further.

Transmission of Data Encryption can apply to many forms of data including video data

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transmissions over the Internet. One of the major problems with this is the enormous amount of data; however, the video data can be compressed to speed along the transmission process (Singh & Manimegalai, 2011).

By using heavyweight and lightweight encryption algorithms, the video data is transferred in a more secure fashion (Singh & Manimegalai, 2011).

Heavyweight encryption is more secure but cannot process large amounts and not process efficiently because this process takes much more time; the other alternative, lightweight encryption algorithms take less time to encrypt and can be used with most wireless devices (Singh & Manimegalai, 2011). Even video data encryption is important and complex.

Clipper Chip System The protection of sensitive documents has grown around the computer era.

Although security is important, accessibility is usually more important; in other words, encryption is a great thing, but without decryption, the information is useless (Mikusch, 2005). The Clipper Chip System was embedded in all electronics and allows decryption of data to those who have the key such as law enforcement officials and federal agents (Cryptography, 2005). With a master decoder such as this, no information is truly safe.

No matter how complex the key, every encryption can be decrypted if given enough time to do so. The Internet has grown and so has the security of information, but there is a big lapse in security mostly due to poor design and structure of systems meant to fail (Anderson & Moore, 2009).

With the Clipper Chip System, officials can access all seemingly personal information on electronics at any time (Scalera, 1995). If there is a way to access this seemingly secure information, there is a decryption that can be accessed easily.

Decryption The idea of cryptography is to encode a message to prevent anyone but the intended recipient of being able to read it and the intended recipient being able to decode and read the message. The process of encryption allows for decryption; therefore, no method of encryption is absolutely unbreakable (Cryptography, 2005). It may take time, but it is possible to break every encryption even the most complex ones (Cryptography, 2005). Even the most secure codes have a key, and without a key, there is no point to the cipher text (Miller, 2006). Dependence on storage and retrieval of data is pertinent and cannot be lost; without a key, this information would be lost into a meaningless text (Zviran & Haga, 1999). Information is key, as is what is in place to protect it.

Even though cipher analysis can decode encoded materials, this is not the only way personal and secure information gets into the wrong hands. Most of the time, fraudsters set up fake websites luring people to divulge their person data (Anderson & Moore, 2009). Almost all identity theft cases begin online over a transaction or a scam (Griffith, 2009). With more and more personal information online, predators target those who may not know or understand protocols on the Internet such as the elderly, immigrants, or mentally impaired (Griffith, 2009). Even with seemingly uncrackable encryptions, human error is a result of most breeches in the security of personal information (Scalera, 1995).

The whole world has seemingly come online and so has the personal information of individuals, secure documents of governments, and the random blog of a neighbor (Griffith, 2009). Information searched is stored and used by marketers and scam artists to lure in customers (Griffith, 2009). Although the Internet is a seemingly secure place, this is a false reality many people believe to be true (Anderson & Moore, 2009). There is no such thing as privacy on the Internet, and with no truly unbreakable encryption, there never will be (Griffith, 2009). Privacy preserving remains a challenge (Han, 2012). This being said, every encryption can be broken.

12 Just because every encryption can be broken does not mean some are more difficult to break than others. One of the most advanced, secure, and efficient encryptions is the Chaotic-based Block Encryption Cipher (CBBEC), a symmetric encryption designed with the potential for having increased security and performance (Faragallah, 2011). The key to CBBEC is the hybrid mixture of chaos theory and cryptography (Faragallah, 2011).

By using eight working registers that provide the capability to handle 256bits plaintext and ciphertext block sizes (Faragallah, 2011). By using more working registers increases the diffusion reached each round; therefore, there is greater security (Faragallah, 2011). Most recent tests have shown that CBBEC as it is proposed as a fast block cipher has great potential in realistic encryption applications (Faragallah, 2011). Although this is one of the leading theories in non-decryptable decryption, it is not the only one.

Sometimes encryptions need to be applied with a different technique.

For example, a recent novel hybrid attribute-based encryption allows for encryption under logical combinations of attributes; this hybrid combines Ciphertext-policy Attribute-Based Encryption (CP-ABE) and Locationbased Encryption (LBE) at the level of symmetric keys (Weber, 2012). By the combination of attributes, properties that users satisfy are sorted and processed (Weber, 2012). This type of encryption can handle efficiently dynamic attributes as well as continuous values (Weber, 2012). Although not every encryption is perfect, many hybrids are making there way into the encryption world and are making decryption just a bit more difficult.

SEPP Connection Encryption impacts the world in an enormous way. Socially people trust in an encryption system that will protect personal information (Moore, 1995). The disclosure of any sensitive, personal information is critical and can result in fraud, identity theft, and misuse of information (Congressional Testimony, 2012). This causes major problems for the person whose personal information was accessed. Keeping personal information personal is a key impacted socially using encryption. Many people go to greater lengths to make sure their personal information is surely secured and no unauthorized access is gained (Moore, 1995). In order to keep information secure, encryption methods have become much more complex and boosted to a much higher level than before was possible (Britt, 2005). This means the methods of encryption are constantly changing to fulfill the needs that are required of them. Technology is used constantly, and with a fast-paced changing world, the encryption methods are trying to keep up. With the increase use of technology to do everyday tasks such as banking, sophisticated encryption is required.

In addition to PIN numbers, passwords are widely used to protect accounts and information. From email to social media, passwords protect all sorts of accounts with a variety of secure content. This information can include personal information, photos, or other sensitive material. Passwords are usually easy to remember, but this can make them easy to hack. Many sites require a capital letter, number, and length (Norton 2013). Other security measures can include uppercase letters, lowercase letters, numbers, and symbols (Password Meter 2014). In addition to a password, using different passwords for different accounts is essential since if one account is hacked, all other accounts using that password may be compromised (Norton 2013). Passwords are essential to protecting information.

Information is only as secure as the security measures taken to protect it.

There are people who try to access this information for poor, unethical, and dishonorable reasons. Learning to hack is as simple as googling it (Raymond 2001). Many hackers get started with simple accounts (social media, emails) and some move into more sensitive information (bank accounts, identity theft, top secret files) (Raymond 2001). This information is then used maliciously or to scam people for money (Raymond 2001).

When this information is compromised, faith is lost in the security system of information.

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Banking uses encryption in protecting the data, accounts, and information of its costumers to impact the world economically. With reliance on convenience, most people to do everyday use Internet and online banking transactions and rely on these being secure methods (Gupta, Rao, & Upadhyaya, 2004). Banks use many levels of encryptions to efficiently protect, store, and access information. Keeping this information secure is vital in preventing stolen information type problems (Gupta, Rao, & Upadhyaya, 2004). Prevention of unauthorized access is one of many ways encryption is used in the world today.

Data Collections

Although hacking and data breaches may seem like a far off idea that does not happen, they happen more often than many people realize. In recent news, hackers have stolen data from over 40 million credit and debit card users who visited Target stores during the 2013 holiday season creating a very large security breach (Finkle & Skariachan 2014). The attack was not detected until after the incident went public and Target and federal officials have not disclosed how the systems were compromised (Finkle & Skariachan 2014). Since breaches help point to flaws in a security system, security systems are constantly being updated to protect their information from those who should not have it. This is an ongoing battle between hackers and systems pushing the other to new lengths and making the cyber world more complex.

The researcher asked, “How many items in your life require a PIN number?”

This question was asked in combination with, “How many different PIN numbers do you use?” These questions were designed to look at how many possible PIN numbers could be used by a participant to how many PIN numbers the participant actually used.

Encryption has been used to protect messages between leaders since Rome. Wars have been won and lost due to encryption and decryption.

In addition to wars, more legislation has been made in regards to personal information and the security of data (Congressional Testimony, 2012).

Both security programs and policies have been put in effect and enforced within the past few years (Congressional Testimony, 2012). In addition to standardization, the government stores, processes, and transfers vast amounts of data gained from the people. With more government involvement in regulation of information, encryption is a key player in making everything happen.

Method Personal Identification Numbers With encryption built into daily life, there is numerous application of cryptology that can be explored. With a great deal of cyber warfare occurring, many people worry about what matters most to them, their money. The banking system has grown to accommodate today’s lifestyle.

With that lifestyle comes a need for even greater encryption technology in order to keep money and personal information secure. A Personal Identification Number (PIN) is one of the most common ways to secure this type of information.

Participants & Sampling Procedures This researcher planned to study the entire population to obtain the most accurate data. Through a combination of different literatures, this could be accomplished with participants of all age levels, genders, and education levels.

Research Design The research was designed as quantitative, the most accurate method in determining the frequency in which a PIN is used. The research suggested commonalities existed and with time any code or password is breakable.

Experimental Instrumentation The instrumentation the researcher used was a survey created in Google Forms. It was a convenient sample distributed to Houston Christian High School along with anyone to whom they chose to forward to survey on to.

The researcher distributed the instrument via email message and social media. The structured survey was created in Google Form and contained 14 questions.

The researcher asked, “Pick a 4-Digit PIN number you can remember.” The same question was asked about 5,6,7,8, and 9-Digit PIN numbers. Based on the literature, the researcher looked into these PIN numbers, as they were the most commonly used by the population.

The researcher asked, “How often do you change your PIN number?” This was asked as a basic gage of security precautions taken by participants.

Since PIN numbers guard some of the most important information in people’s live, this security is key.

The researcher asked, “Have you ever had your identity stolen?” and “Have you ever had an account hacked?” These questions looked into the security of systems. The researcher to the literature seeing if there were any correlations compared these numbers.

The researcher asked, “What is your age?” This question was to gage the audience the researcher was able to reach.

The researcher asked, “On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 being the most unsecure and 5 being the most secure), how secure do you feel using the internet?” This question looked at the security level participants felt.

The researcher asked, “Have you ever heard of the Clipper Chip System?”

This question was designed to gauge the participants knowledge level of the Clipper Chip System, whether or not is was truly public knowledge.

Data Analysis Plan The researcher plans to compare the findings to that of literature. Literature suggests p=.10 is common; therefore, Ho: p=.10, and Ha: p>10 where p is the proportion of individuals selecting a PIN. The researcher tested this for the null hypothesis: “There are no common PIN numbers.”

Ethical Consideration The researcher put a safeguard in place to protect human participants.

In every email communication, and on the survey, the follow statement appeared: “Completing this survey indicates your consent for your responses to be used in my research; your responses are anonymous and participation is completely voluntary.” By submitting the survey, participants were aware this data will be used in the researcher’s research.

Bias As with any research, the research contained bias. There was a bias against those who did not understand English well as all communications and research were conducted in English. There was a bias against those without internet access as all communications and research were conducted over the internet. There was a bias against those without a working knowledge of PINs as that was the focus of the research.

Assumptions The researcher made the assumptions that participants had a working knowledge of PINs. The researcher also assumed that all responses would be honest and that a normal distribution of the survey would occur.

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The researcher is only looking into numeric PINs, excluding alphabeticnumeric, alphabetic, and character passwords. The survey was only conducted over the Internet, leaving out those with Internet access. The number of people participating in the researcher’s survey was limited due to contacts and timetable; therefore, an accurate picture of the population is not possible from the researcher’s instrumentation alone. The researcher was only able to test the information the participants provide; therefore, the PIN numbers given may not accurately reflect the true use of these PINs.

Findings and Observations The researcher looked into 4-digit, 5-digit, 6-digit, 7-digit, 8-digit, and 9-digit PIN numbers. For 4-digit PINs, 1234 appeared most commonly.

Combinations that looked like day and month or month and year also appeared. For 5-digit PINs, 12345 appeared most commonly. The researcher recognized some of these PINs as ZIP codes. In addition PINs like 55555 where all 5 digits were the same were also more frequent. For 6-digit PINs, 123456 was the most common. Using the same numbers for all digits, 666666, was also common. 6-digits also appeared to look like specific dates. For 7-digit PINs, 1234567 appear most commonly. Using the same number, 7777777, was also common. For 8-digit PINs, 12345678 appear most commonly, Repeating the same number, particularly 88888888, was also common. Many of the responses looked like specific dates with day, month, and year numbers falling in sequence. Finally, for 9-digit PINs, 123456789 appear most commonly. Much like the previous ones, repeating the same number, especially 999999999, was also common. The researcher hopes that for this PIN that social security numbers were not used, but there is a strong possibility of that happening. In other observations, the researchers noticed that Pi or 314159 and so on, depending on the length of the PIN, also appeared. When looking at responses, the researcher also noticed many PINs were the same and added on one digit each time (i.e.

7242, 72429, 72493, etc.).

Analysis The researcher tested the hypothesis: there are no common PIN numbers.

By using a one proportion z-test, the researcher was able to determine whether to retain or to reject this null for each length of PIN number tested.

14 number. The P-value was less than .05; therefore, the researcher rejected the null hypothesis. 12345678 was the most common 8-digit PIN number.

The P-value was lees than .05; therefore, the researcher rejected the null hypothesis. 123456789 was the most common 9-digit PIN number.

The P-value was less than .05; therefore, the researcher rejected the null hypothesis. The researcher rejects entirely that there are no common PIN numbers and PINs do not occur equally all the time. Therefore; the researcher accepted the alternate hypothesis: “There are common PIN numbers.”

Discussion As can be seen in the researchers results, 1234 is not a secure password; however, 23% of the sample chose 1234 as a PIN. From the research, there are common PIN numbers. Using longer random PINs may be more effective, but any password or PIN can be broken, it is only a matter of time. The protection of information and the security of this information are vital in today’s world. If there is not adequate protection of information, the information is not secure. With these findings, there are common PIN numbers. These are hackers first guessing when trying to get into information. By making the public more aware of these common PIN numbers, this may increase security.

Although changing PIN numbers may increase security, it might not be as easy to remember. One of the reasons 1234 is a common PIN number is because it is easy to remember. But there are 9,999 other PIN numbers that are less common than 1234 and may be easier to remember for some.

In future research, it would be interesting to research passwords. Due to time and analyzing, the researcher did not find it possible to research alphabetic and alphabetic-numeric passwords. With more time and resources, that research would be interesting to see.

Conclusion Encryption affects everyone in today’s world. With more and more crimes occurring in the cyber world than the real world, keeping information secure is key. Through out time encryption has been used, but in today’s world, it is used on a much larger scale. All technology constantly encrypts and decrypts messages and there are more layers to encryption than before. The most common encryption being RSA uses inconceivably large prime numbers as factors making decryption for the unintended recipient difficult and untimely. An application of encryption is the banking system.

As the banking system has grown, so have the encryption methods used to protect the personal information of bankers. Encryption surrounds the world and keeps advancing with technology.

Beginning in Greece with Steganography, the Greeks used hidden messages to keep these vital messages out of enemy hands. In Ancient Rome, Caesar coined the Caesar Cipher by shifting the alphabet and replacing letters.

The Arabs made more complex encryptions but also started to develop was to decrypt messages not necessarily intended for them.

Figure 1 Figure 1 shows the input data for each one-proportion z test. 1234 was the most common 4-digit PIN number. The P value was less than .05; therefore, the researcher rejected the null hypothesis. 12345 was the most common 5-digit PIN number. The P-value was less than .05; therefore, the researcher rejected the null hypothesis. 123456 was the most common 6-digit PIN number. The P-value was less than .05; therefore, the researcher rejected the null hypothesis. 1234567 was the most common 7-digit PIN

The current method of encryption used today is RSA named after its founders: Rivest, Shamir, and Aldeman. RSA was developed in 1977 and is today’s data encryption standard. It is used in everything from hospital systems to gaming devices. By multiplying huge prime numbers, it makes the encryption very difficult to break keeping the information relatively safe.

The researcher wanted to look into what else is used in keep information safe. A Personal Identification Numbers (PIN) is used to protect anything from a phone to a bank account. It has been said, “1234 is not a secure password.” The researcher wanted to test and see if there was any validity to this statement. By sending a survey and collected responses, the researcher used a one-proportion z test and rejected the null hypothesis, “There are no

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common PIN numbers,” and accepted the alternate hypothesis, “There are common PIN numbers” because of the statistically significant evidence.

After reviewing the literature, the researcher was led to many more questions. Encryption and the security of information are very crucial in our world today. With the world revolving around encryption, the applications are immeasurable.

Remaining Questions As with any research, there are always remaining questions. After looking into the Clipper Chip system, the researcher wanted to know if the government is spying on the American people? Or, more simply put, is Big Brother watching?

In addition to hackers, many people are concerned with their privacy especially with the government is involved. The protection of sensitive documents has grown around the computer era. Although security is important, accessibility is usually more important; in other words, encryption is a great thing, but without decryption, the information is useless (Mikusch, 2005). The Clipper Chip System was embedded in all electronics and allows decryption of data to those who have the key such as law enforcement officials and federal agents in the 1990s (Cryptography, 2005). With this idea of a master decoder, no information is truly safe.

No matter how complex the key, every encryption can be decrypted if given enough time to do so. The Internet has grown and so has the security of information, but there is a big lapse in security mostly due to poor design and structure of systems meant to fail (Anderson & Moore, 2009).

With the Clipper Chip System, officials can access all seemingly personal information on electronics at any time (Scalera, 1995). If there is a way to access this seemingly secure information, there is a decryption that can be accessed easily.

In recent news, the National Security Agency (NSA) has been blasted throughout the media for its spying and collecting information on the American people. This domestic spying has many people up in arms over this invasion of privacy. Most of this information has been collected on the guise of the Patriot Act (EFF 2014). The Patriot Act signed into effect in 2001 is known as USA PATRIOT which stands for Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act of 2001 (DOJ 2014). Although many people are for the Patriot Act, many people believe that the government is abusing this act in order to spy on them. There are many different conspiracy theories, but mainly people are paranoid about their sense of privacy.

Overall, the sense of security is difficult to have with “Big Brother” watching over the shoulder. Although many people criticize the government for spying, many praise the government for catching terrorist, terrorist threats, and other national security threats that much of the public is not even aware of. This split creates a massive grey area that is very unclear to navigate. This grey area may cross the line of personal privacy and violate rights, but it also upholds the constitution and national security and the values Americans hold dear. Technology is expanding and breaking new ground everyday. The future is unclear. The future of encryption is also unclear. With systems becoming more complex and supercomputers on the rise, the future is limitless of where this technology and its encryption will take mankind. As technology has and will evolve so will the encryption methods.

15 The government has to have some way to watch and that way is cameras.

Camera are used for security and are not inherently bad. Red light camera, for instance, have reduce traffic light crashes and red light running. Other cameras can catch criminals if a crime occurred and there is video evidence from a camera. However, many people are worried about their privacy.

However, for true security, a little privacy must be given up. However, how the government uses this information is unknown to the general public if it is even being used at all.

Although the American people do not like the government watching them, they have no problem watching other people. With a culture thriving off of reality TV, they have no problem watching someone else’s every move, but as soon as the government wants more information to better secure the country, people have a problem with the government watching them.

As with any issue, there is always the issue of what is best for the individual and what is best for the group. When these clash, there is always compromise and never true resolve. There is a lot of information in the world, and it is very unclear where it is all going and who is using this information. Encryption is one of the many ways to protect information, but even the best systems fail.

Biblical Connection Encryption can be considered a gray area. It is not necessarily the encryption process itself, but the information and motive for sending the message. Intentions are what is key here. Although all intentions and motives can be perceived as evil or impure, the same actions could be praised. Each case is different, and it is not the process but the message and its motives.

Although modern uses of encryption are not mentioned specifically in the Bible, there are mentions of encryption type process. From Joseph interpreting or decoding Pharaoh’s dreams to the Lord calling Samuel, a hint of codes or encryption is involved. Daniel 5:7 in the New International Version (NIV) states, “The king summoned the enchanters, astrologers and diviners. Then he said to these wisemen of Babylon, ‘Whoever reads this writing and tells me what it means will be clothed in purple and have a gold chain placed around his neck, and he will be made the third highest ruler is the kingdom.’” The writing has been encrypted and whoever can decrypt it will be rewarded. In another case, Revelation 22:19 in the NIV states, “And if anyone takes words away from this scroll of prophecy, God will take away from that person any share in the tree of life and in the Holy City, which are described in this scroll.” The message of the Lord should be written plainly for all to read and adhere to. This means that God’s word should not be encrypted and held out of sight, but shown to the world in all of His glory.

In addition, Proverbs 11:13 says, “A gossip betrays a confidence but a trustworthy person keeps a secret.” And Proverbs 10:23 says, “A fool find pleasure in wicked schemes, but a person of understanding delights in wisdom.” There are many secrets hidden from the world by encryption.

The use and motives behind hiding information and keeping secrets are trustworthy, but doing this in a wicked scheme is not. Wisdom should be used as well as good intentions in using encryption and doing everything to the glory of God.

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References

Anderson, R. & Moore, T. (2009, 13 July). Information security: where computer science, economics, and psychology meet. The Royal Society. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40485617 Boneh, D., Sahai, A., & Water, B. (2012). Functional Encryption: A New Vision for Public-Key Cryptography. Communications of the ACM, 55(11), 56-64. Doi:10.1145/2366316.2366333

16 Jacobsymer, P.E. (2007, October 01). Keeping secrets. Mobile Radio Technology.

Kamaraju, A. (2011). Native DB Encryption Versus Third-Party Enterprise Encryption: What’s the Difference?. Eventdv, 24(10), 22-23.

Mikusch, R. (2005, Feburary 01). Cryptography. Beyond Numbers, 23, Retrieved from

Britt, P. (2005, November 01). Encryption Key to Data Security.

Information Today, (10), 1.

Miller, S. K. (2006). Encryption is the key. Access control & security systems.

Columbia University, P. (2011). Data encryption. Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6Th Edition, 1.

Moore, S. M. (1995, September 01). The role of cryptography in network security. Business Communication Reviews, (25), 67(6).

Congressional Testimony. (2012, July). State privacy and data security law: Gregory C. Wilshusen.

O’Neal, M.J. (2008). Writing in ancient Greece. Encyclopedia of society and culture in the ancient world.

Conn, J. (2013, January 07). A case for encryption. Modern Healthcare, (1), 12.

Scalera, N.J. (1995) Public-key encryption and the clipper chip: implications for the archival administration of electronic records.

Cryptography. (2005). Hutchinson Unabridged Encyclopedia. Helicon Publishing. Cryptology. (n.d.). InEncyclopedia Britannica.

Encyclopedia Britannica.

Singh, K., & Manimegalai, R. R. (2011). Fast Random Bit Encryption Technique for

Griffith, E. (2009, January 01). Reclaim your online privacy: we reveal the methods you need to surf, e-mail, IM, and more while taking back your ever-more-elusive online confidentiality. PC Magazine, n/a.

Teitelbaum, J. (n.d.a) Codes and ciphers. World Book Advanced.

Video Data. European Journal of Scientific Research, 64(3), 437-445.

Teitelbaum, J. (n.d.b) Encrption. World Book Advanced.

Gupta, M., Rao, R., and Upadhyaya, S. (2004, July 01). Electronic Banking and Information Assurance Issues: Survey and Synthesis. Journal of Organizational and End User Computing, (3), 1.

S. G. (2012). A Hybrid Attribute-Based Encryption Technique Supporting Expressive

Han, J. (2012). Privacy-Preserving Decentralized Key-Policy AttributeBased Encryption.

Perspective, 21(6), 297-305. doi:10.1080/19393555.2012.738374

IEEE Transactions on Parallel & Distributed Systems, 23(11), 2150-2162.

Policies and Dynamic Attributes. Information Security Journal: A Global Zviran, M. & Haga, W. J. (1999). Password security: an empirical study.

M.E. Sharpe.

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Appendix

17

Applications of Encryption and the Security of Information Hello, My name is Cassie Cater and I am a member of the Distinguished Scholar’s Class of 2014. This survey is part of my research into the Applications of Encryption and the Security of Information; I am conducting research on the frequency of personal identification numbers and the awareness of the Clipper Chip system. To those you feel might help me, please forward this survey. The more participants who complete my survey, the better quality my research and data will be.

Completing this survey indicates your consent for your responses to be used in my research; your responses are anonymous and participation is completely voluntary.

Thank you again for participating!

Cassie Cater * Required Pick a 4-Digit PIN number you can remember.* Numeric Only Pick a 5-Digit PIN number you can remember.* Numeric Only Pick a 6-Digit PIN number you can remember.* Numeric Only Pick a 7-Digit PIN number you can remember.* Numeric Only Pick a 8-Digit PIN number you can remember.* Numeric Only Pick a 9-Digit PIN number you can remember.* Numeric Only How many items (phone, banking, numeric password, voicemail, etc.) in your life require a PIN number?* ❏❏ 0

❏❏ 3

❏❏ 1

❏❏ 4

❏❏ 2

❏❏ 5+

How many different PIN numbers do you use?* ❏❏0

❏❏3

❏❏1

❏❏4

❏❏2

❏❏5+

How often do you change your PIN number?* ❏❏Never

❏❏Everyday

❏❏Once a year

❏❏ After an incident (ex: stolen wallet, identity theft)

❏❏Once a month

❏❏When prompted to

❏❏Once a week

❏❏Other:

Have you ever had your identity stolen?* ❏❏Yes

❏❏No

Have you ever had an account hacked?* ❏❏Yes

❏❏No

What is your age?* ❏❏13 or under

❏❏45 to 54

❏❏14 to 19

❏❏55 to 64

❏❏20 to 24

❏❏65 to 74

❏❏25 to 34

❏❏75 or older

❏❏35 to 44

Security Of Information

18

On a scale of 1 to 5, how secure do you feel using the internet?* 1 being the most unsecure and 5 being the most secure ❏❏1

❏❏4

❏❏2

❏❏5

❏❏3 Have you heard of the Clipper Chip System?* NO GOOGLING ❏❏Yes - I know everything about it

❏❏ Yes - I have heard it before but do not know what it is

❏❏Yes - I know a little about it

❏❏ No - I have no idea what you are talking about

❏❏

Summary of Responses Pick a 4-Digit PIN number you can remember.

2436 2147 1106 1102 5636 4396 1729 6969 3099 1425 9257 6159 1990 8025 3857 1717 7412 2430 19881000 1515 3215 1431 8385 1122 1123 8762 1438 1998 2837 9879 4431 1234 8858 1119 8234 9422 55672798 4382 2055 2700 6512 6265 5678 3434 3773 4444 9001 2406 0288 3390 0814 0000 2468 3396 19419814 0325 0810 9295 4264 1234 1337 2566 1334 8515 0828 2131 1958 7000 1691 5189 0929 8890 99531158 1021 1216 1211 5856 1208 1163 6129 2542 Pick a 5-Digit PIN number you can remember.

74261 96455 32156 77024 65148 81000 85678 12345 17022 14010 55555 40277 21310 62654 06307 7704377040 56367 99533 13579 A1234 77450 46471 77077 11928 01867 30204 66666 12345 51389 48009 1691531415 80258 99999 12187 09299 04677 10606 55678 98149 77069 27000 58329 92566 11190 10502 1163411630 91101 12426 21478 76242 11235 92398 92955 56789 92959 74123 61591 39292 83853 65107 876212345 37373 24680 87110 22345 08141 24306 54025 32582 88588 12000 11265 02406 53302 77018 2585611069 11884 Pick a 6-Digit PIN number you can remember.

409673 615199 111989 981498 929598 942679 441399 770245 091065 802580 130000 207611 143801 110366 602289206264 121772 169159 081000 711711 102358 121807 302041 225856 032582 060599 213100 992199 214789 567890123456 301103 123456 563676 121512 876231 052590 374624 512345 317537 321567 133401 102778 277000110698 373373 106060 556789 6666666 112358 123165 333444 120870 082670 314159 333333 741236 696864987654 111111 100000 889018 240699 080898 062654 081419 123456 999999 243063 121282 123456 213021 713832666666 838537 533028 250966 040277 Pick a 7-Digit PIN number you can remember.

1218077 8183308 3671533 8993781 5555555 26282213 4096731 7929598 6803706 6930978 1221216 1102194 80258025349583 5678901 8131961 0112358 1126533 0814199 5330288 1438001 6261954 3215678 1111111 8385374 43110411119890 1713123 2727974 3737373 2778686 1103082 7777777 4251299 3201212 3940406 2131000 1211991 74123698762314 9619961 7776777 0240699 9999999 7112317 1100000 2147896 9814981 06302007 6666666 7702456 12345672692251 3171140 7117117 3822312 3251982 8180899 5636767 1357986 6860670 9231998 1027200 1234567 16915995567890 1060606 8675309 7257257 5158934 4396145 1965482 2225856 1357913 2430243 7891234 2770000 765432112345674169268 3146280 Pick a 8-Digit PIN number you can remember.

03251982 19461102 08141999 22225856 82348234 87623148 19999001 17291729 83853742 55678900 12345678 1126555653005300 11456003 14922001 18753250 13341334 33961201 19960729 56789012 27770000 666666666 11198900 2227575856367673 79295998 45901828 1234567818675309 86136585 10987651 12119916 40967315 14921492 98149814 1438000111235813 03041220 08261970 33236237 86353302 03201212 38180899 06261954 87654387 11111111 13822312 1218200787654321 37377373 16790477 67891234 21478963 16915991 74123698 17132010 08281226 12345678 54285655 2406199906091990 11634701 80258025 37297361 63410877 77024567 67536753 32145678 98765432 71171171 88888888 8324832411100000 92990422 24302430 Pick a 9-Digit PIN number you can remember.

912345679 192837465 802580258 839278324 062619541 770245678 123456789 442484667 123822312 271828182 172930204121199427 342103717 243063243 018675309 171320104 9146930978 27770000 666666666 792195998 111989000222225856 003251982 123456789 451945143 911911911 169159911 567890123 108261970 133406307 186136585223768341 563676367 838537428 981498149 102938473 120707082 863533028 123456789081419990 212693181450779897 011235813 111111111 121820076 143800001 135791112 124520929 121212124 987654321 A12346789823410606 110380248 124266512 876231485 741236985 214789632 905323730 121679477 168043296 111100000409673151 321456789 713832281 135792468 373737373 900000000 929961996

024051999 711711711 556789000 138180899 999999999

Security Of Information

How many items (phone, banking, numeric password, voicemail, etc.) in your life require a PIN number?

How many different PIN numbers do you use?

How often do you change your PIN number?

Have you ever had your identity stolen?

Have you ever had an account hacked?

19

Security Of Information What is your age?

On a scale of 1 to 5, how secure do you feel using the internet?

Have you heard of the Clipper Chip System?

20

The Risks, Costs, and Ethics of the Pursuit of Genetic Therapy in the Healing and Enhancement of the Human Body Kevin K. Chin

Gene Therapy

23

Table of Contents

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 The Risks of Gene Therapy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Rate of Failure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Delivery Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 The Costs of Gene Therapy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Actual Treatments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Intellectual Property. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Genetic Modified Foods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 The Ethics of Gene Therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Exploitation of Wealth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Gene Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Purpose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Participants & Sampling Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Research Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Experiment Manipulation/Interventions/Instrumentation . . . . . 30 Data Collection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Data Analysis Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Ethical Consideration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Findings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Sample. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Survey Findings/Interviews/Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Findings on Cost. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Findings on Ethics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Implications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Remaining Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Nutritional Supplements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Genetic Pedigrees. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Biblical Connection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Appendix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Copy of Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Copy of Survey Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Gene Therapy

25

Abstract

The researcher examined gene therapy and its risks, costs, and ethics. While this review of related literature focuses on what relevant scholarly sources have to say about the downsides of genetic therapy, the researcher does not ignore gene therapy’s proclivity toward success in the future. After researching the three aspects of gene therapy, the researcher conducted new research centering on the majority’s opinion toward cost and ethics, overlooking risk because of its natural decline with further research. Thus, two null hypotheses were composed: the first involved cost and the second, ethics (where gene therapy was divided into its two components).

The researcher gathered data through a 10-question survey sent to a convenient sample population and ultimately concluded (1) gene therapy was not cost-effective, (2) gene healing was ethical, and (3) gene enhancement was not ethical. Researching gene therapy directed the researcher’s attention towards the pursuit of perfection through nutritional supplements and genetic pedigrees and how these two industries have impacted the United States economically and socially. The nutritional supplement industry has positioned itself for success in the United States’ economy, reaching sales up to $11.5 billion as of 2012 and providing 450,000 jobs.

Genetic pedigrees have been on the rise as doctors and patients now acknowledge the benefits of having them as “screening tools” for potential diseases. By looking into these two industries, the researcher communicates the idea gene therapy can also influence the world positively.

Gene Therapy

27

As the human race continues to suffer from the endless appearances of new mutated genes, scientists have turned their focus on a new and promising “cure”: gene therapy (“Anti-cancer…,” 2009; Cotrim & Baum, 2008). Nowadays, scientists know that a missing or an extra gene can cause diseases, also known as mutations (Cotrim & Baum, 2008; “...Genetic Medicine,” 2009). Destroying the function of a gene, the mutation will produce defective results, which includes malfunctioned proteins and uncontrolled growth (Cotrim & Baum, 2008; “...Genetic Medicine,” 2009).

On the other hand, gene therapy replaces and corrects mutated genes, achieved through the “insertion of a functioning gene into cells to correct a cellular dysfunction or to provide a new cellular function” (Cotrim & Baum, 2008). Moreover, the idea of gene therapy has actually existed for over a century, but after the recent breakthrough in recombinant DNA technology gene therapy has became a reality (Cotrim & Baum, 2008).

As a result, gene therapy carries the potential to be the key to permanent victory over the lifelong battles with the malicious diseases that have plagued the human race for centuries. While current medicines—surgery, drugs, chemotherapy, and other methods—are temporary or ineffective solutions in the fight against present diseases, scientists bring the battle to the level of genetics. As a result, the treatments become more effective but also more dangerous. The researcher considers the dangers of gene therapy by asking, is gene therapy a worthy pursuit when the researcher considers the risks, the costs, and the ethics of gene therapy?

History The studying of genetics officially began in the 1800s with the Austrian monk Gregor Mendel, theorizing that a relationship between genes and traits existed (“...Genetic Medicine,” 2009). As he conducted his own research in a monastery garden, Mendel observed how traits are passed from one generation to the next (“...Genetic Medicine,” 2009).

Mendel, dying in 1884, set the foundation for the study of genetics (“...

Genetic Medicine,” 2009). In 1906, zoologist William Bateson coined the term—genetics, which is the study of heredity (Wynbrandt & Ludman).

Nevertheless, even before Gregor Mendel, many early individuals had observed genetics. The Egyptians, the Babylonians, the Chaldeans, and the Ashkenazi Jews noticed similarities between blood-related individuals and unique differences between unrelated individuals (Wynbrandt & Ludman). The Ashkenazi Jews understood and acknowledged that the third child would also have hemophilia after the first two infants died of the same disease (Wynbrandt & Ludman). Ultimately, the Jews successfully connected the defects in genetics to diseases.

Nonetheless, modern genetics officially began with James Watson and Francis Crick’s discovery of the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, in 1953 (Editors of Salem Press, 2008; “...Genetic Medicine,” 2009).

Since then, scientists have sought a way to correct genetic defects in a cell, ushering in the idea of gene therapy (Editors of Salem Press, 2008). By the early 1970s, scientists could isolate and experiment on specific strands of DNA by the use of “restriction enzymes,” which cut DNA molecules at specific points (Wynbrandt & Ludman). In doing so, the isolation of the strands assisted the search for specific genes (Wynbrandt & Ludman).

Scientists then identified the specific functions of certain genes and marked the location of the genes on the chromosomes (Wynbrandt & Ludman). In the 1980s, scientists replaced defective enzymes in the metabolic pathways (Editors of Salem Press, 2008). One successful experiment includes treating babies (but can be found in adults as well) with Adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency–a disease where an enzyme no longer converts the toxins into uric acid causing immunodeficiency (Editors of Salem Press, 2008). Stem cells were removed from the umbilical cord of a child with ADA deficiency, and correct genes are inserted into the collected stem cells; finally, the altered cells are inserted back into babies (Editors of Salem Press, 2008). After many years of examining the babies, the scientists established gene therapy as a cure for ADA deficiency (Editors of Salem

Press, 2008). Nowadays, scientists are trying to use gene therapy in the fight against multiple diseases, such as cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, and hemophilia.

Though gene therapy holds much promise, it still has its own setbacks.

Insertion, which is the process of “inserting” the new gene, uses two types of vectors: viral, also known as transduction, and nonviral vectors, also known as transfection (“Anti-cancer...,” 2009; Cotrim & Baum, 2008).

Though viral has a better success rate of introducing the correct genes into the patient’s DNA, viral vectors pose many safety concerns like the possibility of prompting an immune response; on the other hand, nonviral vectors are inefficient (“Anti-cancer...,” 2009; Cotrim & Baum, 2008). Gene therapy has been a slow process filled with its own tragedies, such as the death of eighteen-year-old Jesse Gelsinger in September 1999 (Cotrim & Baum, 2008). Another specific problem with gene therapy deals with cancer, a disease that has been observed in the human race for at least a hundred years (Cross & Burmester, 2006). Similar to other gene therapy processes, cancer treatment, using gene therapy, includes the introduction of engineered cells–a recombination of dead cancer cells and cytokine genes or antigenic protein genes–to the patients, allowing their immune systems to recognize cancer cells (“Anti-cancer...,” 2009; Cross & Burmester, 2006). With gene therapy, the fight against cancer seems to be a clear victory; however, initial trials “have produced mixed results”— condition improved, condition worsened, or no effect—showing how gene therapy still needs time to develop (Cross & Burmester, 2006).

Like many other medical practices, the purpose of gene therapy is to return the human body to the state of “perfection.” In fact, gene therapy has the potential to enhance human traits or qualities by adding or correcting genes. Therefore, this ability brings many people to wonder whether or not gene therapy is actually ethical (Cotrim & Baum, 2008).

While gene therapy is only in its early stages, it has already encountered major disappointments. In the end, this researcher must consider risks, costs, and ethics in order to present a sufficient argument for or against gene therapy.

The Risks of Gene Therapy Rate of Failure From the beginning, scientists recognized that bringing the battle against diseases to the level of genetics required an enormous amount of caution.

Since inserting genes carries the possibility of activating other genes that could cause diseases, scientists constantly worry about the possibility of inserting a gene in or near healthy genes (Cohen, 2003; Coghlan, 2010).

In other words, gene disruption became a major concern among gene therapists. Four French boys fell victim to this when they were treated for immune deficiency and developed leukemia (Coghlan, 2010). As a result, one of the boys died. From this experiment, Mark Kay of Stanford University stated, “[Gene disruption] raises the bar of risk somewhat. But how much higher it is raised is still unclear” (Cohen, 2003).

Mark Kay continues to research on mice with a new vector, adenoassociated viruses–another popular vector among gene therapists (Cohen, 2003). Unfortunately, his conclusions were quite discouraging to the gene therapy activists. Injected in mice livers, the adeno-associated viruses integrated themselves near active genes, which are working genes (Cohen, 2003). In fact, out of 29 insertions, 72% appeared in the genes (whether healthy or mutated) rather than junk, non-functioning DNA (Cohen, 2003). Furthermore, 20 of the genes were active genes, or healthy genes (Cohen, 2003). In the end, Kay was forced to conclude that active genes are “natural hot spots” for inserted genes, and therefore, gene therapy may hold higher risks than thought (Cohen, 2003). If the inserted genes do disrupt active genes, then gene therapy may do more harm than good.

Gene Therapy

The harm can be clearly seen in the deaths of patients. Jesse Gelsinger, who died in 1999, was not the only victim of gene therapy (Skelly, 2007).

Treated in a rheumatoid arthritis trial, a 36-year-old Jolee Mohr also fell victim of gene therapy’s tendency to fail (Skelly, 2007). On October 2005, Moher and 126 other subjects received an initial dose of a placebo (a pill), and then 74 of them received a second dose of another drug called tgAAC94 (Skelly, 2007). On the second dosage, Mohr died in the University of Chicago Medical Center (Skelly, 2007). As a result, U.S. Food and Drug Administration put gene therapy on hold to research the dangers of adeno-associated viruses (Skelly, 2007). In essence, scientists such as Mark Kay can conclude that adeno-associated viruses are the cause of Jolee Mohr’s death, developing histoplasmosis—fungus infection—by suppressing the tumour necrosis factor alpha receptor (Skelly, 2007). Yet, doctors and researchers continue to support the use of adeno-associated viruses, focusing on the great potential gene therapy carries. For instance, Dr. Chris Evans is one of many who plan to conduct his own research with adeno-associated viruses (Skelly, 2007). While Jesse Gelsinger most likely died from an immune reaction to the adenovirus, Jolee Mohr most likely died from developing a fungus infection (Skelly, 2007). As a result, gene therapy was put on hold for a short time.

Despite the risks that come with adenovirus vectors, scientists continue to be proponents for gene therapy (Wenner, 2008). Instead of contemplating the potential dangers of gene therapy, scientists optimistically and persistently explore and experiment to understand the “full dimension of what [gene therapy] can do” (Wenner, 2008). In the United States, gene therapy still has not obtained approval from the Food and Drug Administration; nevertheless, it has 800 trials ongoing (Wenner, 2008). So far, the efforts in curing diseases seem to be paying off. Scientists have just begun to realize the potential benefits of gene therapy through countless breakthroughs in curing cystic fibrosis, restoring sight to the blind, attacking cancer cells, and repairing the heart (Wenner, 2008).

Delivery Issues Despite these breakthroughs, scientists have also begun to acknowledge the greatest barrier in gene therapy–the delivery (Wenner, 2008). Unlike other medicinal processes that have only a small amount of the pill or the injection successfully reaching the target, gene therapy targets only the desired tissues (Wenner, 2008). Thus, after the recombinant gene is inserted into the body, the whole gene must be delivered to the right location to be able to target the correct tissues (Wenner, 2008). To make things more complicated, the desired locations may be totally inaccessible targets (Wenner, 2008). Therefore, the delivery to the right location is the first major problem in gene therapy. Secondly, the therapeutic contents are stored within modified viruses–the vectors of gene therapy–that may cause the immune system to react, to fight, and ultimately, to reject the delivery (Wenner, 2008). Scientists counter the immune system’s efforts by using lower therapeutic doses or by pretreating patients with immunosuppressive drugs or by essentially hiding the vectors (Wenner, 2008). Other scientists have tried to use vectors with “naked” DNA, unrecognizable to the immune system (Wenner, 2008). Even though gene therapy contains these two difficult hurdles, scientists continue to remain optimistic and focused on the overwhelming potential of gene therapy, searching for answers to overcome these hurdles once and for all.

In the end, scientists have entered the world of genetics with caution.

Many have come to realize the many problems preventing gene therapy from being successful. Among these problems are gene disruption, which can lead to fatal consequences; the delivery to the correct location; and the immune system’s rejection of vectors carrying the therapeutic genes.

Furthermore, the deaths of patients have also tainted and slowed the process. Still, scientists remain optimistic, stubbornly searching the unknown of possibilities that come with gene therapy.

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Actual Treatments After presenting the possibilities and the problems of gene therapy, a common controversy resides in the major issue of price: is gene therapy too expensive for the common man? Though limited amount of quantitative information can be found on the Internet, this researcher presented today’s prices to the best of his abilities, the benefits of gene therapy, and the idea of intellectual property. After acknowledging the price and other related information, this researcher reached the conclusion that gene therapy would, in fact, be improbable to attain for a common patient in today’s society.

The Glybera treatment treats for lipoprotein lipase deficiency (LPLD)–the inability to break down fat (Staff Writer, 2012; Whalen, 2012). As a result, abominable pain and pancreatic inflammation might occur (Staff Writer, 2012; Whalen, 2012). To evade these agonies, a virus with a functioning copy of the gene for breaking down fats infects the individual’s muscles (Staff Writer, 2012; Whalen, 2012). This process costs $1.6 million per patient; thus, this therapy is cost-prohibitive to anyone except the wealthy (Staff Writer, 2012; Whalen, 2012). More importantly, this treatment became the first gene therapy drug that the European Union has approved–a huge milestone in medicine (Whalen, 2012). This accomplishment did not happen without setbacks, including three rejections from the European Medicines Agency (Whalen, 2012). Dutch Company UniQuire, a major contributor to the development of this drug, claims that this one-time injection of the drug is worth the $1.6 million because of the small market: one or two people per each million suffer from LPDP (Whalen, 2012). Furthermore, national insurers in Europe are likely to pay the bill (Whalen, 2012). With that said, the price is still being criticized by many, just like the prices for drugs of other rare diseases. In the end, this price may still be out of reach for those with LPDP (Whalen, 2012). Despite the arguments with the price, UniQuire plans to obtain approval in the United States, where no gene therapies have been approved for the market, in 2013 (Whalen, 2012). Glybera marks only the beginning of the era of expensive gene therapy drugs.

Another example is gene therapy for a rare, genetic brain disorder that causes severe astrophy (Lopatto, 2012). While a normal baby born with a brain disease would have severe deterioration and death within about three years, studies have shown that gene therapy holds the ability to increase each baby’s life from seven to 10 years (Lopatto, 2012). Approved in 2001, this study would transport the adenovirus with the healthy genes through a hole drilled inside the skull (Lopatto, 2012). The results showed that this therapy was more successful in younger patients than in older patients (Lopatto, 2012). With an improved alertness, the younger patients still retained “cognitive abnormities,” like the inability to talk at all (Lopatto, 2012). An older patient improved from a vegetative state to a responsive state with blinking as “yes” and opening her mouth as “no” (Lopatto, 2012). In the end, 11 out of the 13 patients had a decrease number of seizures; the other two patients have had none before and after the procedure (Lopatto, 2012). As a result, the treatment does extend life and restores some functions in the brain, but the procedure costs $100,000 just for the first two years.

Why do such treatments cost so much? This question touches the beneficial aspects of genetic therapy. Since gene therapy is commonly thought to be permanent, the cost could be justified (Staff Writer, 2012). In a sense, gene therapy has the ability to cure all kinds of cancer, autism, and other diseases, ultimately prolonging life in the future (“Do the benefits outweigh…,” 2013). This capability poses many questions concerning when and how death would occur and the concept of the “survival of the richest.” Additionally, gene therapy aims to correct patients’ childhood deformities, which eventually leads to the beautification of any person

Gene Therapy

with enough money to pay for a specific desired trait (“Do the benefits outweigh…,” 2013). The issue of price remains a personal opinion that can be swayed depending on an individual’s income and opinions on the pursuit of longer life and beauty.

Intellectual Property Another issue concerns intellectual property. As of right now, only the major powers of the world—the economically successful—hold the ability to research gene therapy, while the poor countries have the facilities and the expertise but not the money (Bouguerra, 2005). For example, India owns six laboratories but remains dependent on rich countries for the funding (Bouguerra, 2005). In essence, the major powers fund the poorer countries if they are willing to research according to the major powers’ agenda. Therefore, Indian scientists are forced to identify human genes instead of organisms that will benefit their own population–microbes, mosquitoes, contaminants, and other organisms (Bouguerra, 2005). By researching their desired organisms, they can develop applications for the poorer societies, while DNA research with humans would not necessarily lead to medical treatments for the poor (Bouguerra, 2005). In essence, the rich can dictate what is being researched and continually obtain intellectual property from the poor’s cheap labor. This dilemma leads the researcher to ask an important question: would gene therapy be available or even beneficial to the poor population in rich nations? “No” would probably be the answer because gene therapy is unaffordable and unavailable to the poor (Bouguerra, 2005; Gert, 2001). In a way, the priority lies in caring for the rich rather than the poor.

Genetic Modified Foods Since gene therapy is basically the genetic engineering of humans, this researcher can study the history of genetically modified foods to predict the future of gene therapy. In fact, the two processes share similar characteristics, allowing this researcher to conclude many of the problems with gene therapy were problems for genetically modified food. In genetically altering a plant, desired genes are also inserted into the plant’s chromosomes (Teresko, 1997). In fact, one purpose of genetically altering a plant’s genes is to give the plant the ability to produce its own insecticides (Strom, 2013). This purpose can parallel with gene therapy’s potential of fighting malicious cancer cells; however, people remain in a heated debate on the ethics of gene therapy. On the other hand, genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have crept into our society in massive amounts without public awareness (Black, 2012; Strom, 2013). The truth is 80% of processed foods in the grocery stores are GMOs (Black, 2012). In conclusion, the widespread use of implementing GMOs foreshadows the widespread use of gene therapy in the future.

Furthermore, this researcher can compare in terms of price. In an article from alive.com, the author reveals how even the farmers of GMOs are not earning a profit (Abergel). Engineered corn has cost farmers $659 million, while the profits only amounted to $567 million (Abergel).

Thus, the farmers are actually losing money. Where is the extra money going? Biotech companies. These research companies continue to earn a substantial amount, which means the farmers and consumers are still a big portion of the expenses for GMOs (Abergel). In comparison to gene therapy, this researcher can suspect gene therapy would continue to be an expensive market, while the genetic research companies receive the most benefits from gene therapy’s success.

When put into perspective, genetic therapy treatment demands a substantial amount of money from patients. Consequently, only the wealthy class of Americans would have the resources to spend in order to reap the benefits of gene therapy. Furthermore, with the issue of intellectual property, the researcher can see how rich communities fund current research and development; therefore, the benefits are aimed toward only

29 the rich communities. Even when changing a physical trait or curing a disease becomes necessary, would the lower class be able to afford it? The answer is probably not. Also, while GMOs in foods were unwelcomed at first, they are now common and consumed by many people across the globe. On the other hand, the price remains an issue for both GMOs and gene therapy, but the consumers still purchase GMOs despite the cost. This comparison only suggests gene therapy, despite its potential dangers and unethical possibilities, would gradually be accepted in the future.

The Ethics of Gene Therapy Exploitation of Wealth While gene therapy’s main purpose is to cure the world of malicious mutations, gene therapy’s potential goes far beyond. In today’s world, wealthy individuals tend to pursue vain medical treatments, such as plastic surgeries. This aspect brings a graver danger in gene therapy–the possibility to insert any desired genes in order to add or to correct any characteristics of any human being (Anderson, 1999). Humans would be able to abuse the potential of gene therapy to the point where “eugenics could be practiced on a scale far larger than any ‘selective breeding’ policy could accomplish” (Anderson, 1999). In other words, humans (who can afford the treatment) would all become “perfect” in a matter of a few procedures. Wealthy individuals would always have the irresistible temptation to reach the shifting standards of beauty in society (Anderson, 1999).

These wealthy individuals will be the future targets for gene therapy. In 10 more years, global life science companies will hold patents on about 30,000 genes (Rifkin, 2006). Even today, genes are the “raw resource[s] of the new economic epoch” for a variety of businesses dealing with agriculture, animal husbandry, and pharmaceuticals (Rifkin, 2006).

With the installment of gene therapy, human medicine will intensify the commercial use of genes. A market driven by eugenics—the science of improving a human population—would become enormously plausible (Rifkin, 2006). Even today, indications of potential abuse are appearing (Anderson, 1999). For example, one company intended to develop a treatment for hair loss for those who suffer from chemotherapy (Anderson, 1999). Finding a gene that could stimulate hair growth to prevent traumatic effects of chemotherapy’s hair loss seems to be a genuine motive; however, after some investigation, the real motivation lies in the ability to market this gene to naturally bald men (Anderson, 1999). Is this a bad alternative motive? Not really, but where is the line dividing unethical from ethical?

Instead of gene therapy, the abuse can lead to genetic enhancement (Gert, 2001). Therefore, it is essential to remain cautious as scientists continue to make breakthroughs in gene therapy.

Gene Enhancement Another problem to foresee is the parents’ ability to genetically alter their babies before birth to obtain traits for strength, intelligence, resistance to toxins, and many more (Gert, 2001). Conversely, scientists do realize the potential danger of genetic enhancement. By enhancing one generation’s genetics, the effects do not last only one generation; the enhanced genes would be passed on to future generations, and thus making the effects endure for many generations to come (Gert, 2001). Therefore, a slight mistake in gene enhancement will be detrimental to the future society (Gert, 2001).

Since gene enhancement would be an expensive luxury, another concern stems from gene therapy playing a role in inequality and abuse (Gert, 2001). Wealthy families would be able to purchase their “social and political dominance” over others (Gert, 2001). Throughout history, certain traits would give an individual a certain edge in life. For example, if gene therapy existed in the age of Hitler, the persecuted Jewish population might consider giving themselves blue eyes and blonde hair. Then, they could avoid

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persecution and could enter the ranks of the Aryan population. Now, the question is whether or not the individuals will take the risk in bankruptcy or other sacrifices to obtain gene enhancement–the gateway to a better life.

The consequences of such a future would be incomprehensibly harmful.

The possibilities do not stop there. Gene enhancement can engineer humans for special “niches” in societies (Gert, 2001). For example, super soldiers, like Captain America, from science fiction could become a reality.

How about engineering poison resistant immune systems, see-in-the-dark eyes, perfect bodies suited for runners? The possibilities are limitless; the consequences are unfathomable. Nonetheless, scientists might not to have these risks in mind as they compete to be the first to discover the new possibilities of gene therapy (Gert, 2001).

With gene therapy, gene enhancement becomes the next step. While many gene therapy scientists and advocates ensure the public that genetic engineering would be limited to genetic repair, the temptation to improve oneself is too much to bear for certain individuals (Gert, 2001). In other words, if scientists continue their pursuits in gene therapy, genetic enhancement is inevitable. Some scientists believe the only way to postpone the inevitable is to maintain focus of “repairing” genes rather than “replacing” genes (Gert, 2001). Yet, what if a “damaged” gene was being short instead of being tall? In a world with gene therapy, humans can allow their imaginations to go wild, picturing a future where 73-yearolds and 82-year-olds would still be considered youths (Anderson, 1999).

While researchers have this picture in their minds, they might as well also have the picture of extreme inequality and segregation and mistreatment of the lower class. The future is literally in the hands of humans (mainly the rich). Whatever experiment conducted in gene therapy would then be a step closer to gene enhancement. In today’s society, there remains a crucial and fundamental question: Will man in the present and the future remain genetically responsible? Hopefully, the answer is a resounding “yes.”

Conclusion Modern genetics began in 1953 with the discovery of the double helix.

From that stage, scientists have identified genes, part of the Human Genome Project. Presently, genes have become the focus for a cure for many diseases through a process known as gene therapy. In layman’s terms, gene therapy is the insertion or altering of genes in humans. Gene therapy holds many possibilities, including curing practically any disease or mutation and changing human traits. Nevertheless, gene therapy is still in its trial stage and remains expensive. Furthermore, the chance for failure remains a high concern among researchers. Mainly, the problem lies in the delivery of the gene. Would it be accepted? Would it end up in active or junk DNA? After perfecting the tendency to fail, the next obstacle becomes price. Today, a gene therapy treatment like Gybera costs around a million dollars. This observation brings the question “who would be gene therapy’s main consumers?” The rich. In essence, gene therapy would only contribute to the “survival of the richest.” The upper class would be able to cure their diseases and change their appearances, which brings to question whether or not pursuing a long life (to the point of immortality) and beauty (in terms of perfection) is ethical. In the end, if researchers continue to pursue after gene therapy, man would be able to control many aspects of God’s creation. God, however, warns us not to be obsessed with our physical appearances but rather our true spiritual condition. Most likely, the beautification of our physical appearance will not glorify God, but prolonging our life can lengthen our time to serve the Lord on this earth. Nevertheless, in all things, man must submit his will under God’s supreme authority. Therefore, if gene therapy becomes a major part of the future, man must be ready to take on the responsibilities that come with genetic enhancement and genetically extending life.

Method

Purpose After looking over all the risks, costs, and ethics of genetic therapy, the researcher decided to focus on the costs and ethics aspects of gene therapy.

The reason for the exclusion of risk as a research focus was because the number of risks in gene therapy would most likely decrease in the future, as further testing and research would continue to perfect the process of inserting genes or correcting genes. Next, this researcher hoped to understand the majority’s opinions on the current cost of gene therapy treatment (Glybera at a cost of $1.6 million) and the ethics of gene therapy.

As a result, the researcher tested two null hypotheses.

First Null Hypothesis In the majority’s opinion, gene therapy is cost-effective.

Second Null Hypothesis In the majority’s opinion, gene therapy is ethical.

In other words, the researcher studied the people’s views on gene therapy’s cost and ethicalness to see in what circumstances would the majority most likely accept gene therapy today.

Participants & Sampling Procedures The researcher used a convenience sampling method because of the limited number of people to whom the researcher could send the survey.

As a result, this sampling method results in many problems when making generalizations. Thus, the researcher included questions on the population’s age, ethnicity, occupation, personal monthly income, estimated amount spent on medical treatments, and religion to better understand the population tested. These questions allowed the researcher to qualify the generalizations and conclusions made while presenting the data collected.

With that said, the ideal sample population would consist of a diverse expanse of ages, ethnicities, occupations, and religions, mirroring a sample population from a random sampling method. The main two characteristics that the researcher hoped to obtain a wide variety of would be occupation and religions. Occupation diversity would guarantee a sample population with different personal incomes; thus, when the survey participants answer the question over price, the results to that question would not be biased. Similarly, since religious backgrounds often contribute to a person’s morality, religious diversity would guarantee a sample population with different ethical views. Therefore, an ideal sample population would be that of different occupations and diverse views of ethics.

Research Design Using a survey made through Google Forms, the researcher conducted a descriptive study through a quantitative research design. In other words, the survey produced data that was analyzed through a statistical investigation of patterns and trends in the situation of whether gene therapy is cost-effective and ethical. The advantageous reasons for picking this research design include the ability to reach a large population and the ease in collecting data. As the world today is now electronically connected through the services of social media sites and email, the distribution and also collection of data becomes exponentially easier and faster.

Experiment Manipulation/Interventions/Instrumentation As said before, the researcher designed the instrument used for collecting data—a survey or questionnaire—containing mostly multiple-choice questions. The researcher used a survey for its efficiency in obtaining responses at a rapid rate. Thus, with more responses, better estimates of the population’s true opinions were made. In terms of the cost-effectiveness null hypothesis, the researcher included two questions; for the ethics null hypothesis, the researcher included two questions as well. The first

Gene Therapy

question dealing with cost-effectiveness provided the same information (the price of Glybera) to all survey participants, hoping to receive their “yes” or “no” answer of whether or not they would pay for such a treatment. The second question for cost-effectiveness asks the participants to use the cost of their past medical experiments to produce an ideal price range for gene therapy. This question does however include a flaw, since the need for major surgeries for injuries, the rise of severe illnesses like cancer, and other circumstantial situations would cause an inflation on the annual amount spent on medical treatments. Nevertheless, the ability to control such a flaw is improbable. Since gene therapy could be divided into two parts—healing and enhancement—the questions dealing with ethics offered the definitions of gene healing and gene enhancement (formed by the researcher from the research on current literature on gene therapy) to all the participants. As said before, the researcher expected to use the variety of beliefs held by specific religions and morals developed through certain cultures to develop conclusions that generalizes the public’s opinion.

Data Collection This survey or questionnaire was distributed by posting the link to the survey on the social media site Facebook and through emailing the link to Houston Christian High School’s parents and faculty along with family and friends of this researcher. Also, this researcher expected individuals who completed the survey to also share this link. The time this survey was available to the public began on October 21, 2013, and ended December 3, 2013. No reminders were given in the process of collecting responses to the survey.

31 Assumptions In order to create a substantial generalization of the public’s responses, the researcher held many assumptions to test the null hypotheses. For example, the researcher assumed that the participants would be honest in their responses. Furthermore, the assumptions of a typical population and normal distributions also were made in the process of analyzing the data collected.

Limitations Because of limitations on time, money, and resources, the researcher deliberately did not study the public’s opinions on the risks of gene therapy as these opinions are subject to change as the risks are likely to decrease in the future. The continual trials for gene therapy would only further the perfection of the process. Also, since there are many different gene therapy treatments—each with their own risks—the amount of information to explain to the general public would be overly tedious as well. The researcher also avoided the topic of gene therapy’s cost in the future as that is subject to change as well. If gene therapy treatments came in the size of pills, then the supply would be greater, creating a lower cost. Thus, in conclusion, there are simply too many uncertainties regarding the future in general, so these aspects of the problem remained outside the researcher’s interests.

On the other hand, the researcher could have improved the research design and sampling size by having access to the costs of current trials for gene therapy and a larger, more diversified population.

Findings

Data Analysis Plan

Sample

The researcher conducted analysis on the collected data from the survey through inferential statistics. Utilizing a one-proportion z-test for each null hypothesis, where p equals the proportion of the population who believes gene therapy is (1) cost-effective or (2) ethical. If p was significantly greater than or equal to 50%, then the researcher would not be able to nullify the null hypothesis tested. If p was significantly less than 50%, then the researcher had compiled enough evidence against the null hypothesis to validate the alternative hypothesis.

In total, the researcher obtained 196 responses. In terms of the sample reached in this researcher’s experiment, the age ranged from 15 to 65, with the understanding that some did not answer the age question and also the researcher had to discredit one improbable answer of 300,000.

For ethnicity, the survey tended to reach mainly Caucasians (72% of the population) with Asian or Pacific Islanders running in second (12% of the population).

Ethical Consideration In order to protect the human subjects, the phrase “taking this survey indicates your consent for your response to be used in my research” was included in the email and also the survey sent to the public. Since the population’s views may change in the future and some views may seem offensive to others, the researcher will not hold the responses against the human subjects. Furthermore, the responses remained anonymous to prevent emotional or physical harm to the subject when the conclusion of the data collected is presented.

Occupation ranged from all sorts of fields (shown in Figure 1A), showing the survey’s success in obtained answers from a population with a widespread of fields. The “other” category would include “occupations” such as homemakers or students.

Bias Since the link to the survey was distributed through a social media site and multiple emails, the study design and instrument presented a bias against people without access to computers. Furthermore, the survey was in English, creating a bias against people who are illiterate in the English language or even blind. Also, since a majority of the responses came from an email to Houston Christian High School’s faculty and staff, the data collection process naturally created biases. Furthermore, access to the link on Facebook was limited to only the researcher’s “friends.” These “friends” most likely held similar views and were raised in similar circumstances as the researcher. As a result, the study design was bias towards Christians, the richer population, and the Caucasian population.

Figure 1A Next, a plurality of the sample earned more than $10,000 a month (46% of the population) and was predominantly Christian (93% of the population) as shown in Figure 1B.

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Figure 2B Figure 1B The “other” category included a Jehovah Witness and several Catholics.

Lastly, the population spends a wide range for medical treatments, with the majority spending in the range of $1,000 to $4,999 per year on average in the last three years. Knowing all this background information of the sample greatly helps the development of an accurate scope to the conclusion.

Survey Findings/Interviews/Observations After the questions over the sample’s background information, the next two questions on the survey focused on the first null hypothesis over price.

As stated previously, since gene therapy was only in its trial stages and not many treatments have reached the market, information on gene therapy’s price was hard to obtain. Nevertheless, a gene therapy treatment known as Glybera recently reached the European markets at a price of $1.6 million dollars. Thus, the researcher utilized this information and formed the question, “Would you pay the price of $1.6 million dollars if a close family member had LPLD?” In addition to this question, the researcher desired to put this price into context by explaining what was LPLD, the reasons for its high price, and current ways of treating this rare disease (which is basically to eat a low-fat diet).

Most importantly, the researcher noticed the price range from $1,000 to $9,999 held 37% of the vote, more than any other price range.

The last two questions revolved around the second null hypothesis over ethics. In summary, gene therapy treatments can be divided into two classifications: healing and enhancement. Consequently, in order to determine gene therapy’s ethicalness, the researcher decided to acquire the survey participants’ opinions on whether each classification was ethical or unethical. As a result, this inquiry produced the two questions (1) “Is genetically healing ethical?” and (2) “Is gene enhancement ethical?” With these questions, the researcher also provided definitions. Gene healing was “the changing or replacing of a faulty gene to heal a disease,” while gene enhancement was “the adding or changing traits to the human body.”

Figure 2C According to the results found in Figures 2C, an overwhelming 91% of the sample believed gene healing was, in fact, ethical.

Figure 2A As seen in Figure 2A, 89% of the sample replied “no” to this question; therefore, the researcher could conclude that the majority of the sample would not pay for the LPLD treatment and would prefer enduring a lowfat diet instead.

As the majority would not pay for a $1.6 million dollar treatment, the researcher desired to obtain the public’s ideal price for gene therapy by having the participants answer the following question “What would be your ideal price range for genetic therapy treatments?” after comparing with the cost of past medical procedures. The responses to this question varied from all ranges set by the researcher, which can be seen in Figure 2B.

Figure 2D According to the results found in Figures 2D, 35% of the sample believed gene enhancement was ethical. So, as long as gene therapy never crosses the line from healing to enhancement, the majority of the sample would

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support gene therapy and its many benefits.

would pay for Glybera and then what would be the sample’s ideal price of gene therapy.

Analysis

Previously, the final decision on Glybera’s price of $1.6 million dollars was that it was cost prohibitive to anyone except the wealthy. Nevertheless, the researcher’s findings furthered this statement. With a plurality of the sample earning more than $10,000 a month, the findings concluded that the majority (89%) would not pay for a $1.6 million dollar treatment. In other words, even the wealthy individuals would have issues with paying for such an expensive treatment. As the only alternative to treating this rare disease was to take on a low-fat diet, most people would prefer this alternative rather than paying the price of Glybera. With that said, the researcher’s sample follows the trend to criticize the prices of other rare diseases. Originally, since gene therapy is commonly thought to be permanent (which can be true or untrue depending on the treatment), the cost could be justified; but according to these findings, this price may still be out of reach for those with LPDP, wealthy or not (Staff Writer, 2012; Whalen, 2012).

In order to statistically analyze the responses from the survey, the researcher performed a one-proportion z-test. If the p-value obtained was less than .05, the researcher would reject the null hypothesis.

For the first null hypothesis—gene therapy is cost-effective—the researcher used only the data collected from the first question over LPLD. While the price of gene therapy treatments would inevitably fluctuate depending on different diseases, the researcher concluded his findings over price with Glybera’s price as the experiment’s baseline. After performing the oneproportion z-test, the p-value obtained was zero, which means that the proportion of the sample population that believed gene therapy was costeffective was significantly less than 50%. As a result, the researcher must reject the null hypothesis and uphold the alternative hypothesis that gene therapy is not cost-effective when taking into account a currently available gene therapy treatment’s price.

For the second null hypothesis—gene therapy is ethical—the researcher performed two one-proportion z-tests to determine if (1) gene healing and if (2) gene enhancement were ethical. The p-value in the first experiment was one; the p-value in the second experiment, 9.82 x 10-6. The first p-value was greater than .05, causing the researcher to retain the null. The second p-value was less than .05, causing the researcher to reject the null.

In other words, the proportion of the sample that believed gene healing was ethical was significantly greater than 50%, while the proportion of the sample that believed gene enhancement was ethical was significantly less than 50%. As a result, in the majority’s opinion, gene healing is ethical while gene enhancement is not ethical.

In summary, the first null hypothesis was rejected, leading the researcher to accept the alternative hypothesis that, in the majority’s opinion, gene therapy is not cost-effective. Next, the second null hypothesis was divided into two parts: gene healing and gene enhancement. Gene healing was considered ethical in the majority’s opinion; gene enhancement, unethical in the majority’s opinion. The researcher then upholds the first null hypothesis for gene healing while rejects the null hypothesis for gene enhancement, leaving gene healing is ethical but gene enhancement is not ethical.

Discussion These findings from the researcher’s survey contributed to the discussion found in the review of related literature. Again, gene therapy involves the “insertion of a functioning gene into cells to correct a cellular dysfunction or to provide a new cellular function” (Cotrim & Baum, 2008). Though gene therapy seems to hold enormous potential, the researcher wished to discover aspects that may possibly hinder gene therapy from being a worthy pursuit. In summary, the three final aspects were gene therapy’s risks, the costs, and the ethics. Like previously stated, the risks would most likely decrease as scientists continue to perfect the gene therapy procedures. In fact, a simple search on the worldwide web would produce countless more successes than the year before; in other words, the amount of risks involved in gene therapy would reduce with time and more research. As a result, the researcher deliberately focused on finding the majority’s opinion on the last two aspects: cost and ethics.

Findings on Cost In the review of related literature, the researcher concluded that gene therapy treatments would be improbable to attain for a common patient in today’s society. Since Glybera was the first gene therapy treatment on the market, official prices of other gene therapy treatments cannot be found.

Consequently, the researcher decided to find out whether his sample

Next, the results of the Glybera question generate another question on what would then be the majority’s ideal price. The findings produced $1,000 to $9,999 as the leading price range, with 37% of the vote. Keep in mind, $1,000 to $9,999 is significantly lower than Glybera’s $1.6 million and also the brain atrophy treatment’s $100,000 for the first two years (Lopatto, 2012; Staff Writer, 2012; Whalen, 2012). As a result, the current prices available for market and trial gene therapy treatments do not fit the majority’s ideal price range.

Also, in the review of related literature, the researcher discussed intellectual property and genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Both ideas tie into the findings found in the researcher’s study. With intellectual property, the researcher found that scientific research priority lies in caring for the rich rather than the poor. Like previously said, the rich should be able to dictate what is being researched and continually obtain intellectual property from the poor’s cheap labor. Nevertheless, if even the wealthy desires a lower cost for gene therapy treatments, would not the price decrease?

With GMOs, the researcher concluded that research companies earned the majority of the profits. (Abergel). Applying this idea to gene therapy, the research companies of gene therapy would naturally profit the most; hence, the price of gene therapy would probably be expensive.

In the end, the findings concur with what was found in the review of related literature. With the rejection of the null hypothesis, the findings conclude gene therapy is not cost-effective or not worth the cost. Likewise, many criticized the price of Glybera; thus, the researcher considered it safe to deduce that gene therapy treatments would continue to retain its expensiveness. Will all treatments be around $1.6 million? Probably not as gene therapy treatments are the future of medicinal.

Findings on Ethics From the review of related literature, the researcher found that there are two types of gene therapy treatments: gene healing and gene enhancement.

As most individuals would not question the aspect of healing, many may question the ethics of gene enhancement. Gene enhancement would bring eugenics to a whole different level, and gene enhancement naturally becomes the next step after gene healing (Rifkin, 2006).

Nevertheless, scientists promise that the focus would be on “repairing” rather than “replacing”; thus, scientists will postpone the existence of gene enhancement treatments (Gert, 2001).

All this said, these precautions basically reveal even scientists consider gene enhancement unethical compared to the less controversial gene healing.

The researcher’s survey aimed to determined what the majority thought about the ethicalness of gene healing and gene enhancement. In summary, the gene healing part of the null was retained; the gene enhancement part

Gene Therapy

34

was rejected. Thus, according to the majority’s opinion, gene healing is ethical (91%); gene enhancement is unethical (65%). These results would support the precautions taken by the scientists. With a mainly Christianpopulated sample, the researcher concluded that most likely the Christian morals and values conflict with a person “replacing” instead of “repairing” one’s genes. Moreover, the most of the sample can be classified as “rich”; thus, the rich, who are most likely the only ones able to benefit from gene enhancement treatments, would not agree with such a procedure.

Despite the researcher presenting two distinct definitions for gene healing versus gene enhancement, the line between these two types of gene therapy treatments can become obscure. On the other hand, extremes definitely exist. For example, parents can genetically alter their babies before birth to obtain super strength, intelligence, resistance to toxins, and many more (Gert, 2001). On the other hand, gene healing can cure cancer.

Yet, where is the line between the ethical and unethical distinctly drawn?

Taking a previous example stated, one company intended to develop a treatment for hair loss for those who suffer from chemotherapy (Anderson, 1999). This motive seems genuine and ethical; however, a gene is added into a person’s genome. Therefore, in the end, this treatment is classified as gene enhancement. Also, when humans grow old, their hair falls out or becomes white. This gene would stimulate hair growth or even cause the hair to retain its natural color. A person could easily argue when a man grows older, genes begin to become faulty; consequently, these new genes inserted into the body will only repair the faulty ones. If the argument wins, human beings will continue to look young and never look old; next, human beings will not only preserve the outside appearance but the inward functions as well.

In the end, the line separating gene healing and enhancement does not exist, but in the future, a set location for such a line will most likely be debated frequently. For now, the researcher’s findings state gene healing is ethical and gene enhancement is unethical.

Implications Mainly, the researcher conducted the experiment to set parameters according to the sample’s opinion. In other words, the researcher wishes to inform scientists on the public’s opinion on the ideal price and potential limitations for gene therapy. These findings established certain policies such as the ideal price of gene therapy. With a price range from $1,000 to $9,999, the research companies of gene therapy would most likely achieve success in selling their products. The second policy concerns the gene therapy’s research practice. Presently, the researcher’s findings reveal the majority would remain uncomfortable if scientists researched how to genetically enhance the human body; therefore, scientists should solely focus on gene healing. Lastly, the findings distinctly lay out the majority’s thoughts on the extremes of gene therapy; however, the obscure middle area remains untouched. So, a future study on where exactly is the line between what is ethical and unethical in gene therapy should be conducted.

Conclusion The researcher findings clearly laid out a portion of the public’s opinion on gene therapy. While the findings may be biased towards high-income and Christian individuals, the findings do present information worth considering in future research concerning gene therapy. In the quantitative research design, the two null hypotheses tested were in the majority’s opinion, gene therapy is cost-effective and in the majority’s opinion, gene therapy is ethical. The first null hypothesis was rejected, leading the researcher to accept the alternative to the null hypothesis. Simply, the majority believed that gene therapy was not cost-effective and would not be a worthy pursuit unless the price ranges from $1,000 to $9,999. The second null hypothesis was then split into two subsections: gene healing and gene

enhancement. For the researcher’s findings on ethics, the researcher did not collect enough evidence against the null hypothesis with gene healing but did collect enough evidence against the null hypothesis with gene enhancement, leaving the first part of the null hypothesis retained but the second rejected.

Remaining Questions All in all, these findings did lead the researcher to further questions. At the crux, gene therapy is a treatment to pursue perfection through genetics.

Then, what is perfection? In terms of definition, perfection comes from “perficio,”—“to finish” (Lowndes, 2008). As a result, “perfectio(n)” literally translates to “a finishing” (Lowndes, 2008). Perfection is “in essence, a being or object in its whole, complete state” (Lowndes, 2008). Socially, this “whole, complete state” of perfection means a beautiful body on the outside and a healthy body on the inside. In other words, gene therapy can help one obtain inward and outward “perfection.” Like all good research, the review of related literature leads the researcher to further questions involving the concept of immortality, the role of healthcare insurance, the cosmetic industry, the nutritional industry, and the use of genetic pedigrees or family trees. Nevertheless, the researcher focused more on the last two subjects for question—the nutritional industry and the use of genetic pedigrees (or more commonly referred to as family trees). So as a result of researching gene therapy, the researcher looked into two related questions: (1) how are the nutritional supplements industries impacting the United States economically today? and (2) how has the benefits of genetic pedigrees affect the United States socially today?

Nutritional Supplements Also, as some people recognize health issues in the United States, they have acted upon gaining a healthy body. Nonetheless, these actions may not include working out, exercising, or eating right; instead, why not just pop in a nutritional supplement pill? According from a report from Packaged Facts Nutritional Supplements in the U.S., this industry’s sales hit $11.5 billion in 2012 and predict sales hitting $15.5 billion by 2017 (Shultz, 2012). For example, the industry Herbalife has collected revenue of $14 billion and continues to grow at a 5.7% annual growth rate (“Vitamin & supplement manufacturing…,” 2013). With that statistic, the researcher echoed the success of the nutritional supplements industry.

Currently, while multivitamins are not doing too well, “conditionedspecific products are doing especially well” (Shultz, 2012). These products include digestive supplements, Omega-3s (heart health supplements), joint health supplements, and eye supplements (Shultz, 2012). Joint health supplements alone posted $140 million in sales (14% increase from the previous year); eye supplements posted $114 million in sales (9% increase from the previous year) (Shultz, 2012). As clearly seen, many Americans utilized supplements for their ease in maintaining a healthy body.

Furthermore, the consumers over the age of 65 (Baby Boomers) make up the “backbone” of market support for supplements in the United States (Shultz, 2012). On the other hand, the supplement usage rates among younger consumers have been declining (Shultz, 2012).

Inevitably, the supplements industry holds a large influence on the United States’ economy. A study from National Products Foundation showed “the dietary supplement industry to the U.S. economy is [earning] more than three times annual consumer sales, or $61 billion dollars per year” (“New study shows…,” 2014). Beyond that fact, this industry provides through production and sales a total of 450,000 jobs (“New study shows…,” 2014). The industry’s success makes the dietary supplement industry an important part of the United States economy. In fact, it is connected to multiple other industries: retail and wholesale trades; real estate, rental, and leasing; finance and insurance; professional, scientific, and technical services; and manufacturing (“New study shows…,” 2014). As a result, the

Gene Therapy

dietary supplement industry becomes interconnected to other industries and ultimately the United States economy. With the growth of sales in the industry, the extended effects on the economy remain as well, providing sustainable jobs, manufacturing infrastructure, and health care benefits by way of prevention (“New study shows…,” 2014). The industry is doing extremely well; even if the economy becomes unstable, the industry will continue to find success (“New study shows…,” 2014).

The industries of supplements have rooted themselves for success in the future. They continue to collect a large number of faithful consumers; as a result, their impact on the United States economy has risen. Supplements now treat a wide range of parts of the body. As people continue to buy these supplements to obtain a healthy body, this industry has connected itself to the United States economy, such as providing 450,000 jobs. With the industry booming, the pursuit of inward perfection can be clearly seen high on people’s priority list.

Genetic Pedigrees The next remaining question revolves around the uses of genetic pedigrees and their social implications. Today, genetic pedigrees seem to be a positive result of genetics in action, showing that gene therapy will most definitely have positive consequences as well. Specifically, since humans have long known that diseases seem to be passed down from one generation to the next, the genetic pedigrees can become a powerful “screening tool” that has often been referred to as the best “genetic test” (“Understanding genetics…,” 2010).

Often, both common and rare diseases can be found in families (“Understanding genetics…,” 2010). As a result, family history provides substantial information about a person past and future (“Understanding genetics…,” 2010). In other words, genetic pedigrees allow doctors to be able to diagnose at-risk family members for certain diseases. It is important to note that not all diseases are childhood disorders but can be developed during a patient’s adult years as well (“Understanding genetics…,” 2010).

On the other hand, genetic pedigrees can also accurately predict which common diseases would not affect a certain family; however, the absence of a certain genetic disorder in one’s family history should not be rule out completely (“Understanding genetics…,” 2010). In the end, all this information becomes crucial in the identification of potential health problems in the future. For example, five to ten percent of all breast cancer are found to be hereditary (“Understanding genetics…,” 2010).

Another example is Alzheimer’s disease, where in some cases this disease is hereditary (“Understanding genetics…,” 2010). Therefore, the doctor and patient are able to act upon these potential dangers to reduce risks by “implementing lifestyle changes and increasing disease surveillance” (“Understanding genetics…,” 2010).

With family history being such an important tool, the use of pedigrees should be encouraged and utilized. A pedigree is simply a visual representation of “family members and relationships using standardized symbols” (“Understanding genetics…,” 2010). Information on these pedigrees usually include general information such as names and

35 birthdates, family origins or racial/ethnic backgrounds, health status, ages of deaths and causes of death for each family member, and pregnancy outcomes (“Understanding genetics…,” 2010). With such information, genetic pedigrees should be updated more often in hopes to being able to avoid future problems with genetic disorders or diseases.

Nowadays, family trees have many uses, including the possibility of connecting with unknown family members or the discovering one’s ethnicity. Nevertheless, pedigrees with genetic information take the uses of pedigrees to another level. Pedigrees have the ability to indirectly preserve life and health of patients. Sites, such as ancestry.com, have come to this same realization and have offer the ability to form pedigrees with “advance DNA science” at the cost of $99. Even with such a cost, people should consider forming their family pedigrees, taking into account all the benefits that come with these simple family trees.

Biblical Connection After considering how gene therapy connects to the world today, the researcher concludes gene enhancement is not worth the cost when compared to the present consequences of pursuing the ever-changing status of “perfection.” Even so, where does one draw the line in enhancing the body? On the other hand, humans are still required to take care of their appearance and sustain personal hygiene and even health. As seen through the use of genetics in pedigrees, not all gene therapy treatments are necessarily “bad.” Nonetheless, in Psalms 139:13, David writes, “For you formed my inward parts; you knitted me together in my mother’s womb.”

In this verse, humans must acknowledge the work of God, who created humans individually and uniquely. If scientists were to genetically alter God’s work permanently, this act defeats the whole purpose of God creating each human being for His eternal good will. In other words, humans now control their own genes, which was once surrendered to God’s will. While having control of one’s own genes should be discouraged, the change is not plainly stated in the Bible to be a sin. If it were a sin, one can argue that dyeing one’s hair color is a sin also. In approach to this argument, 1 Peter 3:3 states, “Do not let your adorning be external–the braiding of hair and the putting on of gold jewelry, or the clothing you wear.” In other words, God commands humans not to be consumed with the external.

If humans are too focused on glorifying themselves, they will miss the purpose of glorifying the God that truly deserves praise and worship and glory. Therefore, when one considers genetic enhancements, one must ask the question: What is the purpose of getting this gene replaced and whom would it glorify? In fact, this question applies to many decisions today, but man remains confused on what his priorities are. At the end of the day, the main priority is definitely the perfection found from within, mentioned in 1 Samuel 16:7 with how “the Lord looks on the heart.” So, God desires virtuous men; men that seek to glorify God rather than themselves. David was a man after God’s own heart. While even David was not sinless and therefore not perfect, his heart was the Lord’s. He pursued perfection in terms of a righteous life more than he sought outward perfection. Thus, if gene therapy is ever to be utilized, it must lie in the boundaries of healing instead of enhancement.

Gene Therapy

References

Anderson, W. (1999). A cure that may cost us ourselves. Newsweek.

Retrieved May 5, 2013, from http://www.thedailybeast.com/ newsweek/1999/12/31/a-cure-that-may-cost-us-ourselves.html Anti-cancer gene therapy shows promise. (2009, June 9). United Press International. Retrieved from http://www.fofweb.com/activelink2. asp?ItemID=WE48&SID=5&iPin= UPI-1-20090609-155523-bcskorea-lungcancer&SingleRecord=True.

Abergel, E. (n.d.). The hidden cost of genetic engineering. Alive.

Retrieved May 5, 2013, from http://www.alive.com/articles/ view/17388/the_hidden_cost_of_genetic_engineering Black, J. (2012). As nature made them. Prevention, 64(4), 82. Retrieved from EBSCOhost (00328006).

Bouguerra, M. L. (2005). Gene therapy and research may benefit only the wealthy. Current Controversies: Genetic Engineering. Ed. R. Espejo. San Diego: Greenhaven Press.

Coghlan, A. (2010). Blood disorder cured -- a first for gene therapy. New Scientist, 207(2778), 01. Retrieved from EBSCOhost (02624079).

Cohen, P. (2003). Fresh blow for gene treatments as safety of a second virus is questioned. New Scientist. 178(2398), 17. Retreived from EBSCOhost (02624079).

Cotrim, A. P. & Baum, B. J. (2008, January). Gene therapy: Some history, applications, problems, and prospects. Toxicologic Pathology, 36(1), 97-101. doi: 10.1177/0192623307309925 Cross, D. & Burmester, J. K. (2006). Gene therapy for cancer treatment: Past, present and future. Clinical Medicine & Research, 4(3), 218227. Retrieved August 26, 2013, from http://www.clinmedres.org/ content/4/3/218.long Do the benefits of human genetic engineering outweigh the cost? (2013).

Message posted to http://www.debate.org/opinions/do-the-benefitsof-human-genetic-engineering-outweigh-the-costs Editors of Salem Press. (2008). Gene therapy. Magill’s Medical Guide, 4th Rev. ed. Salem Press.

Gert, Bernard. (2001). Genetic engineering of humans is largely unethical. In J. D. Torr (Ed.), Opposing viewpoints: Genetic engineering. San Diego: Greenhaven Press.

Lopatto, E. (2012, December 19). Gene therapy extends lives of children with brain disease. Retrieved April 15, 2013, from http://www. bloomberg.com/news/2012-12-19/gene-therapy-extends-lives-ofchildren-with-brain-disease.html

36 Lowndes, J. (2008). Striving for perfection. Art of Healing, 3(24), 14-15.

Retrieved from EBSCOhost (14491680).

New study shows dietary supplement industry contributes more than $60 billion to national economy. (2014). National Products Foundation.

Retrieved February 20, 2014, from http://www.naturalproductsinfo. org/index.php?src=news&srctype=detail&category=DSIB%20 Releases&%20refno=181&view=DSIB_Releases_Detail Rifkin, J. (2006). Gene therapy may not be beneficial to society. In S. Engdahl (Ed.), Contemporary Issues Companion: Genetic Engineering. Detroit: Greenhaven Press.

Shultz, H. (2012, September 20). Supplement sales hit $11.5 billion in U.S., report says. William Reed Business Media. Retrieved February 20, 2014, from http://www.nutraingredients-usa.com/Markets/ Supplement-sales-hit-11.5-billion-in-U.S.-report-says Skelly, A. (2007, September 11). Death puts gene therapy trail on hold.

Medical Post, (28), 6. Retrieved from eLibrary (00257435).

Staff Writer. (2012, November 5). Costly gene therapy approved for commercial use in Europe. The Information Daily. Retrieved April 16, 2013, from http://www.theinformationdaily.com/2012/11/05/ costly-gene-therapy-approved-for-commercial-use-in-europe Strom, S. (2013, March 8). Major grocer to label foods with genemodified content. New York Times. Retrieved May 5, 2013, from http://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/09/business/grocery-chain-torequire-labels-for-genetically-modified-food.html?pagewanted=all Teresko, J. (1997). Gene therapy for plants. Industry Week/IW, 246(2), 67.

Retrieved from EBSCOhost (00390895).

Understanding genetics: A New England guide for patients and health professionals. (2010). Washington, D.C.: Genetic Alliance. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK132175/ Vitamin & supplement manufacturing in the US: Market research report.

(2013, October). IBISWorld. Retrieved February 20, 2014, from http://www.ibisworld.com/industry/default.aspx?indid=490 Whalen, J. (2012). Gene-therapy approval marks major milestone. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved August 2, 2013, from http://online. wsj.com/article/SB1000142405297020370760457809509194087152 4.html Wynbrandt, J., & Ludman, M. D. (n.d.). History of human genetics. In The Encyclopedia of Genetic Disorders and Birth Defects (3rd ed.). Retrieved from http://www.fofweb. com/activelink2.asp?ItemID=WE48&SID=5&iPin= ENGET0001&SingleRecord=True.

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Appendix

Copy of Survey Hi, this is Kevin Chin. I am currently enrolled in a course known as Distinguished Scholars Program (DSP), which allows students to research a topic of their interest. Having researched Gene Therapy for my junior year, I now hold the task of collecting data for this coming year. Please consider taking this survey for my research. Furthermore, if you would share this link with others, I would be extremely grateful. Your response will remain anonymous. Finally, taking this survey indicates your consent for your response to be used in my research. Thanks again for your time.

1. Age 2. Ethnicity a. Caucasian

e. Asian or Pacific Islander

b. African-American

f. American Indian or Alaskan Native

c. Hispanic

g. Other

d. Filipino 3. Occupation a. Arts, Entertainment, & Sports

e. Public and Social Services

b. Business

f. Science, Math, and Technology

c. Health and Medicine

g. Trades and Personal Services

d. Media and Social Sciences

h. Other

4. Personal Monthly Income a. Less than $1,000

c. $5,000 - $10,000

b. $1,000 - $4,999

d. More than $10,000

5. Estimate the Average Amount Spent on Medical Treatments Annually in the Last 3 Years a. Less than $1,000

c. $5,000 - $10,000

b. $1,000 - $4,999

d. More than $10,000

6. Religion a. Christian

e. Buddhist

b. Jewish

f. Non-religious

c. Muslim

g. Other

d. Hindu 7. Would you pay the price of $1.6 million dollars if a close family member had LPLD? Glybera is the only gene therapy treatment on the European (not on American) market. Currently, it costs $1.6 million dollars. A major contributor to the development of Glybera, Dutch Company UniQuire, justifies this price by the simple fact that Glybera reaches a small market of lipoprotein lipase deficiency (LPDP) victims. LPLD causes a person to be inable to process fat; thus, the victim’s blood has high levels of fat, which causes adominal pain. Currently, a way to treat LPLD is to eat a low-fat diet. a. Yes

b. No

8. What would be your ideal price range for genetic therapy treatments?

Answer with comparisons to the cost of past medical procedures a. Less than $100

e. $50,000 - $99,999

b. $100 - $999

f. $100,000 - $999,999

c. $1,000 - $9,999

g. $1,000,000 - $2,000,000

d. $10,000 - $49,999

h. More than $2,000,000

9. Is genetically healing a person ethical?

Genetic healing - the changing or replacing of a faulty gene to heal a disease a. Yes

b. No

10. Is gene enhancement ethical?

Gene enhancement - the adding or changing traits to the human body (could range from changing hair color to becoming like Captain America) a. Yes

b. No

37

Gene Therapy

Copy of Survey Results Age (List of ages found below) 35 36 34 39 37 38 43 42 40 22 24 25 26 27 30 17 18 15 16 70 59 58 57 56 55 65 62 60 61 49 48 45 44 300,000 47 46 51 52 53 54 50 Ethnicity

Occupation

Personal Monthly Income

Estimate the Average Amount Spent on Medical Treatments Annually in the Last 3 Years

38

Gene Therapy Religion

Would you pay the price of $1.6 million dollars if a close family member had LPLD?

What would be your ideal price range for genetic therapy treatments?

Is genetically healing a person ethical?

Is gene enhancement ethical?

Number of daily responses

39

The History, Influence, and Symbiotic Relationship of Religion in America Charles C. Duffy

Religion And Politics

43

Table of Contents

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 History Of Religious Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Religion and Politics 1940-2010. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Billy Graham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Rise of the Christian Right. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Effects On American Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Obama and the Current Consensus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Participants and Sampling Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Research Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Experimental Manipulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Data Collections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Data Analysis Plans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Ethical Consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Sample. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Remaining Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Mega Churches and Millennials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Biblical Connections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Appendix I: Survey Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Appendix II: Survey Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Appendix III: Case Study Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Religion And Politics

45

Abstract

This researcher examined the current literature on the topic of the symbiotic relationship of religion and politics in America and devised experimental processes to test these claims and add new data to the field of study. This researcher hoped to bring quantitative data to a field of study that is often qualitative as well as make accurate predictions about the future of religion and politics in America. This researcher composed two null hypotheses; first, the majority of the American public does not base their view of the presidential candidates on the candidate’s religion and second, religious rhetoric has no effect on the outcome of a presidential race. The researcher utilized a convenience study and also a case study to test the null hypotheses. This researcher collected statistically significant data suggesting that the Houston Christian High School community does base their view of a presidential candidate on the candidate’s religion, and ultimately rejected the first null hypothesis. The case study was inconclusive and the second null was upheld. For further research, the war on Christmas and Christian oppression in America was examined. This researcher found that the “war of Christmas” is a cultural movement against the Christian focus of Christmas in both America and secular European countries. Then, this researcher found that there were instances of legal and cultural oppression to Christians in America.

Religion And Politics

Introduction

Even though America’s founding document, “The Constitution of the United States”, never explicitly prohibits the integration of ecclesiastical institutions and secular government, America has long held the common belief that church and state should be separated; however, the degree of separation between the two has blurred from the 1960`s to the present.

Many Americans are now questioning the validity of separating the church and state. This new movement was apparent in the 2012 presidential election where, at least partially, the election was decided because some members of the religious right did not vote, just because they did not want to vote for a non-Christian (Bronson, 2012). Like the 2012 election, every election since the 1960`s, where religion become fully and irrevocably intertwined with politics, has been affected by a candidate’s religion even though there are multiple laws to keep religious matters inside church bounds (Turner, n.d). But because 82% of the American populace identifies with some type of religion, it would be impossible to totally purge politics of the effects of religion (Turner, n.d). Given the permeation of religious values in politics, no political event, from a city council meeting to a national election, is free from church influences. Due to this, many politicians and religious leaders have strong opinions about whether politics should be overtly influenced by religion or whether the status quo should remain, as it has since the 1800’s, to keep the church and state distinctly separate.

In this paper, the “religious right” refers to the majority of evangelical Christianity, Roman Catholics, most Protestants, Orthodox Jews, and even some American Muslims and their conservative views (Halton, 2007).

When addressing Christians only, this researcher is making a specific reference to Judeo-Christan beliefs. The concept of the church refers to Christian religious organizations, typically one with its own clergy, buildings, and distinctive doctrines. Finally, when discussing the “state,” this researcher is referring to civil government.

History Of Religious Integration The argument of the role of church in state affairs traces back to the Bill of Rights, an appeasement document that was designed to placate Democrats who were concerned with the power of the new national government. The text from the First amendment of the Bill of Rights reads: Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.

However, contrary to popular belief, this amendment never explicitly outlines the necessity of the separation of church and state (Dreisbach, 2006). Rather belief and, ultimately, tradition of the separation of Church and State has been the status quo since Thomas Jefferson’s era (Dreisbach, 2006).

Jefferson was an outspoken advocate of the separation of church and state. In a letter to fellow president John Adams, Jefferson described “this loathsome combination of church and state” as a method of government where religious leaders will always “avail themselves for their own purpose (Thompson, 1986).” Jefferson also is credited with coining the term “wall of separation” (Thompson, 1986). In a letter to the Baptist Association of Danbur Jefferson writes: I contemplate with sovereign reverence that act of the whole American people which declared that their legislature should “make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof,” thus building a wall of separation between Church and State.

Unsurprisingly the founding fathers had a healthy respect for the ramifications of having a state church; after all, many of their grandparents had migrated away from religious and political persecution in England

47 and other theocratic European nations. Before the Revolutionary war, and even continuing after it, many colonies had a colony religion and all others were outlawed. Massachusetts was a Puritan colony that did not accept other religions well and often times forced “religious radicals” such as Ann Hutchinson, a woman who challenged the role of the “visible saints” and women in puritan society, out. Most colonies accepted all Protestant religion but rejected any Catholics, which in turn caused colonies such as Maryland to be formed as Catholic refuges in the New World. From their experiences with religious persecution both in the old world and the new, many of the founding fathers had a strong opinion that state affairs and religious matters should be separate and neither should hold much weight with the other. Despite the founding fathers honest effort, even early in post Constitution America, religion began working its way into the political sphere.

Currently, the United States has become the most religious country in the Western World; nineteen out of twenty Americans claim belief in God (Halton, 2007). Disturbing to some, this has lead to faith-based movements having almost complete control over political parties. David Halton (2007) notes, “it is now impossible, in the current political context, for an atheist or an agnostic -- or perhaps even a non-churchgoing Christian -- to be elected president of the United States (Bronson, 2012.; Halton, 2007).” This is a long way from the political climate of early America where many of the prominent men in politics were deist intellectuals: George Washington and Ben Franklin to name a few. James Madison, another founding father, once said , “The purpose of the separation of church and state is to keep forever from these shores the ceaseless strife that has soaked the soil of Europe in blood for centuries”(Halton, 2007). Yet, as Charles Turner notes, the Church`s independence from government regulation actually made them stronger, more powerful, and more independent, leading to more (albeit mostly bloodless) strife in the long run (Turner, n.d.).

In the 1800`s, political parties were divided denominationally, Protestant versus Catholic, pietistic versus liturgical (Cambell & Putnam, 2012); however, as Campbell and Putnam (2012) note, “today partisan divisions are not defined by denomination; rather, they pit religiously devout conservatives against secular progressives.” This was not an age old trend, in reality, religion had no partisan affiliation and no political agenda until fairly recently (Cambell & Putnam, 2012 ). Even through the religious boom of the 1950`s with President Nixon’s faith based actions and religious bust of the 1960`s hippie movement, religion did not skew political support to either end of the spectrum (Cambell & Putnam, 2012). Rather, it was the after shock of the 60`s sexual revolution, which the devoutly religious saw as evidence for the moral degradation of American society, that propelled the Church into the realm of state (Cambell & Putnam, 2012).

Clearly, even with cursory research, one can see the correlation between modern politics and religion. Many politicians, like George W. Bush, use religious beliefs to bolster their apparent morality, while others, like John F. Kennedy, are hindered by their religious beliefs (Turner, n.d.; Kennedy, 2010). Many Americans use a political candidate`s religion as an indicator of personal morality, while many others believe religion should have no part in government (Turner, n.d.). Because of these controversies, this researcher thinks it is of utmost importance to any American citizen to understand the trends of religious influence on politics. To fully understand these trends, an interested citizen must ask: how has religion in America affected politics on a national scale since World War II, and what might the issue look like in the future?

Religion and Politics 1940-2010 During the roaring 1920`s, the Great Depression, and World War II, church attendance slowed throughout America (Sullivan, 2010). The end of World War II promised a return to normality, but not long after the jubilee and celebration of the end of one war America had entered

Religion And Politics

another conflict: the Cold War with the Soviet Union (Sullivan, 2010).

During this era, aided by new mediums of communication such as radio and television, evangelical preachers reached larger audiences than ever before, had a profound impact on the religiosity of the nation as a whole, and set new norms for religion in politics (Campbell & Putnam, 2012). For the first time in American history faith would be linked with patriotism, causing a religious revival unlike any seen before in American history (Sullivan, 2010; Campbell & Putnam, 2012).

Billy Graham One engine of this revival was evangelist Billy Graham (Leonard, 2011).

In response to the successful testing of an atomic bomb by the Soviets, Americans became fearful of atomic war with Russia and Billy Graham took this opportunity to preach about the necessity of turning back to God (Zeller, 2011; Leonard, 2011). Throughout the Cold War, Graham traveled the country preaching in a circus tent. One of his speeches most well received speeches was to an audience in Sin City (Las Vegas, Nevada) towards the beginning of the Cold War where he claimed: “Unless the western world has an old-fashioned revival we are done for...we cannot last...we cannot stand the tremendous strain and stress of future days in our battle with communism unless we have a spiritual revival.”

Graham framed the Cold War as a war of good versus evil: a Godless communist Russia against a God-fearing America. This black and white dichotomy brought many to the Christian faith, and quickly transformed Graham into a national figure exemplifying the blend of faith and patriotism that was beginning to become the norm for that age (Zeller, 2011).

National figures soon followed his lead; Dwight D. Eisenhower was baptized as a Presbyterian two weeks after being sworn into office in 1952 (Zeller, 2011). He went on to use Christian faith as a weapon against communism, just as Billy Graham had. He often reminded his cabinet of the importance of faith. The actions of both of these national figures made it clear religion was a sign of democracy in America.

The response to all this religious invocation was astounding. According to Campbell and Putnam (2012), the Gallup pole question, “Is religion’s influence on American life increasing or decreasing?” has served as a “finely tuned seismometer” of religious trends. In 1957, 69% of Americans felt that religious influence on America was on the rise (Cambell & Putnam, 2012). During that time period more Americans were going to church, more churches were being built to accommodate the influx of new members, and more Bibles were being sold and read (Zeller, 2011). By 1960, an unprecedented 63.6% of the population was affiliated with some religious group, and religious services were attended by roughly 60% of the population (Campbell & Putnam, 2012). Further, the average annual monetary contribution to religious groups was at an all-time high during this period (Campbell & Putnam, 2012).

Through Eisenhower`s presidency, religion wove itself deeper and deeper into the fabric of the nation. Eisenhower pushed for the inclusion of “under God” to the Pledge of Allegiance, and it was added with widespread public support (Zeller, 2011; Sullivan, 2010). Two years later, Congress approved the adoption of “In God We Trust” as the national motto. Soon, “In God We Trust” was put on our money and stamps as well (Sullivan, 2010).

The marriage of religion and politics was displayed proudly on July 20, 1957, when 100,000 people jammed into Yankee stadium to hear Billy Graham and then Vice President Richard Nixon speak together (Leonard, 2011). The symbiotic relationship of religion and politics was apparent.

Richard Nixon was thrilled to be aligned with Billy Graham as he would garner votes from Graham`s many followers. Billy Graham was thrilled to be aligned with Richard Nixon because he had access to power. The “wall

48 of separation” was slowly becoming obsolete, which depending on your point of view was a welcome change or a horrible one.

The expansion of faith and patriotism was not attractive to all Americans. A mother, Vashti Mccollum, sued her son`s school for having a Bible class and forcing her son to sit outside if he did not participate (Boston, 2008). Her case lost in the local Illinois court and also the Illinois Supreme Court (Boston, 2008). So, she appealed to the national Supreme Court, and they sided with her, quoting Thomas Jefferson’s famous “wall of separation” between church and state (Boston, 2008). Further tension with the heightened religiosity of America came after the New York school board suggested a prayer for students to recite in school. A group of five Jewish families got together and sued the school (Sullivan, 2010). They lost the local and state level court decisions, but in 1962 the Supreme Court sided with the parents and banned prayer in schools nation wide (Sullivan, 2010).

Civil Rights Movement

As the legal battles over the separation of church and state were being fought, the most important reform movement of the 20th century put religious faith at the center of it political goal. Civil and legal equality of African Americans was a political message, but it was driven by religious arguments (Sullivan, 2010; Dickerson, 2005). The heart of the Civil Rights Movement was the black church, an institution which had sustained African Americans since the abolition of slavery (Dickerson, 2005). After the Rosa Parks incident on public buses in Alabama, Martin Luther King Jr. became the leader of a peaceful bus boycott that would have ramifications beyond his imagination. In his first speech at packed Montgomery church, he blended legal and religious arguments.

“We are not wrong in what we are doing...if we are wrong the Supreme Court of this nation is wrong...if we are wrong the Constitution of the United States is wrong...if we are wrong then God Almighty is wrong” A noted historian Frank Lambert comments, “Martin Luther King saw Americans founding documents as giving voice to fundamental Biblical principles of justice and peace and equality (Sullivan, 2010).” A year later the Supreme Court decided the segregation of Montgomery buses illegal (Sullivan, 2010).

As the Civil Rights Movement linked faith with political change, the candidacy of John F. Kennedy in 1960 reignited the struggle over the separation of church and state (Kennedy, 2010). Many Protestants who had been the majority in America since the colonial period feared a Catholic in the White House would cause a Vatican takeover of the U.S..

Richard Nixon, Kennedy’s opponent in this election was a Protestant and garnered the support of Billy Graham (who as mentioned before almost single handily revived religion in Cold War America) (Zeller, 2011; Sullivan, 2010). In a move reminiscent of the 21st century elections, Billy Graham met with American Protestant ministers in Switzerland to discuss how to keep Kennedy out of the White House (Sullivan, 2010). In response to this and other meetings, Kennedy gave a speech in Houston, Texas to Protestant ministers clarifying his views on the separation of church and state, hoping to ease their fears of a Vatican takeover (Kennedy, 2010).

Kennedy proclaimed: “I believe in an America where the separation of church and state is absolute, where no Catholic prelate would tell the President (should he be Catholic) how to act, and no Protestant minister would tell his parishioners for whom to vote” Kennedy ended up winning his election, yet he was thrown headfirst into another political issue swollen with religious rhetoric. After Kennedy’s election, Martin Luther King Jr. pressured him into acting decisively on the growing civil rights issue (Dickerson, 2005). At the time of his inauguration, President Kennedy was more concerned with Cold War Russia and the impending Cuban missile crisis than African American

Religion And Politics

rights (Kennedy, 2010). In response, King lead many peaceful protests in Birmingham, Alabama hoping the images of police brutality would rouse the conscience of the nation and it`s president (Sullivan, 2010). In the end, it worked: President Kennedy proposed a ground breaking civil rights bill (Dickerson, 2005).

As a PBS (2010) documentary notes, the Exodus story had profound significance for African Americans during the 1960’s. Echos of exodus can be heard in many spirituals, African American songs composed by Christian slaves (Schippe & Stenson, 2006). Many prominent African Americans likened themselves to biblical figures: Harriet Tubman was known as the “Moses of her people” and Martin Luther King Jr. often noted a spiritual parallel between his mission and Moses’ (Schippe & Stenson, 2006). As Rep. John Lewis notes, “Slavery was Egypt, segregation was our Egypt, discrimination was our Egypt. And so during the height of the Civil Rights Movement it was not unusual for people to sing ‘go down Moses way down in Egypt land and tell ole pharaoh to let my people go.’ And People identified with that” (Sullivan, 2010).

Martin Luther King could be said to have been a Moses to his people, pleading with Pharaoh to let his people go. In his 1963 speech, King assumed the personal of an Old Testament prophet. He accused his country of failing to live up to its founding principles, much like biblical prophets often did. (Dickerson, 2005). However, as Reverend Richard Lischer commented, in the middle of his speech, King moved away from his manuscript and abandoned the judgmental Jeremiah-like atmosphere and assumed one of hope, one that saw better days ahead (Sullivan, 2010).

However, King did not stop with civil rights. He also condemned the Vietnam War (Sullivan, 2010). Again he mixed religious ideals with political goals to mobilize his intended audience.

“Don’t let anybody make you think that God chose America as his diving messianic force to be...a sort of policeman of the whole world.

God has a way of standing before the nations with judgment and it seems that I can hear God saying to America ‘You are to arrogant’ ‘if you don`t change your ways I will rise up and break the backbone of your power’” Rev. Richard Lischer commented that he sees King’s ability to use the political system to achieve religious goals but not to allow himself or the faith to become “co-opted”, or controlled and corrupted, by the politicians (Sullivan, 2010). The personal religious revival of the 1950s and Billy Graham was grinding to a halt and the use of religion as a tool of social justice was finally realized due largely to Martin Luther King and the civil rights Movement.

Rise of the Christian Right As religion and politics were becoming more closely linked one group stood apart from the rest: evangelical and fundamentalist Christians. For a half century after the famous 1925 Scopes Trial, or “The Monkey Trial” as it was popularly called, the Evangelicals and Fundamentalists had retreated out of the spotlight of America (Campbell & Putnam, 2012; Zeller, 2011; Sullivan, 2010). During this time, the majority of the Evangelicals were not even registered to vote (Thompson, 1986). Holding politics to be dirty and unseemly, Evangelicals found no merit in it. Before the Sexual Revolution, two famous Evangelicals Pat Robertson and Jerry Falwell, were both very apolitical, that is against using the church as an engine for political change. In fact, Rev. Falwell delivered a famous sermon “Of Ministers and Marchers” where he claimed that pastors ought to preach the gospel and not get involved in anti-Communism or Civil Rights Movements (Thompson, 1986). Then the Sixties happened.

The 1960s marked a dramatic turn in attitudes toward authority, race, sexuality: issues closely joined with religious views. Campbell and Putnam

49 (2012) reported between 1969 and 1973, the percentage of Americans who approved of premarital sex doubled from 25% to 50%. Deeper social issues such as race, sexuality, war, and the role of church in modern America fundamentally changed the1960s religious landscape (Zeller, 2011).

As Pat Robertson noted, “the secular forces invaded the province of the church. We had the Vietnam war, the student rebellion, hippies, flower children, lots of drugs (Sullivan, 2010).” The threat of a secular America drove Conservative Evangelicals out of isolation and back into politics.

The catalyst for that change was Francis Schaeffer an American theologian working in Switzerland (Sullivan, 2010). Schaffer was famous for creating a TV show that spoke out against the humanism prevalent in American popular culture at the time (Sullivan, 2010). Although they had broken into the limelight of America, the floodgates of evangelical political involvement had yet to open.

The event propeling Evangelicals into tangible political action was the 1973 Supreme Court case Roe v. Wade legalizing abortion (Thompson, 1986; Zeller, 2011; Campbell & Putnam, 2012). In response to this court ruling, Francis Schaeffer issued a call to Evangelicals to get back into politics. Schaffer then persuaded well known evangelical minister Rev. Falwell to publicly condemn abortion and take a political stance (Sullivan, 2010). Schaeffer also met many times with Ronald Reagan. Schaffer`s son noted, “[the politicians] began to see [religion] as a way to win elections.

We began seeing winning elections as a way to make our country a better moral place (Sullivan, 2010).” Jerry Falwell was the unifying force in the Evangelical community; he brought all the Evangelical Christians that were on the loose in politics and tried to rally them. In 1979, Falwell launched the Moral Majority, a political organization designed to bring Evangelicals back into politics (Zeller, 2011). By 1980, the Moral Majority had mobilized 10 million Evangelical voters (Sullivan, 2010). In his 1980 campaign, Ronald Reagan set out to capture their votes.

Robert Shrum a democratic political strategist notes, “[religion] helped [Reagan] immensely against Carter. The economy was in terrible shape, the hostages were in Iran, Cater was going to lose, but [the Evangelicals] turned it into a virtual landslide (Sullivan, 2010).” To the Evangelicals, Reagan was a perfect means to put their social agenda into action. During his campaign, Reagan had suggested amending the Constitution to ban abortion, and during his presidency, he proposed a bill to reinstate prayer in public schools, though these never came to fruition (Sullivan, 2010).

As Reverend Cizik commented in the PBS documentary God In America, “unfortunately with [the newfound relevance] came the arrogance that we`re right and everyone else is wrong”. Empowered by the success of the Reagan administration, some Evangelicals heightened their critique of what they perceived as moral decay. This caused Evangelicals to split into two groups: the more aggressive “Religious Right” and the liberal Evangelical movement (Halton, 2007). TV preachers and far right political operatives who used religion to further their own agendas had hijacked the Evangelical movement (Sullivan, 2010). At the height of their power, the Religious Right`s inflammatory rhetoric and a series of scandals surrounding popular TV evangelists set off a backlash, and Reagan began distancing himself from the Evangelicals (Halton, 2007). In the end. none of the evangelical`s social agendas were pursued by the Reagan administration and Jerry Falwell stepped out of the realm of a political religious leader. The torch of Evangelical leadership eventually fell back to Pat Robertson`s Newly formed Christian Coalition (Halton, 2007).

In 2000, the presidential campaign gave Evangelicals a new hope of returning to politics on a national scale. Unlike Reagan, presidential candidate Bush had a personal relationship with God, which for the conservatives was the first time they had had a candidate that shared both their personal and political aspirations (Sullivan, 2010; Halton, 2007). The Evangelicals had high hopes for the next four years. Unfortunately for them, the religious fabric of America was rapidly changing.

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50

Due to 1965 immigration reform laws, American religion was becoming more and more religiously and ethnically diverse (Sullivan, 2010). Islam, Hindi, and Middle Eastern religions were becoming more and more prevalent in every day life. Even though there was an influx of new religions into America, the majority of immigrants were Hispanic Christians. This influx had a dramatic change on the Catholic church, especially in Southern states where the majority of immigrants settled. This rapid change of the demographics of Evangelical churches had a swift effect on Evangelical politics (Sullivan, 2010). In the 2004 presidential race, Bush undeniably fought for the evangelical Hispanic vote by offering support for Hispanic churches through his administration faith based initiatives and promises of immigration reform, a key issue for many Hispanics (Bonson, 2012).

Effects On American Culture All this politicizing of religion and vice versa created an unexpected backlash: it caused young Americans to avoid both (Campbell & Putnam, 2012). Studies showed that youth in the 21st century are more likely to be distrustful of political parties and be political independents and, also, are more likely to be distressful of religion and be agnostic or atheist (Campbell & Putnam, 2012). National polls showed that 15% of Americans were not affiliated with any religion and more than half of those stated they were atheist of agnostic (Sullivan, 2010). There was also an expanding demographic that identified themselves as “spiritual but not religious” (Sullivan, 2010). Nondenominational Evangelical mega-churches were one of the fastest growing phenomena in the mid-2000`s America. Also at this time, many young Evangelicals were beginning to question the social agenda of the religious right (Halton, 2007). The majority of young Evangelicals believed there was a broader spectrum of moral issues than just abortion and homosexuality. In his 2000 campaign, Bush had wooed this younger generation of Evangelicals and in office Bush enacted policies advocated by younger Evangelicals such as proposing AIDS relief and speaking out against violence in Darfur (Sullivan, 2010; Bonson, 2012).

Yet, he did not forget the older Evangelicals, while in office he pushed and passed a bill banning late term abortions and restricting embryonic stem cell research (Bonson, 2012). He also put two religious conservatives in seats in the Supreme Court (Bonson, 2012). However, as the Bush administration became busy with the new war on terror, it became clear to many Evangelicals that yet another Republican president had failed to push key social reforms during their term.

Obama and the Current Consensus The Democrats had a religious epiphany after the 2004 election exemplified

by Barack Obama in 2008 (Sullivan, 2010). In his 2008 presidential race, Barack Obama had finally articulated what Americans had been searching for since the days of Billy Graham: the argument that separating church and state is not the same as separating religion and politics (Sullivan, 2010). Obama articulated a new political consensus where neither party necessarily has an advantage over the other when it comes to moral issues or a larger religious voter base. However, in the 2010 political controversies about the president’s personal faith, the building of a Mosque near ground zero, and the threat by a Florida pastor to burn the Quran would all remind Americans of the constant struggle for the nation’s religious identity (Sullivan, 2010).

Method Purpose In general, most research involving trends in history is measured qualitatively. Additionally, most historical research relating to religion and politics in America is centered on how past actions affected the past, not how the past actions affects the present.

Thus, this researcher aims to provide quantitative data to support historical claims as well as to develop inferences regarding the future.

This researcher focused on two specific questions: first, does religious rhetoric have any effect on the outcome of a presidential race and second, does the American public base their view of the presidential candidate on the candidates religion?

Participants and Sampling Procedures This researcher hoped to study a cross section of American citizens from many socioeconomic backgrounds because the voting population of America is varied and is comprised of people from all areas of society.

However, the survey was a convenience sample that only explored the ideals of the Houston Christian community, so the relevance of the results was limited.

Research Designs To test the two questions mentioned in the purpose statement this researcher used a mixed-method study employing both a case study and a survey. This researcher conducted a causal comparative case study on the effect of a religious rhetoric on presidential race outcomes. This study encompasses major precedential debates of five presidential elections in 1952, 1960, 1980, 2000, and 2012. For each race this researcher read the debate and then analyze the number of times a candidate uses religious rhetoric in the speech. This researcher then found the ratio of religiously charged wording to total words in the speech to find a percentage for each speech. This researcher then averaged the three speeches “religious percentage” and compared the two candidates. This researcher postulates the candidate with the higher “religious percentage” value will have won the election. If not, this researcher would then attempt to understand what factors may have caused this to not be the case.

For the second null hypothesis this researcher conducted a descriptive survey of the basis of voters views on presidential candidate. In the survey, this researcher asked the following questions to have categories to compare results to: 1. What is your age?

2. On a scale of 1 to 10 how important is it for a presidential candidate to share your religious views? (1 being not important, 10 being extremely important) 3. On a scale of 1 to 10 how important is it for a presidential candidate to share your political views? (1 being not important, 10 being extremely important) 4. What is more important to you a candidate’s religious views or their political views?

5. Are there any issues that would cause you to vote against a candidate regardless of their compatibility with your views in other areas (eg., Abortion, death penalty)? If so what?

These two methods were the best way to explore the hypotheses because they are designed to quantify information often studied qualitatively, so it would be studied objectively and without bias.

Experimental Manipulation The survey consisted of four closed-ended and one open-ended question.

The majority of the questions were closed-ended because the goal of this research is to quantify historical trends, which would be difficult to do with open-ended questions. The one open-ended question emphasized the still unquantifiable variable, the human variable. This researcher refers to instances where two separate people have the same views quantitatively yet have vastly different responses when asked an open ended questions. This

Religion And Politics

researcher aimed to quantify Americans’ responses without losing sight of their individuality.

The instrument itself was only as reliable as the participants are. If people picked random numbers haphazardly then the data would be flawed, at the same time if they mark an answer after thoughtful consideration then the data becomes accurate. In this case, the reliability of the data does not depend entirely on the instrument; rather it depends on the participants as well.

Data Collections The survey was distributed to the Houston Christian High School community; both the teachers and students. It was also distributed to Rice University professors. Because the survey was electronic it was impossible to police who had or had not responded. The survey results were recorded and saved automatically online, so collection of responses was not difficult.

Data Analysis Plans To evaluate the first null hypothesis, this researcher used a two-proportion z test. This compared the proportion of campaign winning presidential candidates who utilize religious rhetoric to the proportion of campaign losing presidential candidates who utilize religious rhetoric.

To evaluate the second null hypothesis, this researched used a oneproportion z test, where the variable P is the proportion of America who base view of presidential candidates on the candidate’s religion.

51 Limitations History is a very broad subject, and even a narrow topic such as the history of religion and politics in America is enormously broad. Thus, this researcher did not research a great deal of the interaction of the two. This researcher’s study did not investigate the effect of presidential candidates speeches other than the main debates or their behavior and whether they model in their everyday lives what they preach. Further it did not investigate the reverse effect; the effect of politics on religion. If given more time and real funding this researcher would examine more facets of the complex relationship of religion and politics in post WWII America.

Findings Sample This researcher’s survey was sent to the Houston Christian High School community (students, faculty, and staff) and also professors at Rice University. Thus the sample consisted mainly of middle to upper class American citizens. Further, many of the participants had a Judeo-Christian worldview.

In the actual survey, this researcher asked for the age of the participant in ranges from 10 to 20, 21 to 30, through 81 and older. The resulting data is displayed in Figure 1.

In describing the data, this researcher used percentages, as this form of communicating data is simple and easily understood.

Ethical Consideration This researcher’s two methods of testing did not place participants in physical harm. However, in order to protect the participants and psychological harm, the survey was prefaced with a message explaining the purpose and informing the participant responding to the survey is considered giving consent for their responses to be analyzed anonymously.

Bias This researcher’s survey instrument was designed to be unbiased. For example, the wording of the questions was neutral so as not to influence the participant in any way. However, a bias could arise from the population that the survey reached. For example, the survey would possibly only reflect the ideals of 10-20 year old members of the HCHS community.

However, this was not a total loss for two reasons. First, that segment of the population will be voting within a decade so the results could be a reasonable indication of future trends. Second, many young people simply adopt the ideologies of there parents, so these results could actually illustrate the views of people in the 40-60 age range. Many of the adult participants were also members of the HC community, there still could be bias in the answers of the adult respondents.

Figure 1 In this survey, 75% of the participants were teenagers, which limits the conclusions this researcher was be able to draw from the survey. Only around 1/4 of the participants in this study were old enough to vote; however this researcher hoped the responses from the 10 to 20 age range reflected the beliefs of their parents and were a predictor of the future as the participants in this range are able to vote.

The only bias prevalent in the case study would be this researcher`s. Thus, this researcher only counted obvious references to faith, religion, or God as religious rhetoric. More obscure references in the speeches were not counted.

The sample for this researcher’s case study was more controlled and thus more straightforward to explain. This researcher read the major televised presidential debate transcripts from four politically and religiously definitive elections 1960, 1980, 2000, and 2012. Specifically this researcher analyzed four Kennedy-Nixon debates from 1960, two debates between Reagan and an opposing candidate in 1980, three debates between Al Gore and H.W Bush in 2000, and three debates between Obama and Romney in 2012.

Assumptions

Findings

This researcher assumed that all of the survey answers are honest and representative of the beliefs of the participants. Also, this researcher trusted that the speech transcripts are the actual words spoken by the candidates.

When asked, “On a scale of 1 to 10 how important is it for a presidential candidate to share your religious views? (1 being not important, 10 being extremely important),” the mean of the responses was 6.7, or relatively important. The complete distribution of all the responses is shown in Figure 2. Nearly 21% of the participants chose a value of 8 indicating

Religion And Politics

Figure 2 religious views were very important to them. The graph indicates the majority of participants held religious beliefs to be somewhere in the range of 7 to 10, indicating for most Americans, a candidates’ religious beliefs were an important factor in determining whether the candidate received their vote.

52 then choose “both are equally important to me.” Most of the inconstancies were of that sort; the ranking on the previous two questions were not close and the participant picked equally important for the answer to the third question. However, some instances did occur when a participant would rank one aspect higher than the other, for instance give similar political views a rank of 9 and religious views a rank of 4, yet still mark in the third question that religious views where more important overall. Lastly, this researcher noticed a trend in the data. If participants chose religion as the most important factor to them, when asked how to rank important candidates political view’s they often ranked it lower than a 4. However, when a participant claimed political views were more important, when asked to rank the importance of religious and political views the ranking of both was fairy close (within two or three rankings of each other).

The last question aimed to see if there were any issues that would immediately disqualify a candidate for a voter. Predictably, the participants often cited controversial issues such as abortion, military involvement, and illegal immigration.

The next question (on a scale of 1 to 10 how important is it for a presidential candidate to share your political views?) was similar, but it was designed to assess the value Americans hold for a candidates` political views. In the same set up as the previous question, participants were asked to rate the importance of a political candidates political views to them as a voter.

The mean for the responses to this question, 8.3, was significantly higher than for the previous question indicating Americans hold a candidates political views to be more important than religious views. This assertion is reinforced by the data in Figure 3.

Figure 4 The case study analyzed whether there was a direct relationship between a presidential candidate’s uses of religious rhetoric had any effect on the outcome of the presidential race. This was a simple, yet time-consuming activity, with very simple results

Figure 3 When compared to Figure 2, the difference becomes clear. In Figure 3, few participants felt a candidate`s political views were unimportant. In fact, close to 91% of the participants chose a value greater 5, indicating it is very important for a presidential candidate to share a voter’s political views, possibly even more important than sharing a candidate’s religious views.

The fourth survey question (What is more important to you a candidate’s religious views or their political views) was designed to determine which aspect of a presidential candidate is more important to a voter: his religious beliefs or his political views or if both were equally important.

As this researcher would have predicted considering the response from the last question where participants ranked the importance of political views, 45% of the participants held political views to be most important.

Surprisingly, the percentage of participants who held religious views to be most important was small 17%. Interestingly, nearly 30% of the answers to this question were inconsistent with the responses by the same participant on previous questions. For example, a participant would rank the candidate`s religious beliefs at a 5 and the political beliefs at a 7 and

The only notable trend to discuss is the amount of religious rhetoric increased from the mid-1900’s into the 2000`s quite dramatically, which is contrary to the decline this researcher was expecting. Also, there are three candidates in the 1980 election year because there where only two debates; one between Reagan and Anderson and the other between Reagan and Carter.

Analysis The case study attempted to accumulate evidence against the null hypothesis, “Religious rhetoric has no effect on the outcome of a presidential race.” To test this hypothesis this researcher used a two-sample t-test. This kind of test is used to examine if trends in the data is due to chance or if there is a statistical correlation. When observing the data, the data would seem to show there is a positive correlation between rhetoric and wining. However due to the low sample size it is impossible to state that, on average, religious rhetoric affects the outcomes of all presidential races.

The survey was designed to accumulate evidence against the second null hypothesis, “The majority of the American public does not base their view of the presidential candidates on the candidates religion.” This researcher used a one proportion z- test to examine this hypothesis. In this case, it compared whether the participants find religions views to be most important are a majority. With a sample size of 307 and 51 participants

Religion And Politics

who felt religion was most important, p=1, so this researcher upheld the null hypothesis (p >0.05).

Because one of the answer choices for the fourth survey question was that both religion and politics are equally important a second one-proportion z test was needed to thoroughly analyze whether the majority of Americans base their view of the presidential candidates on the candidates religion.

In this test p=.038, so if the population of participants who claimed equal importance for religion and politics is included as people who “base their view of a presidential candidate on the candidates religion” that the null hypothesis can be rejected and the alternate hypothesis “The majority of the American public does base their view of the presidential candidates on the candidates religion” can be adopted.

Discussion Based on the data accumulated through a survey and analyzed using a one-proportion z-test this researcher both rejected and upheld the first null hypothesis (The majority of the American public does not base their view of the presidential candidates on the candidates religion), depending on the data used from the survey. This researcher will first address the situation where the null hypothesis was upheld.

The survey question asked, “What is more important to you a candidate’s religious views or their political views?” Only 16.56 % of the respondents responded that the religious views were the most important. Based on the data the statistical tests indicated that the null hypothesis must be upheld. This is partially consistent with the literature this researcher read for the review of related literature section of this paper. During the 1960 presidential election, there was a controversy over John F. Kennedy’s Catholic affiliation; Kennedy even had to give a speech clarifying his views (Kennedy, 2010). Presidential candidate’s success, especially in the 1970s and 1980s, where very dependent on a candidate’s religion (Zeller, 2011).

The changing social landscape, especially the free love and new drug movement, profoundly disturbed many Christians in America (Zeller, 2011). Soon Christian voting groups were a large part of securing the presidential seat, and a candidate’s religion became crucial to success. This trend continued into the 21st century with the election of Bush in 2000.

However, the trend over the last decade has been a gradual decline in the religiosity of America (Sullivan, 2010). Thus, although this researcher assumed a majority of Americans would hold a candidate’s religion to be most important, in the current cultural context upholding the null hypothesis is plausible.

Because one answer choice to the question, “What is more important to you a candidate’s religious views or their political views?” was that both were equal, this researcher felt it was necessary to include a test with the sum of both the religion is the most important and religion and politics are equally important responses. When the test was performed under these new parameters this researcher was able to reject the null hypothesis and adopt the alternate hypothesis, “The majority of the American public does base their view of the presidential candidates on the candidates religion.”

Although in the last paragraph, this researcher discussed the changing religiosity of America, specifically in the last decade and offered this fact as an explanation for the unexpected trends in the data; now the altered findings seem to contradict the pervious literature. The main reason for this is the survey population is limited to the Houston Christian community, which has a significantly more religious outlook on politics that the average American community.

These findings are interesting, if limited in scope. At the very least, the data provides evidence for a significant difference in the views of students and faculty at a private school than the general American. If one is willing to stretch, this data could be understood to show groups of religious people are more likely to vote for a member of their same religion. This seemingly obvious conclusion actually has some significance. First, it predicts that

53 for the next few elections, America can expect a Christian president since America is roughly 76% Christian. Further, it could be used to explain the 2012 election that Mitt Romney lost. Possibly a significant portion of votes were lost because he was Mormon. These finding can be further narrowed by research to see exactly what factors the American public wants in a president, in order to crate a “perfect candidate.”

The case study this researcher performed was designed to explore the relationship between the amounts of religious rhetoric a candidate used and the outcome of the presidential election. In figure 5, the number of times a candidate used religious rhetoric in the main televised Presidential debates is displayed.

Figure 4: R eligious references in televised presidential debates

Figure 5 75% of the candidates who won had also used the most religious rhetoric.

However, when tested using a two-sample t-test the null hypothesis “Religious rhetoric has no effect on the outcome of a presidential race” was upheld even though the data would suggest otherwise simply because the sample size was too small to accurately apply the finding to all of the presidential races Before discussing the implications of the data, this researcher must discuss a few issues with the data. Earlier the religious undertones of the 1960 election between John F. Kennedy and Richard Nixon were discussed.

After researching the election and writing about it in the review of related literature section this researcher was expecting the presidential debates in 1960 to be riddled with religious rhetoric from both parties. This was not the case at all; in fact, there were less religious references in 1960 than in the 2012 election. A few reasons for this unexpected occurrence is that 1) Kennedy did not wish to remind the nation of his catholic beliefs and 2) Nixon did not want to be labeled a bigot for pressing him on the issue.

Also, the topics for the major televised presidential debates are usually issues like the economy, national security, or foreign affairs; not easy topics to discuss in religious terms. Thus, even during the conservative Christian fervor in the 1980 election, the winner Ronald Reagan only had two religious references in two speeches. Also this case study was inconclusive because the average difference between numbers of religious references in each election year was 2 references (and that number is substantially raised by the difference of 5 between Bush and Gore).

As far as implications go, the case study was rather inconclusive. Just looking at the raw data, it seems there is a direct correlation between uses of religious rhetoric and campaign success, yet the statistical test shows that the data cannot be reliably applied to all presidential campaigns. This puts a limit on the reliability of inferences drawn from the data. However, it is clear that there is possibly some correlation, so future researchers can extend the test and achieve results that are more conclusive.

Religion And Politics

Conclusion

The research can now provide a new angle on the previous research discussed in the review of related literature. In the 1950s, religious rhetoric was used much more than it is today and presedents of the deacade used religious rhetoric to great effect. Soon, religious rhetoric was used not only to win presidencies but also to win people over to a cause. The civil rights movment was ripe with religious rhetoric. The use of rhetoric in politics began to decline throughout the 60s, in this research, there were hardly any religious refrences in the 1960 elction between Kennedy and Nixon. Then religious refrences boomed in the 1980s as a result of the new Christian political impact groups. This is also exibited in the data collected, althouth the change was not astounding. Modern America, according to the current literature and research, is more and more athiest and agnostic than ever before, yet the research showed, since the turn of the century, religious rhetoric in national telivised debates has become more and more common. Further, the survey showed that a majority of Americans (at least a majority of the members of the HC communty) still hold a candidates faith to be very important. Why there is a decrepancy between the data collected and the literature this researcher is not entirely sure; although the sample was mostly members of the Houston Christian community, which is not a perfect cross section of America. An interesting area for further research would be to see how different the views of members of private religious institutions are from the public.

Remaining Questions The research done for this dissertation was by no means exhaustive, and there are many questions in the scope of the general topic religion and politics in America that were never addressed. For instance: will America follow European nations to atheism or agnosticism? Is there such thing as a war on Christmas and if so what is it? Are Christians a highly persecuted religious group? And what exactly are mega churches, how did they form, and what is their function in society today?

First, a brief address of the question about the decline of Christianity in Europe. For much of civilized history, Europe has been the cradle of Christian religion. Post-modern ideals have taken a toll however, and a recent study showed the Catholic Church in Britain is facing a greater, more ubiquitous, threat today than during the Protestant Reformation (Beshears, 2013). The number of people professing Christian faith is in a “terminal decline” in Europe. The church has not disappeared completely, but the phenomenon known as “cultural Christianity” (identifying oneself as a Christian simple because Christianity is the prevailing religion) has declined significantly (Beshears, 2013). Now, many Europeans are considered “un-churched”; they have not attended church for any reason other than ceremonies such as funerals, weddings, or baptisms (Beshears, 2013). In fact, the Aristocrats often pay people to sit in their place in church every Sunday.

It should come as no shock the same trend is prevalent in America. An extensive new survey by the Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, found over one quarter (28%) of American adults have left the faith they were raised with in favor of another religion- or no religion at all (Boland, 2014).

Further, the survey found 16.1% of Americans say they are unaffiliated with any particular faith (Boland, 2014).

These alarming trends (for a Christian scholar at least) are not only due to apathy regarding religion. Rather, Christianity in America is being repressed, both by actual law and by popular belief in all aspects of public life and in the military.

First, this researcher will address discriminatory laws. In Florida, a Christian ministry has been providing food to the needy for three decades.

Yet, the USDA refuses to renew their contract unless they removed portraits of Christ, the Ten Commandments, and a banner saying, “Christ is Lord

54 (Hawkins, 2013).” A few years ago, two men were arrested in Colorado for reading the Bible outside a DMV (Hawkins, 2013). They were eventually acquitted, but the arrest was clearly a direct violation of the freedom of speech clause in the First Amendment. Further, in modern public schools, teachers and students are not allowed to pray, or mention Christianity.

Evolution is the only accepted view of how life came to be on this planet, and creationism is not even mentioned. The issue is the schools are not actually professing neutral ideas as they claim, they are actually forcing humanistic ideas and relativism onto the easily moldable mind of a child.

Even the American government seems to be against Christianity. When Christian groups are persecuted in foreign countries, such as in Egypt during the Arab spring, the American government is slow to act or even to verbally condemn such practice, yet when a remote south African country makes homosexuality illegal, much of the western world is in uproar.

When it seems even the government is anti-Christian is it then any wonder Christianity in America is on the decline?

The anti-Christian agenda is by no means confined to isolated incidents across America. There is a modern phenomenon dubbed “war on Christmas” where people and institutions are striving to limit the use of the word Christmas and instead use winter holiday or simply “holiday” to describe the time of year typically associated with the Christian tradition of Christmas. Schools and charities across the country have changed their signs to say “Happy Holidays” instead of the traditional “Merry Christmas.” Even the United States government, which was formed on Christian, ideals changed the government`s Christmas tree to a Holiday tree. Unfortunately, the persecution does not end there.

In the modern military, an institution built around discipline, honor, and helping others, Christians and their ideals are being intensely persecuted.

For example, an Air Force Veteran of 19 years was court-martialed for verbally expressing, in a respectful manner, his anti-gay beliefs due to his Christian faith (Hawkins, 2013). His superiors reported him and he was court-martialed. Again, this is a gross violation of free speech.

Additionally, the armed forces are moving to have non-specific chaplains; generic spiritual counselors instead of a Christian chaplain, a Jewish chaplain, or a Muslim chaplain. Further, the clause “so help me God” was dropped from the Air Force Academy honor code .

Clearly, Christianity is being persecuted on a wide scale in America.

Fundamentalist Christians began to try to reverse this trend in the 1970’s with impact groups such as the Moral Majority yet the American public soon became callous to the message of salvation. A new phenomenon, the “mega church”, attempts to regain Christianity’s popularity and cultural relevance. Michael Warner (2011) notes “mega churches” have, “catchy secular music, short morality plays, and humor rather than overt religious language.” They usually have a “fairly humanist message.”

Mega Churches and Millennials Politically, these secular“mega churches” pack far more influence than any church of the past (The Christian Century, 2010). With congregations in the thousands, mega churches can have significant sway in elections, even on the national level. These churches are usually a feeble attempt to replicate the community and fellowship of a real church by having essentially fellowship services. They have a secular, welcoming atmosphere and fill the human need for community without actually fulfilling the charge of a Christian church.

Overall the largest and most prominent social change caused by the religious and political integration in the 1980`s and 90`s was the prevailing opinion among the Millennial generation that religion and politics should not mix. Many young Americans have lost confidence in religious leaders and want them to be less involved in politics (National Catholic reporter, 2011). Researchers say the trends reflect myriad factors; disillusionment

Religion And Politics

with clergy and political scandals; the country’s increasing diversity, and younger generations tend to be more highly educated and socially liberal (National Catholic reporter, 2011). These liberal, disillusioned youth often seek mega churches as a means of having a traditional “church” without the “Christian stuff ” Although Christianity is both persecuted and watered down to appease a increasingly secular public, this is not necessary a bad thing. Contrary to all logic the Christian church flourishes under persecution. During the Roman Empire, when Christians were being burned at the stake for their beliefs, the Christian church thrived and grew. So, although the church is being persecuted, this persecution actually strengthens the convictions of the Christians, which in turn often leads to a cultural reversal as more and more Christians are converted.

In summation, Christianity has nearly left Europe due to apathy and disillusionment with Christian teaching. In modern America government institutions such as public schools and the military, as well as private institutions have been openly hostile to Christian beliefs. This hostility has permeated much of the American culture. However, most still yearn for the sense of community that going to church on Sunday brings which lead to the rise of the “mega church” which is a pseudo-church that really is watered down Christianity or full-out secular fellowship time. As a Christian, these trends could be alarming, yet historically the church has thrived under pressure.

Biblical Connections

55

As a Christian, it is important for this researcher to highlight the biblical aspect of this issue. The Bible commands Christians to respond to government in a few different ways. First we are to pray for the governing authorities (I Timothy 2:1-2). Then we are to conduct ourselves as lawabiding and taxpaying citizens (Romans 13:1-7). We are to give the government all it is due (Matthew 22:21) and honor authority and the institutions of government because God ordained them (Romans 13:1-7, I Peter 2:17). Christians are also encouraged to speak the Gospel to those in authority, as the prophet Nathan did to King David (II Samuel 12:7) and John the Baptist with Herod (Matthew 14:3-5) All in all, Christians are not to be passive spectators in modern culture. Christians should engage culture at all levels, advancing moral principles and seeking to restrain evil.

Part of this responsibility includes being “salt” and “light” in government.

Christians believe they should use their influence to keep the government on the right track. Does this mean religion should have a large role in government? Unfortunately the Bible does not highlight the “right” way to integrate religion and government, so as Christians, we must remember we are to be the “salt” of the earth, yet Jesus also proclaimed “Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar’s, and unto God the things that are God’s.” We might not have all the correct answers, but as long as we respect the authority of government we are called to spread God’s kingdom here on earth.

Religion And Politics

References

Bethell, Tom. (2006). Christian Fall, Muslim Rise. American Spectator.

Ebsco 22452206 Beshears, Kyle. (2013). Empty Churches: The decline of cultural Christianity in the west. Web; http://blogs.christianpost.com/dearephesus/empty-churches- the-decline-of-cultural-christianity-inthe-west-17067/ Boland, Barbara. (2014). Pew Study: Christians are the worlds most oppressed religious group. CNS news. Web: http://m.cnsnews.com/ news/article/barbara-boland/pew-study-christiansBonson, B. (2012). Religion and campaign 2012: Religious right forces are seeking to control presidential politics and play a dominant role in this year’s elections. Church & State. 61(1),12. Retrieved from Gale Group (A277001061).

Boston, R. (2008). 60 years of controversy: what the Supreme Court has ruled on religion in public schools--and why. Church & State, 61(2), 12. Retrieved from Gale Group (A174749560).

Campbell, D. E., & Putnam, R. D. (2012). God and Caesar in America: why mixing religion and politics is bad for both. Foreign Affairs.

91(2), 34. Retrieved from Gale Group (A289121027).

Colt, S. ,& Barker, G. (Producers). (2010, October 11-13). God in America [Television broadcast]. M. Sullivan (Executive Producer), Frontline. Boston, WGBH Dickerson, D. C. (2005). African American religious intellectuals and the theological foundations of the civil rights movement, 1930-55. Church History, 74(2), 217. Retrieved from Gale Group (A133528455).

Dreisbach, D. L. (2006). The mythical “wall of separation”: How a misused metaphor changed church–state law, policy, and discourse.

First principles series. Retrieved from: http://www.heritage.org/ research/reports/2006/06/the-mythical-wall-of-separation-how-amisused-metaphor-changed-church-state-law-policy-and-discourse

56 Espejo, R. (2009). Church and State Should Be Separate. Detroit, MI; Greenhaven Press. Retrieved from Gale Group (A1335745737).

Halton, D. (2007, March 8-9). Faith and politics: The rise of the religious right and its impact on America domestic and foreign policy.

Lecture presented Larkin-Stuart Lectures, Toronto, Canada.

Hawkins, John. (2013). 7 examples of discrimination against Christians in America. Web: http://townhall.com/columnists/ johnhawkins/2013/09/17/7- examples-of-discrimination-againstchristians-in-america- n1701966/page/full Hunter, R. R., Haugen, D., & Musser, S. (2011). Politics and religion cannot be separated. Detroit, MI; Greenhaven Press. Retrieved from Gale Group (A12334578).

Kennedy, J. F. (2010). On religion and politics: ‘I believe in an America where the separation of church and state is absolute’. Church & State, 63(9), 15. Retrieved from Gale Group (A241672939).

Leonard, B. J. (2011). Billy Graham and the rise of the republican south.

Journal of Southern History, 77(2), 490. Retrieved from Gale Group (A255492756).

Schippe, C., & Stetson, C. (2006). The Bible and its influence. Fort Royal, VA: BLP Publishing.

Turner, C. C. (n.d.). Religion and its effect on political party affiliation. California State University Press. Retrieved April 25, 2013, from http://www.csuchico.edu/~ccturner /syllabi/ sampleresearchproposal3.html Zeller, B. E. (2011). American postwar “big religion”: Reconceptualizing twentieth-century American religion using big science as a model. Church History, 80(2), 321. Retrieved from Gale Group (A258240139).

Religion And Politics

Appendix I: Survey Questions

1. What is your age?

2. On a scale of 1 to 10 how important is it for a presidential candidate to share your religious views? (1 being not important, 10 being extremely important) 3. On a scale of 1 to 10 how important is it for a presidential candidate to share your political views? (1 being not important, 10 being extremely important) 4. What is more important to you a candidate’s religious views or their political views?

5. Are there any issues that would cause you to vote against a candidate regardless of their compatibility with your views in other areas (eg., Abortion, death penalty)? If so what?

Appendix II: Survey Data

57

Religion And Politics

58

Appendix III: Case Study Data

1960 Presidential Debate

John F. Kennedy

Richard Nixon

Religious References

0

1

1980

Ronald Regan

Jimmy Carter

John Anderson

Religious References

2

1

1

2000 Presidential Debate

George Bush

Al Gore

Religious References

7

2

2012 Presidential Debate

Barack Obama

Mitt Romney

Religious References

5

4

Literary Patterns of Time Travel and Their Quantum Mechanics William A. Hendricks

Time Travel

61

Table of Contents

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Time Travel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Origins of the Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Patterns in Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Popular Themes and Patterns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Chronesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Quantum Foam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 The Einstein-Rosen Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 The Time Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Motion-Picture Media Patterns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Purpose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Participant & Sampling Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Experimental Manipulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Data Collections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Data Analysis Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Ethical Consideration (Human Subject Protections). . . . . . . . . . . 68 Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Findings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Sample. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Findings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Remaining Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Biblical Connection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Appendix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Copy of Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Copy of Survey Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

Time Travel

63

Abstract

The researcher examined the conceptual application of physics to physical phenomena in space, time travel and how this applies to generational observations in literature. After researching the basis of what humanity’s understanding of chronology was, how that applied to our modern technological advancements and what was paralleled in each generation. The researcher composed one null hypothesis: there will be no generational differences when regarding how time travel is portrayed throughout literature. The researcher gathered data by sending a multiquestion survey to a convenient sample population and ultimately upheld the hypothesis. After researching the correlation of time travel and its relation to literature, the researcher further investigated the effect of television on children as his research indicated the recent generation to gravitate toward a title that composed a movie or program. Studies show adolescents that are subject to television at a young age are more likely to develop difficulties connecting in an interpersonal setting than those not subject to television.

Time Travel

Time Travel

What is time? Does time exist? Can we grasp the concept of time? Is it possible to travel through, in, around, or outside of time? When was the beginning of time? To understand conceptual time, one must understand the basic physics and science behind the rudimentary concepts that define time and space. These elemental concepts include Quantum Theory - a theory of matter and energy based on the concept of quanta or a discrete quantity of energy proportional in magnitude to the frequency of the radiation it represents; the Theory of Relativity - the theory that space and time are relative concepts rather than absolute concepts; and other basic physical concepts; however, these do not allow us the comprehension of the mechanics of time and the ability to understand it.

Origins of the Theories To understand the modern concepts of time, one must look at its origins.

Even the Ancient Mayans had an understanding of chronology and space.

Using countless tools, calendars, and cycles, the ancient priests were able to predict astronomical occurrences and record a multitude of important historical events, allowing them to record the movements of many planets and stars (Zorich, 2012). Today, there have been advances in science to better our understanding of the universe. For example, the Laws of physics, such as Newton’s laws of motion, Einstein’s general relativity and quantum theory, were implemented into the scientific canon. Even so, these do not permit us to comprehend the true nature of time and to understand its true impacts.

Newton’s laws of motion are three laws, which are the base for classic mechanics of physics. First, if there is no net force on an object, then its velocity is constant; second, the acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the net force acting on the body; and third, when a first body exerts a force on a second body, the second body simultaneously exerts a force on the first body. In accordance with Newton, many scientists, believe that “time is a real, fundamental property of the universe” (Clark, 2011). According to Newton, time is absolute “—standing outside nature, affecting matter by unaffected by it” (Carlip, 2012). Where Newton believes that time has a concrete structure, Einstein, on the other hand, believes that time is a wave-particle and “passes at different rates depending upon an observer’s motion and the strength of gravity pulling on them” (Clark, 2011). Travelling through time is simple when this is taken into account because, theoretically, if one was able to link two places where time flows differently, one could travel through a “wormhole” and skip over time (Chown, 2011). A wormhole is simply a passage that follows the curve of a space-time to another location. As seen in figure 1, it is, essentially a shortcut from one plane of space to another (Pohl, 1994).

Figure 1 For instance, “take the Earth and the immediate vicinity of a black hole,

65 where strong gravity makes time flow extremely slowly. So if [one] could travel instantaneously from Earth to near the black hole, [one] could travel from Friday back to Wednesday” (Chown, 2011). This is a brilliant example of the theoretical, yet attainable ways of time travel.

According to other theories based off of Quantum Theory, time is really a constant in one reality; however, the universe is traveling through a serious of tangled wormholes which gives time the illusion of progression (Pohl, 1994). Because this is theoretical, there are many assumptions based off of the same concept. According to Einstein’s theory, time is real –but only in our imagination (Clark, 2011). The concept of time and quantum physics creates the belief that time began before the Big Bang energy was released.

If time exists differently in different dimensions, as each dimension was created there must have been a structured time before hand and during each perpetual sequence of creations for the theory to be plausible. In other words, there was and continues to be a domino effect that infinitely creates difference dimensions (Clark, 2011). Even so, other theories tend to contradict this.

Another theory consists of the unification of gravity and quantum mechanics. To understand time to the point that one can manipulate it, both Einstein’s and Newton’s conclusions must concord. Here, where Einstein’s theory and Newton’s theories do not extend, they complete each other; however, where both should apply, they become incompatible.

There needs to be the creation of a new variable or constant for this theory to develop into truth. The math simply does not exist. Scientists have determined, for time to exist, there must have been a “timeless” beginning (Carlip, 2012), contradicting the theory, time began before the universe with a concrete structure.

Many researchers agree on how gravity shapes the overall comprehension of each aspect of the universe; nevertheless, there are occurrences where gravity’s existence is questioned. Gravity is defined as actually “a manifestation of the shape of space and time.” The universe literally revolves around a space-time. A space-time is a curve of space: a line warped by mass and energy levels of planetary bodies. For time to change and warp, there needs to be a fluctuation in “gravity” and sometimes, the creation of a wormhole (Carlip, 2012). When taking into account the theory of multiple dimensions formed by Big Bang energy, the issue of conceptual dimensions arises.

Taking this into account, if the speed of time crumples and folds on itself, it is possible for humans to travel through time in the fourth dimension (Wills, 1994). The fourth dimension, of course, is theoretical. Humans live in a world with three dimensions: height, width, and depth. Just as if one would fold two sides of a paper together and the two ends touch, a 2-D world could be folded to create a distance smaller than the original between the two ends. Because the human brain can only perceive three dimensions, if the three-dimensional world were crumpled into four, life would not be affected. If time and space could be folded, one could step into another time and place instantly: one of the first ideas of low-tech time travel, which is usually known as “time warping” (Wills, 1994). It has been debated science can never be fully understood. Conceptual time, for example, may not be understood until new math and variables are created to better define the basic principles of physics. For the time being, one can only analyze past examples of humanity’s concept of time. Over the past millennia, man has been fascinated with the ideological and theoretical aspect of time travel, as seen in many past and modern artistic forms, thus posing the question:Given the concept and definition of time, the current laws of physics, discoveries and exceptions to these, is time travel between two points theoretically and physically possible?

Patterns in Literature Throughout time, scholars and artists have sculpted literature and fiction with the concept of time-travel; however, the method in which they do this

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is very different. Different authors have addressed time-travel in multiple themes, such as when a character goes back in time to change the past, when a being or party of beings move throughout time as protectors, when a character achieves a glimpse of another time and his or her mind moves through time, when a character makes an unintentional time alteration, or when the character meets his or her ‘soul-mate’ in another century and must deal with the dilemma of conflicting cultures. While there are many different themes in which the concept of time-travel is grasped, the methods for each fluctuation in time also differentiate. Many popular ways to travel in time consist of traveling in any sort or vessel or time machine, traveling across an Einstein-Rosen bridge, movement in the imagination or self-hypnosis, and movement across “Quantam Foam” (Rappaport, 2011). Many patterns can be ascertained from literature when organized into the popular themes found to determine if the popular science-fiction methods of time travel are possible.

Popular Themes and Patterns One of the most popular themes of time travel has been those of out of body experiences such as a famous American folktale of Rip Van Winkle, L. Frank Baum’s famous children’s tale The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, C.S. Lewis’ The Lion and the Witch, and the Wardrobe. In “Rip Van Winkle”, a kindhearted man who is loved by all but avoids doing work, takes a hike one day in the mountains. In the story, Rip Van Winkle unknowingly meets some ghosts and drinks some of their liquor, which causes him to slumber for over twenty years (Irving, 1820). While Rip Van Winkle’s body clearly aged along with his family and possessions, it can be argued that his mind stayed the same age as it had when he had first fallen asleep. There is a difference between objective time and psychological time (Grey, 1999).

His mind did not perceive new information and did not work as hard to learn or understand thoughts, as it would have if he had been awake. The youthfulness of his mind was what allowed him to wake up and not age near death like his physical body. If it is assumed that his mind was the same age post-slumber as it was beforehand, it can be argued that his mind and subconscious travelled through a dimension with alternate time. “Time travel requires that two events are separated by unequal amounts of time.

One way that our experience of time may not correspond to physical time is because it may be intermittent” (Grey, 1999). His mind went dormant in one time period and activated in another while remaining in the same state. The out of body experience is one that is replicated in literature many times throughout the ages that the mental state went unchanged in seemingly no time from one time period to another.

Chronesthesia Chronesthesia: the common theme of mental time travel. By definition, Chronesthesia is “A hypothetical brain/mind ability or capacity, acquired by humans through evolution, that allows them to be constantly aware of the past and the future” (Murray, 2003). This is represented in the sensorimotor systems that control movement “integrating temporal and spatial information in a directional manner” (Carlson, 2010). More out of body, yet time changing experiences from literature would be the children’s novels The Wonderful Wizard of Oz and The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe. While similar to the previous short story, “Rip Van Winkle”, in the way that an out of body experience allowed for the mind to travel from one point in time to another, they are all dissimilar in the way that, in these stories, the mind experienced more than the physical body during out of body experience of the main character. In The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, the main character Dorothy is put through a traumatic tornado that is perceived to have taken her to a magical land where she spends some amount of time going on adventures with unreal and magical creatures.

At the end of the story, the truth is revealed she was dreaming the entire adventure (Baum, 1900). In a way, her mind was able to enter another dimension of time. Hypothetically, if the main character Dorothy was

66 asleep for one day in the story’s reality, but she dreamed of adventuring for multiple days, her mind would hypothetically go back in time, from the days she was adventuring in Oz, to the reality of her farm in Kansas.

By adding memory or personal facts, a person can update reality. Even people who have suffered traumatic experiences such as brain damage that “impairs their mental time travel ability” can, for example, solve math equations with no recollection of ever learning the concept (Murray, 2003).

When someone does this, the newly perceived reality’s time flow can and may proceed at a different rate. Using just the conscious brain’s grasp on what is happening, man can, theoretically, move from one point in time to another. The brain and mind experience heightened activity during the dormant hours of sleep, especially in the area involving spatial processing (Helson, 2004): at night, the brain and mind experience the world with a different perception and can perceive time differently. With the ability to look forward and backward in time, the brain can, theoretically, enter into another dimension of time. Basically, the mind can experience more than the physical perception of reality, but return and go back in time. (Murray, 2003). In the same way, the characters in C.S. Lewis’ novel The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe, went into the magical wardrobe as children and lived full lives until they were kings and queens of the magical land of Narnia. After the perceived “lifetime” has gone by, they find the wardrobe again, as fully-grown adults, but when they accidentally fall out of it, they land on the floor as the children who first went into the wardrobe. Not only are the children physically the same as when they first went in, they fall out moments after they went in (Lewis, 1950). Their minds lived an entire lifetime, but then each was radically thrown back to the time to where their bodies had not aged because only a few moments had passed. The mind lived in another dimension while the body was unaffected. Popular narratives such as this are of “transworld exploration, the narrative of alternate history and the time-travel narrative” (Ryan, 2006). Theoretically, it is possible for a person’s subconscious to live in another dimension and even go back or forward in time when it is returned to the physical body and reality’s sense of a constant time.

Quantum Foam The second popular method of time travel in literature is one through Quantum Foam. “Quantum foam is the theoretical, irregular arrangement of quantum disturbances at the subatomic level” (Rappaport, 2011). If the universe and each dimension, assuming the existence of a multiverse or an infinite realm of universe, were subjected to fluctuations in quantum mechanics, a person could theoretically move, not along a set axis, into another dimension where time could have run differently and into an alternate reality with a different time stream (Rappaport, 2011). If a person were, metaphorically, a bubble on a patch of sea foam and that bubble moved toward one side, it would not be on the same level or plane because foam is always frothing and moving along all axes. In the same way, if quantum mechanics fluctuated similarly, the travel to another dimension would cause a shift in time and space. “In Michael Crichton’s book-turnedmovie Timeline, the characters travel through time in a way that does not follow the typical linear interpretation of forward-and-backward-on-theaxis-of-time presented in most time travel scenarios” (Rappaport, 2011).

The characters in this book travelled to another dimension where time is different. Because this realm of science fiction is in accordance with the multiverse theory, anything done in the past could not alter the outcome of the future because it is in another dimension and, by default, timeline (Crichton, 1999). If the science existed to jump from one timeline to another, and the theory of quantum foam was assumed to be true then the theoretical travel between a current time and a different one in another plane engulfed in the froth of quantum mechanics could be achieved.

The Einstein-Rosen Bridge A fourth popular method used by authors to project the idea of time

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travel includes the use of an Einstein-Rosen bridge, or wormhole. As stated previously, a wormhole is simply a passage that follows the curve of a space-time to another location. It is, essentially, a shortcut from one plane of space to another (Pohl, 1994). One theoretical use of this concept to travel between two different points in time would be to, assuming Einstein’s theory that gravity affects the flow of time, travel from one place of constant gravity, to another location of a denser or less dense gravitational field. One could theoretically travel between to points where time flows differently.

Let’s say one wanted to go through a bridge to a star a mere five light years distant. When one looks at the star from Earth, the photons that are reaching his or her eyes left the star five years ago, so that individual is seeing the star as it was five years ago. If the wormhole to this star is a mere mile long in your relative space, one could traverse it in seconds. When one arrives at the star, he or she would see it as it would exist five years in the future, relative to Earth time (Rappaport, 2011). World-renowned physicist Carl Sagan published Contact in 1985 to build upon the nation’s growing interest with the SETI (search for extraterrestrial intelligence). In his novel, Sagan develops communication with extraterrestrial beings and to personally meet with these extraterrestrial beings, the characters must travel to the center of the universe through an Einstein-Rosen Bridge, or wormhole (Sagan, 1985). The travelers are traveling throughout space via a series of wormholes for multiple hours, but when the return, they appeared to have been missing for only minutes (Sagan, 1985). This would entail Sagan is assuming Einstein’s theory, and the travelers traveled in time by traveling to another location with a slower rate of time relative to Earth. The solution to Einstein’s problems and equations coincide with the theory of an Einstein-Rosen bridge or “a black hole as a bridge between two regions of flat spacetime” (Gribbin, 1996). This same concept of traveling by wormholes through space has been used countless times throughout the ages. “Because space-time[s are] curved in general relativity, we can imagine a “wormhole” looping back to join the time axis at an earlier time, just like a walk around the block” (Stenger, 2000). Scientists have looked into the science behind Sagan’s conclusions and constructed “a spacetime geometry that matched Sagan’s requirement of a wormhole that could be physically traversed by human beings” (Gribbin, 1996). To researchers Morris and Yurtsever’s surprise, there is nothing contained within the laws of physics that does not allow travel through wormholes (Gribben, 1996). In many science fiction novels, short stories, movies, and television shows wormholes have been the basis of any spatial, dimensional, or time altering travel. An important theme one can remember and us to easily distinguish between different types of time travel, whether it be wormhole or subconscious reality, is the Grand-Father Paradox. If one goes back in time and accidentally kills his or her grandfather, will his or her present reality be altered? If he or she travels to a different time stream and this happens, his or her reality will not change; however, if this happens in the original timeline, then he or she will cease to exist –hence the paradox. In situations where real-world people in an original reality are not affected, the time-traveler will not be affected; such as if Dorothy were to kill her grandfather in her dream, she would not cease to exist because it was just a dream. Theoretically, wormholes occur naturally in space through means of quasars or other massive energy fluctuations; however, for an artificial wormhole to be created, a massive gravity and attractive energy force could pinch off the opening of a wormhole. For the mouth to be held open under unnatural circumstances, “its throat must be threaded by some force of matter, or some form of field, that exerts negative pressure, and has antigravity associated with it” (Gribbin, 1996). Theoretically, any vessel that can withstand the harsh conditions of space can travel through a wormhole; however, not every vessel can manipulate a space-time or create a wormhole to travel through space and time.

67 The Time Machine Finally, the most conventional method of time travel found in literature is one of traveling in any sort or vessel or time machine. One of the most original stories involving a time machine is one created by H.G. Wells called The Time Machine (Wells, 1895).

In Newton’s worldview, time ticked off in an absolute way, and space was measured by a rigid universal framework. This image ruled until the late nineteenth century. H.G. Wells, always a quick study, caught the shifting winds and jury-rigged a new analogy which equated time with space –made it a fourth dimension, which a traveller could navigate (Benford, 1993).

In this story, the narrator, called the time traveller, creates a time machine and just moves in time to see how the Earth would adapt and change (Wells, 1895). While the machine traveled in time, it did not travel in space. So, for example, if the machine was placed in Colorado at exactly 5,000 feet of elevation and it traveled 1,000 years into the future, the machine would move to that exact spot 1,000 years later. This machine, while fictional, has brought up many questions that bring into account what would happen if another mass, such as a tree or rock, were to be in the spot to be transported to? Would the particles cancel each other out?

The fact that this machine does not travel in space brings the question about the earth moving through space. Would the machine stay within the Earth’s rotation because of its magnetic and gravitational pull or would it transport to those exact coordinates in the universe? If it stayed within the Earth’s rotation, there is a chance that the machine would end up in the desired location, but if the time machine did not travel through space, then it would be transported to the exact location it left in either the past of the present. The time machine would just move to a place where the earth isn’t and there would be a significant lack of oxygen and desirable necessities to survive even a matter of seconds. The lack of movement through space also questions the methods in which the machine itself travels. It would not move about a wormhole because it cannot move about a space-time. One of the most plausible answers to this would be from the concept of wave-particle duality. “Visible light -- like all radiation in the electromagnetic spectrum -- can have characteristics similar to a wave (think of water ripples) and a particle. This multiple personality is known as the wave-particle duality” (Kruesi, 2009). If the particles of the machine and person could be transformed so that it could have the characteristics of a wave, it could move quickly without friction of environmental factors to slow it down, such as gravity. It could behave like a photon. The only issue with this theory is Chinese physicists have recently proved that single photons cannot move faster than light so there is no way a machine could travel to a location with a fluctuation of gravity and a different flow of time. The idea of teleportation is no longer available (Wong, 2011). On the contrary and in accordance with Einstein’s theories, scientists have concluded that if atomic clocks are put on an airplane around the world to the East, where “the velocity of the plane adds to the rotation velocity of the Earth, these clocks come back about 59 nanoseconds slow” (Vinkovic, 2002). If particles moving with speeds almost at the pace of light decay more slowly, it can be concluded that this type of time travel is possible.

(Vinkovic, 2002). In conclusion, whether the dictation of physical law by modern science is seen as accurate in the current context of reality, time travel is theoretically possible in special and unique circumstances such as where a time is accepted as extra dimension or Einstein’s theory of relativity is assumed true.

Motion-Picture Media Patterns In addition to the many patterns of time travel found in literal text, other touchstones include those found in films and television shows. Writer Madeleine L’Engle, for example, wrote “A Wrinkle in Time” (2003) which, scientifically speaking, time travel used in this is between two points in

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time and space that are pulled together. It is almost as if a string connecting these two points was pulled perpendicular to the original line to pull the points closer together (Kowalski, 2003). “L’Engle’s plot device draws on the ideas of physicist Albert Einstein. Einstein reasoned thattime progresses more slowly as one approaches the speed of light. Einstein also figured out that gravity warps space andtime” (Kowalski, 2012). This gravitational warping could theoretically lead to wormholes, or shortcuts in space, which account for many other films with this same motif. Likewise, Carl Sagan’s film “Contact,” based off his previously stated book, used the transportation of “near-instantaneous” space and time travel (Kowalski, 2012). To back up this popular method, Sagan asked physicist Kip Thorne to aid in devising a survivable method of time and space travel. “Thorne and his colleagues theorized “exotic matter could counteract the crushing gravity that would exist inside a wormhole’s narrow neck. In Sagan’s book and the 1997filmContact, astronomer Ellie Arrowaytravelsthroughtime and space to another world” (Kowalski, 2012). To mix it up, the British Broadcasting Corporation’s television show “Doctor Who” uses multiple different methods of time and space travel in the renowned Time and Relative Dimension in Space (TARDIS) ship. Basic methods root down to “Quantum physics, wave-particle duality, vacuum fluctuations, negative mass[,]… quantum entanglement and teleportation” (Parsons, 2008). In a way, “Doctor Who” ties many of the common themes together, both attainable and purely theoretical. One can only guess that the reason for the popularity of the television series is directly proportional to the easy perception of time travel and the idea of the endless possibilities given by the act of a hassle-free jump through time. “Doctor Who,” like many other multi-media presentations are just a few basic examples of patterns in modern film.

Time travel has infatuated man for many ages. Throughout history, man’s interest has been reflected in its records, whether they be illustrated or written. In the modern world, one can study patterns of human thought and human connection to formulate theoretical hypotheses for man’s ability to travel through time and space. By following a simple if this, then this process, anyone can see from where ideas come, transform, connect, and eventually branch. This is mostly exhibited in literature and scientific research today. The theme of time travel, when exhibited in today’s society, scientific community, and economic world create a scientific and philosophical impact. The exhibition of this theme can positively increase the knowledge of the universe; however, this theme can also severely damage the fabric of time and space if used inappropriately.

Method Purpose After looking at the physics of what time travel is, this researcher has decided to cross disciplines and look at what the human understanding of the time travel themes are. Most authors, when looking and what time travel is, look only at the patterns found related to major scientific breakthroughs; however, I looked at both the proven and theoretical themes of time travel in adolescent literature and seeing the generational differences in the perception of what the concept of time travel is. The researcher studied the differences in what people believe time travel to be, in contrast to what time travel actually is with the null hypotheses, “there will be no generational differences when regarding how time travel is portrayed throughout literature” and a further research question, “ will there be any relationship between adolescent literature and film regarding complex themes of time travel and quantum mechanics?”

Participant & Sampling Procedures The population I planned to study, in regards to physical participants, includes representatives from the past four generations. This researcher’s

survey has gone out to the majority of his school’s population including the senior class, faculty, and parents of the students. The survey intended to reach certain demographics across America with participants in the past four generations who have are enrolled in high school, completed high school, received an undergraduate degree, or are currently employed in a profession outside of university. The generations include birth between the years 1935-1945, 1946-1964, 1965-1984 and 1985-2000. Both genders have been asked to participate, but there will be no separation of male or female responses.

From each generation this researcher has looked at a range of adolescent literature, gathering the stories from the specific generations surveyed above. There are no discrepancies between authors or specific dates. This researcher intended for the stories to have the same distribution of time travel patterns (surveyed above) from each generation. This researcher also intended for certain patterns to coexist between stories and for these patterns to be representation of the scientific aspect reviewed in literature.

Experimental Manipulation For my research, this researcher planned to use a survey to see patterns and discrepancies between generational understanding of what time travel is and analysis of stories to fully comprehend themes that represent coexisting patterns in theoretical and experimental physics.

For the survey, the researcher employed a structured questionnaire with set answers to get a basic feel of objective comprehension and have two open ended questions regarding a subjective view of what the participants view as time travel themes. Certain independent variables are responses based on each participants perception of time, while dependent variables regarding the survey include where it has been sent out, to which demographic and to what audience. For the discrepancies regarding the audience, the researcher qualified his data because the demographic outreach was not conclusive enough to provide for a comprehensible understanding of a certain group as a whole. The researcher used a standardized instrument for comparing the objective answers to the survey, and designed his own to group the subjective answers, such as grouping by key word, phrase or main idea.

For the analysis of adolescent literature for time travel theme, the researcher came up with his own instrument for analyzing the patterns he found. The researcher grouped each theme, each story within a theme and then determined whether set groups were actually representative of time travel themes. The only bias when analyzing the data to see whether or not the majority of adolescent literature represents a time travel theme was in the actual selection of the stories themselves.

Data Collections The electronic survey has been distributed by e-mail to participants and forwarded from that point forward to reach as much of the American demographic from all generations as possible. Included in the e-mail and description, there was included a reminder on how to complete the survey.

Once it is filled out, the results are sent back immediately to a spreadsheet for easy access. The analysis of adolescent literature did not include the input of further participants, so there were no need for a reminder on any instrument.

Data Analysis Plan From the research conducted, this researcher plans conducted univariate statistics on the survey looking for a frequency of viewed themes from each generation. For the research conducted on adolescent literature, this researcher used inferential statistics to test for patterns of time travel themes and analyze them in comparison to their corresponding physical aspects.

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Ethical Consideration (Human Subject Protections) Safeguards within my study to protect human subjects include the anonymous attributes to the survey. All participants and their responses are protected. No identifying information is asked or received during the survey except the generation.

Bias With the distribution of the survey, it was difficult for it to reach representatives of all the intended demographics or all intended generations. The survey has been sent out to the researcher’s school community, with additional survey links sent beyond that to contacts of the school community. If the survey link did not reach enough participants of a certain demographic or generation, then the results were skewed in favor of a demographic and generation that responded more abundantly.

Those excluded from the survey are those without access to a computer or the survey link was not made available to them. For the analysis and grouping of adolescent literature, the bias will be not having enough of a story representing a certain time travel theme from a certain generation.

Assumptions For each response to contribute to its full potential, each response needed to be taken seriously and answered honestly. If any generations sampled were not a complete representation of the participant’s generation, then the results were be skewed. If they were , The objective statistics regarding the generational would not be what they ought and the subjective responses correlating to each generation will not provide very accurate data for analysis. Regarding the analysis of adolescent time travel literature, there were responses and therefore no margin of error in that subject, but there was be an accurate amount of a certain time travel theme consistent through each generation.

Limitations Based off this researcher’s literature review, the topic of time travel and its presence in modern day literature can be extremely broad. This researcher deliberately did not study many aspects of this topic including further depth into the physical aspects of time travel, any time travel themes not specifically being tested for and any patterns associated with gender. With extra time and much more funding, this researcher could possibly look into relationships between time travel themes in movies and multi media presentations, or even look into a deeper, more physical aspect of the concepts of time travel.

Figure 1 The majority of responses received are from the recent generation, comprising of teenagers and young adults, where science fiction has grown increasingly, and the second most populace response came from the generation of 1946-1964 where science fiction began its rise as the American government participated in the Space Race.

Findings 72 (90%) of participants responded that they did not view time travel as an immediate possibility and the remaining 10% believed otherwise. Of the few participants regarding time travel as an immediate possibility (Yes), 75% were from the generation of births within the range of 19852000. In addition to this, the responses consistent with the ‘No’s were from representatives from other generations. As shown by Figure 2 below, the majority of participants believed immediate time travel a figment of science fiction’s imagination. While the majority believed immediate time travel was impossible, the spike in ‘Yes’ from the most recent generation indicates more faith in current and past scientific research and indicates a strong influence in time travel science fiction pop-culture.

Findings Sample Throughout the majority of the research, certain expected patterns have outlined themselves as hypothesized and others have eluded the researcher entirely. As predicted, the majority of responses were from the most recent generation and the least amount of responses were given by representatives of the earliest generation tested. This researcher’s survey was sent out the Houston Christian High School community (students, faculty and staff). Being so, the vast majority of participants consisted of upper class American citizens; in addition, the participants can also be assumed to associate with the Judeo-Christian worldview.

For each participant, the survey asked for the age range of each participant so that each response could be traced back to the representative from each generation. The four generations tested were those from 1935-1945, 19461964, 1965-1984 and 1985-2000. The results of this initial study are shown below in figure 1.

Unlike the previous group of responses, only 73% of responses believe time travel as not being a possibility in the near future while the remaining 28% responded with the opposite. In the near future, not quite the immediate future, more people from each generation regard time travel was a possibility, but the birth period of 1985-2000 yielded the most positive responses. As shown by Figure 3 and much like the previous question, asking if time travel was viewed as an immediate possibility, the general consensus was time travel would not be a possibility in the near future; however, more responses from the 1985-2000 generation changed their answer to ‘Yes’ indicating even more influence from modern pop-culture and recent scientific discovery. 3

Time Travel

When asked what form of time travel literature best represented, 35 responses (25%) put ‘time machine’ in the lead, 28 responses (35%) followed with ‘Chronesthesia,’ 11 responses (14%) put the ‘Einstein-Rosen Bridge’ in third and the remaining 6 responses (8%) put ‘Quantum Foam’ last. While the majority of participants chose the time machine as best represented in literature (shown below by Figure 4), the 1946-1964 generation was the largest representative looking at the time machine in literature with 50% of responses. 40% and 28% followed with the generations 1985-2000 and 1965-1984, respectively. The 1965-1984 generation found the method of Chronesthesia best represented in literature with 39%, with 38% and 33%, 1985-2000 and 1946-1964, respectively. The 1965-1984 generation again lead with 22% in the form of the Einstein-Rosen bridge with 39%, with 16% and 4%, 1985-2000 and 1946-1964, respectively. Finally, the generation of 1946-1964 was equal within the concept of quantum foam as it was with the Einstein-Rosen bridge (4%) and the 1985-2000 generation was halved as it was with the Einstein-Rosen bridge (8%), but the generation of 19651984 lead again with 11%.

70 Analysis The conducted study attempted to gather evidence showing evidence in opposition of the null hypothesis, “there will be no generational differences when regarding how time travel is portrayed throughout literature.” To find evidence for or against this hypothesis this researcher used a chisquared test. This test represents the sampling distribution being made an approximate chi-squared distribution. Because p=.59 the null hypothesis was upheld. When the raw data was observed, it would seem that the time machine was most prominent throughout all generations, but lack of participation from multiple generations provided a certain bias throughout the majority of participants, from the most recent generation.

Based off the survey this researcher looked at his further questions regarding the study, “Will there be any relationship between adolescent literature and film regarding complex themes of time travel and quantum mechanics?

The Time Machine was the most represented form of time travel in literature usually because it is the most abstract and yet, the one with the easiest scape-goat-explanation. This hypothesis was thus disproved when the suggested titles were easily sorted into one of the four categories initially proposed.

Discussion Based on the research, certain attributes were apparent. Differentiating from my null hypothesis and tested in un-similar ways both hypotheses were upheld. Each hypothesis will addressed in full after certain examples portray each test.

Figure 4 Much different from the propositions put forth by those answering the questions, 39% of stories proposed used the form of Time Machine of time travel, 22% for both Chronesthesia and the Einstein-Rosen Bridge and 17% of Quantum Foam for methods of time travel.

The open-ended questions in the survey (Figure 5) regarding what each participant thought of time travel were meant to gain insight on what the representatives from each generation thought. While the question regarding time travel story was intended for written works, the question was ambiguous enough so each generation could perceive which medium of story was prominent. The most recent generation, as per the survey, showed the most prominent medium story was that of a television show or movie with titles such as, Doctor Who, The Time Traveller’s Wife, Harry Potter, A Wrinkle in Time and Back to the Future. The most recent generation has been subject to the most pop-culture which has drawn upon a major ‘time travel’ theme. The prominence of time travel multi-media shows, within the 1985-2000 generation, greatly influence how likely time travel seems in the future, where as such technology was unknown and unforeseeable to other generations. The popular movie Back to the Future was a large representative for story from 1965-1984 and was followed by other novels written before that time such as Narnia: The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe and Alice Wonderland. Mostly the same popular titles were found from 1946-1964 as 1965-1984, including The Time Machine and A Wrinkle in Time. The last generation’s, 1935-1945, representative felt the most prominent method of time travel is The Wizard of Oz’s Chronesthesia –much different than the ‘Quantum Foam’ and time machine theories in the other generations. In respect to the largest represented patterns in literature to the smallest: Time Machine (39%), Chronesthesia (22%), and Einstein-Rosen Bridge (22%) and Quantum Foam (17%).

The null hypothesis, “there will be no generational differences when regarding how time travel is portrayed throughout literature” was upheld when regarding certain attributes including each of the four categories: the Time Machine, Chronesthesia, Quantum Foam and the EinsteinRosen Bridge. To begin thinking about how each generation views time travel, one must look specifically at how each generation views time. When asked in the questionnaire/ survey, there were a multitude of responses from multiple generations. Shown below are the most insightful from each generation: 1985-2000 The ability to travel back in time and change our own destiny (like in Back to the Future) is impossible, but the ability to change our state in such a way that allows those to experience time quicker than us thereby essentially allowing us to travel “into the future”. This is already been proven on a small scale in that astronauts’ watches are a bit slower when returning to Earth after being in space, so it would be interesting to see how this would play out on a larger scale Time travel is the movement from one moment to another by supernatural means and without immediate aging and other consequences that come with moving forward (or backwards) in time.

1965-1984 Travel to/from past, present, and future. Real time isn’t chronological time as man experiences it.

Time travel is ability to move from one place in time to another place in time along the known space time continuum.

1946-1964 I think time travel could be illustrated in Star Trek with Scotty’s transporter. I imagine your molecules being placed in a different place and time. The only problem being that you would want to end up on solid ground and ready for whatever awaits you.

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Time travel is transporting someone or something from one dimension of time to another, going backwards or forwards in time while in a constant state.

was retained meaning that there were not generational differences when viewing time travel and adolescent literature did reflect complex physical themes.

It would allow something to move to a different point in time, not necessarily to a different point in space, either instantaneously or a different rate other than “normal” time progression.

Remaining Questions

1935-1945 Traveling from the present to some time either in the future or past.

There was a general consensus about what time travel was throughout the generation, but what was interesting was the medium of story in which was provided by each generation. When answering the question on the survey regarding what story the participant believed best represented a time travel theme, the most recent generation proposed titles consisting of mainly multimedia films and television shows such as Doctor Who. One can deduce the main cause of this would be the increasing pressure of pop-culture to take advantage of certain complex time travel themes that include at least one, or more, of the four designated categories represented in the research. In regards again to the generational differences of the representation of time travel in literature, one participant referenced the Christian Bible as a whole to illustrate what time travel means in literature, overlapping multiple themes.

I believe time did not exist until sin came into the world with Adam & Eve’s sin. The logic: There had been no death until Adam & Eve sinned. (1st death: God killed an animal to clothe them. They also ate only things that grew in the ground- no meat, which is killed animals.) Death is a result of aging, or time passing. Therefore if there was no death, there was no aging, and no time. This could also account for inaccurate carbon testing. Since time did not exist, dating the age of something could cause it to appear to be much older than it is, if it existed for long periods before time came into existence. So when Jesus comes again, which could be any time, there will be the best time travel EVER!! We will worship for tens of thousands of years, the Bible says. And I believe that is because “time” will not exist again.

It represents time, as a whole, a manipulation of heaven’s imaginative dream state, like Chronesthesia, but suggests other complex themes such as timelines. The generation born between 1946-1964 provides more complex ideas of time travel and how it can be reflected in literature than other generations. The most recent generation sticks to the “time machine” method with little to no explanation how it works or how time travel is possible through this method. The earliest generation posed time travel rather simply, but that bias can be traced back to the reason that there was only one participant born between the years of 1935-1945.

Regarding the further research question, “will there be any relationship between adolescent literature and film regarding complex themes of time travel and quantum mechanics?” evidence has been provided to support the idea that yes, there are distinct relationships . Based on suggested titles from the survey, each story was compiled to analyze which of the four, if any, it could be categorized into. The majority of titles were put under the category as representing a Time Machine pattern. Because of the recent influence of pop-culture using time travel themes, the majority of participants suggested Time Machine themes because the majority of modern literature consists of just that. It is the easiest explanation without an explanation. To describe Quantum Foam, one must delve deep into a multiverse theory and possible wave particle duality when slipping into the Einstein-Rosen Bridge, but the answer “Time Machine” to “how?” is usually good enough. Chronesthesia is the next most regarded pattern because it is possibly the most plausible. It is easier to understand imagining time travel rather than going into deep space through a wormhole.

Feedback from the participants was incredibly helpful when looking at how each hypothesis compared to the data and research. The null hypothesis

​ hen the patterns of human thought are traced and analyzed, many W conclusions can be made regarding the future possibility of time travel.

For example, early civilizations depicted people moving from one point in time to another. From this basic idea, people groups built upon and created new stories and theories. For instance, the stories transitioned from ancient-Indian tales of one man traveling through time with the aid of divine intervention to stories like The Time Machine. Ideas built off each other to create a whole new set of ideologies. Basic folklore turned into the basis of quantum physics. Without even knowing it, man has created the basis for the time travel physics with the vocal stories of the Gods.

The patterns of time travel today could have large impacts on modern research. With the constant influx of new ideas, society will be exposed to new connections and conclusions regarding time travel. Just as many functional mathematical principles, such as geometry, were developed over hundreds of years by the constant input and refutation of many ideas of the common man. Modern physics could be advanced based off the generation and regeneration of time travel patterns in everyday life and literature.

Delving further into the scope of the research, judging by surveys, reviews and analysis, the researcher poses the question: what effects today’s youth and has the largest impact? When asked the question, “which story do you feel best represents a time travel theme,” the majority of all generations replied with a written novel or short story, except the majority of the most recent generation who responded with mainly movies or television. This researcher can therefore conclude that television is of largest impact to today’s youth, which leads to two following questions: how can television affect children and what are the lasting implications of these effects?

Looking at how television affects adolescents, one scientific study looks at the effect of television on the early development of a child. Answering the question, “ A 2008 study found that children who began watching TV before their 1st birthday, and who then watched more than 2 hours every day, were six times as likely to have language deficits as their peers” (Jabr, 2011). The generation of 1985-2000 (Generation Y) began started watching television as children, and their development was altered in respect to the other generations. Not only is there a period of “vegetation” for these kids, their language and brain function is effected. Language deficits include interpersonal connection between family members and friends in their later lives.

In regards to what the further implications are of television on children, while certain programs such as basic children’s shows can help with basic language, the majority of television has been associated with a reduced overall vocabulary in viewers (Public Broadcasting Service, 2003). Connections are established with what is familiar, remedial and generic television programs with basic lessons, not complex themes of written literature. Because the older generations grew up reading books, they use those in the future because that is what they know. The most recent generation grew up making connections with and learning from television, so that is what they use in the future to make more connections.

The American Academy of Pediatrics issued a certain statement in 1999 regarding children and the media: Pediatricians should urge parents to avoid television viewing for children under the age of 2 years. Although certain television programs may be promoted to this age group, research on early brain development shows that babies and toddlers have a critical need for direct interactions with parents and other significant caregivers (eg, child care providers) for healthy brain growth and the development of appropriate social,

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emotional, and cognitive skills. Therefore, exposing such young children to television programs should be discouraged” (Public Broadcasting Service, 2003).

The costs greatly out way the benefits. According to certain studies, television prevents children from exercising initiative, inhibits the ability to pay attention, work less in school and homework, develop more emotional problems and also inhibits imagination (Chase, 2012). Pertaining more to the topic at hand, generation Y will have less impact on society in the way their predecessors had because of the television epidemic. This still poses further questions for the future: in what ways will the leadership of the world change with skewed social interaction in regards to the previous generations? What will the repercussions be on development for future generations with more technological advances on entertainment?

Biblical Connection ​ ven in the Bible, God speaks to us about quantum mechanics and time E travel. Initially, God is portrayed as an omnipotent and omnipresent being who is without time. He is “timeless.” He is everywhere and in everything.

He knows everything about everyone. Later in the Bible, God views the world with different concepts of time; however, in the modern sense of

time, the Bible depicts a battle in which God held the day and made it longer. He, for a small portion of time, warped the modern sense of time for people to travel from one conventional point in time to another. In accordance with Einstein, God changed the flow of time and allowed for what is now known as time travel. Joshua 10:13 (NIV) illustrates, “So the sun stood still, and the moon stopped, till the nation avenged itself on its enemies, as it is written in the Book of Jashar. The sun stopped in the middle of the sky and delayed going down about a full day.” If this was literal and happened just as the Bible said, this proves that God is omnipotent and omnipresent. God changed the gravitational pull on the earth to change the flow of time and make the day longer. If time is perceived as it is normally now, when compared to the altered flow of time, one point of time to another can be perceived as a change, or travel. While God is outside of everything, He entered the space-time continuum as a mortal man: Jesus Christ. He entered the world as a man with no control over the flow of time. In a way, God’s concept of time changed when he turned into a man with a new concept of time. The Bible is in accordance with Einstein’s theories. With the past evidence given by the Bible, time travel is theoretically possible when taking into account Einstein’s method of changing the flow of time.

Time Travel

References

Baum, L. F. (1900). The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. New York: George M. Hill Company.

Benford, G. (1993). Time and “timescape”. Science Fiction Studies, 20(2), 184-190.

Carlip, S. (2012). Quantum gravity in flatland. (cover story). Scientific American, 306(4), 40. Retrieved from EBSCO (73769616) Carlson, N. (2010). Physiology of behavior. (10 ed.). Boston: Pearson Education.

Chown, M. (2011). Time travel. New Scientist, 212(2833), 50. Retrieved from EBSCO (66712054) Chase, I. The good and bad effects of tv on children (2012). [Web log message].

Clark, S. (2011). The origin of time. New Scientist, 212(2833), 38.

Retrieved from EBSCO (66712025) Crichton, M. (1999). Timeline. New York: Fredrick.

Grey, W. (1999). Troubles with time travel. Cambridge University Press, 74(287), 55-70.

Gribbin, J. (1996). Everything you always wanted to know about time travel. Retrieved January 12, 2013, from http://www.lifesci.sussex. ac.uk/home/John_Gribbin/timetrav.htm Helson, L. (2004). Neuroscience: While you were sleeping.

Nature,430(7003), 962.

Irving, W. (1820). The sketch book of geoffrey crayon, gent.. London: Burlington Arcade.

Jabr, F. (2011). Turning on the TV does not turn off a toddler’s brain.

New Scientist, 212(2836), 10.

Kruesi, L. (2009). Light’s dual personality. Astronomy, 37(7). 34.

Kowalski, k. M. (2012). Travel through time with your imagination.

Odyssey, 21(7), 39.

73 Lewis, C. S. (1950). The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe. London: Geoffrey Bles.

Murray, B. (2003). What makes mental time travel possible?. Monitor on Psychology, 34(9), 62.

Parsons, P. (2008, January 08). The science of doctor who. Retrieved January 15, 2012, from http://www.astrobiologysociety.org/index. php/book-reviews-mainmenu-39/259-dr-who.pdf.

PBS. (2003).Children and media: tv and kids under age 3.

Pohl, F. (1994). Science fiction: Stepchild of science. Technology Review (00401692), 97(7), 57. Retrieved from EBSCO (9409281117) Rappaport, H. (2011). 5 time travel theories from science fiction that could still be possible. Retrieved February 10, 2012, from http:// dvice.com/archives/2011/09/5-time-travel-t.php Ryan, M. (2006). From parallel universes to possible worlds: Ontological pluralism in physics, narratology, and narrative. Poetics Today, 27(4), 633-674.

Sagan, C. (1985). Contact. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Stenger, V. (2000). Quantum time travel. In Timeless Reality: Symmetry, Simplicity, and Multiple Universes. New York: Prometheus Books.

Vinkovic, D. (2002). J. Richard Gott, III. Retrieved January 10, 2012, from http://vinkovic.org/Projects/PopularScience/Gott_interview/J. Richard.Gott.III.eng.html Wells, H. G. (1895). The time machine. London: William Heinermann.

Wills, S. R. (1994). Time travel made easy! (cover story). Odyssey, 3(7), 14. Retrieved from EBSCO (9409267567) Wong, R. (2011). Chinese physicists prove time travel is impossible.

Retrieved from http://dvice.com/archives/2011/07/chinese-physici. php Zorich, Z. (2012). The Maya sense of time. (cover story). Archaeology, 65(6), 25-29. Retrieved from Ebsco (82529885)

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Appendix

Copy of Survey I am a part of the Distinguished Scholar’s class of 2014 at Houston Christian High School and am currently completing a dissertation on the physics behind time and time travel. As part of the scope of my research, I am examining fictional patterns of time travel and whether they are consistent with modern physics. For one aspect of my research, I am conducting a survey to analyze literary time travel themes represented across different generations. Would you please take a moment to send the survey link (listed below) to the senior class, and parents and faculty members who would be willing to participate? As with any statistical study, the larger the sample size, the more powerful the results. Thank you in advance for your participation in my research study and for your cooperation in forwarding this link to as many participants as possible.

1. Which generation are you from? a. 1935-1945

c. 1965-1984

b. 1946-1964

d. 1985-2000

2. Do you view time travel as an immediate possibility a. Yes

b. No

3. Do you view time travel as a possibility in the near future? a. Yes

b. No

4. Which form of time travel do you find literature best represents? a. Chronesthesia (imaginative travel through a relative dream state) b.

Einstein-Rosen Bridge (Wormhole from one end the universe to the other)

c. Quantum Foam (Multiple universes) d. Time Machine

5. In 1-2 sentences, explain what you think time travel is 6. What is a book or children’s story that you feel best represents a time travel theme

Copy of Survey Results 1. Which generation are you from?

2. Do you view time travel as an immediate possibility

3. Do you view time travel as a possibility in the near future?

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Time Travel

4. Which form of time travel do you find literature best represents?

5. In 1-2 sentences, explain what you think time travel is What is a book or children’s story that you feel best represents a time travel theme?

Both free answer questions were answer by all 80 recipients, with a wide variety of responses. Regarding the explanation of time travel, there were responses ranging from, “travel to the future� to in depth responses with real world application such as how time travel is seen in the bible and what time really means to the Garden of Eden.

Number of daily responses

75

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Rome and America: Similarities of Decline and Evaluation of Comparison Stephen Charles Hirschbuehler

Rome Versus America

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Table of Contents

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Roman Decline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Corruption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Decline of the Economy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Immorality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Class Warfare. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Fall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 American Decline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Truth in Comparison. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Purpose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Participants & Sampling Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Research Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Experimental Manipulation/Intervention/Instrumentation. . . . . 86 Data Collection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Data Analysis Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Ethical Consideration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Findings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Sample. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Survey Findings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Remaining Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Biblical Connection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Appendix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

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81

Abstract

The researcher examined the internal and external factors of the Fall of Ancient Rome and compared those factors to the current trends in America. Although there are many similarities between the civilizations, the researcher found large contextual differences that must be taken into account when applying lessons learned from Rome to America. The researcher composed a null hypothesis in order to analyze Americans’ political concerns based on generation. The researcher sent out an anonymous survey and discovered from the responses Americans of different generations do not have the same political concerns. The null hypothesis was then rejected. After researching generational political concerns, the researcher explored the Affordable Care Act in regards to its political, economic, and social implications. The researcher found the Act will expedite a new era of political philosophy, negatively affect the economy, and create a clash in social ideology.

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83

Due in part to the influence of ancient Greece, modern America and classical Rome share many similarities socially and economically. Rome, once the most glorious empire of its time, crumbled as a result of both internal and external factors (Argote-Freyre, 2012; Nice, 2012). While studying the fall of Rome, it is almost inevitable to draw connections to contemporary America. Correlations between perhaps the two greatest civilizations of all time are almost eerie. A modern scholar should be alarmed when examining the ominous themes Rome foreshadows for America. This topic is of increasing importance due to the slight decline America has experienced over the past few decades in relation to Ancient Rome. Since the only way to correct mistakes is to learn from the past, modern Americans must therefore consider lessons from the ancient Roman civilization to ensure America does not suffer the same fate. In order to study the common themes between these two great nations, a researcher must examine the catalyst which caused ancient Rome and modern America to be so similar. Thus, the questions a modern researcher must ask are: What were the internal and external factors leading of to the fall of ancient Rome? To what magnitude do those factors exist in America today? Can Americans take Rome’s example as foreshadowing for their nation’s fall?

Industrial Revolution, which both reflected the Greek principles of reason and innovation (Bentley & Ziegler, 2011).

The flame of Western Civilization was finally carried to America aboard the Mayflower and burned brighter and brighter until Western Civilization was epitomized in America in the early 20th century. America’s Founding Fathers identified the Greco-Roman system of government as the most effective and modeled the American government after it. Today America still holds the proverbial spirit of ancient Greece within its boundaries.

From the information presented above, it is obvious how tightly linked America and Rome are because of Ancient Greece. This link goes well beyond heritage; it encompasses government, social conditions, and economic conditions. Even though Rome fell, its spirit still lives on in America. History repeats itself and so far it appears as though America is repeating mistakes made in Rome. If America continues down Rome’s path, both its society and government will weaken to the point of collapse.

So the questions a modern researcher must ask are: What were the internal and external factors leading of to the fall of ancient Rome? Do those factors exist in America today? Can Americans take Rome’s example as foreshadowing for their nation’s fall?

History

Roman Decline

Ancient Greece shaped the world by giving birth to Western Civilization (Allen, 2006; Bentley & Ziegler, 2011; Krentz, 2012). The abandon of superstition in favor of reliance on reason separate Ancient Greece from the primitive cultures of the time, marking a large shift from interpreting the world through the lens of pagan religion and fantasy to embracing logic and method. Reason is the primary proponent behind all of the intellectual growth and innovation the ancient Greeks accomplished (Bentley & Ziegler, 2011; D’angour, 2000; Kagan, 1995; Krentz, 2012).

Countless theorems, developments, and discoveries of Greece would not have been possible if the Ancient Greeks were content with attributing weather changes and other natural phenomena to Zeus and Poseidon.

Even though Greece only survived for a few hundred years after their conversion to logic, the tradition continued into subsequent nations.

After the height of the Roman Empire at 180 A.D., it began to decline due to a variety of internal factors. The Roman Empire fell in 476 A. D. due to internal decay and outside invasions (Bentley & Zeigler, 2011; Nice, 2012).

In comparison with America, the internal factors of Rome’s demise are the most relevant and telling. As Rome did not fall abruptly, but rather decayed over a period of time, this researcher must begin at the start of Rome’s decline to fully understand her fall (Anderson, 2009; Reed, 1990).

Rome continued the tradition of reason with philosophers such as Seneca, Marcus Aurelius, and Cicero leading the way for intellectual achievement and the advancement of society (Nice, 2012). The Romans improved upon the areas of Greek learning such as literature, architecture, and philosophy. For example, the Romans took the Greek political philosophy of democracy and refined it into the more efficient Republic (Nice, 2012).

Even after Rome fell ancient Greek thought thrived in the post-classical era despite the European Dark Ages.

While the Europeans floundered in intellectual stagnancy, the Arabs in the Middle East flourished and preserved much of Greek and Roman learning in libraries especially the House of Wisdom in Baghdad (Bentley & Ziegler, 2011; Deliyannis, 2012). Because of the Middle East’s geographic location, it was natural for the Arabs to blend elements of Eastern scholarship such as Algebra and the concept of zero with the Western learning knowledge pool (Bentley & Ziegler, 2011; Deliyannis, 2012). This combination allowed for the advancement of Western Civilization, Greece’s longest lasting legacy.

Around 1300 A. D. , Europe awoke from its intellectual slumber advanced civilization once more. To do so, the likes of Leonardo, Michelangelo, and Raphael looked back to the example set by the ancient Greeks exemplified in Raphael’s renowned painting, “The School of Athens. ” (Bentley & Ziegler, 2011; Hankins 2012). The painting depicts conversations between legendary Greeks including Plato and Socrates along with Raphael himself, painted in the picture. Western Civilization flourished in Europe from the Renaissance until about the early 1800s. Britain primarily housed Western Civilization during this time period and caused the Enlightenment and

Expansion Rome, at its heart, was imperialistic before it became an empire. The war hungry Romans would conquer lands and either assimilate or Romanize the native people. The Republic grew with each acquired land and soon grew to a massive size. By 50 B.C., the Republic dominated the European continent stretching 752,899 square miles (Nice, 2012). The vast size and limited technology of the time of the Republic posed a number of logistic and administrative challenges. These challenges included maintaining a secure border, a unified people, and effective communication (Bertman, 2006). These challenges would pose great problems in the future in the later years of the empire. Due to the weak economy and size of the empire (2,509,664 square miles at its height), Rome could not maintain an effective infrastructure. Communication was slow and difficult to effectively carry out due size of the empire and limited technology of the era (Bertman, 2006). Also, Rome’s weak economy could not allow the empire to spend money on border control. As a consequence, Rome’s officials failed in maintaining a secure border as thousands of foreigners immigrated from the north. Although they immigrated, they did not assimilate and their culture clashed with and contaminated the Roman culture (ArgoteFreyre, 2012; Bertman, 2006). Emperor Diocletian attempted to solve the unsynchronized state of the empire by dividing it into two halves, the East and West, and had the two halves govern largely independent of each other (Bentley & Ziegler, 2011). Though perhaps this action managed to save to the East, which would continue on for hundreds of years as the Byzantine Empire, it doomed the already weakened West.

When comparing Rome’s expansion to America, the foundations of the two nations must be considered. First and foremost, Rome was an empire; America is not. This fundamental difference makes expansion comparisons strained and hard to make with confidence (Bertman, 2006).

Although many may label America as an empire due to its foreign policy as of late, it is not an empire at its core (Lieber, 2012). This said America’s

Rome Versus America

foreign relations must be discussed because there are indications America’s military is over-stretched. While America is not expanding its borders, it is expanding internally in the form of illegal immigration, just as Rome did.

As seen in Rome’s example, immigrants that migrate but do not assimilate can be harmful to the nation. So, modern American must keep Rome’s example in mind when analyzing illegal immigration.

First after World War II, America expanded its military presence and got involved in international conflicts like Korea and Vietnam. Especially in response to Vietnam, young Americans began to question the need for the war and started a cultural revolution (O’Reilly, 2011). This rejection of the Vietnam War was aided by the video coverage that perpetuated the media during the war. Americans saw carnage and were repulsed by it (O’Reilly, 2011). The effect of this social revolution will be discussed in a later section. After Vietnam, America has continuously spread her military might and has bases in thirty-eight countries, according to a 2010 Department of Defense official report. (Department of Denfense, 2010).

Secondly, America’s military is becoming reliant on hired contractors to carry out duties previously preformed by enlisted soldiers. Though contactors are not the same as full-fledged mercenaries, they are similar.

While the Romans hired the Huns and Visigoths, America is hiring contractors like Aegis and Blackwater (Reed, 1990). Although America’s army is still dominant worldwide, Rome has exemplified a military sustained by mercenaries is weaker. Also, America has become involved in what could be argued as unnecessary conflicts, most notably the Middle East. If America is stretching herself too far militarily by becoming a global police force, then her military will become weak and make her susceptible to other nations.

America’s population is also expanding rapidly due to illegal immigration.

Many conservatives, including Texas congressman Ted Poe, have compared modern day illegal immigrants to the barbaric immigrants that plagued Rome. In 2006, Poe told the House of Representatives: When people come illegally to a nation and refuse to take allegiance to that country, start sending money to another nation and they don’t even learn the language, is America asking for trouble? Is America becoming just another Rome? (Argote-Freyre, 2012) While many claim Poe is taking this historical event out of context to serve his purpose, facts cannot be denied; a culturally dysfunctional nation is doomed to fail (Argote-Freyre, 2012).

Corruption Secondly, the Roman government became extremely corrupt due to unscrupulous officials. In the later years of the empire, when taxes soared, the wealthy bribed tax collectors to avoid paying taxes. Emperors like Domitian and Caracalla were known to call for special taxes just to put coin in their own pockets. Due to the lack of satisfactory succession laws, when an emperor died, a power struggle almost always ensued. The most famous of these was the “Year of Four Emperors.” In 69 A.D. four emperors (Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespaision) ruled Rome, each getting overthrown or assassinated then replaced by the next. The chaos made it impossible for the government to be effective. Continuing the chaos, 244-270 A.D. saw the reign of the Barrack Room Emperors, military leaders who gained control by force and violence. Seventeen leaders ruled Rome in the short span of twenty-six years. Since the emperors were being continually challenged and overthrown, the empire was in a state of constant civil war and strife. The Roman Emperor’s absolute authority created potential for corrupt actions of the Emperor. Rome’s military strength also weakened in the years before 476 A. D (Reed, 2006). Romans stopped enlisting in the military because they grew complacent and indulgent, so the government turned to mercenaries to fill the ranks. The government paid barbaric mercenaries to fight in the Roman military, which caused the morale of the army to decline and dissuaded Romans form enlisting. This use of

84 barbarian mercenaries weakened the military over time and made the empire susceptible to invasion (Anderson, 2009; Bentley & Ziegler, 2011; Murphy, 2007; Reed, 1990). In summary, since Rome’s borders were so large and uncontrolled, the empire became culturally unsynchronized split into two empires. The government became corrupt, taking bribes and instituting malicious emperors. Finally, due to lack of Roman morale, barbaric mercenaries were relied upon which severely weakened Rome’s once strong military.

Again, the comparison between Rome and America must be assessed. The succession turmoil that prevailed in Rome cannot be applied to America.

The American system of government has stable succession protocols that allow the transition between leaders to be smooth. However, America’s leaders are far from blameless. The corruption that does exist in the leaders of America reflects the moral state and priorities of the whole nation.

Americans should see from Rome that corruption in government is not acceptable and hold their officials to a higher standard in order to not fall as Rome did.

While the American government is certainly not as corrupt as Rome’s, it is not above reproach. A few large political scandals like Nixon’s Watergate immediately stand out but relatively minor stories appear in the news of a congressman or senator abusing power or position frequently and tell of a trend in America’s government. For example, New Jersey Senator Robert Menedez is being investigated for allegedly using tax dollars to pay for a trip to the Dominican Republic (Pianin, 2013). Other politicians who have been convicted of corrupt behavior recently include former Illinois governor Rod Blagojevich (selling senate seats) and former house majority leader Tom DeLay (money laundering) (Pianin, 2013). Furthermore, according to a 2012 Gallup poll, 54% of Americans surveyed thought that politicians had “very low” ethical standards and at 14% Congress’ approval rating is nearing an all-time low (Jones, 2013). Even though corruption is not to the magnitude as Rome, it exists and should be alarming.

Decline of the Economy Rome collapsed in part because she failed economically. Rome’s economy slowed significantly in the late years of the empire, which aided in her demise (Bertman, 2006; Reed, 1990). Unemployment rose among the middle-class because slaves provided much cheaper labor and were preferred by the patrician employers. Countless people depended on the free grain program offered by Rome. Under Caesar Augustus (27 B.C.), 320,000 Roman citizens were receiving this aid from the government, placing a large financial burden on the empire. This costly grain program, along with Rome’s military expansion, forced the government to place higher taxes on the public in order to maintain financial stability (Bartlett, 1994). The government of Rome grew more and more powerful as time went on as Caesar Augustus implemented a huge public works program under his role to build and repair roads, aqueducts, etc. which caused a large portion of Romans to be dependent on Rome for work. Augustus’ successor, Tiberius, cut these programs in 33 A.D. and hoarded money for the empire and thus caused a severe economic recession. More citizens qualified for government assistance at this time and government spending increased (Bartlett, 1994). To try to compensate for this and increasing military costs, Emperor Nero (54-68 A.D.) decided to debase the currency by reducing the amount of precious metal in new coins by 10%. Due to this, he had to raise taxes on the people, famously saying, “Let us tax and tax again. Let us see to it that no one owns anything! (Reed, 1990)” Later emperors like Trajan, Marcus Aurelies, and Septimus Severus continued to debase the currency so that by the reign of Claudius II (268-270 A.D.) inflation caused the drachma (standard coin) to value 1/15 of what it did at the beginning of Nero’s reign. The debasement and inflation forced citizens to hoard the older minted coins as they were worth more. Roman then paid their taxes and other expenses with the newer coins of less value.

This obviously caused confusion and heavier taxes, particularly on the

Rome Versus America

rich (Bartlett, 1994; Reed, 1990). Since Roman currency had essentially broken down, a new tax system had to be established based on goods and services. Under this system, the city of Rome became a consuming city void of industry, which moved out to the provinces. Consequently, the empire increased taxes yet again to the extent that the average farmer could not support himself. At this point, citizens used bribes and cut ties to the empire to evade taxes (Bartlett, 1994). Some local landowners formed miniature almost-feudal communities, largely separate from Rome. All of these factors surmounted a weak country that could not withstand an assault by barbaric invaders.

The economic situation of Rome mirrors America’s quite accurately. As will be shown, the sequence of events in the decline of Rome’s economy is the same as America’s, though not yet to the same extent. However, Rome’s economy was for the most part static: the Romans rarely innovated (Anderson, 2009; Murphy, 2007). Because of this Rome’s economy grew weaker as time went on. America, on the other hand, is the center of innovation (Silicon Valley, for example) and new ideas in the world and had shown dynamism to adapt to change in the markets (Anderson, 2009; Lieber, 2012; Murphy, 2007). So, while America’s economic condition is similar to Rome’s, America is dynamic which is a key difference when comparing the two economies.

Economically, America is struggling. She is in the middle of perhaps the worst recession since the Great Depression. The national debt is $16 trillion and growing; unemployment is on the rise, and taxes are becoming a painful burden for Americans (Anderson, 2009; Reed, 1990). The financial situation of America began to mirror Rome at the time of the Great Depression. Because money was extremely limited, President Roosevelt took America’s dollar off of the gold standard in an attempt to keep the economy afloat and take some burden off the common man. However, history did repeat itself and inflation skyrocketed as it did in Rome. At this time the American government became more involved in private business and in citizens’ private lives through FDR’s New Deal programs like the Agricultural Adjustment Administration, Federal Emergency Relief Administration, Civilian Conservation Corps, Tennessee Valley Authority, National Recovery Administration, Public Works Administration, Works Progress Administration, and Social Security (Maney, 2012). Through all of these programs, Roosevelt’s administration began to change the attitude of the American from one of self-reliance and individualism to one of entitlement (Bertman, 2006).

Lyndon B. Johnson encouraged this entitlement attitude with his ‘Great Society’ ideology. He instituted welfare programs, which have been the bane of America’s wealthy class ever since. Due to the expansion of these programs, today 5% of Americans pay 95% of the total taxes supporting the 41% on government assistance according to the Heritage Foundation.

The government is forced to raise taxes, particularly on businesses and the wealthy class and become more invasive to sustain itself (Bertman, 2006). America, as Rome did, is falling into the trap described by what is called Howard Kershner’s First Law: “When a self-governing people confer upon their government the power to take from some and give to others, the process will not stop until the last bone of the last taxpayer is picked bare. (Reed, 2006)” The American government has not stopped its reckless spending and is failing to foster economic growth just as the Roman government did.

Immorality The social state of the Roman Empire plummeted in the latter years of the Empire. First, Roman leaders abandoned their scruples. Though it is difficult to quantify, evil emperors were common and acted on whim, no matter how cruel or unusual (Bertman, 2006; Reed, 2006). For example, Emperor Heliogabalus (218-222 A.D.) is recorded to have hosted a sensual mass orgy in a palace, only to suffocate his guests with rose petals at the

85 end of the night. Many emperors, like Tiberius (14-37 A.D.), were known to keep a group of young boys with him at the palace. The wickedness of the Emperors created a largely hedonistic and immoral culture for the citizens to follow. Secondly, political apathy increased as emperors became more powerful and hedonism rose. Common citizens did not care about the state of the empire as long as their needs were being satisfied. The Roman government spent the equivalent of $100 million dollars a year on a ‘breads and circuses’ program which kept citizens content by offering them free food and entertainment (Anderson, 2009). Also, Romans flocked to the Coliseum to see both men and animals brutally pitted against each other. The Romans became extremely bloodthirsty and did not value the sanctity of life.

The moral situation of Rome was horrendous and America is currently heading in that direction. However, one must keep in mind America was built with strong Judeo-Christian values, unlike pagan Romans. A key manifestation of this is the great American ideal of equality. In the Roman Empire wealthy males were the only ones who enjoyed the rights that every American enjoys today. Women and the poor were looked down upon and denied citizenship and other privileges. Obviously, this is not that case in America today (Anderson, 2009; Murphy, 2007). Additionally, Americans are becoming politically apathetic like the Romans. Rome has shown how destructive political apathy is and Americans should heed its example.

Finally, America is becoming socially similar to Rome. In response to the Vietnam War, a social revolution ensued. Patriotism dropped along with many social customs. Free love, drugs, and questioning of authority became widespread especially among America’s youth. People became focused on what made them happy and did what they wanted. This trend continued until present time. Today, American culture is over-sexualized.

Movies, magazines, and even clothiers are promoting and perhaps even glorifying sexual exposure (Anderson, 2009; Reed, 1990). As recorded by Dr. Jean Twenge, professor of psychology at San Diego State University, in her book, Generation Me, teenagers are being exposed to and participating in sexual activities at much younger ages than in previous generations. The moral decay of America is similar to that of Rome’s and counterproductive to a healthy society. More and more Americans are growing complacent and apathetic. According to the Center for the Study of the American Electorate, only 57.5% of all eligible voters cast ballots for the 2012 presidential election (“Election Results,” 2012). Americans are content to not be involved in government and demand handouts in the form of food stamps and welfare programs (Anderson, 2009, Reed, 1990). Today, according to the Heritage Foundation, about 41% (128. 8 million) of Americans are dependent on the government, 15% on food stamps. That is comparable to the 32% (320,000) of Rome’s citizens on government food programs Julius Caesar encountered when he came to power (Reed, 1990).

Just as in Rome, the social decay directly translates into the American political system as well. It is apparent from this information that America does in many ways reflect Rome, but a researcher must discern if these similarities are any indication of America’s future.

Class Warfare Furthermore, the wealthy class (known as patricians) lived lavishly at the expense of the lower plebeians. For example, the wealthy would use either negotiation or force to seize land adjacent to their own, displacing the plebeians who more than often lived there. Furthermore, the poor plebeians commonly resorted to selling their loved ones and even themselves into slavery to avoid debt (Bonta, 2004). This separation of social classes brought much conflict as the plebeians had little individual power. Because of their lowly status, the plebeians (the majority of the Empire) would often riot for change and caused problems for the empire.

When the barbarians invaded Rome, the common poor citizens did not resist, as they were content to see the oppressive Roman social system fail.

In short, the Romans adopted an attitude of appeasement of selfish desires

Rome Versus America

that led to moral decay and increased social tension (Bertman, 2006).

Rome’s social decline crept into its political world, weakening the integrity of the government.

Just as Rome had social warfare, so does America. However, there does exist a key difference in the nature of the conflict. Rome had a strict class system which the wealthy dominated. America has a meritocracy where the poorer classes have much more political power than the plebeians did in Rome (Bertman, 2006). This said, Americans can not reject Rome’s example, but must take heed and seek to resolve social conflicts in America.

American class warfare has grown exponentially over the past decades.

The gap between the upper and lower classes widened as the American middle class diminished. Many middle class jobs especially in the manufacturing business were shipped overseas because of cheap labor.

Today, the “Occupy” movement best depicts class warfare in America.

There is extreme tension between the 99% (common Americans) and the 1% (wealthy Americans). The government seems not to be helping this problem, but exacerbating it, as many politicians gain support by stirring up social resentment.

86 Although there does exist a large gap between Rome and America, modern scholars cannot completely ignore Rome’s example. Rome’s example does point out many problems in modern America. However, Rome’s example does not doom America to fall. After looking at the values of Rome and the values of America, this researcher must consider the implications for American society.

Method Purpose After this researcher considered the applications from Rome to America, he was curious about the political opinions of the American people. To guide research a4 null hypothesis was posed: Americans of different generations do have the same political concerns. A voluntary survey was created and sent out composed of questions designed to measure each participants political views in regards to some of the topics discussed in the Review of Related Literature.

Participants & Sampling Procedures

Fall The combined internal epidemics vastly weakened the power of the Roman Empire. When Visigoth and Slavic invaders attacked, Rome did not stand a chance. Modern America has experienced some of these same trends over the past few decades. Historian Cullen Murphy (2007) summed up Rome’s demise as a large and multicultural empire with an inflated opinion of itself and an underestimated view of the world, which could not solve internal challenges because of its colossal size. To summarize, historian Will Durant (2003) stated in The Story of Civilization, “Rome was conquered not by barbarian invasion from without, but by barbarian multiplication within.” A modern researcher must take note of these trends in America and compare them to the decline of Rome to determine if they are a mere coincidence or are foreshadowing due to the difficulty of quantifying similarities.

American Decline When reviewing Rome’s fall a researcher must recall philosopher George Santayana, “Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it (Reed, 1990).” After America experienced a brief golden age after World War I, conditions shifted after the failed Vietnam War. The genesis of America’s decline can be identified at the end of the Vietnam War and has continued since. This decline can be grouped into three categories expansion and corruption of government, decline of economy, and hedonism.

Truth in Comparison Many modern commentators contest that Rome is not a concrete indication for America because of the large basic differences between the two nations. As said before, Rome was an empire; America is not. Despite America’s foreign meddling, it is not an empire which makes many political comparisons to Rome strained (Lieber, 2012). Secondly, large chronological and cultural gaps exist between the two civilizations (Murphy, 2007). More specifically, the common Roman was living in order to survive and the common American is living to maintain his or her level of comfort. For example, an American might call not being able to afford cable television a crisis while a Roman would assign the same label to having to marry off one of his daughters to get food for the week (Anderson, 2009; Murphy, 2007). In summary, many researchers argue that Rome does not foretell anything for America because the two societies are so different due to of the chronological and technological gap. Finally, a researcher cannot be so audacious as to predict America’s fall on account of Rome’s example due to the impossibility of knowing the future.

This researcher studied anyone who replied to the survey sent through email.

Thus, a convenience sample was collected starting first from the students, faculty, and parents of Houston Christian High School. Participants were encouraged to forward the link to the survey onward in an attempt to achieve diverse responses. Two hundred responses were collected from respondents who identified themselves with a birth year in a certain time period. Responses reflected a spread out age group, though those born from 1946-1964 composed the majority of responses at 53% (114 responses).

Those born from 1965-1984 made of 30% (66); then 1985-2000, 12% (26); finally 1935-1945, 5% (11). Most of the respondents are assumed have a high level of education (high school or above) and mainly members the American wealthy class.

Research Design The research was conducted in a structured survey quantitative study.

The researcher chose this study due to its efficiency in gathering relatively objective responses from a large pool of participants. The researcher explored the political views of members of different generations in order to illuminate relevance to comparisons between Rome and America.

Experimental Manipulation/Intervention/Instrumentation The researcher employed a questionnaire with four closed questions and one open ended question. The questionnaire was in the form of a survey and sent out electronically through email. The survey was a custom survey created through Google Forms. This application also was the vehicle responses were collected through. Google Forms is reliable and organized.

However, due to the survey’s response limitations, an accurate portrayal of each respondent may not be reflected in responses. The researcher chose this data collection structure due to its speed and effectiveness in collecting a pool of direct analyzable responses from a spectrum of participants. The independent variables were the generations analyzed and the common survey. The dependent variable were the responses collected as each was aligned to the respondent’s personal view.

Data Collection The survey was distributed by email to participants. It was first sent to the students, parents, and faculty of Houston Christian High School. Those who received the survey were reminded participation was voluntary and encouraged to forward the survey on. The survey was opened on November, 13 2013 and closed on December 4, 2013.

Rome Versus America Data Analysis Plan

The researcher formulated statistics from each of the closed responses questions. From the open response, responses were analyzed based on length (indicating passion for topic) and content. A chi-squared test was employed to analyze the data collected.

87 1964 composed the majority of responses at 53% (115 responses). Those born from 1965-1984 made of 30% (66); then 1985-2000, 12% (26); finally 1935-1945, 5% (11). See Figure 1 below. Due to the anonymous nature of the survey and the researcher’s restraint of further personal questions no data besides the generalizations discussed in the Method section.

Ethical Consideration This survey was ethically sound because of the voluntary participation statement. Emotional harm and physical harm were not factors in this research as the survey was not offensive or dangerous in the least.

The researcher maintained a safe, professional relationship with the participants as participants were not known and responses collected were completely anonymous.

Bias While the data collection plan was effective, it maintained a considerable amount of bias. First of all, Americans who do not have access to the Internet or a computer could not complete the survey. Also those who do not speak English were at a disadvantage and their opinions are not reflected in the data collected. People who are blind or have other disabilities were not able to participate. Furthermore, as the generations studied spanned from 1935-2000, those who were not members of those generations could not participate. Finally, the research was analyzing Americans opinions and excluded those who are not American.

Assumptions A few assumptions were made in the collecting of this data. First, the researcher assumed each participant gave honest, serious responses.

Combing through the data, no responses appeared outwardly jocular or intentionally ignorant, so it appears this assumption was safe to make.

Secondly, I assumed each participant had some background knowledge of the current and past political situation of America. This knowledge is critical for the respondent to posses in order to give a legitimate response.

Lastly, respondents were assumed to have an interest and opinion on the topic at hand; both were necessary for the survey’s completion.

Limitations After considering all the possible subtopics that could be researched, the researcher decided not to do any case studies of Roman leaders to American leaders. Such a study would be difficult to effectively evaluate and would not give conclusive evidence due to comparison problems discussed above. Also, I am not studying the political concerns of the common Roman citizen to compare them with American’s. This data would be near impossible to collect a substantial amount of evidence for. The researcher is not interested in exploring the effects of media on American’s political views or any subtopics related to the effect of religion on Rome and America. Finally, money and time were not issues in the data collection process, the researcher would have used a random sample instead of a convenience sample for the survey in order to accumulate responses from Americans of all walks of life. Also, the researcher would have delved into a researched how much the common American is knowledgeable about America’s affairs and the factors leading into ones political agenda.

Figure 1 Survey Findings Cumulatively, 72% (156) of respondents believed if America continues on its current path, it will inevitably fall; 7% (15) believed decline is nowhere in sight; and 22% (47) believed neither of these statements accurately describe the state of America. These 47 respondents had a broad range of thoughts ranging from believing there was no fixing America to believing it was up to Americans to change course to uncertainty on the state of America. Figure 2 below breaks down each generation’s responses on the state of America.

Findings Sample Two hundred-eighteen responses were collected from respondents who identified themselves with a birth year in a certain time period. Responses reflected an age group with a large group, though those born from 1946-

Figure 2

Rome Versus America

When asked to chose the most pressing political matter from economic recession, overexpansion, and class warfare, 51% (111) selected economic recession, 28% (62) selected class warfare, and 21% (45) selected overexpansion. Responses to this question were analyzed in order to evaluate the null hypothesis, as explained later. As only three options were given, it was likely the chosen political matter may not be each respondent’s most pressing political issue. Figure 3 below documents the responses to this question organized by generation.

88 concern (Figure 3). As a result of the test, the chi-squared value of 13.8 and p value of .03 were obtained. Since the p value was less than .05 , statistically significant evidence has been gathered that opposed the null hypothesis and supported the alternative hypothesis. Therefore, the null hypothesis has been rejected and the alternative hypothesis has been adopted. Thus the evidence supported Americans of different generations do not have the same political concerns. Stephen Hirschbuehler

Discussion The data collected from the respondents illustrate how complex and interrelated America’s current condition is. As discussed in the Review of Related Literature, Ancient Rome’s decline could not accurately be described as due to one single event; many factors were codependent on each other and ultimately combined to the demise of Rome. The responses gathered from the survey prove the challenges facing modern America are as intricate as the ones posed against Rome regardless of the comparative challenges previously addressed.

First off, the responses collected from the survey corresponded to the condition of America described in the Review of Related Literature.

According to the data, an overwhelming 72% of respondents indicated America’s is in decline and ultimate demise is imminent on the current course. Only 7% believed America is prospering. These numbers are too large to disregard and support the most basic premise of the review: America is, in fact, in decline.

Figure 3 In response to the question of who bore the responsibility of fixing the problems in America, 44% (94) of respondents believed private organizations and citizens bore the responsibility, 25% (55) believed the government was responsible, 28% (62) believed both the private and public sectors were responsible, and 3% (6) believed other groups were responsible. Of the respondents that selected other, some zeroed in on a very specific group responsible (e.g. Christians) and some did not know where the responsibility was. Figure 4 details the responses to this question based on generation.

Figure 4

Analysis In order to evaluate the null hypothesis, a chi-squared test for homogeneity was conducted based on each generation’s response to their top political

The respondent’s concerns also supported the challenges facing America as accurate. In regards to overexpansion, respondents attested to America’s overgrowth both internally and externally. Opinions voiced concern about America’s growing military presence throughout the world. A member of the 1985-2000 expressed his opinion on America’s foreign meddling: “Right now the US needs to focus on domestic issues and not intercede in the business of other countries unless there is a direct threat to the US.” As documented in the Review of Related Literature America has a mighty global military presence with bases in thirty-eight different countries and contracts with private military companies. Respondents voiced concern of the danger of a nation spread too far out globally in congruence with the Review of Related Literature.

In regards to illegal immigration, respondents reacted in an even more passion and unease. The majority of participants who selected overexpansion as the most pressing concern focused mainly on illegal immigration in the free response section. At face value, it would seem that Americans are more concerned about internal expansion, but as it was assumed most participants are from Texas, this trend may be attributed as a result of the convenience sample taken. Nevertheless, respondents identified illegal immigration as a threat to America’s prosperity and feared the creation of a “state within a state” that occurred in Rome’s northern territories. A member of the 1946-1964 generation commented on this issue “Our country must get a handle on it’s booming growth, especially as it relates to permanent welfare and other similar programs that encourage immigration with no incentive to assimilate or contribute to the betterment of the American economy.” Others blamed the issue on the wealthy class using the immigrants to their advantage, while hurting common Americans and called for reform in this aspect. A 1935-1945 member lamented, “The American working class has almost vanished.

Nearly all unskilled and skilled labor jobs have been taken over by Hispanic immigrants, both legal and illegal, who are willing to accept subsistence level salaries, rather than salaries commensurate with their training and skill. The owners and managers of American companies defend this practice, saying that it’s just smart business. But nowadays there are very few American carpenters, plumbers, electricians, and so on.”

Correspondingly, a member of the 1985-2000 generation called for “stiffer penalties for smugglers, make it more difficult for illegals to work [and]

Rome Versus America

more severe consequences for their employers.” All of the data from the collection reinforced the overexpansion problem addressed in the Review of Related Literature.

America’s current economic state was the most pressing problem facing the nation, based of the data collected from the survey. A total of 51% (111) of respondents indicated the economic recession as the most dangerous to American prosperity. In congruence with the Review of Related Literature, many responses identified the economic recession with increased government programs and control. For example one respondent (1985-200) associated America’s current economic troubles to Franklin Roosevelt’s policies under the New Deal: “The economic recession is a problem that began with FDR back when the New Deal was passed and put into action. Though the stock market had fallen on October 29, 1929, it is believed among [many] historians that World War II, not FDR’s New Deal, got America back on its feet… and now Obama is retrying FDR’s approach…” A 1965-1984 member applied the issue to the gradual growth of the role of government and the erosion of good character among Americans. It was written, “Large government programs result in higher taxes, which hurts the economy at large, as well as individuals. And even more importantly, children growing up in this generation need to be taught that hard work and perseverance is the key to the American dream; not government handouts or an easy ride.” Although most responses seem politically conservative in nature, some favored a larger role of government and believed the government should be more involved in mending the economy. To exemplify, a 1985-200 member called for government expansion, similar to that under F. Roosevelt: “I think we need to increase government spending through public work project similar to those done during FDR’s presidency during the Great Depression.” As was reinforced by the data, America has a complex economic recession that has no clear answer.

Thirdly, class warfare was the second most pressing challenge according to the data. A total of 28% (62) of the responses discussed this issue.

Again, many opinions expressed conservative political views, which may have been a result of the convenience sample. Nevertheless, responses supported the Review of Related Literature as a real threat to the United States and many addressed the same specific problems discussed in the review. For example, the issue of American dependence and the donning of an entitlement attitude were discussed in the review and attributed to many problems America is facing. A member of the 1946-1964 generation agrees by writing, “I believe class warfare is perpetuated through continued expansion of social welfare programs which reduce the incentive for many to pursue additional education and training and support themselves. It leads to an “entitlement mentality” which has proven to be a generational problem with children being born into, living their entire lives, and dying on the US welfare system. Our country needs welfare reform which encourages one to support themselves and gives incentives for getting off government financial assistance.” Furthermore, regardless of political views, respondents believed politicians and media outlets, as detailed in the Review of Related Literature, are making class warfare increasingly worse. For example this apparent 1946-1964 conservative wrote, “Class warfare is attributable to an “entitlement” state that Democrats have foisted on Americans in my lifetime.” Another goes on to blame the socialistic trends developing in America: “. A wise person was once quoted as saying ‘Socialism works until you run out of other people’s money.’

That’s where we are headed right now.” Though these people are placing blame on the political right, other place it on the conservative right. For example, a 1946-1964 member wrote, “Tax the wealthy so the middle class can stop being crushed. A society can only have a long-term existence if its citizens can prosper. Rome fell because the wealthy elite controlled everything and refused to share the enormous wealth.” A member of the 1935-1945 generation was even more passionate in the fault of the right: “Organizations such as the Republican Party and Fox News are doing

89 everything they can to exacerbate the differences between classes. In their view, America should be the country of the rich, for the rich, and by the rich.” As can be seen by these responses, America is entrenched in class warfare full of blame and entitlement with no easy way out, as described in the Review of Related Literature.

Lastly, mixed opinions were gathered about which entity should be responsible for fixing America’s decline. As documented in the findings section, 45% (94) of respondents believed private organizations and citizens bore the responsibility, 26% (55) believed the government was responsible, and 29% (62) believed both the private and public sectors were responsible. It is interested to note that although responses collected claimed America had a huge entitlement mentality and were too dependent on the government, only 25% though the government was solely responsible. Now, the effect of the convenience sample must again be brought to mind, but from this data it appears only the minority of American look to the government to fix this issue. The vast majority (72%) believed the responsibility rests solely with the private sector or a combination of both the government and the private sector.

In conclusion, Rome and America do have similar trends indicating decline, but also have some crucial differences. So, when making comparisons a researcher must take into account the various technological and cultural inconsistencies. After the researcher evaluated the comparison between the two civilizations, he was curious to what extent American opinion reflected the problems facing America. A survey was sent out and results indicated while Americans do have different political concerns based on generation, they are relatively knowledgeable and concerned about the future of the nation.

After the research was completed, the researcher was prompted to ask further questions and explore related topics. These topics included the effect of modern technology on public awareness and the legitimacy of Great Britain’s decline as a better model for America than Rome. However, the researcher found the effect of the Affordable Care Act and class warfare very relevant and chose to further research in those areas. In order to do so, the following questions were asked: “How has the Affordable Care Act affected America?” and “What are the effects of class warfare on America?”

Remaining Questions As detailed in the Review of Related Literature, the Roman government became large expensive and invasive. Over the past century, the American Federal government has continued to expand its role into citizen’s lives.

As time has progressed, an increasingly liberal interpretation of America’s founding documental has been used to allow this expansion. Today, large federal government can be observed in social programs like welfare and social security and the infringement on states rights. However, the recent Affordable Care Act dwarfs any of those in regards to the impact on American life. The Act will issue in a new era of large government and will further set America down the path of government reliance.

In addition to America’s growing adoption of progressive political philosophy, American government is expanding its role into citizens’ lives more and more. As documented in the Review of Related Literature, Americans have been abandoning the ideals of self-reliance and adopting more dependence on the government since the mid-twentieth century. The latest installment in this progression is the passing and implementation of the Affordable Care Act. America, a country where the thought of socialism has been shunned for years, is now adopting a modern, progressive form of health care system continuing the trend of government expansion and citizen dependence. Many commentators believe adopting socialist medicine is a major step into molding America into a socialist nation. These speculators believe once the Affordable Care Act is instituted, America will further adopt socialist ideas taking the country to a new age of expansive government. Political commentator

Rome Versus America

David Limbaugh wrote in an article discussing the greater implications of the Affordable Health Care Act, “Obamacare (Affordable Care Act) is the best vehicle to drive this nation toward socialized medicine, which is the first destination on the trip to socialism writ large.”(Limbaugh, 2014). In addition to the long-term political consequences, this act affects the nation immediately economically.

The Affordable Care Act places a new burden on companies and taxpaying citizens alike. Due to the added cost of required medical benefits for employees, companies have been forced to make up for that expense elsewhere. American companies are now forced to cut workers’ hours and raise the price of their product. So, on a large scale, the Affordable Care Act is deceptively costly. Founder and CEO of the American pizza company, Papa John’s, John Schnatter attested to this fact in the heated health care debate, “That’s what you do, is you pass on costs. Unfortunately, I don’t think people know what they’re going to pay for this.” (Bradford, 2012).

In addition to raising prices on products, many companies have to scale back their workforce, putting now part time employees in a more severe financial bond than before. According to the Congressional Budget Office’s report on the act, “employers have an incentive, for example, to shift from hiring a single 40-hour, full-time employee to hiring two, 20-hour parttime employees to avoid bearing the costs of the penalty.” (Tate, 2014).

The same reports claims the Act will cost the American workforce the equivalent of 2.5 million jobs (Tate, 2014). However, these workers should not fret because now there is more time to pursue new hobbies, discover lifelong passions, and enjoy life, at least that is the story according to the Obama Administration (Tate, 2014). While these workers may have more time on their hands, they may struggle finding money to buy paint supplies and airplane glue to fund their hobbies. From the evidence provided, it is clear this Act only cripple workers and increase their dependence on the government.

Along with negatively impacting the economy, the Affordable Care Act has and will likely continue to exacerbate class relations. As presented in the Review of Related Literature, America is currently in the trenches of class warfare due to numerous factors built up gradually. This act will only worsen the current situation. Due to the expensive nature of the Act, much of this cost will be offset through increased taxes on taxpaying Americans. This act has had mixed reception among Americans. Those in favor of increased taxes on the wealthier, claim the wealthy can afford to give more and therefore should. Jason Furman, Chairman of the White House Council of Economic Advisers, responded in favor of higher taxes on the rich saying the tax rates on the top 1% are presently lower now than they were in the mid-1990s. He claims the push back from these taxes is all due to “hyperventilation” by the wealthy. (Hamby, 2014). Now on the other side of the spectrum, the wealthy cry out, claiming they are being mistreated through these higher taxes. They believed their wealth is a result of their hard work in the fair American economic system. For example, American billionaire investor, Wilbur Ross, spoke out against the treatment of the rich claiming, “The 1% is being picked on for political

90 reasons. Education is the way that people get out of the ghetto and into, if not the 1%, something close to it.” (Gongloff, 2014). Both sides of this issue are becoming more deeply planted in their stance on class relations due to the Affordable Care Act. The proficiency of class warfare and its emotional appeal are used to fuel another imperfection in the American political system: campaign rhetoric.

From recent election cycles, it is apparent politicians are using class warfare as a means to get people’s blood pumping and acquire votes, instead of working to assuage the problem. They are adding logs to the fire. Political commentator Michael Snyder wrote in his article, “Class Warfare is Being Used to Divide America-And It Is Working”: “our leaders are tapping into the politics of division in a desperate attempt to get elected in the fall.

Rather than focus on real issues and real solutions, our politicians attempt to make “the wealthy” or “welfare recipients” the focus of our debates.”

(Snyder, 2012). So, it seems American politicians are exacerbating class warfare, instead of attempting to relieve it.

In summary, the Affordable Care Act is a step in the direction of socialism for America and has many political and economic repercussions. These consequences include a progressive, growing government and increased taxes. The Affordable Care Act has also highlighted class strains, which politicians use to collect more votes. After analyzing the current class conditions in America, the comparison begs to be made to conditions globally in the twenty-first century. When contrasted with other societies in the world, Americans live extremely well, perhaps indulgently so. According to the 2010 U.S. Census, 15.1% of Americans lived in poverty, an initially large seeming number (Census, 2010). However, the poverty threshold in America is an annual income of about $11,000 for an individual (Census, 2010). Now according to a recent Gallup poll published in December 2013, the median individual income globally is $2,920 (Crabtree & Phelps, 2013). The numbers stand for themselves: in order to be considered to be living in poverty in the United States, you have to be making almost four times the average global income. This is a testament to the entitlement attitude prevailing among Americans and a growing dependence on the government.

Biblical Connection Finally, this topic can be seen through a Biblical perspective. After the fall, man’s relationship with creation and God was broken and the kingdom God established was corrupted by sin. Since then, God promised to redeem the world and reestablish the Kingdom of God. This said, Christians should be anticipating the Kingdom of God that will be eternal. Matthew 25:34 states “Then the King will say to those on his right, ‘Come, you who are blessed by my Father, inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world.’” In the end, all earthy nations will perish and God’s kingdom will reign forever. So, Christians should live their lives with this eternal purpose in mind.

Rome Versus America

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Rome Versus America

Appendix

Political Concerns Across Generations I am Stephen Hirschbuehler and part of the Distinguished Scholars Program at Houston Christian High School. As a Scholar, I am writing a dissertation on Rome and America: Similarities of Decline and Evaluation of Comparison and in order to defend my problem statement and null hypothesis, I am gathering evidence on varying political concerns across generations. I would greatly appreciate your help by completing a short survey. Participation is voluntary and response(s) are completely anonymous.

You could also help even me gather even more evidence by forwarding this email to others. I am especially interested in the Baby Boomer generation’s thoughts.

Thank you in advance for your help with my empirical studies. * Required When were you born? * ❏❏ 1935-1945

❏❏ 1965-1984

❏❏ 1946-1964

❏❏ 1985-2000

Choose the statement that describes your view on the state of America. * ❏❏ I f America continues the way it is going, then it will inevitably fall.

❏❏ America is prospering, decline is no where in sight ❏❏ Other:

Choose the political issue that concerns you the most * ❏❏Economic Recession

❏❏Class Warfare

❏❏Overexpansion What simple steps do you think should be taken to fix the issue you identified as the most concerning above? * (please indicate which issue you are responding to) ex. Economic recession- I believe...

Do you think the government is responsible for fixing the problem or private citizens/organizations? * ❏❏ Government

❏❏ Other:

❏❏ Private citizens and organizations

Survey Results -When were you born?

-Choose the statement that describes your view on the state of America.

92

Rome Versus America

-Choose the political issue that concerns you the most.

-Do you think the government is responsible for fixing the problem or private citizens/organizations?

93

Generational Differences and their Effects on Communication in the Workplace Erica Swain

Generational Differences

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Table of Contents

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Review of Related Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Environmental Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Technology and Communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Generation Size. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Home Life. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Teen Pregnancy and Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Education and Life at Work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Solutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Purpose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Participants and Sampling Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Research Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Experimental Instrumentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Data Collections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Data Analysis Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Ethical Consideration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Findings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Sample. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Survey Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Remaining Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Change in Family Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Parental Guilt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Biblical Connection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Appendix I Survey Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Appendix II- Survey Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Appendix III: Census Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Generational Differences

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Abstract

The researcher examined the four generations in the workplace today and the causes of the differences between the generations and the effect of these differences on communication in the workplace. After researching generational conflict using relevant, scholarly sources, this researcher conducted new research concerning how family values changed between generations and the different amounts of generational miscommunications of companies of different ages.

This researcher took a random sample of the U.S. census and found the family values of young adults had changed between generations in terms of marital status and the number of children but not in terms of the number of families in the household. The researcher also did a case study of four organizations and compared the amount of conflict at each organization and found the amount of conflict was not related to the age of the company. After conducting her own research, the researcher examined the changes in the nuclear family and the parenting styles between older generations and generation Y. Specifically this researcher examined the use of technology in the parenting of babies and toddlers, the increase in parental guilt due to societal pressure, and the change in the social environment of neighborhoods.

Generational Differences

Generational differences have been a major source of conflict throughout the history of modern society, especially in the family unit and in the workplace. Of 3,150 Americans between ages 16 and 66 surveyed in a study done by Frank N. Magid Associates, over half of the responses, 53%, stated that they found it hardest to get along with other generations, and the majority of those who responded this way were in the Millennial Generation, or the most recent generation; however, even researchers debate whether there is such a thing as generational differences (Winograd & Hais, 2012; Rotolo & Wilson, 2004). Some researchers attribute differences to age and maturity differences, while others think that a generation is general and settle for cohorts, or groups of only a few years (Winograd & Hais, 2012; Rotolo & Wilson, 2004). Nevertheless, most researchers agree that groups of people will act differently depending on their age and many researchers note patterns between generations (Crumpacker & Crumpacker, 2007; Stein 2009; Putnam, 2006).

To create better communication in the workplace and in the family unit, it is necessary to understand the general characteristics of each group and how characteristics change between generations. The need to help generations communicate effectively in the workplace and in the extended family begs the question, what factors attribute to generational differences and are there any patterns in these differences? How can these differences be reconciled in the workplace?

History In 1923, Karl Mannheim created the theory of generations, which attributes generational characteristics to birth year and experiences and rejected the idea that differences are due to maturity and age difference (Rotolo & Wilson, 2004; Pilcher, 2004). There are four main generations in modern society: Traditionalist, Baby Boomer, X and Y (or Millennials) as well as a sub section of Generation Y, the iY generation (Crumpacker & Crumpacker, 2007; Stein 2009; Putnam, 2006). Researchers often disagree on the official range of years for each generation; but the Traditionalists are usually considered to begin around 1935 and decline by the end of World War II, or about 1945. The Baby Boomer Generation began to come into existence around the end of World War II and waned by the early to mid 60’s; Generation X rose next in the mid 1960’s and declined in the early 80’s; Generation Y rose in the early 80’s and started its decline in the early 1990’s followed by the iY generation, who are characterized by the availability of technology such as the internet and cellphones throughout their entire lives. Children born in the 2000’s do not have a name yet because they are still too young to have defining characteristics like older generations.

The final group of people is known as the Cuspers, people born during the years in transition between generations, who have characteristics of both generations (Stein, 2009). This group can also include people who do not fit well into the basic generational characteristics if their siblings raised them or if they were raised by their grandparents or older parents, but there are always exceptions to basic overarching descriptions of large groups.

Generational characteristics are affected not only by the birth years, but also by the major collective experiences of the times like World War II for the Traditionalists (Crumpacker & Crumpacker, 2007). These parallel experiences can cause similarities between generations that experienced similar things (Crumpacker & Crumpacker, 2007). For example, Generation Y and the Traditionalists are similar in their value of civic duty due to the fact that Generation Y experienced the terrorist attack on September 11, 2001 at a young age and the Traditionalists experienced World War II and the ensuing Cold War at a young age (Crumpacker & Crumpacker, 2007).

Common descriptions of the generations are necessary to show if characteristics become similar as generations age. Also, it can show if any traits reoccur every few generations, or if these characteristics are changing over time.

101 The first modern generation that was researched, the Traditionalist Generation, grew up during World War II and was young at the start of the Cold War. They had strict parents dealing with the repercussions of the war including the high death toll, the rise of communism and the constant fear of the U.S. being attacked by nuclear weapons (Crumpacker & Crumpacker, 2007). This generation is considered to be patriotic because they and their parents fought and won against a country that directly attacked America (Crumpacker & Crumpacker, 2007; Stein, 2009; Brinkley, 2010). Most people in the Traditionalist generation prefer a more structured lifestyle, are fiscally conservative, and are loyal to their employers and value respect (Crumpacker & Crumpacker, 2007; Stein, 2009). They are knowledgeable in the workforce but often value work over education and sometimes over their families (Crumpacker & Crumpacker, 2007; Stein, 2009).

Like the Traditionalist, the Baby Boomers grew up with parents who had strict values and required their children to adhere to these values; however, Baby Boomers experienced the Korean War and the Vietnam War and the outrage against Vietnam encouraged them to question authority (Crumpacker & Crumpacker, 2007; Stein, 2009). The Vietnam War led to a generation commonly known for starting the free love movement and is continually revolutionizing society, first bringing liberal ideas about civil rights, gay rights and holding sit-ins, then leading conservative movements in later years like tea parties and fundraisers (Crumpacker & Crumpacker, 2007; Stein, 2009; Smead, 2000). When they were young, Baby Boomers united under the idea of “Don’t trust anyone over thirty” because many of them were drafted without their consent. However, as they grew up, they began to change their values going from 47% stating that they are liberal to only 20% 20 years later (Smead, 2000). Additionally, Baby Boomers are the first people to create an era of youth between childhood and adulthood and throughout their lifetimes they have valued youth (Smead, 2000). They value hard work when it allows them more financial security, freedom of expression, and they are less loyal to employers (Crumpacker & Crumpacker, 2007; Stein, 2009). This generation also has a “whatever-it-takes” attitude and continues to have the work ethic of the previous generation. The retention of work ethic resulted from the difficulty of keeping jobs when they joined the workforce, as there was more competition than ever before because of the large increase in the population (Crumpacker & Crumpacker, 2007; Stein, 2009). They also have the majority of all leadership roles in the United States, because the Traditionalists carefully trained them for these roles once the Baby Boomers joined the workforce (Gilburg, 2008). This generation is also extremely good at networking, or finding connections for their jobs (Crumpacker & Crumpacker, 2007).

Most members of Generation X experienced the Cold War and some experienced the Vietnam War in their formative years. They were drawn together through the Watergate Scandal and other domestic issues (Putnam, 2006). Their parents left them home alone more during their formative years because of the parents’ work (changing because women began to keep their jobs once they got married) so they grew up to be more independent and take more initiative than previous generations (Crumpacker & Crumpacker, 2007; Stein, 2009). This generation is more experienced with technology (Stein, 2009). They work hard, but value time outside of work more than previous generations who believed that work was a person’s livelihood; additionally, Generation X started the trend of seeing work as a way to get money needed to live (Stein, 2009). They prefer using technology to communicate over face-to-face communication because they were still young when computers and email and cell phones became popular, thereby being more adept with technology and becoming more dependent on technology (Stein, 2009).

Finally, Generation Y has never known a life without advanced technology such as Internet and cellphones (Crumpacker & Crumpacker, 2007; Stein, 2009; Putnam, 2006). They are an optimistic generation raised with close

Generational Differences

parental supervision when Generation X overcorrected from how the Xers were raised (Stein, 2009). They have high self-confidence and are motivated by working for the common good because self esteem programs were popular during their formative years (Twenge, 2006). Members of this generation are generally known for being good at multi-tasking, preferring to be in groups and receiving immediate feedback and recognition as well as their desire to learn (Crumpacker & Crumpacker, 2007; Stein, 2009).

The branch off of Generation iY is much like Generation Y, but Generation iY is even more technologically savvy because they have never known a time without Facebook, Twitter, online shopping and all the information they could need available with the click of a button via search engines like Google and Bing.

Review of Related Literature Now that there is a baseline of common behavior in generations, it is important to see how different factors such as environmental differences, technology, home life, and societal values have caused each generation to develop its own personality. Additionally, learning why people act the way they do can bridge the gap between generations.

Environmental Differences The environment each generation grows up in, which is made up of collective events, affects how they view the world, and this general view of the world shapes their “generational personality” (Lancaster & Stillman, 2003). Earlier, this researcher discussed the similar loyalty both the Traditionalist generation and the Millennials exhibit because of their analogous experiences growing up during World War II and September 11, 2001 (Crumpacker & Crumpacker, 2007). While the Baby Boomer Generation grew up during the Korean War and the Vietnam War, they do not exhibit this same loyalty because most people did not support these wars and thought the United States should stay out of them. Conversely, in both World War II and the terrorist attack on September 11, 2001, America was attacked and therefore people felt the need to defend and support their country (Brinkley, 2010). Public opinion of wars plays a large role in the loyalty a generation has to America (Brinkley, 2010).

The factor environment plays in generational differences can also be detrimental. The majority of miscommunication in the work place can be attributed to environmental differences because each generation’s environment gives them a different point of view (Lancaster & Stillman, 2003). For example, Baby Boomers experienced the Cold War for years and the fight against communism, while Millennials have only read about the fight against Communism issue in history books (Lancaster & Stillman, 2003). Thus, some of the fear that the Baby Boomers experienced can be mocked by younger generations who never went through similar fears of nuclear bombings. Likewise, younger generations might have too much security in the strength and safety in America and never expect an attack until September 11, 2001 happened.

Also, famous icons may play into generational personality, such as people, popular places, or even fads including Woodstock, Janis Joplin, bellbottoms (Lancaster & Stillman, 2003). These “icons” create a reference point through which a generation will use to view the world (Lancaster & Stillman, 2003). For example, the Civil Rights movement affected the Baby Boomer’s worldview, causing them to have resentment against African Americans, or to be overly cautious about racist behavior, while the Traditionalists grew up during segregation and some still exhibit racial hatred today. Later generations grew up when segregation was completely in the past and they can see as racial hatred as a thing in the past, ignoring or encouraging racial profiling at airports and other places with heightened security. These differences in their experiences cause each generation to view controversial issues, such as racial profiling completely different, and while there are exceptions in each generation, many people

102 within the same generation will have similar experiences that cause them to believe what they do (Lancaster & Stillman, 2003).

Other environmental conditions affecting generations are changes in marriage, divorce rate and economic downturns (Lancaster & Stillman, 2003). While all mankind has similar life stages, the differences in generational personality cause each generation to approach and experience these phases differently (Lancaster & Stillman, 2003). For example, while most Traditionalists feel they deserve retirement, many Baby Boomers refuse to retire until they can no longer help (Lancaster & Stillman, 2003). The solution may seem simple; to increase understanding and communication, the media has increased the gap between generations by negatively portraying each generation to the other (Lancaster & Stillman, 2003). For example, the Millennial generation is often portrayed as being lazy, narcissistic, and a sign that society is going downhill; meanwhile, to younger generations, older generations are portrayed as uptight and judgmental. Reconciliation can be difficult with such negative views being taught to people through the media everyday. Environmental factors will either extenuate the differences between generations or create similarities when generations experience similar events, depending on what generations focus on and if they ignore the negative connotations each generation has.

Technology and Communication Generation gaps in the 1960’s were due to differing views on politics, clothing, and social issues, and many Baby Boomers blatantly created signs stating, “Don’t trust anyone over 30,” (Elmore, 2010). Today, however, the gap is created by technology and is less obvious because Baby Boomers and Generation X have begun to venerate youth and have tried to stay young, blurring the line between children and adults (Smead, 2000). Most children and parents have similar tastes in casual clothing and music as of late (Elmore, 2010). But, many surveys show the large difference between how often Baby Boomers and Traditionalists use technology and how often the Millennials use technology (Elmore, 2010). While these differences are seen within the extended family unit, they are even more prevalent in the workplace (Elmore, 2010). Communication is greatly inhibited because each generation communicates in their own way, whether by email, face to face, or social media, instead of in the same manner (Elmore, 2010).

Additionally, generations can have different connotations for words, like the term hooking up which used to mean a merely friendly encounter and now has a sexual connotation. These differences in communication, in vocabulary, technology, and body language cause misunderstanding during recruiting, meetings, and can affect employee retention rate (Elmore, 2010). Generational personality also plays a role as Baby Boomers refuse to retire and Millennials remain unemployed because the outflow does not match the inflow (Elmore, 2010). Thus, differences in the workplace, predominantly concerning communication, cause problems between generations and impede productivity and happiness in the workplace.

Generation Size Many researchers have different views regarding when each generation ends and the new generation begins. This is partially due to the fact that Cuspers cannot easily be put into either generation. This issue can cause researchers difficulty when trying to determine the population of each generation using a census. So, while the length of years each generation lasts is debated, an approximation can be found as to the size of each generation. There are about 75 million Baby Boomers, 44 million Generation Xers, and around 80 million Millennials (Alch, 2000). Some experts even refer to the Millennials as the Echo boom generation because of their immense population, very similar to the Baby Boomers (Alch, 2000). Since some generations’ populations are so immense compared to others, advertisers will continually focus on the larger generations, and

Generational Differences

the smaller generations are rarely the target audience (Alch, 2000). Also, the size of the generations can affect the economy as a big generation tries to retire and sell property to a smaller population in comparison (Alch, 2000). This can increase generational frustration between large and small populations when certain generations get jobs easier, houses cheaper and have less competition.

Job security is completely different for large and small generations. In the Baby Boomer’s experience, such a large population creates a higher supply of people and a lower demand of workers, which allows bosses to be more selective, about who they choose and increases competition.

Thus, there is more competition and less stability for the workers as they compete for fewer jobs (Crumpacker & Crumpacker, 2007; Stein, 2009).

With the increasing job competition, larger generations are more hostile to people who are still working even though they could retire because they are keeping jobs the next generation needs (Alch, 2000). Consequently, many Millennials are turning to entrepreneurship as a better option for job stability (Alch, 2000). Finally, through the numbers in each generation, a cyclical pattern can be inferred in the size of generations, switching from relatively small generations to immense generations. As a larger generation realizes the competition they faced, and are still facing, they either choose to have fewer children, or with all the pressures at work caused by more competition, they do not have the time to focus on their children (Alch, 2000). Inversely, however, smaller generations have more time and less pressure at work and therefore, have more children and create a boom in population. Thus, this difference between generations is not necessarily fixable, but understanding can increase acceptance and patience between each generations difficulties.

Home Life Again, home life and each generation’s opinions on parenting seem almost cyclical, but also evolutionary as the frequency of divorce increases (Paul, 2002). Generation X parents are much like Traditionalist parents in their traditional views on values and the family unit; however, Generation X encourages more father participation instead of women doing most of the child-rearing, and their divorce rate is much higher (Paul, 2002). Baby Boomers were completely different, divorcing more and having a less prevalent role in their children’s lives (Crumpacker & Crumpacker, 2007; Stein, 2009). Generation X and Generation Y have evolved from traditional views of women staying at home with the children, but most women in Generation X would stay at home with their children if they could afford it (Paul, 2002). One of the reasons for the difference between Baby Boomer women and Generation X women is the need to prove themselves in the workplace (Paul, 2002). These women came into a male-dominated workforce and spent years gaining credibility during the feminist movement, which had bills passed such as the Equal Right Amendment, Title VII and Title IX (Brinkley, 2010). Baby Boomer women were not seen as equals to men in the workplace and they were already fighting for equal rights, so they worked and retained their jobs after having children to prove their worth and to achieve greater gender equality. Generation X does not have this goal because the Baby Boomer women already fought for women’s equality in the workplace (Paul, 2002). This change in equality has evolved; while family values and the level of parental involvement have repeated cyclically as each generation tries to improve upon their parents’ parenting. As values and beliefs change, however, more alternatives, such as men staying home and women working have become more prevalent and will continue their growth (Paul, 2002).

Teen Pregnancy and Values Home life is also affected by the age of the parents, and teen pregnancy can affect not only those involved, but the common stereotypes of a generation.

Teen pregnancy was at its height in 1959, but most of the pregnant girls

103 were married, or married shortly after they learned they were pregnant (Hine, 1999). Marriage was necessary for pregnant baby boomer women due to society’s judgment of pregnant teenagers, the morals of that time and because there were few job opportunities for women (Hine, 1999).

Today teenagers are better off not marrying because they will not be able to provide for both the baby and themselves without at least high school diplomas (Hine, 1999). Modern teenagers most likely continue to live with their own family and go to school or they get an abortion. Father involvement has decreased over the years and according to a study of teen fathers conducted in 1997, at that time 37% of fathers had daily contact with their children 18 months after the birth and only 25% had daily contact 36 months after the birth (Speak, Cameron & Gilroy, 1997). Throughout the evolution of generations, the views of teen pregnancy have changed in America, as the sexual revolution has proved revelatory, transforming common thought into more open views. Though still frowned upon, teen pregnancy is viewed negatively mainly because of the negative affects on the teen’s future (Rose, 2005). Although there has been a decline in teen pregnancy due to increased abstinence programs, nonetheless 34% of teen girls have a pregnancy before they are 20, most unplanned, resulting in about 850,000 pregnant teens every year (Rose, 2005). Today, however, teen pregnancy is accepted more than any time before because of the more liberal values that are prevalent.

Similarly, recent generations are much more accepting of liberal values regarding abortion, gay/lesbian rights, teen pregnancy and drugs (Twenge, 2006). This evolution started with the Baby Boomer’s free love movement, which called for more understanding of these issues and has come to life in Generation X and the Millennials who easily accept all different kinds of people, even if they are pregnant, do drugs or are gay, characteristics that would previously caused them to be ostracized (Twenge, 2006). Baby Boomers preached the importance of individuality and freethinking. They also spearheaded the feminist movement which fought for the pro-choice decision in the 1973 case Roe v. Wade (Pomeroy, 2008). The Baby Boomers through the Feminist movement expanded women’s rights to include their right to choose whether they wanted to have a child or not (Pomeroy, 2008).

One of the reasons for this change in values can be seen in the feminist movement and the gay/lesbian movement of the 1970’s (Brinkley, 2010).

Similar to the evolution of parenting into more liberal ideas of the nuclear family, so have all values in the general population evolved into more accepting versions (Twenge, 2006). The only exception is the religious groups, who, while becoming more accepting of the less controversial issues like teen pregnancy because of pressures from activist groups and the majority of the population, still do not become more accepting of controversial issues like gay marriage (Rose, 2005). Overall, Americans have been anesthetized to these issues because of their prevalence in American culture, whether on TV shows or advertisements, and are therefore more accepting because they see doing drugs, having abortions, and being gay as more acceptable.

Education and Life at Work Education’s necessity has evolved over the past 75 years, from the Traditionalists who did not need a high school diploma to Millennials who need a master’s degree to be competitive in the business world.

Part of this change in prerequisites is due to the size of the generation, as previously mentioned (Alch, 2000). Also, part is due to the increased technical requirements as America sends more production jobs to other countries to get cheaper products, and the majority of jobs require a higher degree such as engineering and computer programming because technology has become more advanced. Finally, the recession is causing younger generations to need better credentials to be hired as the market becomes more competitive, which is why higher education is so necessary (Samuelson, 2010). While America is certainly not ahead of all countries, much of manufacturing and blue-collar jobs have been moved out of

Generational Differences

America because other countries produce cheaper labor. This has caused an increasing need for education as more people are fighting for whitecollar jobs that need a college degree.

The major issue causing tension in the workplace is technology, mainly different modes of communication and different abilities in the use of technology (Gelston, 2008). In the workplace, the Millennials are a driving force in most companies because they are not afraid of living with their parents and not being able to support themselves since they still view themselves as young and not as mature adults (Friedman, 2007). Their willingness to take risk and to quit jobs they do not feel fulfilled doing or find uncomfortable has caused companies to accommodate to these individuals to fill entry-level positions causing problems with the Baby Boomers especially because they judge the entitlement of the Millennials and feel that Millennials should work their way up as they once did (Friedman, 2007). The older generation of Baby Boomers are seen by younger generations as workaholics and self-centered, while the younger generations can be perceived as unfocused and unmotivated (Gelston, 2008). Older generations do not realize the amount of change the workplace is going through, evolving to focus more on technology and current trends while the younger generation is used to achieving awards and success with little work and they are prone to distraction (Friedman, 2007). The workplace is changing in other ways too; the Baby Boomer generation is rapidly nearing retirement, and they still hold 65% of America’s leadership positions (Gilburg, 2008). The Baby Boomers were trained for leadership, but because of their conflict with younger generations, the next generation of leaders lacks the ability to lead well (Gilburg, 2008). Many Traditionalists and Baby Boomers think their way of working is the best method and everyone should follow their way (Friedman, 2007). Generation Xers are untrained for the leadership roles they will soon have causing many older generations to doubt their ability. There is a reason to be hopeful: since so many Millennials grew up with supportive coaches and mentors, they are very willing to be mentored and taught by older generations, and there they can find common ground if the Baby Boomers are willing to mentor the younger generations (Friedman, 2007).

Solutions While all of these factors play a role in widening the generation gap, ultimately they do not matter if they are not used to solve generational conflict. There are many ways to solve this problem, but first, business managers should realize that much of the tension in the workplace comes from how the work is performed, not the finished product (Friedman, 2007). Baby Boomers, who usually have a set way of completing a project, are much more likely to get upset if employers emphasize the process being a certain way instead of emphasizing the solution (Friedman, 2007).

Stressing the importance of the result rather than the process used to get there will alleviate much of the tension between generations (Friedman, 2007). Technology training from a younger generation for the Baby Boomers and the Traditionalists would increase the Millennials’ feeling of usefulness, and bridge the gap of communication (Elmore, 2010).

Then, coupling this initiative with teambuilding centered on creating a common vocabulary would help everyone communicate better and lessen misunderstandings due to different connotations for each generation Also, it is necessary for older generations to show the younger generations that work requires effort and they will not always be catered to (Friedman, 2007).

Their example will shape how well the younger generations can work and how well they can train future generations to come. Finally, Generation Y needs to spend less time on their technology in order to communicate more in person, be involved in the lives of the other generations around them and to get the mentorship and advice that they need (Gozzi, 2012).

These initiatives will help reduce miscommunication and tension in the office and bridge the gap between generations.

Conclusion

104

The four generations, Traditionalist, Baby Boomer, X and Y, each have unique common personalities due to their common experiences. Each generation is affected by events and popular culture in their formative years, how their parents raised them, technology and different societal values.

These can cause tension in the workplace and at home when generations struggle to communicate using words that have different connotations for each generation, when they differ strongly on views because of the times they grew up in and when generations struggle to understand the situation another generation grew up in, like segregation. Different generations can have similar characteristics when they both experienced similar events, like September 11 and Pearl Harbor. Some patterns continually repeat when each generation overcompensates for their parents’ mistakes. But, to effectively improve the workplace, older generations can mentor and encourage younger generations and younger generations can respect their elder’s experience. Understanding generational differences can bridge the gap between generations and improve the climate in the workplace.

Method After this researcher viewed studies already done by scholars throughout America this researcher decided to conduct her own research to accumulate evidence against two hypotheses: • Family values of young adults are not different between generations.

• Older companies have fewer problems with miscommunication between generations than newer companies.

Purpose Most authors have used surveys of multiple generations at one time and have used surveys done by previous researchers to compare their results.

They also used companies with whom they were personally involved with and anecdotes to convey conflict in the workplace. When the authors studied characteristics, they used mostly qualitative research methods to make generalizations from the experiences of each generation. In this researcher’s own research, she used data from the U.S. Census from the years 1960-2000 to compare characteristics of each generation at similar ages. Also, she used surveys of organizations she was not affiliated to and conducted interviews to better understand how generational conflict was resolved in the workplace. She defined older companies as older than 40 years old and newer companies as less than 40 years old. By using these methods, this researcher quantified the family values that each generation expressed as well as quantified how prolific generational conflict was in specific organizations to make comparisons with the other companies and with published studies.

Participants and Sampling Procedures This researcher used a random sampling through the U.S. Census to research family values of Americans born in the Traditionalist, Baby Boomer, and X generations. Additionally, this researcher used only members of each generation who were born in the middle years of their generation because Cuspers, those born during years of transition between generations tend to have characteristics of both generations. This researcher specifically looked at Americans born between 1940-1945, 1950-1955, and 1970-1975 when they were between the ages of 20-25. For comparing companies, this researcher surveyed employees from each company, in all positions, and interviewed the CEO or head of a branch of the company.

Research Design This researcher did quantitative research to conduct a casual comparative study through the U.S. Census to explore if family values have changed over

Generational Differences

time and in what ways these values have changed. This researcher looked at the marital status, number of children, and the number of families in a household to see how values have changed through the generations. This researcher also used a casual comparative study of the companies being surveyed, to see how prolific generational conflict was as well as to see if and how the administration of each organization addressed these conflicts.

This researcher also conducted qualitative research through interviews as well as free response survey questions to learn the level of conflict and the methods used to resolve any generational conflict. These methods are the best option since this researcher did not have the time or resources to get a big enough sample size to be indicative of the entire population of an economic sector.

105 Finally, this researcher assumed that any methods administrators use to solve generational conflict are typical methods.

Limitations Since the subject of generational characteristics and values is so broad, this researcher focused only on the change in family values since this is highly controversial. Also, due to limited time this researcher only looked at a few organizations rather than many, so this limited this scholar’s sample size. If this researcher had more time and money, this researcher would expand the sample size of the Census to 200 individuals as well as survey and interview more organizations from different economic sectors and more organizations from the same economic sectors as those previously surveyed.

Experimental Instrumentation This researcher used the software Fathom to retrieve individual cases from the U.S. Census. The independent variable on this data is the generation of each to which each case belongs and the dependent variables are the marital status, number of families in household and number of children born. The Census is limited because it does not collect the number of children that men have. For this researcher’s self-created survey, she used both closed and open-ended questions. She conducted an open interview of a manager from each company of to learn how they prevented conflict in their organizations.

Data Collections This researcher used a sample size of 50 men and women of each year of the census. This researcher distributed her instrument to all employees of each company that she is looking at and gave them three weeks to complete the survey, giving reminders once a week to return the instrument.

Additionally, this researcher sent reminders to each administrator to set up an interview.

Findings Sample In this researcher’s study of the census, she looked at the first 50 responses in the correct age group. The census does not record the number of children men have, so this researcher then looked at only female responses until she gathered 50 responses on the number of children. Overall, this researcher collected 50 randomly selected responses for each category, the Traditionalists, Baby Boomers and Generation X from ages 20-25 in order to compare each generation’s family values when they were young adults.

Because these samples were randomly selected, the responses should be indicative of the entire population of 20-25 year olds in each generation.

When surveying organizations, this researcher surveyed one organization (A), a school, 16 years old, one organization (B), an investment firm, 38 years old, and organization (C), a pipe company, 68 years old and organization (D), an engineering company, 55 years old. This researcher obtained about 20 responses from employees of varying ages at each organization.

Data Analysis Plan

Survey Findings

This researcher looked at the value of each variable in the Census Data as well as in the survey. To analyze the results of the Census data, this researcher used a chi square test, and to analyze the results of the survey to organization employees this researcher used a two-proportion Z test.

This researcher used the US Census data to compare the number of families (including their own) that each generation lived with. She found that about 90-95% of each generation lived only with their own family. There were a few, however, that had two or three families in their household.

Ethical Consideration In order to protect the human subjects of this study, this scholar wrote an introductory letter expounding that taking the survey was voluntary and anonymous. Additionally, this researcher offered to allow each organization used to remain anonymous and to receive any data and conclusions the researcher discovered. This researcher also did not use the names of each person found in the Census sample.

From her observations of the marital status of each generation from ages 20-25, this researcher found about 50% less Baby Boomers and Generation Xers were married at the ages of 20-25 than Traditionalists.

The Traditionalists were the only generation to have a widow, but only one. About 5% of the Baby Boomers were separated, compared to none in both the Traditionalist and X generations. Since the marriage rate went down, the number of single people went up significantly, as can be seen in Figure 1.

Bias This study was biased against anyone not working in the four companies being surveyed as well as against any non-English speakers and those who have no access to computers. This research was biased against people who did not fill out the U.S. census and against men when this researcher looks at the number of children each person has because men do not fill out their number of children when they take the U.S. Census.

Assumptions To test these hypotheses, this researcher assumed that each of these companies is representative of their respective sectors of the economy.

Additionally, this researcher assumed that the random sample from the census is representative of the entire U.S. population of each generation.

Figure 1: Comparison of marital status between generations.

Generational Differences

Finally, when this researcher looked at the number of children women of each generation had born by the time they were between 20-25, she found that the number of women without children increased by 30% between the Traditionalist and Baby Boomers, but remained about the same between the Baby Boomers and Generation X, as seen in Figure 2. While the Baby Boomers had slightly less women with children between ages 20-25, the women who did have children had more children. About 55% of Baby Boomer women who had children had two or more, while only 30% of Generation X women had 2 or more children.

106 her null hypothesis that their value of extended family does not change between generations. Finally, she used another chi-squared two-way test for homogeneity to compare each generation to their marital status. She obtained a p value of 0.0012, allowing her to reject her null hypothesis because of statistically significant evidence against it and accept her alternative hypothesis that young adults’ value of marriage does change between generations.

To analyze the comparison between the levels of conflict at younger companies versus older companies, this researcher used a two-proportion z test. She obtained a p value of 0.344, which, because of a lack of statistically significant evidence, causes her to retain her null hypothesis that younger organizations experience less generational conflict than older organizations.

Discussion

Figure 2: Comparison of Number of Children born by ages 20-25 between generations When comparing the younger organization, A, with the Organizations B and C this researcher found that there were few differences in the amount of intergenerational conflict employees experienced. However, from the responses, this researcher noticed that Organization A took more steps to prevent conflict by instituting training and group development with bonding activities. They also asked each employee to sign a contract promising to take certain steps when dealing with conflict and promising to avoid conflict and strive for peace if possible. According to the employees of Organization B, no actions were taken to ensure harmony in the workplace. Finally, in Organization C, most employees felt that the company did not take any steps to prevent conflict except to promote a team atmosphere.

When employees of Organization A were asked what they would change about how their company handles conflict most people believed the organization was handling the situation well, but that individuals did not follow the contract they had signed. Most members of organizations B and C thought that the management should involve itself more in the conflict between employees and should open up communication to handle conflict quickly and effectively. Also, employees of Organization A tended to experience conflict over differing philosophies of working or technology, while employees of organizations B and C experienced conflict caused by break downs in communication, whether face to face or over email, where each employee did not understand what the other employee wanted.

Analysis To test the relationship between the number of children born and each generation, this researcher used a chi-squared two-way test for homogeneity. She obtained a p value of 0.016, which provides statistically significant evidence to reject her null hypothesis that family values of young adults, specifically their value of children, do not change between generations. Additionally, she used a chi-squared two-way test for homogeneity to compare each generation with the number of families in their household. She obtained a p value of 0.568, which does not provide enough evidence against her null hypothesis, so she must retain

This researcher’s results, which used U.S. Census data to compare the family values of each generation as young adults in regards to marital status, children born, and number of families in household had very similar results to the related literature this researcher studied. She found in her analysis of the U.S. Census data that about 50% more Traditionalists were married by the ages of 20-25 than those of later generations. This was consistent with other studies and history that noted that the feminist movement played a large role in causing more women to work than eve before. Because the feminist movement brought more women into the workforce than ever before, it was no longer necessary to get married right away and women could experience for the first time on a large scale the years of being a “bachelorette”. Similarly, this researcher’s data shows more people were indeed unmarried as young adults, probably because women were pursuing careers more than marriages, at least at young ages.

Also, this researcher found that less Baby Boomer and Gen X women had children by the time they were young adults than Traditionalist women.

This corresponds with the decrease in teen pregnancy and marriage that other researchers had noted was due to contraception, and women joining the workforce. If this researcher had looked at the number of women with children out of wedlock she most likely would have seen a association between these women and people living with more than one family in a household, according to previous research. Most people that lived in multifamily households were single according to this researcher’s results.

In the survey results from each organization, this researcher found that certain economic sectors had more problems than others. This might be because some jobs allow people to remain removed, to see the job, as a means to an end, as many younger generations see their jobs. Therefore, the employees of engineering companies, and finance companies may have less reason to be involved. They see the job as a way to enjoy their real life, outside of the office. Other professions, like teaching, because of lower salaries, usually attract people who are much more passionate about what they do. Thus, they are more likely to defend what they think is right. With each generation having different opinions and personalities, there may be more conflict because they see their job as more important.

In an interview with a member of the HR department of Organization B, this researcher found that the HR person felt that younger generations were more willing to change jobs if the hours were too long or they did not like the management. She stated that at a previous company, some of the older bosses required employees to work extended hours often, and they had a high turnover rate in younger employees. This was corroborated by interviews with upper level managers from the other organizations, Similarly, other research showed that members of Generations X and Y had very little company loyalty and were willing to move jobs if they were unhappy. Also, since many do not see work as their purpose, but as a way to pay for their life outside of work, they are less invested in the company they work for and therefore, less likely to stay if they do not like something about the management.

Generational Differences

Also, the HR person noted that at their company the main generational issue they deal with is communicating with technology to clients. Younger generations tend to be less formal and this can offend members of some generations. Also, she noted that the tone is not always clear in an email, so some workers of younger generations must be taught how to read emails like the recipients will view them. Similarly, this researcher read a study that gave examples of difficulties in email communication. The author, Elmore, had noticed that many coworkers had misunderstandings because members of older generations expected coworkers to speak more formally, while members of other generations sometimes tended to send messages with less formality.

Compared to the amount of generational conflict noted by the researchers in other studies, in the organizations this researcher studied there was relatively little conflict and it occurred rarely. This may be due to the economic sectors this researcher used. Different sectors attract different types of people and different groups of people may experience more conflict than others. This is similar to the way the school, Organization A, experienced more conflict than the other organizations. Since it was a very different profession, the people in the profession and how they feel about their job will be different, changing the amount of conflict that goes on.

Also, the HR person from Organization B noted that while generational problems were wide spread a few years ago, the problem is becoming less of an issue. This is quite different from the predictions of many scientists, who thought that the recession would cause increased tension between the generations as Generation Y began looking for jobs and less Traditionalists and Baby Boomers retired due to the unstable market. According to the HR person from Organization B, however, the opposite has occurred.

This may have happened because the scarcity of job opportunities has been significantly resolved since the late 2000s, or because the economy recovered quicker than was expected so more workers were able to retire.

Also, an increase in jobs may have lessened the expected conflict.

Organizations A and D were the only organizations that had programs or training to deal with generational understanding. Organization D had multiple courses available on how to manage Millennials and Organization A had training and a contract signed by the employees. Despite these measures, about 17% of employees at organization A had conflict often.

At Organization D, this number was only about 3%. So, training is not always effective. In the related literature, many authors noted training to increase understanding as the response to intergenerational conflict in the workplace. This difference may be accounted for in the organization of leadership at each company. At Organization A, a school, most of the employees are on the same level of authority, while at Organization D, there is more of a hierarchy. As a result, members of older generations at Organization D are more likely to have authority over members of younger generations than in Organization A. Also, the courses at Organization focus more on generational communication rather than on conflict resolution, which may have helped rectify the cause of the conflict, rather than just the conflict being resolved. Thus, giving some authority to more experienced workers along with instituting training to understand generational differences may be better at reducing conflict than just using training and informational courses.

Thus, this researcher’s results from the census were very similar to the expected results, but the research from the different organizations was quite different from the related literature. This is most likely because the literature looked to explain the entire population of the U.S., while this researcher focused on understanding only a few companies’ conflict and methods, thereby not obtaining a sample indicative of a larger population.

Conclusion Through the review of related literature, this researcher gained knowledge concerning the different generations and how the experiences each

107 generation had affected their view of the world and their actions in the workplace. The main factors affecting each generation’s personality are the environment, the size of the generation, the parenting of the previous generation, and the values they grow up having. Because of the many differences between generations, conflict in the workplace can ensue because of differing philosophies, preferences of technology and differing modes of communication as well as different levels of formality in their communication. Through her own study, this researcher also conducted research regarding the change in family values and found similar results to those found by previous researchers, namely the nuclear family has changed drastically from what it looked like a few generations ago, but the extended family’s relationship to the nuclear family has remained more consistent. When conducting a case study of multiple organizations, this researcher found conflict takes different forms in different economic sectors, but the majority of conflict comes from differing standards of communication and opposing philosophies, especially at schools.

Remaining Questions Once the researcher conducted these studies, she wondered about how parenting and the roles of parents have changed between generations.

This researcher was mainly interested in how the differences between generations affected relationships outside of the workplace. Thus, this caused the researcher to ask questions such as ‘What is the future of dating with the increased use of dating websites that increasingly lead to marriage?’, ‘How will the United States Postal Service adapt to increasing internet communication?’, ‘What impact will increasingly busy schedules of both parents and children have on parenting the next generation?’ and ‘Why do parents feel guiltier than ever about their involvement in their children’s lives?’ For the purpose of this paper, this researcher will focus on the last two questions. This researcher intends to see the affect technology will have on modern child rearing, and the use of technology to give parents more time away from their children. Also this researcher will look at the guilt parents appear to be experiencing more than ever because of their inability to be more involved in their child’s lives.

Change in Family Values Today, children are involved in more activities than ever. This overinvolvement is because of multiple reasons. First, the increasing difficulty of getting into highly respected universities causes parents and children to find an activity to make their children stand out, or if their child is not great at one activity, they do everything in order to résumé-build.

Parents also can entertain their children with scheduled activities so they do not have to come up with creative ways to entertain their children at home. With all the activities, the child is worn-out, and the parents can put the child to bed easier as well. Also, involvement in extracurricular activities with coaches and adult supervision is a much safer activity to parents than allowing their children to roam around the neighborhood, as children once did for fun. Finally, parents find fulfillment in living through their children; by having their children do things they were unable to do the parents can live vicariously through their children. Whatever the reason, families are spending less and less time together and more time at individual activities, even from a young age.

Because children are more involved than ever, parents are also busier than ever. They must drive their children to their activities; support their children during the activities, and work to provide the resources necessary for their children to participate in these activities. As a result, with busy schedules and little time, families are eating together less and less. Sadly, this is detrimental, not only to the children, but also to the parents.

According to a survey from September 2013, 64% of families surveyed do not eat dinner together every night (Renfrew Center Foundation, 2013).

Almost every family surveyed, however, had dinner together at least

Generational Differences

once a week. This is quite different from the 1950s when most families ate together every night. Family dinners are important because they have a variety of benefits. Parents are more likely to discover a problem their child is having, especially an eating disorder, if they eat together each night because they are spending extra time talking to their child, and this time improves the relationship between child and parent because the parent is investing in the child’s life (Renfrew Center Foundation, 2013). Also, 72% of those studied felt a closer family connection and 48% felt more connected with their spouse as well (Renfrew Center Foundation, 2013).

Family dinners, while on the downhill trend, better prepare children for the future than a stacked résumé because they improve a child’s ability to communicate effectively with people of all ages.

Besides the decrease in family dinners, parenting has significantly changed with new technology. Parents are more narcissistic because of the way they were raised, and they can use technology to entertain their children so the parents can have more time for themselves. Companies are inventing new ways to entertain children and babies with IPads and other technology, leaving the parents with more of that precious time to themselves (Brown, 2013). Fisher Price now sells baby seats with Ipads, called “The Newborn to Toddler Apptivity Seat”. These seats are bought and used; despite research showing people interaction is much better for babies than automated screens (Brown, 2013). These seats could easily be abused, and parents could leave their child for hours while they take a nap, or catch up on work or chores. Fisher Price does provide apps along with the seat specifically catering to children under 2, and these apps are mostly sounds and tracking games. In a study done by Common Sense Media, 38% of children studied had used their parents’ phones for games or videos by the time they were 2 years old (Brown, 2013).

This early use of technology has many implications in family life. First of all, it shows the way people value ease over the difficult task of developing relationships within the family. Rather than exposing their children to little technology during their first years, parents put their children in front of the TV or give their child a phone or Ipad to entertain the child. While parents still want the best for their children, they also want their own fulfillment and are sometimes less willing to make sacrifices in order to help their children. Rather than valuing their family the most, they value ease and their own fulfillment. The youngest generation, more than any other, is motivated by the desire to find fulfillment (Friedman, 2007). Thus, while they may have the best of intentions at first, Millennials have been taught to believe they are special and one of a kind. This thought is detrimental to parents because they are responsible for another person, so they must sacrifice themselves and their desires for the child.

Parental Guilt With the increased number of women in the workforce and the increased use of daycare, parents also feel guiltier than ever about the amount of time they have to spend with their children, even though the NY Times showed parents are spending on average 9 hours more per week with their children than in 1995 (Morman, 2011). Oftentimes, these hours are spent chauffeuring their children from activity to activity, rather than spent building relationships and having quality time together. Parents feel they must encourage and support their child when they see their child, so they use less discipline in order to prevent hurting or stifling their child. This continues the narcissism and entitlement with which the parents were raised. Rather than valuing obedience and selflessness, more parents work to bring out their child’s autonomy and self esteem (Morman, 2011). The time they spend with their children is less instructional, and they try to achieve a role that is more of a friend to the child, rather than a parent, in order to encourage and not upset the child. While autonomy and independence are important, allowing too much autonomy can increase behavioral problems and may not prepare children for their future jobs where they will submit to authority and have to follow rules. While parents

108 are spending more time with their children out of guilt, they are not always spending quality time bonding with their child and prepare them for future careers. The quality of the time spent is more important in the parent-child relationship than the length of time spent together.

Another implication of the use of technology from an early age is the increasing gap in technological ability. While Generation Y has grown up with technology, they were not as inundated with it as the newest generation is. Generation Y did not grow up playing with apps from the time they were infants; thus, each child growing up with this ability will be exceedingly better at technology than people from previous generations.

The gap will continue to widen, causing an increase in miscommunication and tension in the workplace, as the more experienced workers must adapt to the younger, newer workers.

Current parents are also more fearful than parents from 40 years ago.

According to Time Magazine, the number of children allowed to walk or bike to school plummeted between 1969 and 2001, from 41% to 13% (Morman, 2011). This is partially due to schools no longer allowing students to bike to school, but is also caused by the parent’s fear for the child’s safety. This increased fear is partially caused by a lack of parental supervision. Since more adults than ever are working, the modern parent does not have the safety net of other parents in the neighborhood watching out for their children, like in previous decades. Even with the increasing connectivity due to technology and the Internet, parents and families are more isolated than ever in their own neighborhoods because people are less and less connected to their neighbors.

Since people are busier than ever before, and struggle to even find time for family dinners, they definitely do not have enough time for the families that live around them. According to Forbes magazine, more than half of Americans do not know their neighbor’s names (Trulia, 2013). Because of this more parents must rely solely on themselves to raise their children, rather than all the neighborhood parents working to raise and protect the children. So, while they are more connected, these technological connections are prohibiting real life parenting connections that could keep children safer and create a better community. This creates a society of connected people who are lonelier than ever, leading to an increased amount of adult suicides. Parents are more stressed than ever trying to make sure their children are loved cherished and safe, which would be a lot easier with a community of neighbors working together to help raise the children. Children have less interaction with adults, which results in children not trained to communicate and relate to people of different backgrounds and ages, making the transition into the workplace harder when they have to work with people of many different ages and backgrounds.

Conclusion With people living longer, generations are learning how to interact and succeed together not only in the workplace but also in the nuclear family.

Each generation is different because of their own life experiences, so they each bring different biases, opinions and skills unique to their generations wherever they go. As each new generation develops, parenting styles and values will change as they work to learn from their predecessors and innovate. While this can result in many positive outcomes, with more parental involvement and more technology to be used for learning, these changes can also have negative effects. Children will be well versed in technology, but they may lack interpersonal skills; they may have high selfesteem, but may be very obstinate and disobedient. It will be increasingly important for parents to selflessly work to spend quality time with their children, training them to be respectful and productive members of society. These issues will probably be resolved and new issues will arise when another generation tries to correct the mistakes their parents made.

Overall, generational conflict has lessened in recent years as people have

Generational Differences

learned to work together and learn from each other. Generations will continue to have differences and disagreements, but they improve society by working to prevent the mistakes of the past and trying to usher in the future while remembering and learning from the past.

Biblical Connection The generational gap is widened in part by each generation’s refusal to respect other generations and to resolve conflict when it arises. There are two areas of improvement that would resolve much of the tension in the family unit- younger generation’s respect and older generation’s teaching.

In Proverbs 22:6, Solomon calls his readers to “Train your child in the way you should go, and when they are old they will not depart from it.”

Parents are given the responsibility to train their children to do what is right and respect those around them. But in Ephesians 6, Paul tells parents to “ not exasperate your children; instead, bring them up in the training and instruction of the Lord.” It is necessary for older generations to not

109 only train their children, but to also earn some of the respect they ought to receive from their children. One of the main issues is the tendency of younger generations to overcompensate for their parents’ mistakes, and therefore make mistakes themselves. Finding a happy medium is essential to stabilizing parenting changes and solves the issues of extreme compensation between generations.

The other solution is to increase younger generations’ respect for older generations. It is a common commandment to “Honor your Father and Mother.” Younger generation’s feeling of superiority in terms of technology often causes generational tension. Many younger generations refuse to respect their parents and elders, resulting in their elders’ refusal to assist them when they need help. Thus, older generations should work to be moderate in parenting as to not exasperate their children onto overcompensating their parenting. Children ought to respect their elders to alleviate tension between generations.

Generational Differences

References

Alch, M. (2000, September 01). The echo-boom generation: A growing force in American society. Futurist, (5)42. Retrieved from eLibrary (00163317).

Bible Gateway. (2011). Proverbs 22:6. (New International Version).

Retrieved 12 February 2013 from http://www.biblegateway.com/ passage/?search=Proverbs%2022:6&version=NIV Brinkley, A (2010). The Unfinished nation: A concise history of the American people. New York, NY: McGraw Hill.

Brown, G (2013). iPad baby seat: Bad parenting or sign of the times?.

Retrieved from abcnews http://abcnews.go.com/Lifestyle/ipad-babyseat-bad-parenting-sign-times/story?id=21111252 Crumpacker, M. & Crumpacker, J. (2007, December 01). Succession planning and Generational stereotypes: Should HR consider agebased values and attitudes a relevant factor or.... Public Personnel Management, (4)349. Retrieved from elibrary (00910260).

110 Putnam, R. (2006). The future of civil society: Civic engagement after September 11. Harvard International Review. 28(2), p.174-177.

Pilcher, J. (1994). Manheim’s sociology of generations: An undervalued legacy. BJS, (45)3, 481-495.

The Renfrew Center Foundation (2013). New survey: Families see benefits of eating together but most are unable to do so. Business Wire. Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/ detail?vid=9&sid=b659dce7-12a0-4a1e-9e80-0a3632508b8a%40sess ionmgr115&hid=125&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3 d#db=bwh&AN=bizwire.c52027305 Republican party out of touch on abortion (1992). . Washington, D.C., United States, Washington, D.C.: National Public Radio.

Retrieved 28 February from http://search.proquest.com/ docview/189844737?accountid=11339 Rose, S (2005, December 01). Going too far? Sex, sin and social Policy.

Social Forces, (2), 1207. Retrieved from elibrary (00377732).

Elmore, L. (2010). Generation gaps. Women In Business, 62(2), 8.

Rotolo, T. & Wilson, J. (2004, March 01). What happened to the “Long civic generation”? Explaining cohort differences in volunteerism.

Social Forces, (3), 1091. Retrieved from elibrary (00377732).

Friedman, M (2007, December 03). Generational mix creates challenges.

Arkansas Business, (48), 1. Retrieved from elibrary (10536582).

Samuelson, J, R. (2010, March 15). The real generation gap. Newsweek, (11). Retrieved from elibrary (00289604).

Gelston, S. (2008). Welcome to the generation wars. Cio, 21(8), 38-40.

Smead, H (2000). Don’t trust anyone over thirty: The first four decades of the baby boom. Lincoln, Nebraska: Writers Club.

Dobson, J (2005). Bringing up boys. Carol Stream, Illinois: Tyndale.

Gilburg, D. (2008). Come together. Cio, 21(8), 43-47.

Gozzi Jr., R. (2012). Two generation gaps. ETC: A Review Of General Semantics, 69(4), 475-476. Retrieved from elibrary (0014164X).

Hine, T (1999 August 22). Teen century. Philadelphia Enquirer.

Lancaster, L & Stillman, D (2003). From World War II to the world wide web: Traditionalists, baby boomers, generation Xers, and millennials at work. Women in Business, 55(6), 33. Retrieved from elibrary (00437441).

Morman, (2011). 25 years of parenting: A look back (and ahead).

MetroParent. Retrieved from http://www.metroparent.com/MetroParent/September-2011/25-Years-of-Parenting-A-Look-Back-andAhead/ Paul, P (2002, January 01). Meet the parents. American Demographics, (1)42. Retrieved from elibrary (01634089).

Pomeroy, C (2008). Abortion and women’s rights: Unification of pro-life and pro-choice through feminism. Serendip Studio. Retrieved 5 May 2013 from http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/exchange/node/1845

Speak S, Cameron S & Gilroy R (1997). Young, single, non-residential fathers: their involvement in fatherhood. Centre for Research in European Urban Environments at the University of Newcastle upon Tyne. Great Britain.

Stein P (2009). Bridging the gaps among the generations. Fire Engineering. , 169-176.

Twenge, J (2006). Generation me: Why today’s young Americans are more assertive, confident, entitled- and more miserable than ever before. New York: Free Publishers.

Winograd, M. & Hais, M. (2012, June 15). Bridging today’s generation gap. National Journal, n/a. Retrieved from elibrary (03604217).

Generational Differences

Appendix I Survey Questions

1. How do you communicate best at work? a. Face to Face

d. Text Message

b. Phone Calls

e. Social Media

c. Email 2. Have you ever had conflict with a person from another generation at your current company?

a. If yes, were they older, or younger, or have you had conflict with both

3. How often do you experience conflict with a person from another generation at your current office? a. Daily

d. Rarely

b. Weekly

e. Never

c. Monthly 4. Who do you tend to have conflict with more? a. I don’t have conflict with my coworkers

c. Peers

b. Superiors

d. Subordinates

5. In your current workplace, do you find it harder to relate to people of other generations than with people your own age?

6. Do you have an example of a conflict at your current company between you and a colleague of a different age?

7. If you could change one thing about how your company handles conflict in your office, what would it be?

8. What efforts, if any, has your company made to reduce conflict between generations?

9. If they have, were these efforts effective?

Appendix II- Survey Results Organization A Results- 19 Responses 1. How do you communicate best at work?

Answered: 19

Skipped: 0

111

Generational Differences

2. Have you ever had conflict with a person from another generation at your current company?

Answered: 19

Skipped: 0

3. How often do you have conflict with a person from a different generation in your current office?

Answered: 19

Skipped: 0

4. Who do you tend to have conflict with more?

Answered: 19

Skipped: 0

112

Generational Differences

113

5. In your current workplace, do you find it harder to relate to people of other generations than with people your own age?

Answered: 19

Skipped: 0

6. Do you have an example of a conflict at your current company between you and a colleague of a different age?

Answered: 13

Skipped: 6

Showing 13 responses None, I work at the best place ever!

I have had had minor conflicts with students.

12/12/2013 10:57 AM

12/10/2013 10:59 AM

Nothing right now.

No

12/10/2013 9:10 PM

12/10/2013 9:16 AM

no

Differences in theology.

12/10/2013 3:30 PM

12/10/2013 9:15 AM

Colleague thought I had said something I never said. When we talked we were able to resolve the misunderstanding immediately.

It is more just a series of small issues based on the above

12/10/2013 1:34 PM No, sorry.

12/10/2013 12:58 PM technology improvements (use or willingness to learn or ability to learn) 12/10/2013 11:47 AM

12/10/2013 9:10 AM Deadlines often create conflict as do communication details 12/10/2013 8:56 AM In general, just differing philosophies on what is best for our students (i.e. mercy vs. justice or performance vs. effort).

12/10/2013 8:50 AM I don’t feel safe commenting.

12/10/2013 8:48 AM

7. If you could change one thing about how your company handles conflict in your office, what would it be?

Answered: 13

Skipped: 6

Showing 13 responses Always talk to the person who you have conflict with. We try but its hard.

That people would be willing to go to the person they have issues with and address them directly rather than gossip.

12/12/2013 10:57 AM

12/10/2013 11:47 AM

follow the chain of command. Go to the person first then their superior.

Because I work at a public school, many issues are left unresolved, for people fear being perceived as anti-Christian if they were to engage in conflicts.

12/12/2013 8:51 AM No change 12/10/2013 9:10 PM listen before making decision 12/10/2013 3:30 PM I think we do pretty well with handling and resolving conflict.

12/10/2013 1:34 PM That conflict or constructive criticism/suggestions is not personal but for the bettering of the organization.

12/10/2013 12:58 PM

12/10/2013 10:59 AM Nothing 12/10/2013 9:16 AM Have better communication and openness between administration and faculty.

12/10/2013 9:15 AM I think they are doing all they can. They are not the source of the problems.

12/10/2013 9:10 AM

Generational Differences

I appreciate the way my company handles conflict, but I wish it would be more direct and 3rd-party mediation would not be quite so avoided.

114 12/10/2013 8:50 AM I don’t feel safe commenting.

12/10/2013 8:48 AM

8. What efforts, if any, has your company made to reduce conflict between generations?

Answered: 15

Skipped: 4

Showing 15 responses Instituted a Covenant of Peace contract that every employee signs and we go over it at the beginning of every school year.

We are to follow the Covenant of Peace.

12/12/2013 10:57 AM

Covenant of Peace

group gatherings, “bonding” activities, shared projects, games, just hang out and have fun together 12/12/2013 8:51 AM Use Biblical principles when possible 12/10/2013 9:10 PM great improvements 12/10/2013 3:30 PM Worked hard to encourage cooperation, grace and adhere to the guidance in Matthew if there is an issue between members.

12/10/2013 10:59 AM 12/10/2013 9:16 AM None between generations that I am aware of.

12/10/2013 9:15 AM Covenant of Peace - Talk to Dean Ashby and he will provide you with a copy.

12/10/2013 9:12 AM Rules that are in place are effective 12/10/2013 9:10 AM training

12/10/2013 1:34 PM

12/10/2013 8:56 AM

None that I know of.

None in particular that I am aware.

12/10/2013 12:58 PM

12/10/2013 8:50 AM

Encourage face to face conversations rather than gossip.

I don’t feel safe commenting.

12/10/2013 11:47 AM

12/10/2013 8:48 AM

9. If they have, were these efforts effective?

Answered: 13

Generational Differences

Organization B Results- 15 Responses 1. How do you communicate best at work?

Answered: 15

Skipped: 0

2. Have you ever had conflict with a person from another generation at your current company?

Answered: 15

Skipped: 0

3. How often do you have conflict with a person from a different generation in your current office?

Answered: 15

Skipped: 0

115

Generational Differences

116

4. Who do you tend to have conflict with more?

Answered: 15

Skipped: 0

5. In your current workplace, do you find it harder to relate to people of other generations than with people your own age?

Answered: 15

6. Do you have an example of a conflict at your current company between you and a colleague of a different age?

Answered: 10

Skipped: 5

Showing 10 responses I am in my 40’s. I had conflict with an older male about every 3 months. It was apparent in his comments and attitude that he generally had no respect for professional women younger than he. He seemed genuinely shocked if you ever disagreed with him as if were ‘out of line’.

12/20/2013 3:07 PM My supervisor thanked me for staying late and the unit leader commented what about me staying late...da.da...just so jealous if anyone compliments anyone but her.

12/17/2013 7:14 AM Sure 12/16/2013 5:31 PM no 12/14/2013 4:43 PM No

12/13/2013 2:11 PM Luckily we are mostly conflict free 12/13/2013 2:08 PM My conflict has been related to time management and efficiency. I need this person to be more focused on getting work done timely and accurately. I’m being told that it is too much work, but the person who was in the position previously did not have a problem completing the work.

12/13/2013 2:07 PM I’m in 30s. Mid fifties leader grilled me on a topic. He wasn’t clear in his questions, so I misinterpreted them. When my answer wasn’t what he wanted. He accused me of trying to hide something from him (raised voice). I was trying to give him a complete, honest answer.

12/13/2013 1:31 PM

12/13/2013 2:44 PM

The conflict was not a result of age difference but a difference in how to finish/work on a process.

no, conflicts are only work related

12/13/2013 1:25 PM

Generational Differences

117

7. If you could change one thing about how your company handles conflict in your office, what would it be?

Answered: 11

Skipped: 4

Showing 11 responses Handle it. Most of our staff are very professional. There are always exceptions however. We do a lot of ‘ignore it and it will go away’. We do have new management that is setting a better standard of respect among peers.

12/20/2013 3:07 PM Wished they would confront out of control people who let power or lack of go to their heads.

12/17/2013 7:14 AM Commiserate Respect and willingness to ADAPT to change 12/16/2013 5:31 PM Better communications 12/14/2013 4:43 PM A greater sense of openness to squarely address and resolve irritants that become conflicts in time when left unattended 12/13/2013 2:44 PM more open lines of communication to discuss and resolve the conflict - face to face

12/13/2013 2:11 PM There really is not a lot of conflict that i know of, but open communication would be the best strategy to address it.

12/13/2013 2:07 PM Need more HR participation in confrontational meetings with bad employees.

12/13/2013 1:33 PM There isn’t much...

12/13/2013 1:31 PM We are have strong management in the company and there is not a need to fix how conflict is handled.

12/13/2013 1:25 PM The company shouldn’t handle conflict, the people should.

The company can demand more professional behavior and enforce consequences for preferential treatment.

12/13/2013 1:25 PM

8. What efforts, if any, has your company made to reduce conflict between generations?

Answered: 9 Skipped: 6 Showing 9 responses Not sure

12/13/2013 2:11 PM

12/20/2013 3:07 PM

See #7.

none

12/13/2013 2:07 PM

12/17/2013 7:14 AM

Good question...

None

12/13/2013 1:31 PM

12/16/2013 5:31 PM

this has not been an issue at my current company

Cannot really say we have

12/13/2013 1:30 PM

12/13/2013 2:44 PM

It’s not an issue.

none for conflicts between generations - but the company has instituted more open lines of communication (see #7 above)

12/13/2013 1:25 PM

9. If they have, were these efforts effective?

Answered: 2

Skipped: 13

Generational Differences

Organization C- 30 Responses 1. How do you communicate best at work?

Answered: 30

Skipped: 0

2. Have you ever had conflict with a person from another generation at your current company?

Answered: 30

Skipped: 0

3. How often do you have conflict with a person from a different generation in your current office?

Answered: 30

Skipped: 0

118

Generational Differences

119

4. Who do you tend to have conflict with more?

Answered: 30

Skipped: 0

5. In your current workplace, do you find it harder to relate to people of other generations than with people your own age?

Answered: 30

Skipped: 0

6. Do you have an example of a conflict at your current company between you and a colleague of a different age?

Answered: 20

Skipped: 10

Showing 20 responses A woman Sales Assistant not being able to take direction from me a younger male Salesperson.

reading the internet.

1/10/2014 1:09 PM

Complex, but I don’t think it was age related.

An older colleague does not like to read or respond via e-mail, which in some cases for traceability purposes and as a follow up tool (e.g. to confirm our conversation) makes communication difficult because they only verbally respond and when topics are brought up at a later date, there is frustration on what was actually said (this colleague believes they never forget anything, therefore their memory of verbal comments it what they say it is, end of story).

1/8/2014 5:13 PM 1/8/2014 4:19 PM no 1/8/2014 11:49 AM Yes, Sometimes older co-workers have a hard time taking direction from younger co-workers 1/8/2014 7:09 AM

1/9/2014 3:37 PM

no

no

1/8/2014 7:03 AM

1/9/2014 1:35 PM

No

n/a

1/7/2014 5:29 PM

1/9/2014 7:35 AM

n/a

n/a

1/7/2014 5:06 PM

1/8/2014 5:59 PM

No

Putting out an effort and not waiting for work to come in, go out and build relationships or learn a new skill instead of

1/7/2014 5:00 PM No

Generational Differences 1/7/2014 4:50 PM

Yes- It involves how they communicate via email. This colleague is younger. She tends to be rude and confrontational in her emails but not that way on the phone.

1/7/2014 4:49 PM no 1/7/2014 4:14 PM Addressing work habits and expectations for advancement 1/7/2014 4:12 PM Yes, they typically begin with “Listen, I’ve been doing this for

120 30 years, why do you think you can do this better than I can, you don’t understand the industry”. This has happened to me when the person making that statement had made a mistake and while I was trying to resolve the problem it had created, they had a differing opinion on how it should be resolved.

1/7/2014 4:12 PM I try not to get into any comflicts - do my job, do it well.

1/7/2014 4:09 PM No 1/7/2014 3:29 PM

7. If you could change one thing about how your company handles conflict in your office, what would it be?

Answered: 17

Skipped: 13

Showing 17 responses Follow through

1/8/2014 7:03 AM

1/10/2014 1:09 PM

That the people who are in the conflict be called into an office together and not have the whole office be reminded of how everyone should get along. This is not Kindergarten.

I have never approached the company about any personal conflicts (If it is warranted, I prefer to handle on my own) therefore I cannot comment on how they handle it and anything I hear about from others is more or less hearsay.

1/9/2014 3:37 PM I would like my company to actually acknowledge that conflicts happen and allow us to address them without trying to be overly “PC” 1/9/2014 1:35 PM n/a 1/8/2014 5:59 PM More discussion about source of conflict.

1/8/2014 4:19 PM Discipline is lacking as there are no performance reviews in place until this year 1/8/2014 11:49 AM more involvement from upper management 1/8/2014 9:36 AM That they handle it professionally and not on a favortism basis 1/8/2014 7:09 AM nothing

1/8/2014 6:25 AM Face to face communication with each person provided time to speak and each person listening 1/7/2014 7:31 PM Improve communication 1/7/2014 5:29 PM Better communications 1/7/2014 5:00 PM N/A 1/7/2014 4:50 PM making sure everyone keeps communication professional and not personal 1/7/2014 4:49 PM It’s handled individually.

1/7/2014 4:12 PM Personally, I have not had any in 12 years here.

1/7/2014 4:09 PM

Generational Differences

121

8. What efforts, if any, has your company made to reduce conflict between generations?

Answered: 21

Skipped: 9

Showing 21 responses None

None that I have noticed.

1/10/2014 1:09 PM

1/8/2014 6:25 AM

None (that I am aware of)

Have not seem conflicts between age differences

1/9/2014 3:37 PM

1/7/2014 7:31 PM

n/a

We haven’t as a company really addressed issues of conflict resolution related to employees from different generations.

1/9/2014 1:35 PM n/a 1/8/2014 5:59 PM None

1/7/2014 5:29 PM None conflict is rare 1/7/2014 5:00 PM

1/8/2014 5:13 PM

None

Complaint process. More face-to-face meetings and communications.

1/7/2014 4:50 PM none

1/8/2014 4:19 PM

1/7/2014 4:49 PM

none that I am aware of

This has not been a major issue so no specific policies are in place

1/8/2014 11:49 AM none 1/8/2014 9:36 AM none that i notice 1/8/2014 7:09 AM they treat everyone equal.

1/8/2014 7:03 AM None 1/8/2014 6:30 AM 9. If they have, were these efforts effective?

Answered: 7

Skipped: 23

1/7/2014 4:12 PM None, there are very few generational differences at this time.

1/7/2014 4:12 PM N/A 1/7/2014 4:09 PM Very much of a team concept is used, regardless of position or age.

1/7/2014 3:29 PM

Generational Differences Organization D Responses

1. How do you communicate best at work?

Answered: 31Â

Skipped: 0

2. Have you ever had conflict with a person from another generation at your current company?

Answered: 31Â

Skipped: 0

122

Generational Differences

3. How often do you have conflict with a person from a different generation in your current office?

Answered: 30Â

Skipped: 1

4. Who do you tend to have conflict with more?

Answered: 31Â

Skipped: 0

5. In your current workplace, do you find it harder to relate to people of other generations than with people your own age?

123

Generational Differences Answered: 31

124

Skipped: 0

6. Do you have an example of a conflict at your current company between you and a colleague of a different age?

Answered: 20

Skipped: 11

Showing 20 responses No real conflicts. I try to get along with everyone as we need to work together for the benefit of our employer. I would rather “bite my tounge” than say things that would aggrevate the situration. I am able to convince coworkers without initiating conflict.

1/9/2014 12:00 PM

1/10/2014 4:23 PM

Superiors had a different view in pricing work to win work.

Did not sgree with assuming the best possible senerio for defining project cost. If cost is lower then the company can sell the product for less and maintain the same profit level. Thus win more work If the cost is actually higher to execute the work then the new work will have a reduced profit or a loss. Managment hold operations responsible for project profit / lost at the end and sometines forgets that they influenced the initial cost esitmate. I was told that I was two conservative with my estimates.

differences in approach, and speed of executing a task

1/9/2014 10:46 AM

1/10/2014 9:02 AM

Not so much a conflict. This person is much older (one of the oldests ones) and he is nosy, busy body and is into gossip.

1/20/2014 11:08 AM I had conflicts with younger generation coworkers or subordinates that come in to the office late and get onto Internet often during work hour.

Not really, I’m not confrontational. So if I have a problem and it isn’t too big of a deal, I just put up with it.

1/9/2014 1:53 PM No I rarely have any conflicts with anyone.

1/9/2014 1:51 PM No conflicts worth mentioning.

1/9/2014 10:37 AM Since my company is an engineering service company; therefore, peoples here may have different opinions in terms of engineering and design. However, I am not sure if the conflicts are due to age difference.

1/9/2014 9:11 AM

Generational Differences

I manage someone considerably older than myself who used to be a peer. They were not happy with me being the one doing their appraisal because they still consider us to be peers and not manager/subordinate.

1/9/2014 8:50 AM I been working with Technip for almost 2 and half years but I have no conflict so far it happens but very rarely especially when you change the department and your boss don’t allow that meaning he/she wants to keep you in his/her group rather than move you out. I had same experience in past but if you are polite and enthusiastic nobody will stop you.

125 No 1/9/2014 8:02 AM Trying to edit documents on a share site. Older generation is confused at functionality and untrusting of final results.

1/9/2014 7:46 AM I am 50+. I never had any conflict with anyone. I always put into other’s shoes and think they may right. I was young before and will be older later. Every thing can be solved withot confliction.

1/9/2014 7:41 AM

1/9/2014 8:39 AM

Don’t have any conflicts that can be attributed to age.

No. Most people get along very well. Sometimes a client can be testy, but it mostly boils down to peronality versus the generation or age.

1/9/2014 6:54 AM

1/9/2014 8:38 AM

No 1/8/2014 9:55 PM

1/9/2014 8:29 AM

A very experienced, senior staff member was placed in a position of leadership, with a small team of 3-4 colleagues.

The team lead would not pull his weight, irritated the customers, attempted to do work assigned to other teams. He resisted coaching. I practically had to yell at him to realize how disruptive he was being.

No

1/8/2014 9:02 PM

I had decided that a certain action as an efficient use of both our time but when I told my supervisor about it, he got upset because I immagine that he saw the suggestion as insubordination.

1/9/2014 8:24 AM 7. If you could change one thing about how your company handles conflict in your office, what would it be?

Answered: 18 Skipped: 13 Showing 18 responses Have not really noticed much conflict at Technip/Genesis’ office between coworkers. It is a very good working environment.

1/20/2014 11:08 AM Somehow the company and management need to help identify and then resolve conflicts early on.

1/10/2014 4:23 PM none

not sure 1/9/2014 8:50 AM Let say I have a conflict with my coworker, it usually go first to Human Resources and they first listen the probloms of both parties and handled the problem accordingly as per my view. Of course I had no experience like this in past but I can represent in above way.

1/9/2014 8:39 AM

Nothing

Human Resources handles any personal conflict if they get out of hand. Most conflicts are on projects and they usually resolve themselves after a day or two.

1/9/2014 1:53 PM

1/9/2014 8:38 AM

They do a good job of handling conflicts well if matters cannot be dealt with between peers then we bring in HR.

Have team building excercises between generations so that we feel more comfortable talking with one another. I’m 25 and enjoy talking with people in general but I see many of the other generations being uncomfortable talking with others outside their demographic or with people they haven’t known for years. I have even had supervisors tell me this is the case.

1/10/2014 9:02 AM

1/9/2014 1:51 PM As a whole I believe both companies I have worked for do a good job with the communication structure in the work place. It is up to each individual to use what is available and be proactive in using the available tools and improving their on communication skills. Learn from experience and be open minded in all communications.

1/9/2014 10:46 AM I’m not sure how the company handles conflict.

1/9/2014 10:37 AM

1/9/2014 8:29 AM No idea 1/9/2014 8:24 AM N/A 1/9/2014 8:02 AM Documentation. Same fight a different day is easily

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126

preventable with documentation of prior resolutons. A log of conflicts and their resolutions to use without involvement of management unless absolutely necessary.

1/9/2014 7:34 AM

1/9/2014 7:46 AM

1/9/2014 6:54 AM

Encourage patience and tranquility as workplace virtues for new hires.

1/9/2014 7:41 AM We have courses named: Manage New Milleniums which teach us how to handle the new generations and their way of communicating.

I don’t have enough information about office conflicts to make any suggestions.

Probably provide some formal training on how to coach staff (of all ages). Also encourage significantly more mentoring between staff of all ages and skill levels so that communication improves and becomes more natural.

1/8/2014 9:02 PM

8. What efforts, if any, has your company made to reduce conflict between generations?

Answered: 19

Skipped: 12

Showing 19 responses Not really applicable to anything I have seen

1/9/2014 10:37 AM

1/20/2014 11:08 AM

Not aware of any.

Not sure if there is any.

1/9/2014 9:11 AM

1/10/2014 4:23 PM

they provide training for managing ‘millennials’, classes on professional communications and conflict resolution

none i’m aware of 1/10/2014 9:02 AM The company offers lots of training courses and you can expect to work with people of many different age groups.

1/9/2014 1:53 PM

1/9/2014 8:50 AM If such kind of conflict happens between young age and old generation worker, yes company would handle it. But like I said earlier I have no idea about it. But HR personal can do it to reduce the conflict.

We work in an open culture and we all work together and we do so well and it is a very tolerant place. We look up to our older engineers and staff since they possess more knowledge that they can transfer to us.

1/9/2014 8:39 AM

1/9/2014 1:51 PM

There was a brief interest in the Millennials at Work program which was to foster understanding and communication between generations but that seems to have fizzled out.

Do not have a good answer. I believe both companies have a policy that open / honest communications is expected from each employe regardless of age. I have not seen this to be a big problem as a younger employee or as the older employee.

Story: When I first start in the business I was given a very difficult assignemnt 11 months after I was hired. For two years I was responsible to work with the General Superintent, thirty years my senior, to plan all work for the Division. With other young engineers we would put together installation plans to execute work. We would have questions which we would need help from the General Superintendent. I would present the plan or problem to the GS for his feed back. On many occassions the GS did not have an answer and would tell me he did not know. This was somewhat puzzling because I expected him to have the knowledge to help me solve the problem. At the time “I do not know” did not seem like the right answer. I tried to force him to know the answer but he was smart enough not to answer questions he was not comfortable answering. I then would ask him what are we going to do / or who knows if you do not. GS knew the Division Organization and as a rule knew who in the Division was the most qualified person in the Division to help me solve the problem. He would give me a name and off I would go to review the problem with the suggested employee / supervisor.

The GS stating “I do not know” proved to be quite effective.

I haven’t seen any generational conflict.

1/9/2014 8:38 AM

1/9/2014 8:29 AM I am not aware of any 1/9/2014 8:24 AM N/A 1/9/2014 8:02 AM None that Im aware of other than trying to hire people with good team working skills.

1/9/2014 7:46 AM Company get togethers, office department meetings, and generally projects are staffed in a diverse manner.

1/9/2014 7:41 AM I don’t have enough information about company efforts to make a comment.

1/9/2014 6:54 AM Related course training 1/8/2014 9:55 PM

1/9/2014 10:46 AM

Many efforts have been made to “assimilate” the millennials to the organization. Other efforts have tried to help us older staff “understand them” and become better coaches for them

Don’t know.

1/8/2014 9:02 PM

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127

9. If they have, were these efforts effective?

Answered: 11Â

Skipped: 20

Appendix III: Census Results

Class of 2015 Distinguished Scholars Program Dissertations

2700 West Sam Houston Parkway North Houston, Texas 77043 www.houstonchristian.org

Table of Contents Karina V. Arnold

The Cultural and Political Differences Between the United States and the Middle East

and How These Differences Hinder Muslim Assimilation..................................................................................... 133 Victoria Grace Baltazar

Biotechnology and Its Effects on Sports Competition and Quality of Life of Amputee............................ 153

Jarrett J. Bolander

Effects of Environmental Factors and Genetics on the Development of Criminals and

Applications in the United States Justice System and the Effect of Firearm Regulations on

Murder in Scotland and the United States.................................................................................................................. 175 John D. Bunch

The Moral and Social Implication of Allowing Disease, Poor Sanitation, and War to Run Their

Course in Order to Reduce Man’s Impact on the Environment and Earth’s Limited Resources.......... 193 Emily A. Detiveaux

Cultural Comparisons of Beauty and American Influence on the World’s Perception of Beauty....... 209

Chesli Nicole Lobue

The Development of Moder Genetic Engineering and Overall Future Social Implications

as Seen in Literature and Film......................................................................................................................................... 231 Collin McGrath

Introversion/Extraversion: Culture or Genetics? Roles of Personality in Leadership............................. 261

Cassandra E. Porter

Parenting Styles of America and Their Effects on Motivation, Self-Esteem,

and School Performance..................................................................................................................................................... 291

The Cultural and Political Differences Between the United States and the Middle East and How These Differences Hinder Muslim Assimilation Karina V. Arnold

Muslim Assimilation

135

Table of Contents

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Islamic Beginnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Prophet Muhammad. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Spread of Islam and Religious Wars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Schisms and Factions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Conflicts Today. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Political Differences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Western Democracy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Theocracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Constitutional Law and Bill of Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Sharia Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Cultural Differences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Terrorism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Sunni and Shia Radicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Global War on Terror. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Stereotypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Negative Warmth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Barbaric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Adaptation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Muslim Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Assimilation in America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Continuously Fighting Terrorism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Methodology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Purpose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Participants and Sampling Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Research Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Experimental Instrumentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Data Collection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Data Analysis Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Ethical Consideration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

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Table of Contents (continued)

Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Sample. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Survey Findings/Interviews/Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Attitude Towards Muslim Dress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Attitude Towards Muslim Friendships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Attitude Towards Working with Muslims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Attitude Towards Sharia Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Remaining Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Rise of Feminism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Biblical Connection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Reference List. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

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Abstract

This Scholar’s research concentrated on the political and cultural differences between the Middle East and America and how these differences hinder Muslim assimilation. The religious freedom in United States democracy opposes the theocracies in the Middle East. Furthermore, the differing foundational laws cause controversy in human rights. Due to recent terrorist attacks and the formation of ISIS, Muslims are often stereotyped as barbaric and with a negative warmth factor, prompting this Researcher to ask whether Americans truly have a stigma against Muslim culture. This Researcher’s first null hypothesis examined the response rates between traditional Muslim attire versus traditional Western attire. The second null hypothesis tested whether there is a difference in Houstonians’ self-reported attitude toward Muslims in the different forms of dress. A statistical analysis revealed dress affected 2 out of 3 questions regarding attitudes towards Muslims. The patriarchy exemplified in the Islamic faith prompted the Researcher examine at the opposite of a patriarchal society: matriarchy. The two probably outcomes of this form of society are a feminist society and a dependency society. A feminist society allows for the rise of female independence and equality of the sexes. In contrast, a dependency society results in government aid as a means of income. This topic may be further researched in order to look at alternate possible outcomes of matriarchy.

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History Islamic Beginnings Three major religions became predominate throughout history: Christianity, Judaism, and Islam, which all connected back to Abraham, or the father of many religions (Szulc, 2001). Abraham is mentioned in the Jewish, Christian, and Islamic holy books— the Torah, the Bible, and the Quran – and connects back to both of Abraham’s sons, Ishmael or Isaac (Szulc, 2001; Feiler, 2003). To followers of the three faiths, “Abraham is culture… Abraham is a message of loving and kindness. Abraham is an idea. Abraham is everything” (Szulc, 2001). Christians trace their religion back to Isaac, causing Christians and Jews to see Abraham as a religious figure and a leader only for Christianity and Judaism (Feiler, 2003).

However, Muslims trace their religious lineage through Ishmael because he was prophesized to “make a great nation,” which later became known as Islam (Feiler, 2003). Tensions began to arise among the three religions over who is “truly” from Abraham (Feiler, 2003). Although Judaism, Islam, and Christianity trace their lineage back to the same person, Christianity and Judaism felt they superseded Islam because of Judaism and Christianity’s earlier establishment (Holt, 1970). Due to their earlier establishment and lands conquered, Judaism and Christianity thrived in the Middle East, causing the future Muslim prophet, Muhammad, to have difficulty spreading the Islamic faith.

Prophet Muhammad In early 60 and 70 AD, Christianity and Judaism fought over control of the Mediterranean, causing constant warfare and a high mortality rate (Holt, 1970). As a result, many thinkers and philosophers sought a way to escape the evils of war and establish peace (Holt, 1970). One such philosopher was Muhammad, a merchant in Mecca, who received revelations from God (Holt, 1970; Esposito, 1999). Muhammad’s documentations, shortly after the revelations, became the basis for what would later be known as the Quran. In order to spread his revelations, Muhammad returned to Mecca and began preaching, calling for its citizens to reject idols and believe in one God. Muhammad chose to combat the violence and beliefs of Christianity and Judaism with more violence, as seen in Quran verse 8:60: “And make ready against them all you can of power, including steeds of war (tanks, planes, missiles, artillery) to threaten the enemy of Allah and your enemy, and others besides whom, you may not know but whom Allah does know.”

Predominantly Jewish cities began converting to Islam, causing Jewish officials to expel Muhammad from the city; however, Muhammad fought back, conquered Mecca, and destroyed synagogues in order to increase Islamic influence (Holt, 1970). In the surrounding areas, Muhammad also whiped out all polytheistic tribes because he thought they posed a threat to the monotheistic beliefs of Islam (Holt, 1970). Once he had control of Mecca, Muhammad campaigned for equal rights between men and women and preached war against unbelievers as a religious duty (the jihad), which was a new concept for many people around Mecca (Mandani, 2002). His teachings concerning equality provided hope for minorities, like women and the poor, causing many to convert; soon most of the Middle East was Islamic (Roudometof, 2013; Geller, 2013). Christians began to move West, while the Jews either converted to Islam or resided in the Middle East. Before Islam reached its height, Muhammad died leaving behind the Quran as his legacy (Roudometof, 2013). Disciples of Muhammad soon began spreading this new religion of Islam (Roudometof, 2013).

Spread of Islam and Religious Wars After the death of Muhammad, Islam spread through various trade outlets including word of mouth, scrolls, and paintings (Esposito, 1999; Rubin, 2011). Merchants were attracted to Jerusalem due to its proximity to the Mediterranean (Geller, 2013). Soon traders were exposed to the Islamic religion taking the religion back to their homelands, furthering the expansion of Islam (Holt, 1970). Not only was the Islamic religion central to trade, but Islamic leaders also conquered regions as far as present-day Spain in order to expand Islam (Holt, 1970). Additionally, Islamic leaders encouraged conversions by implementing a tax—the Jizya tax— on citizens who were not Muslim (Holt, 1970). However, the rapid growth of Islam disturbed the Christian Churches, and as a result, Christians began the Crusades to prevent further Islamic expansion and to regain power in Jerusalem. (Geller, 2013). These religious wars marked the end of the peace prior to the 1000’s CE (Geller, 2013; Takayama, 2010; Roudometof, 2013).

Ultimately, the Crusades failed and resulted in the death and destruction of many Muslim cities (Haque, 2004).

Schisms and Factions In addition to external pressures, the Islamic religion also faced internal violence when the faith split into the two sectors: Sunni and the Shia (Esposito, 1999; Shuster, 2007). This split between the Sunni and the Shia traces back to the death of Muhammad as followers of Islam had differing opinions on who should succeed Muhammad as leader. The Sunni believed public votes should determine the next leader, while the Shia believed the leader should come from Muhammad’s family lineage. The debate caused tension and led to an eventual split within Islam (Esposito, 1999; Shuster, 2007). However, the two communities still share certain fundamental beliefs regarding the “oneness” of Allah, Muhammad the last prophet, five daily prayers, and the pilgrimage to Mecca.

Sunni, the most popular branch of Islam, occupies 90% of the Muslim population, while Shia is only 10% (Shuster, 2007). Furthermore, the Sunni regard themselves as the orthodox and traditionalist branch of Islam and have loose interpretation of Sharia Law (Shuster, 2007). The Shia, in contrast, have a strict interpretation; as a result, some Sunni doctrines preach hatred against the Shia (Esposito, 1999).

Conflicts Today The dissention within the Islamic religion eventually resulted in masses of Islamic refugees. In the 1950s and 1960s, the Islamic religion spread to America and Europe due to corruption in the Middle East (Warner & Wenner, 2006). America became a popular destination for Muslims in the mid-20th century because of its freedom and openness to religion (Warner & Wenner, 2006). In 1965, the United States passed new immigration reforms allowing a new wave of Arabs to immigrate (Caesar, 2004). This new group of Arab immigrants was demographically similar to those who immigrated during the past 20 years. Increased conflict between Israel and its Arab neighbors resulted in “intra-Arab warfare” and a general increase in religious, ethnic and sectarian tensions in the region (Haque, 2004). The effects of intra-Arab warfare can be seen in 1967, when 108,000 Iraqis came to the US, fleeing the country’s drawn-out war with Iran (Haque, 2004). Arab Christians fleeing from religious persecution in the Middle East continued to immigrate into the U.S. during the 2000s.

However, the welcoming nature of America changed after the terrorist attack on 9/11. This leads one to ask: what are the major differences between the Middle East and America, and how do these differences hinder Muslim assimilation?

Muslim Assimilation Political Differences In West Asia, Muslim traditionalists strive to uphold old Muslim traditions and strictly follow Sharia Law and those who oppose find little success, as seen in the 1980’s Iranian Revolution. Due to the corrupt US installed Shah, Islamic leaders became further opposed to Westernization (Warner, Wenner, 2006). The “western” Shah was despotic, causing an Iranian desire to go back to traditional Islamic government (Skerry, 2010). The political unrest led to the fusing of theocracy and democracy and as a result, multiple political differences arose between the two regions. Because they are not exposed to any other religion or custom, Muslim assimilation into American secular society becomes difficult due to America’s secularism (Skerry, 2010).

America and majority of Muslim countries differ in government due to different types of government, religious influence, economics, and law.

The United States has a democratic government, meaning the power predominately resides with the citizens. Furthermore, the United States is based on Judeo-Christian beliefs, in regards to political philosophy (Chotiner, 2014). New America, and eventually the United States, became a blend of a theocratic belief system, but democratic law. With this form of government, Americans have the freedom of religion, not from religion; meaning, religion is present, but not everyone has to agree with it.

Western Democracy Although the United States government is influenced by Judeo-Christian values, its government practices secularism-- the separation of government institutions from religious institutions by establishing laws based on majority vote, rather than religion (Chotiner, 2014). For example, abortion goes against the beliefs of Christians; however, the landmark case, Roe vs. Wade allowed for women to receive an abortion. America does not associate themselves with one religion, but rather a Constitution. The belief Church and Sate should be separated derives from Enlightenment philosophers and Puritanical beliefs, who emphasized freedom of thought (Skerry, 2010). Although religiously affiliated, the Judeo-Christian values uphold purely moral standards for Americans.

Theocracy Unlike American secularism, many Middle Eastern countries—Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Afghanistan, and Pakistan— have a democracy with a religious constitution (Lindamood, 2009). Middle Eastern and other theocratic countries use religiously influenced laws, like Sharia Law, as a basis for government regulation, allowing for religious dissenters to be punished legally (Skerry, 2010). Islamic Caliphs often establish theocratic governments in order to appose Western secularism; however, not all Middle Eastern countries want to appose westernization. Because Middle Eastern countries are not uniform in their stance on Westernization, there is a spectrum of theocracies. For example, Turkey is an Islamic society under democratic law; in contrast, Iran follows a strict religious constitution.

Constitutional Law and Bill of Rights In addition to having political differences in types of governments, the United States and many Middle Eastern countries have differences in legal systems. United States operates under a constitutional law, which is not associated with the beliefs of one religion, but rather a set of morals established by a body of governing people (Skerry, 2010). The United States grants all citizens certain rights, one being trial by jury in the case of an offense (Lindamood, 2009). Criminal judges are under an official, elected court rather than a group of men who operate under a religious convention, such as Islamic based democracies (Chotiner, 2014). In addition to a trial under an elected court, the American Constitution

140 operates under a series of amendments that accommodate new situations, which were not present when the Constitution was originally written (Skerry, 2010). Constitutional law applies equally to all Americans, ensuring the equal rights of all, one of the most important being freedom of speech. These rights allow Americans to speak out against a corrupt government, a right not granted to Muslims under Sharia Law. Sharia Law Unlike the malleable American Constitution or Bill of Rights, many Middle Eastern countries follow a strict Sharia Law, or “divine rule” (Skerry, 2010). Sharia Law, or the “way of living”, derives from the Quran verse “Then we put thee on the (right) Way of religion so follow thou that (Way), and follow not the desires of those who know not” (Caesar, 2004). Sharia Law has not changed since the Middle Ages and varies on administration in predominantly Muslim countries (Skerry, 2010). For example, in Turkey, Sharia Law plays no role in the judicial system because Turkey has a Western democracy; however in Iraq, Sharia applies in all situations, including criminal law (Chotiner, 2014). Harsh fundamentalists implement Sharia Law in attempts to return to the basic religious values of Muhammad and the Quran (Skerry, 2010). For example, when a Sudanese woman converted to Christianity and married another Christian she was flogged 100 times and was sentenced to death (Lindamood, 2009). Sharia Law also heavily regulates freedom of speech, especially in the media, as seen in the Charlie Hebdo shootings. On January 7, 2015, two Islamic men stormed into a Paris magazine office and shot twelve journalists because the magazine published a controversial satirical Muslim cartoon (Hampson, 2015). The Muslim shooters yelled, “We avenged Muhammad,” while shooting at the victims (Hampson, 2015). Sharia teaches those who speak out against Islam are to be punished, resulting in many terrorist attacks similar to the Paris shootings.

Cultural Differences Due to vast political differences, the Middle East and United States also face cultural clashes, as seen in human rights, specifically women’s rights.

Assimilation into American society is difficult because many Muslims come to America with the belief women are inferior, due to influence of Sharia Law. As previously mentioned, Sharia Law has not changed since it was first established, causing difficult government modernization.

Because Sharia Law has not changed, many Middle Eastern countries have not made many advances in women’s roles limiting education for women. In addition to limitations on education, many Islamic women in the Middle East are not allowed to leave their house without permission from a male guardian (Skerry, 2010). Islamic women begin to feel they are unequal since men have controlled them for centuries, due to Sharia Law. Typically, Fiqh, or male Muslim jurists, incorporate Sharia and decide on appropriate punishments, resulting in unjust and often harsh punishments for small crimes (Warner & Wenner, 2006). In the case of a woman removing her burka in public, the punishment requires being whipped by two men until the fundamentalists feel she has been given enough punishment (Lindamood, 2009). Muslim men must wear a turban and women must wear a burka because it is “the veil which separates man or the world from God.” The woman’s burka is particularly emphasized because the burka keeps women modest when out in public, a belief based off Quranic verses 33:59; “O Prophet! Say to your wives, your daughters, and the women of the believers that: they should let down upon themselves their jalabib.” The meaning of jalabib is vague since it translates to “shirt or wide dress” in English. Most Islamic legal systems define this type of modest dressing as covering everything except the face and hands in public.

These guidelines are found in texts of fiqh and hadith, developed after the revelation of the Quran. The Quran does not directly state the necessity to wear a hijab, just the importance of modesty. But, the governments in the

Muslim Assimilation Middle East actually enforce the hijab to different degrees (Lindamood, 2009). For example, Saudi Arabia enforces head covering in sacred places, but in Turkey, Tunisia, and Tajikistan, the law prohibits the wearing of hijab in government buildings, schools, and universities.

Women inequality is also seen in cases of infidelity. For example, Muslim jurist stone women for infidelity, but not men (Sides & Gross, 2013). Americans view Muslims who continue to practice Sharia Law as “unjust” because the law does not give women the right to speak out against punishment and fight for their rights, thus many Muslim women are not used to a non-patriarchal society.

Not only do Americans note the differences between the West and the Middle East, but also Islamic extremists. These Muslim extremists feel the political and cultural differences between the West and Middle East threaten Islamic culture (Inglehart, Norris, 2009). In order to keep Islam “pure” from the West, Muslim extremists feel it necessary to fight back against the Western culture, resulting in destructive terrorist attacks (Taplin-Chinoy, 2012).

Terrorism Cultural and political differences cause Jihadists, Islamic extremists, to commit terrorist acts in opposition to Westernization, which the Quran Jihad justifies. For example, verse 9:73 states: “Strive hard against the disbelievers and the hypocrites, and be harsh against them” (Warner, Wenner, 2006; Abu-Rabi’, 1996). The ideology of “fighting for Islam” portrays extremists as defensive against outside forces (Abu-Rabi’, 1996). Jihadists “fight back” in various public ways in the Middle East and abroad: riots in Europe, suicide bombings, attack of 9/11, and assassinations carried out on Embassies. More than 75% of Muslims are against extremism; however, the small population of extremists is more widely heard, misrepresenting the Muslim majority. Terrorist attacks were mostly in the Middle East, but eventually extremists’ hatred for American westernization extended beyond the Middle East and into other countries.

Using justification from the Quran verses, extremists attack anything they consider foreign or against Sharia.

Sunni and Shia Radicals As previously mentioned, the Muslim faith is split into two groups: Sunni and Shia. Out of the 1.6 billion Muslims, 90% consider themselves Sunni Muslims, while 10% consider themselves Shia Muslims (Shuster, 2007).

Both factions have terrorist organizations, although Sunni radicals are more prevalent than Shia extremists (Shuster, 2007). Although both terrorists claim to commit violence “in the name of God,” there are many differences between the two.

Sunni Muslims kill Shiites in order to purify Islam from infidels such as Shia and liberal or tolerant Sunni. For example, in the first eight months of 2014, ISIS killed at least 9,347 Shiites and wounded at least 17,386 (Obeidallah, 2014). These terrorist organizations, including ISIS, gain funding from Muslim religious organizations and rely on donations and volunteers from ISIS members (Obeidallah, 2014). Furthermore, these radicals kidnap in order to kill, as seen with ISIS killing news reporters James Foley and Steven Sotloff. ISIS members filmed and published the beheading of Sotloff and Foley in order to prove their power and intolerance towards infidels (Carter, 2014).

In contrast to Sunni radicals, Shia extremists fight more outside the Islamic faith, mostly for political gains, as seen with Al Qaeda in the Middle East; however, of all Sunni radical killings, 12% are Westerners. Al Qaeda’s main objective is to lead the Middle East into political instability in order to install the Wahhabi Caliphate (Carter, 2014). With political control and government funding, Al Qaeda has jurisdiction over the

141 monetary spending of the government, allowing them to become wealthy (Carter, 2014). Also in contrast to Sunni radicals, Shia extremists kidnap in order to barter for political means, as seen in the 1979 Argo Hostage Crisis (Obeidallah, 2014). Although Sunni and Shia terrorists differentiate on specifics, they commit mass murders and produce mass destruction.

Global War on Terror Although it was not formally named until 2001, the Global War on Terror began in 1979, when Iranian revolutionaries took over the US Embassy holding fifty-two Americans hostage, and in 1983, car bombings in Africa killed seventeen Americans in the US Embassy (Shaheen, 1997). Extremist hatred for the West intensified after the Gulf War in the 1990’s (Shaheen, 1997). The Muslim extremist dominated country, Iraq, invaded Kuwait to exploit it for oil (Shaheen, 1997). Kuwait was inadequately equipped to defend itself; as a result, the United States intervened and fought Iraq (Shaheen, 1997). Muslim extremists resented the United States interference, leading to the eventual attack on the Twin Towers in New York (Shaheen, 1997).

On September 11th, 2001, Al Qaeda terrorists orchestrated a suicide plane crash where four American planes with passengers were hijacked and crashed into the Twin Towers (Myjer, White, 2013). More than 3,000 Americans were killed in the attack, causing a nation-wide sorrow and hatred for Muslim terrorists (Myjer, White, 2013). The religious justifications extremists use for terrorism are inhumane and irrational, thus causing greater cultural gaps and increased tensions between the United States and Middle East (Kamen, Wilson, 2009).

In response to the continual violence and the deaths from 9/11, America and other countries have rallied against terrorism in a campaign known as the “War on Terror” or “Global War on Terrorism” or GWOT (Sides, Gross, 2013). The crusade against terrorism and terrorist supporters identifies terrorists as “hateful, barbarous, inhumane, and evil” (Sides & Gross, 2013). The main objectives of the GWOT are to destroy terrorist organizations predominantly in the Middle East (Taplin-Chinoy, 2012).

Missions like Operation Enduring Freedom- Afghanistan and Operation Iraqi Freedom, involved warring constantly (Taplin-Chinoy, 2012).

The majority of these terrorist groups identify with Islam; as a result, the association of terrorism with a religion causes distrust and malice toward that religion (Gibson, 2011). Some Americans’ failure to make a distinction between extremists and moderate Muslims causes Americans to stereotype all Muslims as violent.

On May 23, 2013, after thirteen years, President Obama declared an unofficial end to GWOT; however, the fight against terrorism has not ended (Kamen, Wilson, 2009). Jihadists continually cause terror in America, including the Boston Marathon Bombing resulting in hundreds of casualties and three=- deaths (Taplin-Chinoy, 2012). In response to ending GWOT, Obama pulled American troops out of Iraq, leaving a power vacuum in the Middle East, enabling the Sunni radical group, ISIS, to grow and dominate Iraq and Syria.

Although the terrorist attacks that have been successful caused numerous deaths and casualties, the United States National Security, CIA, FBI, and police have prevented many other terrorist attacks and plots (TaplinChinoy, 2012). For example, in August 2004, an attempted bombing in the New York Stock Exchange, 34th Street Herald Square subway station and an attempted murder of Pakistani diplomat all were prevented (TaplinChinoy, 2012). However, government security agencies are unable to prevent all terrorism, especially with the rapid growth and influence of ISIS.

Stereotypes Many Americans’ opinions of Muslims have negative stereotypes,

Muslim Assimilation stemming mostly from media interpretations of the Muslim population and extremist actions (Sides, Gross, 2013; Saleem, 2013). Media displays a narrow view of Muslims by grouping all Muslims as violent, leaving Americans to think of them less as citizens and more as threats (Nacos, Torrest-Reyna, 2002). Social relations scholar, Edward Said states, “Muslims and Arabs are essentially covered, discussed, or apprehended either as reliable suppliers of oil or as potential terrorists” (Nacos, TorrestReyna, 2002). Harvard professor and two-time Pulitzer Prize winner, Walter Lippmann states, “what people [know] about the world around them [is] mostly the result of second-hand knowledge received through the press;” as a result, media becomes vital to obtain information about foreign affairs (Nacos, Torrest-Reyna, 2002).

Media has a formidable effect on negative Islamic views as seen in a 2006 Washington Post-ABC news poll. 46% of Americans have negative views of the Islamic religion (Shaheen, 1997). James J. Zogby, president of the Washington-based Arab American Institute, said he is not surprised by the poll’s results (Shaheen, 1997). He states, “politicians, authors, and media commentators have demonized the Arab world since 2001” (Shaheen, 1997). Media coverage of Muslims projects negative warmth and barbaric associations to the Islamic religion.

Negative Warmth The United States has always had national enemies: the Germans, Japanese, the Russians, and now, Muslims. The media has portrayed each enemy with “negative warmth stereotypes—i.e. violent and untrustworthy” (Sides & Gross, para 3, 2013). For example, 1942 Popeye cartoon movie labeled, “Scrap the Japs” portrays the Japanese as conniving and homicidal. This perception of “negative warmth” is now placed on Muslims (Sides & Gross, 2013). Many Americans citizens feel Muslims reject the “warmth’’ or opportunity to acquire a better life than life in the Middle East (Sides, Gross, 2013). News stories in the media strengthen the negative “warmth factor” by linking all Muslims to violence (Shaheen, 1997). For example, in Newsweek, the cover-page header was “Why They Hate Us” with a Muslim child holding a gun (Saleem, 2013). The pronoun “They” groups all Muslim members as an organization specifically targeting Americans (Saleem, 2013). Americans see the Muslim belief “convert or be killed” as direct rejection to American opportunity. Furthermore, aggressive perceptions of Muslims are seen in video games, newspaper articles, and movies, reaffirming violent traits (Saleem, 2013).

After the attack on the Twin Towers, media associated Muslims with all terrorist attacks more frequently (Nacos & Torrest-Reyna, 2002). Muslim and Arab Americans rarely made the front pages in the year before 9/11; however after 9/11, Muslim appearances on the front page of the New York Times rose from 5% to 10% and 0% to 7% on USA Today (Nacos, Torrest-Reyna, 2002). Unlike previous news stories, the New York Times also failed to cover, mention, or quote a non-terrorist Muslim regarding the religious motivation behind the 9/11 attack, leaving room for bias and fabrication (Nacos, Torrest-Reyna, 2002). Magazines and news articles posted comments on the attack (notably all from non-Muslims) causing many Americans to automatically group the attacks with all followers of the Islam religion (Nacos, Torrest-Reyna, 2002). Notably, few Muslims spoke out against the stereotypes, rather, there were videos posted of Muslims celebrating the fall of the Twin Towers (Nacos, Torrest-Reyna, 2002). Muslims did not actively speak out against the attacks, nor did they try to defend the majority’s non-extremist beliefs. As a result, stereotyping all Muslims as violet came with little resistance. Grouping all Muslims as violent can prove to be detrimental for Muslim assimilation because Americans feared Islam due to violence.

142 Barbaric In addition to associating extremists’ negative warmth with all Muslims, many Americans view all Muslims as “barbaric” and intelligently inferior, especially due to media portrayals. (Sides, Gross, 2013). Americans typecasting all Muslims as barbaric is problematic for the majority of moderate Muslims who are against violence. For example, in October 2013, jihadists released a video showing the Syrian Christians they murdered, while yelling “Allah Akbar, ” or “God is the greatest.” Shortly after the video release, a representative of Pakistan, Jamaat ud Dawa, justified the killings at a press conference, “Don’t they know that the Quran orders us to slit the throat of whoever is disrespectful to Allah’s beloved prophet? ” (Ibrahim, 2013). Upon seeing the video online, Americans were outraged; however, the killings were legal in Syria due to Sharia Law fused with government (Ibrahim, 2013). Unfortunately, the death of Christians is not uncommon due to the theocratic government in Syria (Ibrahim, 2013). As mentioned previously, Muslims do not separate Church and State, but rather have a theocracy; however, theocratic governments differ in severity of intolerance due to differing levels of theocracy and democracy (Lindamood, 2009).

Theocracy is a “primitive” type of government since religion is an objective set of rules and cannot be used to legitimize public decisions, resulting in negative associations with theocratic governments (Shaheen, 1997).

Although Americans associate theocracies with negative connotations, Sharia Law considers them the best form of government and not barbaric.

Although many Americans have these stereotypes, there is a notable difference in these between American generations. In 2014, Pew researchers asked Americans to rate a series of religious groups on a “feeling thermometer” from 0, the coldest, to 100, the warmest (Lipka, 2015). Americans ages 65-32, on average, rated Muslims as 32 on the feeling thermometer, while those ages 18-29 rated Muslims as 49 (Lipka, 2015). However, both age groups mostly give Muslims a score below 50, causing the poll to conclude in the overall negative perception of Muslims.

Due to these negative stereotypes of all Muslims, such as negative warmth and barbaric, most Muslims face opposition when immigrating to America. In order to aid Muslim assimilation into American culture, both Muslims and Americans should focus on the positives of each culture rather than the negatives.

Adaptation Although it is not usually associated with the United States, three million Americans are Muslim and about 600 mosques have been built within the last half-century (Kutty, 2006). If Islam continues to grow at the same rate, it will be the second largest religion in America by 2015 (Kutty, 2006). This prediction was almost accurate, since 20 states have Islam as the second largest religion (Lipka, 2015). Many factors contribute to Islam’s unusual, rapid growth rate. Muslim populations tend to have high fertility rates and there has been a decline in infant mortality due to improved economic conditions (Lipka, 2015). The growth of the global Muslim population, however, should not obscure another important demographic trend: the rate of growth among Muslims has been slowing in recent decades and is likely to continue to decline over the next 20 years. This decline can be attributed to Muslim women gaining a better education and urbanization of Islamic countries (Lipka, 2015).

Although the rate of expansion is decreasing, the population of Muslims still continues to grow. A major issue with the increased number of Islamic believers is their assimilation into American society (Nacos & TorrestReyna, 2002). Muslim immigrant assimilation becomes difficult due to political and cultural differences. Although Muslim beliefs go against American Constitutional Law and the freedom of religion, Muslims can preserve their identity in other countries without attempting to change American culture.

Muslim Assimilation Muslim Identity Muslims are taught to spread the faith around the world, thus causing them to choose a Muslim identity over American. A 2011 Muslim American Survey reveals that 56% of American Muslims claim to want to assimilate; however, 49% of American Muslims think of themselves as Muslim before American (Pew Research, 2011). However, the issue with Muslim assimilation is not due to their personal identification, but the desire to change American law. Because America is a country of religious freedom, it is acceptable for all citizens to stay faithful and prideful of their personal beliefs. Although America has a freedom of religion, it does not have freedom to abide by different laws. Muslim extremists, like ISIS, want to replace American law with Sharia, a law that does not coincide with the American Constitution. Primarily Muslim extremists express the desire to alter American law to Sharia, but the vast majority of moderate Muslims are content with American Law as expressed in a 2011 Pew Research Poll (Pew Research, 2011).

As mentioned previously, Sharia teaches those who speak out against Islam are to be punished; as a result, not many Muslims have spoken out to Islamic extremism. However, since the growth of ISIS, moderate Muslims have begun to condemn terrorist attacks more often. Muslims are often quoted in the newspaper, criticizing ISIS’s actions (Obeidallah, 2014). Furthermore, there is a new movement on social media called the “#notinmyname movement” (Obeidallah, 2014). Muslims are posting pictures with the pervious hash tag, differentiating themselves from the ISIS extremists (Obeidallah, 2014). Similar movements have begun to grow, resulting in more moderate Muslims taking a public stance against terrorism.

Through increased speaking out against terrorism, Muslims have become less ostracized by American society. Evidence in Muslim assimilation is seen in their participation in the Democratic party and 48% of Muslims believe they are treated friendly by Americans (Lipka, 2015). Also, like many Christians, 47% of Muslims go to a religious service once a week and 69% consider religion important, compared to the 70% of Christians (Lipka, 2015). Many Muslims have succeeded in assimilating into the American way of life; as a result, Americans need to tolerate their religion.

Assimilation in America Traditional Islam and Islamic culture —in ways ranging from dress codes to arranged marriages—challenge European societal norms; however Americans can learn to tolerate or accept certain aspects of the Muslim culture (Younus, 2011). Muslim assimilation into America cannot only be eased by Muslim adaptation, but also through American tolerance.

American media can change public opinion and acknowledge the nonextremists in order to ease Muslim assimilation into America. Data from Pew 2007 polls claims Muslim-Americans share similar socioeconomic characteristics with the general U.S. population: one fourth have a bachelor’s degree or higher, one fourth live in households with incomes of $75,000 per year or more, and the majority are fluent in English (Pew Research, 2011). Therefore, Muslims are a part of normal American society; however, many Americans still show intolerance to the Muslim population because of violence from extremists and dislike towards Sharia. Professor Faheem Younus experienced intolerance when American women yelled “assimilate’’ to his wife on the street (Younus, 2011). Another Muslim immigrant experienced animosity toward her hijab when a boss told her to take it off or she would be fired (Abdo, 2006). Muslims feel unwelcome and adopt Islamic symbols—like the hijab— as a defense mechanism (Abdo, 2006). Americans view the hijab as demeaning; however, many American Islamic women view the scarf as a symbol of piety, not oppression (Abdo, 2006). For example, an American, Muslim woman states, “After I covered, I changed. I felt I wanted to give people a good impression of Islam. I wanted people to know how happy I am to be Muslim” (Abdo, 2006). If

143 Americans ask Muslims to completely “Americanize” or change all Muslim culture, then the United States will lose the enriching culture it is known for. Once Americans stop generalizing all of Islam, then Muslims will not feel the need to separate themselves, resulting in improved assimilation.

Due to the recent rise in ISIS, many Americans believe Islam is a violent religion. Media coverage of Muslims is most violent and negative, since the extremist Muslims are carrying out gruesome acts of terrorism and sharing it on social media. This wave of extremism in the Middle East needs to be met with outcries from moderate Muslims who want to differentiate themselves from these terrorist acts. What gives Muslims the freedom of religion in America is under attack by the strict Sharia Law ISIS is attempting to impose.

Continuously Fighting Terrorism Although it is important to identify the larger moderate Muslim majority, it is equally important to identify terrorism in the world. In 2011, Hilary Clinton refused to place the terrorist group Boko Haram on the list of foreign terrorist organizations after the group bombed the U.N. headquarters in Abuja (Rogin, 2014). Hilary was urged to place Boko Haram on the list by the Justice department, FBI, and CIA; however, her State department did not comply because it believed Boko Haram was not a significant threat (Rogin, 2014). This decision has led to negative effects including the continual abduction of Nigerian girls (Rogin, 2014). Failure to identify terrorism leads to the growth of terrorist organizations and increased American intolerance (Younus, 2011). Knowing the differences between moderate and extremist Muslims helps identify America’s enemies.

After reviewing Muslim Americans in America, the researcher began to ask the question of whether Americans, more specifically Houstonians, do truly feel negatively towards Muslims, leading me to my two null hypotheses.

Methodology Purpose While studying Americans’ opinions on Muslims, many researchers used methods such as surveys, polls, and analyzing social media. The source sited often in the Review of Related Literature, Pew Research, uses mostly surveys. These surveys vary in the question wording, population size, and how the survey is taken. Although many methods are used, the most popular method for collecting Americans’ feelings towards Muslims is through online surveys distributed nationally. An online, anonymous survey is the easiest way to gain a general consensus towards Muslims and diversify the types of people who respond, at the expense of the small potential population being excluded. While researching for the Review of Related Literature, this researcher noticed how the attitude of Americans to the surveyor was not addressed. With this quantitative study, the researcher wanted to address the attitude towards the surveyor in addition to the answers on the survey so she could examine the different responses, thus developing the following two null hypotheses: First Null Hypothesis: There is no difference in Houstonians’ response rate to a survey when the female interviewer is dressed in traditional Muslim attire versus traditional western attire.

Second Null Hypothesis: There is no difference in Houstonians’ selfreported attitude toward Muslims when the female interviewer is dressed in traditional Muslim attire versus traditional western attire.

This researcher chose the most popular method of methodology by conducting a survey; however, this researcher chose to ask survey questions in person, rather than online. Asking a survey in person allowed

Muslim Assimilation the researcher to experience and observe the response rates to the survey while in American attire versus Muslim attire. This researcher also intended to study whether her type of dress affected the answers people gave on the survey to questions concerning their attitudes towards Muslims.

Participants and Sampling Procedures The population of interest was the general Houston population. Because of the impracticality of taking a random sample of Houstonians, the researcher used the convenience sampling method of approaching people at the Memorial City Mall. As a result, this sampling method results in many problems when making generalizations. Thus, the researcher included the questions on the population’s age and whether they live in Houston.

These questions allowed the researcher to qualify the generalizations and conclusions made while analyzing the data.

The ideal sample would consist of a diverse expanse of ages and all living in Houston. A greater variety of ages would better represent the general Muslim opinion. In contrast, having all participants living in Houston would promote the notion that most Houstonians believe a certain way about Muslims.

Research Design To gather data to test both null hypotheses this researcher studied the Houstonians in Memorial City Mall during two separate Sundays at two o’ clock in the afternoon. The first visit to the mall, the researcher dressed as a traditional American in jeans and a plain grey shirt, while on the second visit, dressed as a traditional American Muslim by wearing a hijab and covered ankles, wrists, and shoulders with dark clothing. To address the first null, the researcher repeated this procedure, while having a fellow researcher count how many times the researcher encountered a participant willing to take the survey versus the number of participants who refused the survey. Both times the researcher confronted shoppers in the food court and asked if they would mind taking a four-question survey, which would address the difference of the general opinion between working with Muslims, friendships with Muslims, and Sharia Law. To test both null hypotheses, a quantitative study was used. This researcher conducted a casual-comparative study where the researcher collected data on one variable across a population of mall shoppers. For the first null, this researcher directly observed the rejection rates while in the two fashions and compared rejection rates. The researcher interviewed mall shoppers in the food court two times. Both times the researcher arrived at 2:00 and left at 3:00 and went on a Sunday. In addition, for the second null, the researcher had a structured interview with a four-question survey; then, compared the survey responses in direct association to dress. This method allows one to compare the response rates and sets of responses in a manner that limits interpretation of emotions. It is difficult to accurately interpret subjects’ emotions, so simply observing Houstonians’ emotional responses would not provide evidence to support or refute the nulls.

A structured interview allowed the researcher to examine the answers to the same questions under the two conditions while controlling variables, such as the wording of the question, which could also result in differences in responses.

Experimental Instrumentation Since both nulls involve quantitative data, a structured, electronic interview was distributed in person at Memorial Mall. The questions on the survey were closed-ended questions, which required a yes or no answer. The only exception was the question asking, “What is your age” in which participants answered numerically. For the first null, a structured interview was rational because one could easily mark whether subjects

144 rejected or accepted the survey. Furthermore, the researcher was able to simply compare the tally sheets recording the response rates while the researcher was dressed in traditional western dress and Muslim dress. For the second null, a structured interview was rational because it was easy to obtain Houstonians’ different reactions to the responses to the survey while the researcher wore the two styles of dress. Thus, the researcher was able to easily evaluate the effects of Muslim dress on Houstonians’ attitude towards Muslims by comparing the opinions shared.

With quantitative research, variables are easily identifiable. The first null’s independent variable was the dress of the interviewer, while the dependent was the willingness to participate in the interviews. The second null had the following variables: Houstonians’ views towards Muslims (dependent) and the way the interviewer is dressed (independent). These variables were measured using a survey the researcher designed. Although the instrument was self-made, the findings were reliable because the interviewer repeated the interviewing process at the same time, place, day of the week, survey, and both times a friend shadowed, taking note of those who rejected the researcher and those who did not.

Data Collection For the first casual-comparative study, a fellow researcher followed the researcher while the researcher asked subjects to participate in a survey. This took place at Memorial City Mall both November 2nd and 16th, 2014 at 2:003:00. This researcher also kept record of the number of times participants accepted or declined participation in the survey.

For the second study, this survey was distributed by walking around Memorial Mall with an iPad. Participants then used the iPad to take the survey. The surveys were collected from 2:00-3:00 on November 2nd and 16th of 2014.

No reminders were given in the process of collecting responses to the survey.

Data Analysis Plan The researcher described the survey by calculating the proportions of particular responses for survey answers. The interviewer conducted a twoproportion z-test in order to test the first and second null hypotheses. The first null was tested under one two-proportion z-test, while the second null utilized three one-proportion z-tests in order to calculate the effect of dress on each individual question.

Ethical Consideration In order to safeguard the privacy of the human subjects, the interviewer stated, “I am doing research for my high school class and I was wondering if you would mind taking a quick, confidential, four-question survey,” when the interviewer approached subjects. Since the population’s opinions may change due to more education on Sharia and Muslims in America, the researcher did not hold the responses against the subjects. Furthermore, the responses remained anonymous.

Bias Since both administrations of the survey were conducted at the same time of day on the same day of the week in the same location, the study design and instrument presented a bias towards those who were not at Memorial City Mall during those times. There was also bias against those who did not speak English and could not understand the interviewer. Furthermore, people with social anxiety did not take the survey since they may prefer not to talk to a stranger.

Muslim Assimilation

145

Assumptions In order to generalize Houstonians’ opinions, the researcher held many assumptions to test the nulls. For example, the researcher assumed the questions on the survey were valid to test my hypothesis and the participants were honest. In addition, the researcher assumed Memorial City Mall provided a good representative sample of Houston.

Limitations Because of limitations on time and resources, the researcher did not study media’s influence on the public’s opinion. With limitations on time, the researcher was unable to interview shoppers on Monday through Saturday and those who came to the mall before or after 2:00-3:00. Also because of time constraints, the researcher had limited time to interview at different locations, narrowing the subject pool. Furthermore, limited time restricted the number of questions on the survey. Because of limited resources, the researcher was unable to have an actual Muslim interview subjects.

Thus, there are too many uncertainties regarding American’s opinions on Muslims, so these aspects of the problem remained outside the researcher’s interest. With unlimited resources and time, the researcher could have taken a larger sample size from different parts of the country in order to receive a greater variety of participants. In addition, the researcher would have liked to have a longer, more in-depth survey in order to gain more insight on participants’ opinions on Muslims.

Findings Sample In total, the researcher obtained 146 responses. The survey showed that participants who answered the age blank were 12 to 72 years old. Most respondents were middle-aged male and majority of the sample were Hispanics. 81% of participants lived in Houston and all participants were visiting the Memorial Mall food court during 2:00-3:00 on November 2nd or 16th.

Survey Findings/Interviews/Observations After the questions over the sample’s background information, the response rate and next three questions on the survey provided information for testing on the first and second null. For the fist null, the researcher calculated the response rate percentage. In traditional American attire, the interviewer was rejected 28% of the time participants where asked to take a survey, while in traditional Muslim attire, 47% of participants denied taking the survey. See figure 1.

Figure 1 The answers to the survey questions addressed the second null hypothesis.

There were 94 total respondents. While dressed in traditional American dress, the researcher found that 69% of Houstonians were friends with Muslims and 89% would not mind working with Muslims; but in traditional Islamic dress, the researcher found 65% of Houstonians were friends with Muslims and 86% would not mind working with a Muslim.

When asked about Sharia Law in America, 85% of Houstonians opposed it in America while the researcher was dressed in American clothing. In Muslim attire, only 44% of participants opposed Sharia Law in America.

While obtaining this data, the researcher noticed memorable answers and observations. While recording the number of times rejected, the researcher and fellow researcher noticed similarities dressed in American and Muslim attire: most respondents were uneducated about Sharia Law, there was a language barrier, and Muslim men often answered for their wives.

In American attire, many mall shoppers were willing to take the survey, and if they where unwilling, they let the researcher finish the introductory question asking whether they would mind taking a survey. Those who did answer the survey often held additional conversations. In particular, one white, older male gave the interviewer his phone with e-mail about Sharia and Muslim violence. The email was fairly valid in its information. Dressed as a Muslim, the researcher experienced hostility when mall shoppers would not make eye contact and not let the interviewer finish asking the introductory question. The fellow researcher noted many negative looks directed towards the researcher, especially from Hispanics. Although the general rejection rate was higher in Muslim attire, more Muslims were willing and excited to answer the survey.

In order to test the second null, the researcher compared the responses to questions obtained while in American dress and Muslim dress. The interviewer’s dress had no notable effect on the second survey question regarding friendships with Muslims. See figure 3.

Muslim Assimilation

146 In contrast to the second and third survey question, the researcher noticed a difference in response to question 4 between the two styles of dress.

While the researcher was dressed as a Muslim, Muslims were more likely to answer yes to the question regarding Sharia in America. See figure 5.

Figure 3 Furthermore, when participants answered the question, “would you mind working with a Muslim,” three out of the 11 affirmative responses, while the researcher was dressed as a Muslim, mentioned they meant to select “no” and claimed they where “not racist.” See figure 4.

Figure 5 Analysis In order to statistically analyze the responses from the survey, the researcher performed a two-proportion z-test. For the fist null hypothesis—no difference in Houstonians’ response rate—the researcher performed a twoportion z test to determine if Houstonians’ response rate varied depending on the researcher’s dress. The p-value was 0.01, which is less than .05, leading the researcher to reject the null. The research concluded that Houstonians’ are less willing to answer a survey from a Muslim than an American.

For the second null hypothesis—no difference in Houstonians’ self-reported attitude—the researcher performed three two-portion z tests to determine if the (1) friendships with Muslims, (2) attitudes towards working with a Muslim, and (3) opinions on Sharia in America varied on the interviewer’s dress. The p-value in the first experiment was 0.00; the p-value in the second experiment, 0.96; the p-value in the third experiment, 0.00. The p-values of the first and third experiment where less than 0.05, causing the researcher to reject the null in regards to friendship with Muslims and opinion on Sharia in America. However, the p-value of the second experiment was greater than 0.05, causing the researcher to retain the null.

In other words, the researcher’s dress affected the participants’ answers for the questions regarding working with a Muslim and Sharia Law, but the interviewer’s dress did not affect the answers to the question regarding attitude towards working with a Muslim.

Figure 4

Muslim Assimilation In summary, the first null hypothesis was rejected, leading the researcher to accept the alternative hypothesis that there is a difference in Houstonians’ response rate to a survey when the researcher is dressed in traditional American dress versus traditional Islamic dress. Next, the second null hypothesis was divided into three parts: friendship with Muslims, attitude towards working with a Muslim, and opinion on Sharia Law in America.

Attitudes about friendship with Muslims and opinion on Sharia Law in America varied based on the dress of the interviewer. In contrast, attitude towards working with a Muslim did not change when the interviewer dressed in Muslim vs. American attire.

Discussion As previously stated, America’s public opinion of Muslims is based upon negative stereotypes, stemming mostly from media interpretations of the Muslim population (Sides & Gross, 2013). Although numerous tests have been conducted determining Americans’ attitude towards Muslims, the researcher wanted to directly compare the attitude toward Muslims as expressed to a person in an American dress versus the attitude toward a Muslims as expressed to a person in a hijab. The researcher analyzed three different aspects in the differences in Americans’ attitudes towards: friendships, work environment, Sharia, as well as exploring the differences in willingness to participate in a survey.

Attitude Towards Muslim Dress In the review of related literature, the researcher concluded most Americans believe Muslim dress was oppressive on women. Many Americans believe Islamic women’s dress is oppressive because it is associated with the lack of advances in women’s roles and limited education in the Islamic world (Sherry, 2010). Despite the fact that many Muslim women see their dress as a sign of piety rather than oppression, too many Americans still view Muslim women’s dress negatively (Chorine, 2014).

The researcher aimed to measure the negative views held by Americans by visiting the mall two separate times in two separate outfits: traditional Western and Islamic attire. In summary, the rejection of the first null determines dress does affect rejection rates. Thus, fewer Houstonians were willing to participate when the researcher was in Muslim dress. These results would support evidence of American’s negative attitudes toward Muslims as stated by previous researchers. With a mainly American populated sample, the researcher concluded that Muslim dress was different and odd. Moreover, media plays an impactful role in Americans’ lives, thus the recent violent reporting’s of ISIS could have given Houstonians a negative impression of Islam. A combination of bias reports and barbaric Islamic extremism causes negative Muslim impressions.

The results or the test can impact policy and future research. Americans need to hear about moderate Muslim views, rather than just extremists.

Extremists give their voice through numerous terrorist acts, while moderate Muslims stay silent. One way moderate Muslim opinions can become more prominent is through political involvement. In the future, other researchers can study the amount of education on Islamic religion and Muslim culture Americans have.

Attitude Towards Muslim Friendships As mentioned in the Review of Related Literature, the researcher concluded that Muslims are taught to spread the faith around the world, thus causing them to choose a Muslim identity over American. This belief causes Americans to view Muslims as outcasts in society (Abdo, 2006).

Nevertheless, the researcher’s findings provided evidence contrary to this statement. In American dress, 69% of participants were more likely

147 to admit they are friends with a Muslim. Having diverse friends could potentially cause participants to feel more worldly knowledgeable and tolerant. In Muslim dress, only 65% of participants were willing to admit friendship with a Muslim. This possibly due to the fact that participants were confronted by a interviewer dressed as a Muslim and do not want to come off as deceitful or ignorant if the researcher questioned them about their friend’s faith and they did not know how to answer.

Attitude Towards Working with Muslims In further studying the difference in Houstonians’ attitudes and reaction towards Muslims, the researcher analyzed the difference in Houstonians’ attitude towards Muslims in the work place when the interviewer was in the two states of dress. Based on the Review of Related Literature, the researcher predicted Americans to have a less welcoming view of Muslims in the work place (Chorine, 2014). Contrary to what the researcher expected, Houstonians’ attitude toward working with a Muslim did not change based on the interviewer’s dress. Possible reasons for this outcome are due to a desire for diversity in the workplace. Employers, in addition to universities, schools, and government, are emphasizing diversity.

Employers’ desire for diversity partially stems from wanting the company to seem welcoming in order to attract a variety of customers (Abdo, 2006).

Those who work are likely to want more business in order to increase wages; therefore, many participants would not mind working with a Muslim.

Attitude Towards Sharia Law In addition to dress, friendship, and work environment, the Review of Related Literature mentioned Sharia Law. As previously stated, Sharia Law, or the “law of Islam,” is a part of many Middle Eastern legal systems because it derives from the teachings of Muhammad and the Quran (Skerry, 2010).

Americans view Sharia as “barbaric” and “unequal,” especially in its treatment of women (Nacos & Torrest-Reyna, 2002). The researcher’s last survey question studied the difference in opinion about Sharia Law while the interviewer was dressed in the two states of dress. In summary, the second null hypothesis was retained in regards to Sharia Law, unlike the work environment part for the null hypothesis, which was rejected. Many participants were uneducated on Sharia Law, and based their opinions off of the researcher’s explanation. Although some participants may have been uneducated, some were aware of Sharia, but still wanted to maintain a nation-wide constitution. One reason there was a significant difference in responses when comparing the two states of dress was because Muslims felt more comfortable showing their loyalty to Sharia when questioned by a fellow Muslim. In addition, those who were uneducated about Sharia most likely felt uncomfortable disagreeing with Muslim law with a Muslim.

Rejecting and retaining certain aspects all addressed modern-day issues and resulted in various areas to study regarding Muslims in America.

Throughout my research, many Muslims seemed more comfortable to answer a survey while the researcher was dressed as a Muslim. Americans, however, seems wary when the researcher approached them in the same dress. In American dress, the attitudes switched: Americans were accepting while Muslims were wearier. The divide between Americans and Muslims was prevalent simply with the differing attitudes regarding dress.

Remaining Questions In the Review of Related Literature, the researcher analyzed and reported on the patriarchal society the Muslim faith, more specifically Sharia Law, encourages. The Quran calls for patriarchy in heaven when it states “Men are the maintainers of women because Allah has made some of them to excel others and because they spend out of their property’’ (Quran, 4:34) Similarly, the Christian faith encourages a patriarchal environment when

Muslim Assimilation it states in Ephesians 5:22-23; “Wives, submit yourselves to your own husbands as you do to the Lord. For the husband is the head of the wife as Christ is the head of the church, his body, of which he is the Savior.”

Although both religions call women to submit to men, the Muslim faith actively punishes women who do not follow this ideology. Modern-day Christianity, however, does not endorse this concept as strictly, but the patriarchy in Christian and Muslim households is not unique.

This idea of a woman submitting to man has been reflected in American society for decades, as seen with lower wages, lack of voting rights, and inability to own property. The ideology of women’s suffrage truly ignited during the Industrial Revolution, when new ideas and concepts were being spread. Women in the Victorian Era were seen for purely domestic purposes, and many women wanted equality. Women began to protest in order to gain equal representation and were eventually granted the right to vote with the passing of the 19th Amendment in 1919. Since then, women have begun to push for more equal rights.

Rise of Feminism Although much progress has been made with women’s rights, there are still many inequalities and discriminations. A 2010 study conducted for Springer’s Journal of Law and Human Behavior concluded that 90% of women have suffered sexual discrimination in the workplace, including offensive, sexist remarks, or being told they could not do a job properly due to their gender (Reader, 2012). In addition, women are tremendously underrepresented in politics. In the Senate, there are currently 17 women and 83 men; in Congress, 76 women and 362 men (Reader, 2012). These discriminations, amongst others, cause the feminist movement to continue throughout the 21st century.

Often, people believe feminism is an extremist, male hating movement; but in actuality, it is dedicated to ensuring fairness and equality to both genders, rather than regarding one superior to the other (Reader, 2012).

According to feminist, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, feminism is “a person who believes in the social, political, and economic equality of the sexes” (Hapsis, 2013). Feminist includes anyone—male or female— who believes the world would be better if men and women had a mutual respect and appreciation for each other (Hapsis, 2013).

One direct result from the growing feminist movement is the increase of never married mothers. Once largely limited to poor women and minorities, single motherhood is now becoming the new “norm” in America’s increasingly matriarchal society (“Single Mother Statistics”).

There are 10 million single moms, due in part to the growing trend of children born outside marriage — a societal trend that was virtually unheard of decades ago, for two main reasons: the increase of feminism and welfare. Many of these single moms are single by choice, and are not alone, according to the SMC or Single Mothers by Choice website. The website states, “A single mother by choice is a woman willing to take the initiative…

[And] in the absence of a good partnership, and with the rate of divorce as high as it is, we feel that being raised by a caring and competent single parent is definitely a viable option.”

This feminism created single working moms with no male needed for help. The SMC in America is completely independent from all forms of assistance, including welfare from the government. Single mothers can have children through adoption, artificial insemination, and surrogacy.

In contrast, many single moms as a result of natural pregnancies depend on a form of income beside themselves. 45.8% of single mothers received food stamps and 11% received TANF or Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (“Single Mother Statistics”). The government has begun to replace the male head of the household, resulting in a different version of a matriarchal society: one where women are not completely independent.

148 Decrease in Religious Influence The increase trend of matriarchy can be attributed to the decrease in religious fervor in the United States. As stated previously, religion often supports a more patriarchal society; however, religion is losing its influence in America. In 2011, the Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life polled church leaders from around the world. Evangelical ministers from the United States reported a greater loss of influence than church leaders from any other country — with some 82% indicating their movement was losing ground, partially due the ministers’ inability to adapt well to rapid shifts in American culture. Americans have begun to view evangelicals as a threat to cultural progresses like acceptance of same-sex marriages (Spencer, 2009). Because of the unpopularity of many traditional religious beliefs, 77% of Americans in 2013 believed religion is losing its influence (Newport, 2013). Because of a lack of religious influence, feminism and women’s independence are more widely accepted.

The outcomes of an increasingly matriarchal society are not all independent feminists, but also women dependent on welfare. In 1964, President Lyndon Banes Johnson signed the Economic Opportunity Act, or the Great Society, beginning the welfare system where women would apply for government welfare if they had children and no husband or means of income (Looney, 2005). Before the 60’s, 94% of white women and 87% of African American were likely to marry; however, after The Great Society in 1964, marriage rates dropped to 86% for white women and 61% for African American women (Shino, 1994). Today, less than half of middleaged Americans marry. Evidence suggests women began to have more outof-wedlock births in order to receive government benefits, resulting in a dependency society (Shino, 1994).

Although some single mothers take advantage of the government, most are separated, divorced, or widowed, working more hours and yet have higher poverty rates than single mothers in other high-income countries (Looney, 2005). Without a husband, many single mothers do not have high-income jobs due to childbearing responsibility. The United States has many low-income jobs, which is the job level most single mothers qualify for (Looney, 2005). Prior to social welfare reform in 1996, for every 100 children living in poverty, only 68 received assistance. By 2010, only 20 children out of the 100 received assistance (Shino, 1994). Now, 10.2% of Black Americans were welfare dependent, compared to 5.7% of Hispanics and 2.2% of non-Hispanic Whites (Shino, 1994). In conclusion, social welfare can be very beneficial to single mothers; however, some never married single mothers attempt to take advantage of the government’s welfare, causing single mothers who need the money to have difficulty obtaining it.

Since industrialization, women activists have been more persistent gaining equality to men, giving rise to the feminist movement. Due to the rise of the feminist movement and modern-day dissent from religion, American society is trending towards a more matriarchal society. This society examines the two extremes of feminist single mothers, or single mothers dependent on welfare; however, there are single mothers who do not fit into either category. The single mother population is rising in America, forcing politicians to acknowledge them.

Conclusion With great differences in politics and culture, Muslims and Americans often clash in government policies. In the Review of Related Literature, the researcher reported that each society gains influence from different origins: Middle Eastern from the Muslim faith and Americans from Judeo-Christian beliefs. As a result of these differences, there are differing opinions and stereotypes for both cultures; but, as people immigrate into new cultures, ideologies are mixed and altered. Some traditionalists see this melding of ideologies as a threat to preservation of a pure culture.

Muslim Assimilation Muslims are then left with the conflicting beliefs of compromise and staying true to traditional beliefs. As reported above, most Muslims choose to compromise culture, and maintain the main tenants of Islam. Although most Muslims consider themselves moderate, many Americans believe that all Muslims believe in a purely violent religion. This misrepresentation from Muslim extremists results in hostility towards all Muslims.

Cultures will continue to clash, but they result in mixtures of ideas; and by learning to communicate and compromise, differing cultures can prevent violence. In the Methodology, the Researcher found that there are different in response rates to survey questions when the Researcher dresses in American attire versus Muslim attire. Islamic dress had a negative impact on response rates and two of three question answers were also affected by dress. The Researcher then concluded that generally, Americans have a stigma against Muslims. Lastly, the Researcher analyzed the potential rise in matriarchy due to the welfare policies created by President Johnson in his “Great Society” and two possible outcomes of a matriarchal society: a feminist society or a dependency society.

Biblical Connection When comparing Christianity and Islam, the religious beliefs clash.

The contrasting beliefs show peaceful coexistence to be a utopia: ideal, but unrealistic. For example, Romans 12:20-21 states, “If your enemy is hungry, feed him; if he is thirsty, give him something to drink; for by so doing you will heap burning coals on his head.” Do not be overcome by evil, but overcome evil with good.” Instead of forming negative stereotypes, Christians are called to “kill them with kindness” and their enemies’ guilt will be their punishment. On the contrary, Muslims are called to “kill them wherever you find them, and turn them out from where they have turned you out. And Al-Fitnah [disbelief] is worse than killing” (Quran 2:191-3).

The Quran classifies letting nonbelievers live as more sinful than killing them; in contrast, the Bible calls nonbelievers to Christ, and if they do not believe, they will face suffering in eternity. Modern-day Christians believe forcing people to follow their beliefs is wrong; however, Muslims see it as justified. It is highly improbable all Muslims and Christians can live in harmony since strict Islamic followers believe in the elimination of other religions.

149 In addition to intolerance to other beliefs, the Quran promotes violence in response to opposition, while the Bible promotes passiveness. Conflicting beliefs cause continual tension and eventual violence; as a result, coexistence challenging. The Bible states in Matthew 5:39: “you have heard that it was said, ‘An eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth.’’ But I say to you, do not resist the one who is evil. But if anyone slaps you on the right cheek, turn to him the other also.” Christians do not believe in retaliation or violence for the most part, Christians are called to trust God has a plan for any pain and suffering. In contrast, the Quran (2:191-193) states: “And slay them wherever ye catch them, and turn them out from where they have turned you out; for tumult and oppression are worse than slaughter; but fight them not at the Sacred Mosque, unless they (first) fight you there; but if they fight you, slay them. Such is the reward of those who suppress faith.” The verse is promoting “offensive warfare” or being the first to attack when there is opposition. Strict followers of the Quran believe offensive resistance to nonbelievers is the right reaction, but passive Christians think violent opposition is wrong. Stable peace is improbable; however, the religions have fundamental similarities making coexistence possible. Both religions believe in one God and love for one’s neighbor. The Quran states: “We believe in God, and the revelation given to us, and to Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, and the Tribes… We make no difference between on, and another of them: And we submit to God” (Quran 2:136).”

Many Muslims choose to follow the less extreme reaction to nonbelievers: love. Both Christians and Muslims unite under their understanding of a single God and how all humans derive from this God. This mutual belief gives a sense of unity rather than a reason to fight.

In conclusion, it is impossible for these religions to always peacefully coexist due to direct contrasts in beliefs. The Bible teaches helping one’s enemy and passive resistance, while the Quran teaches killing one’s enemy and actively opposing non-believers. However, both religions have two of the same fundamental principals: love of one God, and love of the neighbor. Muslims and Christians together make up well over half of the world’s population. Without peace and justice between these two religious communities, there can be no meaningful peace in the world. The future of the world depends on peace between Muslims and Christians.

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Biotechnology and Its Effects on Sports Competition and Quality of Life of Amputee Victoria Grace Baltazar

Biotechnology And Sports

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Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 History of Prosthetics to the Modern Era. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Post Renaissance to Modern Age. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Skeletal Muscle Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Brain and Muscle Connection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Bionic Limbs in Sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Amputee’s Need for Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Paralympics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Development of Prosthetic Materials and Engineering. . . . . . . . 160 Swimming Prosthetics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Prosthetic Duality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Flexibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Brain Interfacing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Future Prosthetics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Closed Loop Prosthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Impact on Sports Competition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Oscar Pistorius: Evidence of Enhancement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Technology’s Relationship with Sport Improvement. . . . . . . . . . 162 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Purpose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Population & Sampling Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Research Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Experiment Manipulation/Interventions/Instrumentation . . . . 163 Data Collection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Data Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Ethical Consideration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Sample. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Survey Findings/Interviews/Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

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Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Findings on use of prosthetics and activity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Findings on age and degree of amputation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Findings on affect of health care. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Implications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Remaining Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Artificial Intelligence as seen in Film. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Modern Artificial Intelligence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Robotic Ethics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Biblical Connection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Appendix I: Survey Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Appendix II: Survey Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Appendix III: Case Study Comparison Form. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

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Abstract

This Researcher examined how the improvement of biotechnology and prosthetics have altered the field of sports and have led to the improvement of the quality of life of amputees. There was a direct correlation with amputee’s quality of life and physical activity made possible by use of prosthetics. The Researcher preformed a comparative case study of Quality of Life reports from the United State, Canada, Turkey, Croatia, and Nigeria finding no quantifiable improvement based solely on the use of prosthetics, but rather a combination of factors. The Researcher also tested a null hypothesis: Medical professionals in the Texas Medical Center predict there will no chance in the quality of life of prosthetic recipients caused by the Affordable Care Act (ACA).

The Researcher sampled orthopedic medical staff from the Texas Medical Center area finding medical staff predicted the ACA would have a negative effect on prosthetic availability in the future. This research led the Researcher to also examine the development of artificial intelligence based on its presentation in film, specifically looking at the films 2001: Space Odyssey, The Matrix, and Chappie, as well as the ethical issues these films raised. Research concluded that despite the negative presentation of Artificial Intelligence in film, AIs have become a powerful and integrated into people’s everyday lives.

Biotechnology And Sports

Human beings are social animals. People interact with each other in many sophisticated activities requiring the use of their entire bodies. Since the beginning of time, people have had birth deformities, mutilating accidents or degenerative illnesses that limit their ability to function in society. Man’s need to perform tasks has lead to creative, yet, rudimentary solutions known as early prosthetic devices. The oldest know prosthetic device is a 3000-year-old leather and wooden toe in found Cairo, Egypt (Thurston, 2007). As technology has advanced throughout the ages, these devices have evolved into modern marvels pushing the boundaries of science.

Today’s prosthetic devices are complex, involving multiple disciplines to construct. Hugh Herr, a triple amputee and rock-climbing enthusiast, has worked with MIT to create a prosthetic that can be controlled with a simple thought and functions just as a natural limb would (Herr, 2014).

These technologies not only give man the capability to preform daily tasks to complex and sophisticated activities but also allow man to return to an interactive lifestyle. Physical activity is important for humans both physically and psychologically. Sports competition creates a strong community based on similar interest and ability. Modern day prosthetics allow for amputees to compete in sports combining social and physical recovery.

History of Prosthetics to the Modern Era Ancient literature contains references to prosthetic limbs in stories and poems, but some of the earliest historical accounts of prosthetic limb use were recorded in Greek and Roman times. For instance, there is the historical account of Marcus Sergius, a Roman general who lost his right hand while battling in the second Punic War. He had a replacement hand fashioned out of iron for the purpose of holding his shield and was able to return to battle and continue fighting (Clements, 2014). In the year 2000, researchers in Cairo, Egypt unearthed what they believe to be the oldest documented artificial body part -- a prosthetic toe made of wood and leather, as mentioned earlier. The device was found attached to a 3,000-year-old mummified noblewoman and provides an image of how prosthetic limbs have barely changed throughout most of history (Thurston, 2007). With the exception of very recent times, prosthetic devices have been constructed of basic materials, such as wood and metal, and held to the body with leather fastenings. In the Medieval times, the rise of metal workers allowed for the creation of iron prosthetic limbs.

Knights of the Dark Ages in need of prosthetics often went to the same blacksmith who forged their armor. These limbs were not functional and were meant to hide the lost limb, which was considered at the time to be an embarrassing deformity (Clements, 2014). Since it was not socially acceptable to have a deformity such as a missing limb, the science and advancement of prosthetics halted.

Post Renaissance to Modern Age In the early part of the 16th century, French military doctor Ambroise Paré, also famous for his work with amputation techniques, contributed some of the first major advances in prosthetics seen for many years. Paré invented a hinged mechanical hand as well as prosthetic legs featuring advances such as locking knees and specialized attachment harnesses (Thurston, 2007). Around 1690, a Dutch surgeon, Pieter Verduyn, later developed lower leg prosthesis with specialized hinges and a leather cuff for improved attachment to the body (Clements, 2014). Amazingly, many of the advances contributed by these two doctors are still common features of modern day prosthetic devices.

It was not only the advancement of prosthetics materials with devices enhancing their use, but also the medicine and surgeries available at the time. With the advent of gaseous anesthesia in the 1840s, doctors could perform longer, more meticulous amputation surgeries, allowing them to operate on the limb stump to prepare it for interfacing with a prosthetic

159 (Clements). Advances in sterile, germ free surgeries also improved the success rate of amputation procedures, increasing the need for prosthetic limbs (Clements, 2014). As artificial limbs became more common, advances in areas such as joint technology and suction-based attachment methods continued to advance the field of prosthetics. Notably, in 1812, a prosthetic arm was developed that could be controlled by the opposite shoulder with connecting straps -- somewhat similar to how brakes are controlled on a bike (Thurston, 2007). As a response to the influx of veteran amputees from World War II in 1945, The National Academy of Sciences established the Artificial Limb Program to advance scientific progress in artificial limb development (Clements, 2014). Since this time, advances in areas such as materials, computer design methods and surgical techniques have helped prosthetic limbs to become increasingly lifelike and functional. As a result, the focus then moved from basic mechanics to the understanding of electrical currents in the human body and how the brain, nerves, and muscles interact to produce voluntary motion (Clements, 2014). Because of better surgical techniques and technology; as well as a disappearing social stigma towards amputees, prosthetics are much more advanced in the 21st century. The biological understanding of how muscles function and how the brain controls muscles has paralleled the increasing technology of prosthetic devices.

Skeletal Muscle Function Not much thought is given to the complexity with which skeletal muscles work. These muscles are connected to the skeleton and allow for movement.

On a basic level, muscle segments relax and contract to create movement of limbs; however, much more is involved in this simple action than there appears to be. The theory well accepted in the scientific community to explain how muscles function is the Muscle Sliding Filament theory, where the filaments in the muscles slide to contract and relax.

Before one can understand the chemical reaction of the muscle contraction, one must understand the composition of skeletal muscles. Each muscle is composed of long cylindrical muscle fibers containing myofibrils, even smaller fibers. Each myofibril is divided into sections lengthwise called sarcomeres. Within each sarcomere there are two types of strands, myosin and actin, arranged so there are strands of myosin between the actin and vise versa (Netter). Surrounding each actin strand are the proteins tropomyosin and troponin, which act as insulation between the actin and myosin. On the heads of the myosin strands are broken ATP molecules, which are stored with energy (Hall, 2011). The sarcoplasmic reticulum surrounds the sarcomeres and is studded with calcium ion pumps. These pumps create an electrochemical gradient around the muscle strands by keeping calcium ions outside of the sarcomeres (Harvey, 2011).

The trigger for muscle contraction comes from motor neurons connected to each muscle. When a signal is sent from the brain to move a muscle, electric energy travels down the motor neurons to the muscle synapse, the portion of the neuron connected to the muscle, then to muscles through special membranes known as t-tubles (Hall, 2011). T-tubles are connected to the sarcomere and pass on the action energy, opening the calcium ion channels allowing the calcium into the sarcomere (Netter). Once the ions enter, they bond with the troponin and rotate on the actin strands revealing a bonding sight for the myosin strands to connect to (Hall, 2011).

The broken ATP attached to the myosin heads release energy causing the myosin arms to move and pull the actin strands closer together, in other words, causing a contraction (Harvey, 2011).

For muscles to return to a relaxed state, another ATP molecule must bond with the heads of myosin, making them release the actin strands.

The calcium ions are released from the troponin, which slide back into place on the actin forming a barrier once more. The calcium ions are then pumped out of the sarcomere via ion pump and await the next signal from the motor neurons (Harvey, 2011). The muscle filament model helps

Biotechnology And Sports

engineers and prosthetic designers to visualize what a prosthetic must do in order to imitate a natural leg. Another challenge arises when engineers must design a way to control this device naturally, which has led to more studies of the connection between the brain and muscles of the body.

Brain and Muscle Connection In the 1786, Luigi Galvani discovered tissues have electrical excitability after he touched a dead frog’s leg with a metal knife and the leg moved. In 1792, Alessandro Volta corrected his initial assumption the frog leg and the knife created the electric current when it was really the knife and the metal tray the frog was lying on. Despite this correction, tissues are known to have some electrical properties due to the electron excitability (Health and Wellness Systems Inc., 2007). A century later, Penfield and Boldrey discovered how the brain views the body, otherwise known a spatial map and how it interacts with the motor cortex of the brain. In 1960, the principles of electrical excitability and spatial mapping were combined to develop the phrenic nerve stimulator (Nicolelis, 2008). These devices interact directly with the human nervous system and have now been widely accepted into the field of medicine (Isaacs Weber & Schwartz, 2000). The development of medicine and technology led up to the first cortical micro stimulator being successfully implanted in monkeys in 1998, mimicing the sensory perception of flutter in animals (Nicolelis, 2008). Knowledge of how the brain functions and views the body allows scientist to create technology that can help humans reawaken and control certain parts of their brain, which in turn control their body.

Neurons work through micro electrical currents otherwise known as action potential. This action potential travels along the nerve cell to the synapsis with the muscle or terminal organ (Harvey, 2011). An intracortical microstimulation (ICMS) is a device used to stimulate parts of the brain with small electric pulses mimicking action potential and stimulating a specific part of the body. The potency of the response depends on the intensity of the electrical current and the size of the stimulation area (Nicolelis, 2008). ICMS devices provide a means of controlling the brain without having to directly open the skull and stimulate portions of the brain by hand. These devices lead to solutions improving the lives of patients without control over portions of their brains or certain parts of their body.

After gaining an understanding of the evolution of prosthetics and functions of the body pertaining to sensory reception and muscle control, the Researcher asks the question: How does biotechnology alter an athlete’s performance, particularly swimming, and what impact will this technology have on sports and competition in the future?

Bionic Limbs in Sports Amputee’s Need for Exercise

160 and sport participation. In general, sports had a beneficial effect on the cardiopulmonary system, psychological wellbeing, social reintegration and physical functioning of the amputees. Younger individuals with unilateral transtibial amputations achieved better athletic performance and encountered fewer problems when participating in sports compared with older individuals with bilateral amputations (Bragaru, Dekker, Geertzen & Dijkstra, 2011). Sports should be included in rehabilitation programs and individuals with limb amputation should be encouraged to pursue a physically active life following hospital discharge (Bragaru et al., 2011). Although physical activity can lead to a healthier lifestyle, patients may have difficulty adjusting to an activity with a prosthetic device.

Paralympics In order to support amputee’s need for exercise, early foundations such as the International Wheelchair & Amputee Sports Federation (IWAS) were founded. These organizations provided equipment and community to amputees as well as hope for an improved lifestyle (Paralympics, 2014).

Initially, IWAS began as two separate organizations: The International Stoke Mandeville Wheelchair Sports Federation (ISMWSF) and the International Sports Organization for the Disabled (ISOD) (Paralympics, 2014). In 1960, ISMWSF created the first ever Paralympic Games focusing on spinal chord paralyzed wheelchair athletes. ISOD, responsible for blind athletes as well as amputees joined ISMWSF in 1976. Throughout the 1970s, the increased awareness of cerebral palsy lead to a foundation of it’s own (Paralympic). IWAS understood they needed to create an investigative inter-federation committee that operated on the international level leading to the creation of the International Coordinating Committee, which determined the need to expand and include representatives from all nations that had disability sports programs and include athletes in decisions of the Paralympic government, leading the International Paralympics Committee (IPC) (Paralympics, 2014). Governance over the Paralympic Games transferred from IWAS to the IPC in 1993, by then the games included 2,877 athletes representing 83 countries in 15 events. The most recent Paralympic Games included 4,302 athletes with physical or visual impairment and intellectual disability hailing from 291 countries compete in 20 events depending on disability (Paralympic). The games have also emphasized the participants’ athletic achievement rather than disability.

Development of Prosthetic Materials and Engineering Due to the growing need for amputees to have an active lifestyle and the popularization of sports for the disabled, researchers endeavor to create prosthetics capable of handling such tasks. Prosthetics devices have developed from rudimentary contraptions to sleek, sophisticated devices. Modern developments of prosthetic composition, comfort, and functionality improve amputees’ lives tenfold.

For amputees to reintegrate into society, they must find a prosthetic device that allows them to exercise and remain healthy. In a study from Bethesda, Maryland, the Hangar Orthopedic Group emphasized the need for the physician to be actively involved in the prosthetic device selection process.

By asking probing questions about the patient’s pre-amputation lifestyle and post-amputation goals, physician can prescribe a prosthesis which best fits the patients needs. Physicians, patients and the multidisciplinary team can work together to pursue the most complete prosthetic coverage possible for the user. This approach can be the difference between the patient being restored to a satisfying, mobile life or being limited to a restricted, stagnant life (Burkett, 2010).

Materials of this century such as carbon fiber and silicon are the first steps to creating better prosthetic devices. Carbon fiber was first developed by the aerospace industry and has been used in everything from hockey sticks to artificial limbs. It is able to support heavy loads while remaining light and flexible (Marks & Michael, 2001). American research and amputee, Van Phillips, developed a prosthetic foot design based on carbon fiber springs (Marks & Michael, 2001). Along with carbon fiber, silicon has been another useful material in the development of prosthetics where silicon elastomers are widely used to fit prosthetic devices to the residual limb. Due to its spongy resilience, silicon provides support as well as cushioning cause of its physical properties; silicon also plays a role in prosthetic comfort (Marks and Michael, 2001).

Once amputees have the ability to exercise, they should find a prosthetic that best fits their physical needs. In 2011, researchers in the Netherlands reviewed 47 medical reports assessing individuals with limb amputations

Instead of old, ill-fitting wooden blocks, researchers today aim to make the socket of the prosthetics as comfortable and functional as possible.

Per Branemark, a Swedish physician, developed a surgical technique

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to permanently anchor the prosthetic to the bone of the residual limb.

Branemark procedure eliminates the need for a comfortable socket.

However, patients need to go through a two state surgery to attach the titanium implant. This procedure is ideally for younger individuals, who often have traumatic amputations (Mark & Michael, 2001). For the rest of the population, a team of designers from across the nation came together to create a compression/release-stabilized socket or a CRS socket. The team makes a mold around the residual limb and makes precise, vertical indentions in the mold in order to maximize motion of the prosthetics from just a little bit of effort (Alley et al, 2011). So while remaining comfortable, CRS sockets are also efficient and functional.

in prosthetic duality. The “Murr-ma” device is one of the first of its kind in transitioning between walking and swimming. Once in the water, the fins located at the top of the prosthesis channel the water flow alongside the carbon fiber backbone, providing the wearer with the necessary thrust to move through the surf. The split toe foot guarantees maximum stability on uneven ground as well as minimum water resistance (Essil, Johnson, Machida, & Rocca, 2013). Although the idea and functionality of the prosthesis is unique, it is still a motionless device as there is no joint at the ankle.

Lastly, prosthetic functionality has improved from remaining an immobile placeholder to functioning like a natural limb. In 1993, Flex-Foot also designed a spring loaded shock absorber, much like what natural knees provide for able-bodied people (Marks & Michael, 2001). Instead of amputees having to hold their prosthetic knee at full extension resulting in an unnatural gait, a UK company, Blatchford, created the “bouncy knee,” a prosthesis that stabilized the knee with a friction brake when applied weight to was applied (Marks & Michael, 2001). Ossur, a leading producer of technologically advanced prosthetics based in Iceland, developed the Rheo knee which uses a microprocessor-controlled magnet field to control the viscosity of an oil and iron mixture in the knee to provide life like resistance (Evans-Pughe, 2006). More and more prosthetics are designed to act like natural limbs to capture mother nature’s most efficient design.

Technological developments play a large role in improving prosthetics; however, all the prosthetics discussed are for walking or some form of physical activity on land and not aquatic friendly.

A research project from the Graduate School of Science and Engineering at the Tokyo Institute of Technology proved the need for a non-fixated ankle joint in prosthetics that could provide a more efficient propulsive kick while swimming. They studied a mobile prosthesis focusing on the ankle joint in four different positions and measured the speed at which the swimmer moved in a 25 meter pool with each position (Nakashima et al., 2013). The first experiment had the ankle joint in a fixed flexed position; the second included the addition of a short spring for some flexibility; the third, a large spring for more flexibility; the last, no restriction. The most efficient of the four positions tested was the second, which used a small spring providing an average swim speed of 1.27 m/s and the slowest was the first, the fixed flexed position averaging a swim speed of 0.98 m/s (Nakashima et al., 2013). This study validates the need for the development of a prosthesis that includes a flexible ankle joint.

Swimming Prosthetics Thanks to modern mechanical prosthetics, complete with hydraulics and microprocessors, missing a limb does not mean missing out on daily experiences, except when it comes to swimming (Aguilar, 2010).

Swimming is one of the best forms of physical conditioning, especially for an amputee since swimming is not traumatic to the residual limb (Burgess & Rappoport, 1993). If swimming is to be a regular activity, a waterproof prosthesis or a special swim leg is a worthwhile investment; however, artificial appendages are still rudimentary: most resemble clip-on canoe paddles for hands or kiddie flippers for feet (Burgess & Rappoport, 1993).

Prosthetic Duality Most problems connected to swimming with a prosthetic come from getting in and out of the pool (Burgess & Rappoport, 1993). Although a person can certainly enjoy swimming without the use of a prosthetic, there are definite advantages to wearing one. A waterproof or swim prosthesis provides balance in the water through even weight distribution, power to the swimmer’s strokes, and uniform kicking during the stroke cycles so the swimmer does not compensate with the non-amputated leg (Nakashima, Suzuki, Ono, & Nakamura, 2013). Few prosthetics exist which cater to this need. Recently, Swedish industrial design student Richard Stark developed an elegant, water friendly prosthetic, Neptune, which is divided into three “fingers” – a stiff digit in the middle flanked by two pliable ones, which allows wearers to emulate the vaguely circular motion of treading water (Aguilar, 2010). Swimmers use a slider to adjust the Neptune’s flexibility to match their strength. The fin rotates 90 degrees to switch from the sideways kick of the breaststroke to the up and down motion of the crawl, also known as freestyle (Aguilar, 2010). One drawback to this prosthetic is it does not have the ability to be used on land. Swimming prosthetic research and development teams today strive to create a device with prosthetic duality, ability of the prosthetic to work on land and in water.

One device born from cooperation between the Imperial College in London and the University of Technology in Sidney provides the next step

Flexibility

A mechanical engineering graduate project from The University of Minnesota focused on developing an amphibious prosthetic prototype that doubles as a walking and swimming prosthetic. A cable allows for the resistance at the joint to be adjusted; therefore, while swimming, the resistance of the joint is adequate enough it will produce propulsion while kicking and while walking the joint is rigid. The amputee controls the system manually by a cable strategically positioned so as not to affect either activity (Chase et al, 2010). Tremendous progress has been made regarding prosthetics that can be controlled consciously for the upper limbs, but there is much room for improvement regarding the lower limbs, beginning with the understanding of how this prosthesis works.

Brain Interfacing Future Prosthetics The future generations of prosthetics requires a clear understanding of the nerve muscle connection, the addition of joint mechanics and somatosensory feedback. The conscious movement of a muscle is complex, requiring a select group of neurons firing at the same time, which is now known as intent of movement. Researchers found which neurons control limb function by measuring the action potential in certain neurons triggered by the simple thought of moving a limb. Research was then directed to the formation of a real-time control signal to drive a cortical motor prosthesis (Isaacs Weber & Schwartz, 2000). By creating a prosthetic that reacts to brain signals, amputees can use their prosthetics in a more natural way. Hugh Herr, rock climbing enthusiast and triple amputee, has worked with MIT’s Center for Extreme Bionics to create a prosthetic device which functions as a natural limb would. The prosthetic, BIOM, was created through a combination of disciplines of mechanical engineering, electrical engineering and system dynamics, which mimics the many organ system of the body involved in movement (Herr, 2014).

Through the use of imaging and robotic tools, models of the residual limb’s tissue compliance and geography allows designers to create a prosthetics limb that fits seamlessly to the amputee as well as provide support and comfort. By studying how humans with normal physiology stand, walk, and run, researchers create a dynamic interface in bionic limbs and joints

Biotechnology And Sports

that mimic muscular interaction and are controlled by the spinal chord.

Finally, the residual limb is fitted with electrodes, which measure the electrical pulse of the muscles and relay the command to the prosthetic, allowing for the amputee to simply think about moving his or her phantom limb and the prosthetic responds (Herr, 2014). These developments are monumental achievements moving humanity closer to creating a completely natural bionic limb.

Playing a critical role in the manipulation of objects and spatial positioning of the limb’s located is the final step in a feedback loop and is achieved by mechanoreceptive afferents in the skin which convey information about the location, contact and forces exerted on the skin by the surrounding environment. Without somatosensory input, humans would routinely crush or drop grasped objects. In addition, the sense of touch confers to the limbs’ embodiment, making them feel natural (Tabot et al., 2013).

This technology could enhance swimming prosthetics by giving the athlete more control over the artificial limb and providing feed back of the limbs position relative to the water, thereby enhancing the swimmers stroke.

Closed Loop Prosthesis After all these centuries of progress in the field of neuroscience, physics and prosthetics, John Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory has developed a closed loop prosthesis where the brain does not only stimulate the prosthetic limb, but the limb has sensors that respond back (Ravitz et al, 2013). In the past two years, five patients have undergone clinical trials.

The first two patients used visual feedback to “close the loop” where their motor signals positioned the arm, otherwise known as MPL, based on their cortically generated intent signals. They used their eyes as visual feedback sensors to position the limb to accomplish the task they were attempting (Ravitz et al, 2013). The other three patients also used motor control and visual feedback; however, they additionally used sensors imbedded in the MPL. The only results available at this time are from their first Patient 1. Approximately six months after surgery, Patient 1 was able to perform standard clinical evaluation tasks with a high degree of precision and successfully took part in more information evaluations, such as playing rock, paper, scissors with the research team. Although Patient 1’s performance is not definitively representative of the performance of the other four remaining patients, the analysis procedures are reflective of what can be expected for the future planned patients (Ravitz et al, 2013).

This technology can be applied to waterproof prosthetics to allow the user to mentally control the limb position and deliver the desired action and kick force. Somatosensory receptors will give the correct position and orientation of the limb. As of today, this technology is not yet waterproof; however, one possible alternative is electronic skin developed at the University of Tokyo (Ravitz et al, 2013). This e-skin is flexible, thin, and waterproof and can contain as many sensory receptors as the human skin. Mimicking high definition television technology which use wiring layouts that allow the CPU to send commands to transistors attached to the individual pixels based on where they lie in a big conductive grid. Using column and row numbers to specify the pixels’ addresses reduces the number of connections necessary. E-skins embedded with millions of sensors can use a similar active matrix (Someya, 2013). These developments provide amputees with many resources in the future and have a great impact on resorting amputees to functioning in society.

Impact on Sports Competition Use of prosthetics provides psychological and physical relief to amputee patients. For some activities, using a prosthetic is necessary in order for the amputee to successfully reintegrate into society. Because of their disabilities and limitation, amputee athletes are some of the most highly motivated people.

162 In recent years, the demand for sports adjusted prosthetics has risen greatly, most likely due to better technology and the more positive perception amputees have of their capabilities (The Amputee Athlete). As organizations provide ways for athletes to exchange ideas, techniques and provide support for one another, competitive sports for amputees grow as well. Before these organizations existed, there was little opportunity for athlete amputees to form a community (The Amputee Athlete). With the rise of sports for amputees, some rise to the challenge of competing with able-bodied athletes, bringing much controversy as to what is or should be allowed. This first case to bring this issue to light was that of Oscar Pistorius.

Oscar Pistorius: Evidence of Enhancement Although Pistorius’ initial media attention provided inspiration to all people that anything is possible, others viewed his carbon fiber prosthetics as an unfair advantage and believed he should not have been allowed to compete in the Olympics. Many, including athletes, argued it is unknown whether Pistorius recieved an unfair advantage from the prosthetics.

Dermot Hunt equates Pistorius’ situation to of a witch trial: either Pistorius runs on water, which proves he is cheating, or he sinks and can compete (Hunt, 2012).

However, a research group from the United States completed a study in 2009 in order to determine if the Cheetah Blades Pistorius used gave him an advantage over able-bodied competitors. The group designed an experiment to test the hypotheses: the metabolic cost of running with bilateral, transtibial prostheses would be lower than for a runner with intact limbs; the bilateral, transtibial prostheses would allow greater proportion of the athlete’s top sprinting speed to be maintained during sprint efforts of longer durations; and finally, the mechanics of sprinting at common speeds would be similar for a bilateral, transtibial amputee and runners with intact limbs (Weyand et al, 2009). The results of their experiments indicated physiological function was largely similar and virtually identical, respectively, between the amputee and intact-limb subjects while at the same time, the hypothesis regarding running mechanics indicated substantial dissimilarity. This group concluded a bilateral, transtibial amputee (Oscar Pistorius) could be simultaneously similar to intact runners physiologically but dissimilar mechanically (Weyand et al, 2009). With this in mind, spectators can be assured Pistorius’ prosthetic legs did not give him an advantage over ablebodied competitors. However, cases need to reviewed individually due to circumstances.

Technology’s Relationship with Sport Improvement Technological developments in sports are controversial. Currently, prosthetics are not allowed in Paralympic swim events. Standard assistive devices can inhibit the paralympians’ abilities to perform strenuous activities. Technology is essential for the Paralympic athlete to compete against other athletes, but it is unclear how much of an advantage technology can give a paralympian when competing against an Olympian.

Technology must match the individual requirements of the athlete with the sport in order for paralympians to safely maximize their performance.

Within the ‘performance enhancement or essential for performance’ debate, any potential increase in mechanical performance from an assistive device must be balanced with the consequences the disability creates (Burkett, 2010).

Overall, Olympic sports have made headlines more often for taking a stand against “technological doping,” rather than cheering on new technological breakthroughs. As an example, the Union Cycliste Internationale moved to get ride of “superbikes,” bicycles containing aerodynamic materials and designs pioneered by the Defense and Aerospace industries after the 1986 Atlanta Olympic games. Similarly, the Federation Iternationale de Natation

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banned full-body swimsuits after Olympians wearing Speedo’s LZR Racer swimsuit won 94 % of the swimming medals and broke fifteen long-course world records at the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games. Such bans cannot avoid the fact technology is as much a part of an athlete’s armory as nutrition, training and coaching (Hsu, 2012). Technology’s role in sporting success can be traced to the ancient Greeks who first shaped an aerodynamic discus out of stone. Steve Haake, a sports engineer at Sheffield Hallam University in the U.K., investigated technology’s contribution to better Olympic performances. He found technology alone contributed to a 30% increase in both pole vault and javelin performances. In pole vaulting’s case, a new fiberglass pole replaced the old metal pole allowed athletes to break the world record nineteen times in a single decade starting in 1961 (Hsu, 2012). Paralympic medal winners usually come from Western nations with the most advanced prosthetic limbs or amputee adapted equipment in a technological “leg race,” greatly impacting public attention, media coverage and sponsorship money. The technology race in the Paralympics has an added bonus outside of athletic enjoyment – better sports technologies can lead to better amputee equipment and prosthetic limbs used by impaired people in their daily lives.

Conclusion The science and use of prosthetics has evolved from simple contraptions to sophisticated devices. In order for prosthetics to continue on this technological incline, engineers and doctors need a greater understanding concerning the electronic connection between the brain and muscles of the limb. For amputees to have a healthy lifestyle doctors recommend some form of physical activity; swimming is ideal because it does not further harm the limb. Although prosthetics in general have advanced tremendously, the majority of swimming prosthetics are still rudimentary.

Researchers at many universities look forward to combining neuron technology with prosthetic devices to better enhance the function of the limb. These devices provide not only physical aid to amputees, but also provide psychological healing by reintegrating amputees into society. In regards to sports, prosthetics helps to deconstruct the social partition between able bodied and disabled athletes. In competition, there is much debate on whether these devices are necessary for disabled athletes to preform or enhance their performance. Future technology will blur this line even farther, but that does not mean advancements should not be made to better the life of amputees.

Method Purpose The advancement of biotechnology and prosthetics has lead to many amputees be more physically involved whether in sports or daily activities.

In theory, these advancements help to improve the quality of life of amputees. However, the Researcher has decided to look at the effects of prosthetics on amputees in different countries and the likelihood of future developments in the United States due to economical/government limitations.

Case Study A comparative case study on the effects of prosthetics on the quality of life for amputees in the United States, Canada, Turkey, Croatia and Nigeria.

Null Hypothesis Medical professionals in the Texas Medical Center predict there will no change in the quality of life of prosthetic recipients caused by the Affordable Care Act (ACA).

The purpose of this study was to see if prosthetics improves the quality of

163 life of amputees regardless of country. In finding evidence to test the null, the Researcher hoped to gain the professionals’ opinion on the manner by which the ACA will affect prosthetic availability in the future.

Population & Sampling Procedures For the case study, the Researcher gathered Quality of Life of amputee related reports published by medical journals available online. Each study was performed based on a different country: the United States, Canada, Turkey, Croatia, and Nigeria. These reports were chosen based on location in order to reach a conclusion based on a global view. For the null, the researcher used a convenience sample of orthopedic doctors and nurses in the Texas Medical Center. Questions of job title and specialty were asked to better understand the population, allowing the researcher to better qualify generalization made of the data collected.

Research Design The Researcher collected texts pertaining to the case study and analyzed each report based on a chart the Researcher created. For the null, the Researcher conducted a descriptive study through quantitative research design. This study required a written structured survey to be administered to orthopedic doctors in the Texas Medical Center.

Experiment Manipulation/Interventions/Instrumentation Reports were evaluated using a table the Researcher created comparing information found in the reports: over all improved quality of life, access to prosthetic after surgery, degree of amputation, factors that affected/did not affect quality of life. These reports were reliable because they were published in peer-reviewed journals. The validity of the research and following conclusions stands because these reports were not altered to fit previous opinions.

For the null, the Researcher created an electronic survey to gather orthopedic medical staff ’s opinions and predictions of the future availability and advancement of prosthetics by asking medical staff to quantify amputee improvement with prosthetics, rank which health care provider made it easier to obtain a prosthetic and if the ACA had an effect on this process. These results were reliable and valid because the medical personnel answering the survey are qualified individuals who know the medical procedure and effects of health care on prosthetic availability.

Data Collection The case study used a table of categories to compare prosthetics effect on quality of life of amputees based on published reports on online medical databases. The Researcher analyzed these reports and the corresponding categories of information were filled out. For the null, the Researcher sent out a link to the survey to groups of medical personnel in emails based on where the medical personnel worked. Data was collected from September 15, 2014 to November 21, 2014.

Data Analysis For the case study, the Researcher compared the values of the variables from the table. The primary variables compared were improvement of quality of life and factors that affects the quality of life such as socioeconomic background, access to a prosthetic, degree of amputation etc.

The question asked of the survey that best answers the null was question 6, “Do you think the upcoming changes in the system will affect the availability of prosthetic materials for these patients?”, while question 7 indicated a direction of the change. The Researcher used a one-proportion z test where the proportional value was the proportion of medical staff at the Texas Medical Center who predict there will be a change in the quality

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of life of prosthetic recipients due to the availability of prosthetic materials under the Affordable Care Act (ACA).

Ethical Consideration In order to protect human subjects, several safeguards in place. By using previously published medical reports, the Researcher can claim no humans were directly used in the researcher’s process without consent in the case study. For the null, a disclosure was placed on the electronic survey stating answering the survey was optional, but doing so consents for the recipient’s response to be used in this research. Responses also remain anonymous to the Researcher and the public in order to protect subjects.

Bias

Figure 1

Since the Researcher was only able to access free, online reports, Quality of Life reports not published online nor made free were not able to be considered. The instrument for comparison then accurately represented the report as a whole and only the selected qualities that advocate for the researcher’s particular views. Also, orthopedic medical personnel who are not within the Researchers ability to be contacted were also left out of the data collection.

For the survey results, Figure 1 shows the responses for medical degree are as follows: 56.1% M.D., 12.2% Occupational Therapists, 9.76% Physical Therapists, and 21.04% other. The “other” category required the field to be entered manually. Two or less of the following were entered by those surveyed: R.N., exercise physiologist, M.S., MBA, licensed vocational nurse, B.S., and Physicians assistant. Out of the entire sample, 35 (85%) responded yes to working with patients who use prosthetics versus 6 (15%) who responded no.

Assumptions For the case study, the Researcher assumes the samples of reports gathered are representative of the general population of quality of life studies from the various countries. The Researcher also makes the assumption the reports themselves are not skewed as to benefit specific prosthetic companies or doctors. For the null, it is assumed the responders of the survey are providing honest answers and the sample population is representative of orthopedic medical personnel in the Texas Medical Center.

Limitations Due to limitations of time, money, and resources, the Researcher was unable to fully investigate the case study and the null to the extent they wished. In regards to the case study, the Researcher was forced to leave out reports not made publically available for free. In the interest of time, the researcher was also limited to five reports to process. Given an unlimited amount of time, money, and resources, the Researcher would improve the quality of results by creating a larger data collection sample.

In regard to the null, the Researcher was limited in the hospitals contacted.

The Researcher also neglected looking at the effect of past changes in health care on prosthetic availability in the United States, such as Medicare and Medicaid. Another effect the Researcher did not research was the correlation of war and the technological increase of prosthetics because these events did not fall in the researchers scope at the time. Given more time, money, and resources, the Researcher would have preferred to look at more health care system changes rather than just the ACA and would have liked to survey more hospitals in the Texas Medical Center.

Survey Findings/Interviews/Observations From the case study, 100% of the cases attributed improvement of quality of life to use of prosthetics amongst other factors. However, the Researcher was unable to place a quantifiable improvement based solely on the use of prosthetics due to the fact the reports tested several factors that had an overall affect on amputee’s quality of life. The Researcher made a notable comment that the Turkey case study did not provide information on prosthetic availability. It was also observed the United States studied only patients with below the knee amputations and did not find significance in the comparison between amputees receiving a prosthetic immediately after surgery versus a traditional prosthetic. The Researcher also observed that cases conflicted in which factors had an effect on the quality of life.

The results from Croatia concluded age was a factor that affected quality of life while Nigeria concluded it did not. The results from Turkey concluded body image did not affect quality of life while Canada concluded it did.

Following the qualifying questions in the survey, the Researcher then asked questions regarding use of prosthetics, amputee’s improvement, difficulty acquiring a prosthetics and future availability of prosthetic devices. It is important to note these questions were opinion based. 100% of the population responded yes when asked if they believed prosthetics improved the quality of life of patients. They were then asked to quantify this improvement. The results can be seen in Figure 2A.

Findings Sample The Researcher accumulated five research papers based on prosthetic effect on quality of life from five countries around the world: the United State, Canada, Croatia, Nigeria, and Turkey. These countries were diverse and distinct from each other in regards to location, economic wealth, and climate. Each research paper focused on different qualities that affected the amputee’s quality of life besides prosthetic use and was published in peer-reviewed medical journals.

Figure 2A The quantity that received the most responses was 80% and everyone in the sample quantified improvement 50% or higher.

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Question five asked the sample to compare the difficulty of acquiring a prosthetic through Medicare versus Private insurance. Results can be seen in Figure 2B.

Figure 2D

Figure 2B Figure 2B shows over 50%, the majority, of the sample believed the difficulty in acquiring a prosthetic to be equal between the two types of insurance.

Question six aimed to provide evidence to test the null by asking the sample if they “think upcoming changes in the system will affect the availability of prosthetic materials for these patients?” The Researcher chose to ask about effect on prosthetic availability since the availability of prosthetics was shown in the Review of Related Literature to affect the physical activity of amputees and therefore quality of life. The “upcoming changes in the system” refers to the Affordable Care Act passed on December 24, 2009 and signed into law by President Obama on March 23, 2010. However, the effects of this change are still unfolding.

As can be seen in the figure above, the majority of the sample believes the change will be negative.

The Researcher notes some members of the sample did not answer all questions asked, possibly skewing results.

Analysis The Researcher found in the comparative case study all five papers attribute prosthetics as one of the factors that helped to improve the quality of life of amputees regardless the country. However, between the studies there was conflict between factors that did affect or did not affect the quality of life.

Age had effect in Croatia but did not have an effect in Nigeria. Body Image had an effect in Canada but did not have an effect in Turkey.

In order to make an inference from the responses from the survey, the Researcher preformed a one-proportion z-test. Question six provided evidence for testing the null hypothesis. After preforming a oneproportion z-test, the p-value obtained was zero, which means the null hypothesis was rejected. There is evidence doctors and nurses in the Texas Medical Center predict there will be change in the availability of prosthetic materials under the Affordable Care Act (ACA).

Discussion

Figure 2C As seen in Figure 2C, only 23% of the sample responded no to this question; therefore, the Researcher was led to believe the majority of the sample believes the changes to the system will effect the availability of prosthetic materials. The sample was then asked to indicate the direction of this change. The results can be seen in Figure 2D.

These findings from the case study and survey add to the discussion found in the Review of Related Literature. As previous research has shown, prosthetics and physical activity do improve the quality of life of amputees.

The Researcher wished to add to the research by comparing quality of life reports from different countries around the world. In the comparison, the reports were unanimous in agreeing on certain factors that affected or did not affect the quality of life. However, there was no way to quantify how much improvement was solely due to use of prosthetics due to multiple factors being tested. There were a few, however, inconsistent factors. As a result, the Researcher chose to focus on the factors of use of prosthetics, age, and degree of amputation. The Researcher also focused on the rejection of the null hypothesis and future implications that should take place.

Findings on use of prosthetics and activity In the review of related literature, the Researcher discussed the amputee’s need for activity and found “sports had a beneficial effect on the cardiopulmonary system, psychological wellbeing, social reintegration and physical functioning of the amputees” (Bragaru, Dekker, Geertzen & Dijkstra, 2011). Use of prosthetics helped to improve the amputee’s ability to participate in sports, regardless of nationality. In the findings, all the cases had the same outcome for the dependent variable of improvement of quality of life where all resulted in prosthetic use having a positive

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effect on amputees. Consistently, the results from the survey agreed with previous findings showing the entire sample agreed prosthetics helped to improve the quality of life of amputees. As a result from this information, implementing athletics into an amputee’s rehabilitation program would be highly beneficial.

Findings on age and degree of amputation Noted in the findings section above, the Researcher found variables effecting quality of life besides the use of prosthetics were inconsistent, particularly the effects of age and body image. In the Review of Related Literature, a report from the Netherlands concluded younger individuals with unilateral transtibial amputations achieved better athletic performance and encountered fewer problems when participating in sports compared with older individuals with bilateral amputations (Bragaru, Dekker, Geertzen & Dijkstra, 2011). The Researcher throughout the rest of the review did not question this conclusion. In the case study, the report from Croatia agreed with the Review of Related Literature and found age had no effect on the improvement of quality of life. However, the report form Nigeria disagreed with these findings, stating age was not one of the factors that affected quality of life.

The Researcher looked back on the sample of the reports and found the populations from all three countries had a wide variety and concluded sampling was not the issue. A possible reason for the disagreement could be economic and political factors as the Netherlands and Croatia are located in Europe while Nigeria is in Africa. The political settings around those areas are vastly different. The Netherlands is a democratic, first world country with socialist health care. Croatia is a democratic, socialist, second world country that also provided socialist health care. Nigeria, although affluent, is considered a developing country.

Findings on affect of health care As stated in the findings, the Researcher accepted the alternative hypothesis doctors and nurses in the Texas Medical Center predict there will be change in the quality of life of prosthetic recipients caused by the Affordable Care Act (ACA). The Affordable Care Act does not place a limit on how much coverage will be provided for prosthetics devices. On average, most prosthetics cost from $5,000 to $10,000 and need to be replaced every three to five years depending on wear and age. Twenty states have passed legislation dealing with government health care coverage for amputees that are beneficial: matching coverage of private insurance, programs are on par or better than other coverage benefits (Smith K., 2013). Results from the survey shows the sample believes it is equally difficult to acquire a prosthetic through Medicare, as it is private insurance. The article by Smith seems to argue stating through future government health care, acquiring a prosthetic will be easier and not as expensive.

The acceptance of the alternative null implies the population from the Texas Medical Center believes the opposite. The Researcher reasoned this disagreement could be caused from several reasons. First, the medical staff works with insurance companies and patients while Smith is a reporter and not as close to the operation. This reason favors of the medical staff because they have more knowledge of the situation and are a more reliable judge on the effects of the ACA. The second and more political reason, the Texas Medical Center is found in a majority republican state that has a history of disagreeing with the current President and disagrees with the ACA because they disagree with the President. If this is the case, then Smith could offer an unbiased view of the situation whereas Smith is a liberal who tends to support the President.

Implications Using a combination of results from the comparison and the survey, the

166 Researcher wishes to promote reform of prosthetic devices and health care dealing with prosthetics in the United States. By looking at other countries success or failure with prosthetic practices and quality of life, the United States can use the overall best lower limb prosthetic practice that aids amputees in various physical activities and improves quality of life. In regards to the ACA, the Researcher recommends based on the findings, it should either be reformed to aid the process of adopting foreign prosthetic practices or repealed and the free market theory take hold to create a better prosthesis and an improved prosthetic practice in the United States. For future research, a study on the best prosthetics design versus cost and past health care policies of the United States and foreign countries should be conducted. Currently, it is not cost effective to produce brain-interfacing prosthetics simply because the technology has recently been invented and the population requiring this prosthetic is so small. Studies could also further research on the correlation of war and development of prosthetics.

As mentioned in the review of related literature, the increase of weapons of mass destruction in World War II led to many soldiers returning home with missing limbs; helping to promote prosthetic development. To further this research, a study could be done based on the technological advancement of modern weapons with modern day prosthetic devices.

Remaining Questions After looking into how biotechnology has advanced and affected prosthetics, the Researcher then continued to question the advancement of technology in the 21st century. A prosthesis that acts in tandem with the human mind were once considered impossible feats only seen in fiction.

Technology has grown exponentially within the past century. Other sci-fi conceptions such as deep space travel and even cyborgs exist in today’s world. These developments lead the Researcher to seek further answers to how the presentation of artificial intelligence in film in the last fifty years alter the way humans view AIs and how these views affect advancements actually made to in the field of artificial intelligence. The Researcher also wondered if machines reach the capacity to think and act as humans do as seen in film, then what do these capabilities mean ethically for humans.

To begin answering these questions, the Researcher intends to look at Artificial Intelligence presented in 2001: a Space Odyssey (1968), the Matrix (1999), and Chappy (2015) and how these systems compare to humans mentally as well as how they were treated by humanity.

Artificial Intelligence as seen in Film The earliest known examples of artificial intelligence found in literature are actually found in ancient Greek myths. Hephaestus, the Greek god of technology and fire, was said to have forged living beings entirely out of metal (Spurgaitis). AIs have not been strangers to fiction itself. A common trope placed in film and literature pits man against the machines he creates. Often, AIs are used to symbolize man’s hubris. A prime example of this trope is presented in 2001: A space odyssey with the conflict between HAL 9000 and Dr. Dave Bowman.

While this film has many complex themes revolving around man’s purpose in the universe and the extent of space, it was also the first to introduce the idea of a sentient digital being in a way it had not been seen before in movies. The HAL 9000 series was an infallible computer programmed on the Discovery spaceship. After making a mistake the humans aboard the ship decide to disconnect HAL’s higher thinking skills. In HAL’s fight to stay conscious, the AI kills three hibernating crewmembers and leaves the humans stranded outside of the ship. Ultimately, one of the humans does manage to disable HAL (Kozlovic, 1993). The idea machines could develop such a conscious and understand the need to stay alive was a terrifying thought to audiences both then and now. Most viewers seem to neglect the idea HAL was virtually perfect and helpful to the human’s survival until it was threatened. If HAL had such a consciousness, then

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perhaps he would have understood why the humans on board wanted to disable him (Cairone, 1999). Other films have continued to showcase the worst possible side of AIs, one of the most popularly references being the Matrix.

Supercomputers have been around since the 1960s. Early versions lack the complexity and capability of even modern day personal computers. At the turn of the century, the developments of supercomputers leapt forward and devices such as the Cray-2 had thousands of processors within them (Reilly, 2003). The fear of a computer one day having the capability similar to HAL 9000 was becoming a reality. Then in 1999, the Matrix was released featuring a post-apocalyptic world where there is a war of humans versus AIs and a role reversal of who serves whom. The majority of the human population purpose is to act as “human batteries” for robots and is kept under control by living virtual lives within the Matrix (Silver, 1999). The Matrix created a surreal view of the world where nothing could be trusted.

All advantages the humans thought they had were just other ways the AIs were controlling them. What the AIs in the Matrix understood was the power of human nature to survive and fight and used it as a way to control the humans. This film caused many to question reality itself and how powerful computers should be made.

Despite the negative presentation of AIs in film, examples of positive or neutral AI presentation can be found in media. The film Chappie features an AI, who after being discharged as a police AI and repurposed, has the ability to learn like a human child. Chappie deals with many of the issues humans face such as identity and morality. Like in everyone’s lives, there are many influential characters in Chappies life. The AIs moral battles cause the audience to become more sympathetic towards him (Kinberg, 2015). This view of artificial intelligence reflects how many today view AIs has shifted from something to be feared to something that is alive.

However AIs presentation in film reflects the views of the masses, artificial intelligence exists in many aspects of society today. If there were in fact an AI rebellion, humanity would already be lost.

Modern Artificial Intelligence Artificial Intelligence is making its way into everyday life slowly but surely.

Humans interact with low levels of artificial intelligence through on a daily basis, such as using a GPS to get to work, check traffic and reroute to find the fastest route. Smartphone’s are the most common AI users interact with on a daily basis, how ever basic they may be. But as one talks to Siri more, Siri’s programing looks for patterns and record data to create improved reactions to inputs leading to better responses within predetermined parameters and is also an example of how AIs can learn (Dujmovic, 2014).

Learning from experience is one way AIs are becoming more complex and preforming higher-level tasks (Smith J., 2009). Computer science has made other advancements besides being able to accumulating large amounts of information. At Yale University, Nico, a robot, passed a landmark test of recognizing itself in a mirror. The goal for Nico is to be able to use mirrors to help aid spatial reasoning. The mirror test began in 1970 and has been the benchmark for self-awareness where robots classify whether pixels in the image belong to them or not (BBC, 2012). Once robots become aware of themselves and spatial surrounding, like Nico has, the next step is to program robots that are capable of learning from their own experiences.

In order to create truly useful artificial intelligence, robots or programs must learn from interactions with the physical and social environment.

At Iowa State University, teams of graduate students are developing software that teaches robots to learn like a human child similar to the AI in Chappie. One experiment tested the AI’s ability to learn sounds objects make. Later trials had higher success rates when compared to the first trial (Smith, J., 2009). Intel Labs in Pittsburg, PA are working to productize this technology in the form of Home Exploring Robotic Bulter, HERB. HERB’s capabilities include learning tasks by watching humans and using

167 logarithms to fully analyze the most efficient way to complete a task.

Project leaders aim to eventually teach HERB simple social rules (Smith, J., 2009). Although these tasks may seem simple, they are stepping-stones to creating fully conscious artificial intelligence.

Robotic Ethics While creating robots with the ability to “think” for themselves seems harmless and a benefit to society, humans are actually creating an ethical monstrosity. Humans are faced with the question, what is life? If life means having a conscious, then creating machines that recognize themselves in mirrors and learn means they have a conscious to an extent. If artificial intelligence then has this consciousness, they experience life. Does this mean turning off a machine with conscious artificial intelligence is murder? But what if AIs are harming humans?

In 2008, a group of researchers set out of answer the age old question presented in the review of film above: can machines think? The group took MRIs of gamers playing against various human-like partners, which increased in degrees of embodiment and anthropomorphism. The data from this research provides the first evidence of a contribution of higher cognitive functions such as Theory of Mind in direct interactions with artificial robots (Krach, et all, 2008). The robot Nico is an example of robots developing the capability of thinking, creating another human-like characteristic. As shown by the research and multiple developments in the field of robots, there is a mass conclusion that robots can indeed think. But there is a difference between thinking and having a conscience.

Human definitions of “sensing” and “understanding” differ from those of artificial intelligence. Natural creatures are embedded with senses that help them survive. These senses are not necessary manifested physically such as eyes, ears and nerves. When artificial intelligence thinks, it is following the rules of it’s programming. When an outside force acts upon the robot, the robot senses this disturbance but how it reacts is based on programming. Unlike humans, robots must be told how something feels, whether it is painful or pleasurable. One could easily be substituted for the other in programming, but for humans this sense is intrinsic (Putnam, 1964). Knowing for robots is similar to that of humans because programming allows for robots to remember past experiences. Truly understanding and processing information is a different skill. Similar to the issue of sensing, robots can be programmed to draw certain conclusion based on data but this is not intrinsic understanding and can be altered to not be true (Putnam 1964). Humans operate at a higher level because they can intrinsically senses and understand the world while robots rely on programming. Therefore, robots can be held to the same ethical standards that humans are.

Conclusion Through the Review of Related Literature, the Researcher gained an understanding of how biotechnology has advanced through the ages and affected prosthetic. Prosthetics have developed from rudimentary contraptions to sophisticated devices. Developments in fields of natural physiology and bioengineering have lead to prosthetics capable of functioning on an even higher level. The Scholar found complete prosthetic integration to now be a plausible reality by creating prosthetics featuring a closed loop system. Despite these advancements, the majority of swimming prosthetics are simple devices. Researchers are working to develop qualities such as prosthetic duality and flexibility to create even better swimming prosthetics. The scholar found these developments create conflict over regulations in competitive sports, especially whether these devices are necessary for amputees to preform or enhance the amputee’s performance; however, becoming integral with society is an important psychological healing factor that affects the quality of life of amputees.

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The study conducted by the Researcher compared reports from the United States, Canada, Croatia, Turkey, and Nigeria on which qualities affect the quality of life of amputees. Unanimously, the reports agree prosthetics help to improve the quality of life of amputees. The Researcher also noted that other factors affected quality of life such as location, age, and body image. Regardless, implementing athletics into an amputee’s rehabilitation program would be highly beneficial. The Researcher then conducted a study to predict how the Affordable Care Act (ACA) might challenge future developments of prosthetic devices. The Researcher found medical staff of the Texas Medical Center believed the ACA would change prosthetic availability to patients with the majority believing the effect to be negative.

This conclusion was not conclusive with previous research that stated the ACA should be more beneficial to amputees. The Researcher concluded this discrepancy could be due to conflicting political ideologies.

The Researcher then looked to the presentation of artificial intelligence presented in film and how this presentation affects human’s attitudes of AIs. Despite these often negative presentations, the development of artificial intelligence has grown to reach new heights. Currently, AIs have low cognitive ability such as recognizing themselves in mirrors. Researchers are developing robots with higher cognitive functions such as advance analysis and learning capabilities. These developments lead humans to question the ethics of creating life in robotic form. Although robots are now capable of thinking, the true question in consiouness according to some is based on intrinsic sensing and understanding. Since robots can not function at the high level of consciousness that humans, they can be held to the same ethical standard.

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God has given man free will and intelligence since the creation of Adam and Eve, but it was not until Adam and Eve ate the fruit from the tree of knowledge did they become aware of themselves and the world around them (Genesis 2-3). Consequently, this original sin led to the fall of man, bringing illness and pain into the world and therefore a need for medicine.

Now centuries later, the medical technology at the hands of humans has never been greater. One could ask if it was God’s will humans create cures for themselves and abandon God in a sense when it comes to healing.

Several cases in the Bible show God as the primary caretaker of his people; in Numbers which he uses Moses and a snake to heal a venomous wound and countless times in the New Testament with Jesus and his miracles.

God does not reject medicine or healing. Through a lens, humanities access to medical technology is just one way God manifests himself in today’s world. John 11:4 states “But when Jesus heard it he said, “This illness does not lead to death. It is for the glory of God, so that the Son of God may be glorified through it.” Jesus has just arrived at Lazarus’s grave and his sisters are telling Jesus that Lazarus is going to die. Jesus responds that Lazarus will not die; Lazarus is sick so God can show the people just how powerful he is. Likewise, through the hands of doctors and engineers, God shows how merciful and powerful he is.

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References

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Biotechnology And Sports

Appendix I: Survey Questions

171

Biotechnology And Sports

Appendix II: Survey Results

172

Biotechnology And Sports

173

Biotechnology And Sports

174

Appendix III: Case Study Comparison Form

US (EPOP vs. Traditional prosthesis)

Croatia (Therapeutic effects of re-amputation)

Turkey (Unilateral vs. bilateral)

Nigeria (Socio-demographic/ clinical)

Canada (QOL vs. time)

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Immediately after surgery, 8+ months after surgery

Immediately

n/a

Varied

Immediately

Amputation

Below the knee

Lower extremity

Lower extremity

Lower extremity

Lower extremity

Factors that affected QOL

Time in receiving prosthetic but nothing significant

Age, degree of amputation, affected limb, use of prosthetics,

Use of prosthesis, degree of amputation

Gender, use of prosthetics

Items related to physical functioning, use of prosthetic, body image

None that are significant

Marital status, education, economic status, regional affiliation

Prosthetic satisfaction, body image

Age, martial status, occupation, degree of amputation, time since amputation, affected limb

None mentioned

PEQ

Specifically designed questionnaire

SAT-PRO, ABIS, SF-36

WHO QOL-BREF

SQLP, PEQ (4/9), ABIS

Improve the Quality of Life Access to prosthetics after surgery

Factors that did not affect QOL

Tests Used

Effects of Environmental Factors and Genetics on the Development of Criminals and Applications in the United States Justice System and the Effect of Firearm Regulations on Murder in Scotland and the United States Jarrett J. Bolander

Nature Versus Nurture In Sentencing Criminals

Table of Contents

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Classical Criminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Positivism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Anomie Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Blank Slate Psychology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 General Theory of Crime. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 The Human Genome Project. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Nurture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Influence of Violence in Media. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Childhood Poverty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Brain Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Ethics of Genetic Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Racial Propensity Toward Crime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Justice System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Punishment and Violent Predisposition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Remaining Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Structure of the Psychopathic Brain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Formation of the Psychopathic Brain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Behavior Differences in Psychopaths. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Methodology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Purpose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Participants and Sampling Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Research Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Experimental Manipulation/Interventions/Instrumentations. . 186 Data Collection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Data Collection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Ethical Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

177

Table of Contents (continued)

Findings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Sample. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Survey Findings/Interviews/Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Figure 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Findings on English and American Crime Rates. . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Findings on Firearm Policies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Policy / Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Future Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Final Implications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Appendix I: Research Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

Nature Versus Nurture In Sentencing Criminals

Abstract

For the Review of Related Literature, the researcher evaluated the question, â&#x20AC;&#x153;How do upbringing and genetic disposition affect the behavior of violent criminals, and how should this change the way justice system administers punishment?â&#x20AC;? The Review of Related Literature addresses types of conditioning recognized by psychologists and its application in court in the case of Ethan Couch, who killed four people in a drunk-driving incident. Then, this research addresses the affect of genetics on criminal tendencies and the use of said research in court with regard to sentencing a convicted murderer. The researchers also performed original research concerning the affect of the culture of the United States on rates of violent crime committed by and against ethnic minorities, and the affect of firearm regulations on the rate of murder in Scotland and the United States. Finally, the researcher examined further questions about the development of psychopathic behavior, and the manifestation of psychopathic traits in criminals, business leaders, surgeons, and the general population.

179

Nature Versus Nurture In Sentencing Criminals

The field of criminology, although only taken in a scientific approach in the last 300 years, has been an important component of society since the foundation of civilized nations (History, 2013). It is defined as the study of the crime, its causes, and methods of crime-control (What is Criminology, 2014). The administration of punishment has been determined more or less arbitrarily by the whim of society for thousands of years, often with greater focus on retribution than organized attempts to control crime. For the first time, advancements in psychology and sociology, aided by the advent of genetic research such as the Human Genome Project provide humanity with the opportunity to objectively study criminals and what motivates them as a science in order to develop an effective means of dealing with crime (Human Genome Project, 2014). The significance of the study of criminology is the potential to help law enforcement in their efforts to deal with criminals and reduce crime rates (What is Crimonlogy, 2014).

The purpose of this paper is to explore the causes found in upbringing and genetics that led to criminal behavior and how this should affect administration of punishment. Starting with the Enlightenment, many theories have been developed to explain the causes of criminal behavior.

Background Classical Criminology The science of criminology started with Cesare Beccaria during the Enlightenment in the 1700’s. Beccaria established the school of thought known as classical criminology, sometimes referred to as as deterrence or rational choice theory (History, 2013). Beccaria was a wealthy Italian who educated himself on the philosophy of the time by reading English and French literature on the subject (History, 2013). In separate academic endeavors, he and two colleagues worked on solving the ills they observed in society, with Beccaria pioneering the field criminology (Cesare Beccaria, n.d.). Influenced by the philosophy of the Enlightenment, Beccaria detailed the social contract with respect to the right of the government to administer justice (Cesare Beccaria, n.d.). When someone choses to live as a member of the society instead of isolating himself, some rights are relinquished in exchange for the protection of the society (Cesare Beccaria, n.d.). In 1762, he published his first work on the subject of penal reform, the first attempt to lay out an organized, systematic justice system, including the idea of punishments proportionate to the crime rather than arbitrary sentencing and torture, and the separation of legislators and judges, both ideas which would later influence Thomas Jefferson in the writing of the U.S. Constitution. His influence in the establishment of effective and consistent justice systems can be seen in the clause of the Constitution which prohibits cruel and unusual punishment and in the separation of the legislative and judicial branches of government (History, 2013; Cesare Beccaria). The classical school of criminology relies on the assumption all humans possess free will and behave in a rational way. Free will assumes a conscious decision on whether or not to commit a crime and no inherent proclivity for certain people toward criminal behavior (Cesare Beccaria, n.d.). Beccaria’s approach to criminology assumed crime was a result of weighing risk versus reward, and therefore, the solution to crime was to make the punishment such that reward was not worth the risk (Moran 1996). Furthermore, he asserted although the punishment should outweigh the potential reward, it should not be unreasonably cruel and ought to be proportionate to the crime. He claimed certainty of moderate punishment served as a greater deterrent than uncertain severe punishment. (Cesare Beccaria, n.d.)

Positivism The term positivism was first used by the Italian criminal anthropologist Cesare Lombroso toward the end of the nineteenth century, became popular during the Progressive Era in the United States. Positivism

181 differs from other common approaches to the justice system because the penal system is seen not a means of retribution, but rather as a means of rehabilitating criminals (Simon, 2006). Lambroso’s approach remained fairly popular until the 1970’s. Over the last forty years, the United States has shifted from the rehabilitation-focused models of the Progressive Era to deterrence models (Simon, 2006). However, one aspect of positivism which has remained prevalent is the use of longer sentences to protect society from criminals. The reasoning being simply if a criminal is imprisoned, he cannot be a threat to society until his release. (History, 2013).

Anomie Theory Merton invented the anomie theory of criminology in 1938 (Reinarman, n.d.). According to the theory, biological predisposition is insufficient to explain criminal behavior. The writings of Messner and Rosenfield about anomie theory claim that crime is a result of pressure by society for economic success (Chamlin 1995). People who cannot achieve a satisfactory degree of economic success by legitimate means are most inclined to find alternative ways to achieve that end (Chamlin 1995). He characterizes the culture of the United States as being very driven, but without strong emphasis on the morality of the means by which one achieves success, thus leading people to criminal enterprise (Anomie Theory, n.d.). Drawing inference from this theory, Robert Merton postulated the disproportionate minority crime was a lack of opportunity for minorities and a strongly racist society (Anomie Theory, n.d.). The theory is not intended to encompass all crime but merely explain a specific component of it.

Blank Slate Psychology Although debunked by modern understanding of genetics, the blank slate approach to psychology gained significant popularity during the Progressive Era (Pinker, 2004). Blank slate psychology states all people are born without any proclivity toward certain behaviors, and development of behavior and talent is entirely a result of environment. Its popularity in the Progressive Era could be attributed to its egalitarian view of humanity and optimistic presentation of crime as a problem that could be solved with social activism. Although no longer accepted as a valid view of criminology, elements of it still influence criminologists and legislators (Pinker, 2004).

General Theory of Crime The general theory of crime was invented in the 1990’s by Hirschi and Gottfredson. This theory, also know as the self-control theory, hypothesizes nearly all crime is primarily a result of a lack of self-control. Hirschi and Gottfredson attribute lack of self-control to ineffective parenting.

Objections to this theory include its inability to explain white-collar crime, organized crime, and massive disparity in crime levels for gender and age (Cheung, N. W., T., & Cheung, Y. W., 2008). Those who oppose the theory point out not all crime provides immediate gratification as assumed by the general theory. Criminal organizations such as the mafia require leaders with a great deal of self-control in order to be successful.

The Human Genome Project The Human Genome Project was a thirteen-year project started in 1990 to map the entire humane genome (Cullen). The information gained from the project has been to use to locate genes associated with particular genetic disorders and genetic predispositions to diseases (Cullen). Often, people have suggested searching for a ‘criminal’ gene or a ‘violence gene;’ however, the amount of research in the area is minimal because of concerns about Eugenics and associations with Nazism (Greely, 1998).

Nature Versus Nurture In Sentencing Criminals

An important aspect of the debate surrounding the punishment and rehabilitation of prisoners is the issue of nature versus nurture. Indeed, the debate inspired support for Eugenics during the early twentieth century, and the trend from punishment to rehabilitation in recent years. This debate begs the question: How do upbringing and genetic disposition affect the behavior of violent criminals, and how should this change the way justice system administers punishment? What racial differences exist in rates of violent crime in England and the United States, and how do differing firearm regulations affect the rate of crime in Glasgow and Detroit?

Review Nurture In the nature versus nurture debate, “nurture” refers primarily to environmental factors, especially the home lives during childhood (Robinson, n.d.). The nurture aspect explains how life experiences influence people to become violent criminals (Robinson, n.d.). Environmental factors are broken down into three primary categories (Kasschaue, 2008).

The first category is called classical conditioning (McLeod, 2013). The classic illustration of classical conditioning is the Pavlov’s dog experiment (McLeod, 2013). Before feeding his dog dinner, Pavlov would ring a bell for the dog (McLeod, 2013). After doing for this several times, Pavlov could ring the bell, and the dog would come into the room expecting dinner (McLeod, 2013). Understanding Psychology defines classical conditioning as “a learning procedure in which associations are made between a neutral stimulus and a conditioned response” (Kasschaue, 2008). That is to say, a stimulus prompts a learned response (Kasschaue, 2008). In a second experiment, several people were placed in a room with purple pens and pleasant music playing in the background (Kasschaue, 2008). The purple pens were then replaced with green pens and the pleasant music with unpleasant music (Kasschaue, 2008). After the experiment, the participants were offered the pens, and the majority chose the purple pens because of the positive association formed by the music (Kasschaue, 2008).

The second category is called operant conditioning (Kasschaue, 2008). A behavior psychologist in the 1930’s, B. F. Skinner developed his hypothesis about human behavior and referred to it as operant conditioning (Skinner’s Research, 2013). He performed multiple experiments over the course of several years, and finally confirmed his hypothesis about human behavior using a pigeon (Skinner’s Research, 2013). He fed the pigeon at fifteen second intervals, and recorded the results (Skinner’s Research, 2013). His experiment produced a ‘superstitious’ pigeon (Skinner’s Research, 2013).

The pigeon would attempt to replicate any behaviors it was performing immediately prior to receiving food, believing it had discovered a casual relationship between its behavior and the food pellets (Skinner’s Research, 2013). Skinner believed his operant conditioning hypothesis was the root of all human behavior, and his ideas have practical applications in crime prevention in the modern penal system (Skinner’s Research, 2013).

Understanding Psychology provides the following illustration of operant conditioning on page 250: “Suppose your dog is wandering around the neighborhood, sniffing trees, checking garbage cans, looking for a squirrel to chase. A kind neighbor sees the dog and tosses a bone out the kitchen door to it.” The following day, the dog will be inclined to wait at the same neighbor’s house in hope of receiving another bone (Kasschaue, 2008). If this continues, eventually stopping at the neighbor’s house and waiting for a bone will become a part of the dogs routine (Kasschaue, 2008). In operant conditioning, the operant, the dog in the preceding example, performs an action, and the consequences of the action reinforce or discourage the behavior (Kasschaue, 2008).

Psychologists refer to the final category as social learning (Kasschaue, 2008). Social learning is subdivided into modeling and cognitive learning

182 (Kasschaue, 2008). Essentially, modeling is observing and imitating the people around oneself, such as clapping when others begin to clap, standing when others in a room stand up, and becoming silent when others stop talking (Kasschaue, 2008). The second subdivision, cognitive learning, emphasizes how information is absorbed and processed (Kasschaue, 2008).

Latent learning is a type of cognitive learning which describes learning not manifested in any observable behavior until a reinforcement is introduced at a later time (Kasschaue, 2008). Although the concepts of the idea can be traced back as far as the nineteenth century, Ronald Akers was the first to write a complete explanation and invent the term Social Learning Theory in 1966 article titled “A Differential Association-Reinforcement Theory of Criminal Behavior” (Ronald Akers, n.d.). The idea, as laid out in the 1800’s by Tarde, stated three primary factors influenced criminal behavior: people with whom a child is in close contact, the tendency of children to imitate their authority figures (Ronald Akers, n.d.). Many of Tardes contemporaries considered his ideas to be dramatic oversimplifications of a complex issue. Nonetheless, this formed the basis of Aker’s Social Learning theory. He described violent criminal behavior as the result of certain behaviors being reinforced by one’s peers and authority figures (Ronald Akers, n.d.). His criminological theory called for harsher sentences as a means of deterring criminal (Ronald Akers, n.d.).

Influence of Violence in Media Debate on whether or not violence in television and video games aggravates violent tendencies regularly surfaces when news companies cover tragedies such as shootings. In order to develop a more precise understanding of how video games affect the human brain, the Indiana University School of Medicine conducted a study on violent video games and changes in the brain detected by MRI scans (Archer, 2013). In the study, participants given violent video games, which they played for one week (Archer, 2013). When the week concluded, MRI scans indicated an increase in activity in the amygdala, the part of the brain responsible for emotion (Archer, 2013). An increase in activity in this case would be indicative of a rise in anger, aggression, and impulsivity (Archer, 2013).

Additionally, researchers noted a decrease in activity in the prefrontal cortex of participants (Archer, 2013). The prefrontal cortex functions as the logic center of the brain, responsible for inhibitions, decisions, focus, and self-control (Archer, 2013). Iowa State University conducted a study in 2010 with similar results (Violent video games, 2010). The University of Alabama, Virginia Tech Research Institute, and Macquarie University all published studies with similar findings with video games, movies, or other audio-visual media (Archer, 2013). Most researches involved in these studies arrived at the same conclusion; violence in media contributed to increased aggressiveness or impulsivity, and noted said violence could be a contributing factor in certain violent acts, although not a direct cause, as portrayed by news agencies, of tragedies such as shootings (Archer, 2013).

Childhood Poverty The public generally accepts a strong link exists between poverty and criminal behavior (Chung, 2002). However, academics have not consistently replicated results across multiple studies on the subject (Chung, 2002). The results of studies evaluating the effect of poverty on intelligence, physical and mental health, and academic achievement positively correlate wealth with each without significant contradiction between studies; however, the hypothesis poverty breeds crime remains unproven (Chung, 2002).

In a study attempting to reconcile conflicting studies, Ick-Joong Chung led a study which used concepts from the social development model of behavior to determine why some poor children abide laws and others become criminals (Chung, 2002).

The social development model, at its most basic level, states children

Nature Versus Nurture In Sentencing Criminals

will engage in prosocial or antisocial behavior based on the balance of prosocial and antisocial influences (Cohen, 2008). If the influence of antisocial activities and friends outweighs the influence of prosocial, the child will adopt values inconsistent with the values of a law-abiding citizen (Cohen, 2008). This theory ignores genetic influence and leaves behavior as a direct result of environmental factors (Cohen, 2008).

In the study by Chung, a population of fifth-grade children from 18 public schools in Seattle in impoverished areas with high criminal activity (Chung, 2002). A sample of 808 students from various ethnic groups and levels of wealth agreed to participate in the study (Chung, 2002). In the study, Chung interviewed students, parents, and teachers to gather information about attitudes, socialization, violence, and criminal behavior (Chung, 2002). The results of the study indicate youths who have lower attachment to their parents, drink in elementary school, live in areas where drug use is prevalent, or associate with antisocial peers are the most likely to be convicted a crime during adolescence (Chung 2002). Contrary to the social development model, having prosocial friends did not have significant influence on whether a person committed any offenses (Chung, 2002). Poverty tends to encourage crime because it is associated with inadequate parental discipline and lax monitoring of children, so the effect poverty has on crime can be mediated by healthy family life (Chung, 2002). The results of this study show importance of family and peers in helping or hindering prosocial behavior, and the strong impact environmental factors have on development.

Modern sociology generally focuses on the environmental factors which affect development of criminal behavior rather than genetic factors. The wealth of data on the environmental side of development is extensive because people can more easily effect change by altering environmental factors; however, one must still understand the effect genes have in governing violent behavior.

Nature The nature aspect of violent criminals is an almost taboo subject for criminologists (Ferguson, 2009). Criminologists shy away from biological explanations for fear of accusations of racism, sexism, or other forms of discrimination (Ferguson, 2009). This fear has allowed strong bias against evolutionary explanation to embed itself in this particular area of science.

According to Ferguson, organizations will lean on the straw man fallacy to prove there is no genetic cause. The straw man fallacy uses a distorted version of an opponent’s position and refutes the misrepresented argument instead of the actual argument (Dowden). For example, “I can’t believe Senator X wants to cut the defense budget. I didn’t know he wanted the United States to be conquered by a foreign entity” (Dowden). In the field of criminology, much rhetoric relies on this fallacy, such as a pamphlet from the American Psychological Association, which stated in an article on violence there is no ‘violence gene,’ which, while technically no gene has been conclusively proven to cause violence, goes on to insinuate genes lack any role in the manifestation of violent characteristics (Ferguson, 2009). The implication is demonstrably untrue, given the statistics on the differences in violent crime between men and women, with between 65% and 92% of the approximately 15,000 homicides in America in 2011 being committed by men (Crime in the United States, 2011). This statistic is not unique to the United States (Kanazawa, 2008). In fact, this pattern has been observed in all nations and cultures across the planet (Kanazawa, 2008).

Furthermore, distaste for biological explanations stems from the implications about freewill, morality, and the impossibility of ‘solving’ crime (Ferguson, 2009). This unwillingness to accept ideas contrary to the popular worldview has stifled investigation into the biological explanations for violent criminals (Feguson, 2009).

183 Brain Chemistry The results of twin studies vary widely with approaches and methodology; however, according to Ferguson, the majority of credible twin studies indicate roughly “50% of the variance in antisocial phenotypes is the result of genetic factors,” with the term antisocial referring to lack of concern for others, rather than social isolation (Ferguson, 2009). One aspect of this research explores how genes responsible for controlling dopamine levels may lead to violence (Ferguson, 2009). Dopamine is a neurotransmitter responsible for perception of pleasure. Scientists have identified five genes responsible for dopamine, a neurotransmitter linked to violent behaviors (Ferguson, 2009). The dopamine transporter gene, the dopamine receptor gene, the serotonin receptor gene, catechol-Omethaltransferase gene, and the monoamine oxidase A gene (Ferguson, 2009). The dopamine transporter gene codes for a transport protein necessary for the absorption of dopamine (Ferguson, 2009). In addition to violence, the dopamine receptor gene is linked to drug abuse and alcoholism (Ferguson, 2009). It is responsible for detecting dopamine at the postsynaptic neuron (Ferguson, 2009). The serotonin transporter gene is required for reuptake (absorption) of serotonin, (Ferguson, 2009).

This gene is also linked to attention deficit hyperactive disorder and nicotine addiction (Ferguson, 2009). Serotonin is a neurotransmitter, which acts as an inhibitor responsible for controlling appetite, sex drive, and pain (Williams, 1994). Low levels of the neurotransmitter contribute to impulsiveness and are commonly associated with males, particularly teenagers, who are most likely to commit violent crime (Williams, 1994). The catechol-O-methyltransferase codes for the production of the COMT enzyme, an enzyme partly responsible for breaking down neurotransmitters (Ferguson, 2009). Finally, the monoamine-oxidase A gene codes for production of the MAOA enzyme which metabolizes the neurotransmitters (Ferguson, 2009).

Ethics of Genetic Testing Since the completion of the Human Genome Project, people have speculated about the potential of the all of the information contained within it. The search for ‘violence genes’ and ‘criminal genes,’ the existence of which is part of the premise for genetic determinism, has raised important ethical and legal questions in relation to criminals, along with privacy concerns (Greely, 2013). Many states have begun the practice of recording the DNA ‘fingerprints’ of convicted criminals in a database (Greely, 2013). Some worry if a particular gene can be connected to a proclivity for violence, it will lead to the government taking action against people before ever committing a crime (Greely, 2013). Additionally, many raise concerns genetic testing could potentially lead to the implementation of Eugenics (Greely, 2013). For example, although Eugenics is not strongly supported in western countries, in the 1990’s, China adopted legislation requiring couples to obtain a medical certificate or be disallowed to marry (Greely, 2013). Those with serious genetic diseases are encouraged by the Chinese government to accept sterilization and/or abortion (Greely, 2013).

Attempts to connect violent crime and aggressive disposition to genetics have resulted in the discovery of the “warrior gene” (Gibbons, 2004).

Scientists have found an allele that predisposes gorillas, chimps, and other primates, including humans, to impulsive behavior and increased aggression (Gibbons, 2004). There is a gene responsible for controlling the production of monoamine oxidase A, (abbreviated MAOA) an enzyme which breaks down neurotransmitters in the brain. Low levels of the enzyme have been proven to cause increased aggression (Warrior Gene, 2009). The link to increased aggression has been observed in humans, mice, and other primates (Warrior Gene, 2009; Gibbons, 2004). Much speculation has gone into the future of the discovery of the warrior gene with regards to administering punishment for violent criminals.

Nature Versus Nurture In Sentencing Criminals Racial Propensity Toward Crime

Racial concerns often arise with regards to anything which connects violence to DNA (Rumbold, n.d.). For example, increased levels of MAOA reduced violence among those abused as children, but only among white people (Rumbold, n.d.). In New Zealand, researches found the warrior gene to be very common among the Maori people, which suggests future implications of this type of research (Rumbold, n.d.). Approximately 20 years ago, the Association of Black Psychologists claimed, after a conference on genetics and crime, any research of into genetic causes for crime was inherently racist, and others claimed the research was too similar to Eugenics (Cohen, 2011). The National Institutes of Health subsequently withdrew all funding for the conference (Cohen, 2011). Prior to the completion of the Human Genome Project, criminologists were generally prevented from looking into genetic causes and forced to explore only social causes (Cohen, 2011). Now that scientists have now begun to study DNA in relation to diseases, addiction, and even political affiliation, criminologists are beginning to look into genetics again (Cohen, 2011).

In the United States, blacks comprise a disproportionate amount of the prison population (Criminal Justice Fact Sheet, 2014). Whether this should be primarily attributed to the historically poor economic condition of black people in America or to a genetic proclivity is regularly incorporated into political debates (Criminal Justice Fact Sheet, 2014). Of the 2 million currently incarcerated convicts, only 700,000 are of any other race than black (Criminal Justice Fact Sheet, 2014). This disparity has led researches to large numbers of population studies in hopes of determining the causes.

Multiple explanations have been proposed of the disparity in crime rates.

The most common explanation attributes higher crime rates to the lower socio-economic position of blacks and asserts crime is a result of poverty and poor education, although in contrast to this, the study led by Chung mentioned earlier in this paper found different races have significantly different crime rates In the study, 2% of Asians, 18% of blacks, and 11% of whites from impoverished backgrounds fell into the ‘chronic offender’ category (Chung, 2002). Richard Reddick asserts primarily black schools are a “pipeline” to prison, training students such that they go straight to prison out of school (Reddick, 2012). The alternative explanation attributes the disparity to genetics, but little research in the area exists because of the racism claims described at the beginning of this section. A middle ground also exists in explaining violent tendencies. According to an associate professor at Florida State University’s College of Criminology, half of the aggressive phenotype can be attributed to genetics, and half to environment (Cohen, 2011). Future research into this area of science can be expected, as criminologists become comfortable addressing racial questions, but currently, no definitive answers exist.

Justice System Punishment and Violent Predisposition The field of genetics is a relatively new branch of science, and courts have just begun to look at the implications of criminal predisposition (Rumbold, n.d.). Academics are studying and debating how predisposition should affect sentencing (Rumbold, n.d.). On one side of the argument, researches say the presence of a warrior gene or childhood factors increasing risk of violent behavior should be grounds for diminished responsibility or legal insanity; however, critics of this argument claim if a person is naturally inclined to commit crime, a harsher than standard sentence is necessary to discourage recidivism (Rumbold, n.d.).

Although courts and academics currently vacillate on the correct use of genetic information in criminal trials, the ‘warrior gene’ has been used as a defense to argue for lighter sentencing for those convicted of violent crime (Rumbold, n.d.). Research further suggests in the future the gene

184 might instead lead to harsher sentences and other measures in order to protect the public from those proven to be inclined to commit violent acts on impulse. Currently, the gene has been used in court to claim lack of control, and thus reduced responsibility for crime (Rumbold, n.d.).

One such case was the trail of Bradley Waldroup (Hagerty, 2010). His estranged wife was visiting for the weekend with their four children. His wife declared she was leaving with her friend, Leslie Bradshaw (Hagerty, 2010). “Soon, Waldroup had shot Bradshaw eight times and sliced her head open with a sharp object. When Waldroup was finished with her, he chased after his wife, Penny, with a machete, chopping off her finger and cutting her over and over” (Hagerty, 2010). The murder was premeditated, with Waldroup telling his children to say goodbye to their mother prior to murdering her (Hagerty, 2010). Because the case was of first-degree murder, the goal of the defense became to portray the reasons for the murder as favorably as possible (Hagerty, 2010). He sent blood sample to a lab to have his DNA analyzed and the analysts discovered the presence of a gene responsible for low levels of MAOA (Hagerty, 2010). Combined with an abusive childhood, the defense claimed, it causes a 400 percent increase in probability of being convicted of violent crime (Hagerty, 2010). Although these factors did not cause him to commit the crime, the defense claims they affect criminal responsibility (Hagerty, 2010). The issue became most important in consideration for sentencing (Hagerty, 2010). One of the jurors said she felt the genetic difference was sufficient to cause him to react entirely differently from how someone without it would reacted, and the presence of the gene appreciably reduced personal responsibility for murder of his wife and her friend (Hagerty, 2010). The genetic defense ultimately led to Waldroup being convicted of voluntary manslaughter rather than first degree murder (Hagerty, 2010).

A recent and widely known application of the operant conditioning in a court of law is a case involving an affluent sixteen-year-old, Ethan Couch (Affluent, 2013). On June 15, 2013, Ethan drove while under the influence of alcohol and crashed his car (Affluent, 2013). Four people, who had stopped to help a driver in a stalled car, were killed and the impact left two of his seven passengers severely injured, with one paralyzed such that he was only able to communicate with eye movements (Affluent, 2013).

One claim the lawyer used to mitigate his sentence was the teen suffered from “affluenza” (Affluent, 2013). Because of his affluent status his lawyer asserted, he never learned to accept consequences for his actions (Affluent, 2013). Additionally, he claimed Ethan’s parents afforded his absurd amounts of freedom a child would not have normally been given (Affluent, 2013). About the case, one psychologist, Gary Miller, said Ethan never learned to apologize for causing harm to others, “If you hurt someone, you sent them money” (Affluent, 2013). Although the prosecutor requested a sentence of 20 years in prison, the judge only gave 10 years probation and an expensive long-term therapy at an inpatient facility (Affluent, 2013).

The results of the study on childhood poverty by I. Chung mentioned earlier in this paper include as assertion stating one issue limiting the ability of the United States to control the nation’s crime rate is misallocation of resources (Chung, 2002). Chung quotes another criminological researcher, Charles Ayer, who says, “it is ot a matter of whether or not juveniles are delinquent, but what degree the are delinquent. Just 5-10% of criminals commit approximately 66% of crime” (Chung, 2002). Both academics believe crime prevention efforts should use the results of academic research which indicate what demographics are most likely to produce career criminals and primarily target those demographics (Chung, 2002).

Conclusion In 300 years of study, the field of criminology has progressed from speculative and relatively simple theories about the behavior of criminals to a complex science which overlaps with both psychological and social sciences as well as the study of human genetics and the brain, and

Nature Versus Nurture In Sentencing Criminals

society as a whole has reaped the benefits of a more effective and just judicial system. The scholar first examined how the social sciences and psychological advancements allow the courts to better understand career criminals, the patterns they follow, and how to properly administer justice and reduce their rate of recidivism. The researcher then examined the effect of genetics on criminal behavior patterns and its impact on the court system. Academics still must use care in explaining genetic research to avoid unwarranted racism and bias in the courtroom leading to unjust convictions, and while genetic research is still a new field, the potential it has as an aid in regulating the rate of crime cannot be ignored. Currently, arguments presented in court by either the prosecution or the defense use genetic proclivity towards criminal behavior infrequently, but as research progresses, the significance of genetics in the courtroom will only grow as it raises further questions about how the courts should determine criminal responsibility and reveals better understanding of career criminals and how to halt such behavior patterns. The research showed how social factors how may affect an individual with regards to criminal proclivity.

An interesting area for further research would be the nature of psychopaths and their development.

Remaining Questions In this Review of Related Literature, the researcher examined the environmental and genetic factors, which influence criminal behavior and the applications of this information in the American justice system. Factors range from socialization by others who engage in criminal behavior to genes such as the gene regulating the infamous MAOA enzyme, low levels of which increase impulsive and often aggressive or violent behavior.

The information discussed in this paper led to the question, “What is the nature of psychopaths, and how does this difference in brain structure affect the way psychopaths function?” This purpose of this research serves to examine how the difference in brain structure occurs, the ways in which it affects, for example, one’s ability to feel empathy, and how this affects psychopaths in criminal behavior and in careers.

The term ‘psychopath’ was first used in the 19th century, but only in the 1940’s did a psychologist attempt to clearly define the psychopathy diagnosis (Psychopathy, 2013). Hervery M. Cleckley studied psychopathic behavior and drafted sixteen characteristics common to psychopaths, including: lack of remorse, empathy, and shame, tendency to lie, charm, unusual intelligence, unusually rationally and calculated thought, impersonal sexual relationships, and absence of neurotic manifestations (Montaldo, 2014). About 3% of business leaders are psychopathic, compared to 1% of the general population and 15% of the prison population (Babiak, 2010).

Currently, the American Psychological Association, responsible for the guidelines on the majority of mental illnesses used by psychologists in the United States for diagnosing mental disorders, has no classification called ‘psychopath’ but instead uses the term ‘antisocial personality disorder’ (Psychopathy, 2013). The definition of psychopath has changed as well, as researchers have realized psychopaths do not have above average intelligence, and have tried to pin down a precise, consistent definition capable of encompassing all psychopaths (Montaldo, 2014). In a study of prisoners in the United States, psychologists found psychopaths not only lack empathy, often derive pleasure from the pain of others (Decety, 2013).

Structure of the Psychopathic Brain A study in JAVMA Psychiatry discovered in a study of psychopaths a correlation between score on psychopathy tests and lack of activity in the amygdala, and several other regions brain (Psychopathy, 2013). The lack of activity in the amygdala is significant because it is the emotional center of the brain, and suggests psychopaths are incapable of feeling empathy in the manner other humans feel empathy (Wright, 2015). This study was the first to show how the neural processes in the brain of a psychopath differ

185 from a non-psychopath with regards to processing the feeling of empathy (Psychopathy, 2013). The study does not suggest inability of understanding the emotions of others, but rather the lack of emotion accompanying the negative emotions of others.

Another study, conducted by researchers at King’s College London’s Institute of Psychiatry, discovered a difference in the physical structure of the brain of a psychopath and a non-psychopath (Kelland, 2012).

Using MRI scan images to compare the brain structure of psychopathic offenders, non-psychopathic offenders, and people who had not committed violent offenses and were not psychopathic in nature, the researcher team found psychopaths had reduced amounts of grey matter in the anterior rostral prefrontal cortex region of the brain (Kelland, 2012).

This region of the brain is partly responsible for the emotional response to the feelings or suffering of others, and the diminished grey matter in this region for psychopaths shows an important physical link to the psychological diagnosis (Psychopathy, 2013). The researchers responsible for the discovery suggest the new data showing a physical deficiency in the structure of the psychopathic brain may be used as part of a defense of insanity by arguing psychopaths are naturally less capable of appreciating the magnitude of a given offense due to the deficiency in regions of the brain associated with empathy (Kelland, 2012).

Formation of the Psychopathic Brain The exact nature by which psychopaths are formed is a controversial discussion characterized by a wide range of evidence with multiple, conflicting interpretations. Some, such as behavioral geneticist Dr. David Lykken, argue psychopathy is primarily a result of poor parenting or other negative childhood experiences, while other researchers, backed by studies of the development of the minds of twins, promote genetics as the primary factor (Ramsland, 2015). One must note, however, both sides acknowledge neither environmental nor genetic causes alone are sufficient to explain the development of severe psychopathy (Ramsland, 2015). As knowledge of the mind and genetics has increased over the past 30 years, socialization as a primary cause of psychopathy has fallen out of favor, and the role of socialization has generally relegated to a secondary role (Dillard).

Although secondary to genetics, socialization still has been connected to psychopathy in studies of other primates (Dillard). Primates who did not care for their offspring were more likely to produce psychopathic offspring, who, by nature of having psychopathic tendencies, tended not to care for their own offspring (Dillard). This lack of concern for the offspring of the primate in turn, helped perpetuate the existence of psychopathic offspring in primates (Dillard). The practical application can be seen with a child who grows up in foster care. Without a family of his own, the child is likely to experience a change in brain structure from children who did grow up with stronger family bonds and is therefore more likely to develop psychopathic tendencies (Ramsland, 2015).

Behavior Differences in Psychopaths Psychopaths perceive others very differently from non-psychopaths (Mientka, 2013). In most of the population, humans are able to place themselves in the situation of another person to better comprehend the pain of another (Mientka, 2013). The ability of a psychopath to feel the pain of another diminished, as seen in studies of brain activity in prisoners (Decety, 2013). In the study of over 100 incarcerated males by Decety, prisoners viewed images of bodily imagery, and each subject was prompted to either imagine the injury occurring to another person or to himself (Decety, 2013). Brain images of psychopaths taken during the study showed normal stimulation in the amygdala when imagining pain happening to them, but when imagining the pain of others, less stimulation in the amygdala occurred (Decety, 2013). Matthew Mientka, in an article on psychopathy from Medical Daily, describes, albeit dramatically, the

Nature Versus Nurture In Sentencing Criminals

way a psychopath perceives others, â&#x20AC;&#x153;In nature, the psychopath feels no pain beyond his own, an island unto himself in an emotional wastelandâ&#x20AC;?

(Mientka, 2013).

As a result, psychopaths in business typically do not overlap with psychopaths engaging in criminal behavior.

Psychopathy, is not, however, an entirely negative trait. In business, certain psychopathic tendencies increase oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s effectiveness as a leader and allow the person the make practical, calculated decision in the best interest of the company (Crawford, 2012). In an article from NCIB on psychopathy in business leaders, the author notes psychopaths in business typically are charming and capable of subtly manipulating others, whereas in prisons, the psychopaths are usually less socially amicable, and rely on aggressive tactics to accomplish goals, which tends to result in prison sentences (Babiak, 2010). Leaders in business must also perform well under pressure, a notable feature in psychopathic individuals (Crawford, 2012). This trait is likewise beneficial to surgeons performing potentially dangerous operations (Dutton, 2012). Psychopathic traits allow surgeons to operate on patients without being concerned with cutting a person open the same way a completely non-psychopathic person, and should an emergency occurring during an operation, a psychopathic individual will find less difficulty in reacting appropriately without panic or hesitation (Dutton, 2012).

Methodology Purpose This Review of Related Literature led the researcher to conduct research on three null hypotheses and one case study. The potential of different cultures to affect crime rate led the researcher to study whether the more racially divided culture in the United States may provoke more crime than the less racially divisive English culture. Additionally, the researcher decided to examine how a second social factor, firearm restrictions, can affect crime rates through a case study of Glasgow and Detroit.

Null Hypothesis One There is no difference in the rate of violent crime committed in the United States and Britain.

Null Hypothesis Two There is no difference in the rate of violent crime committed against ethnic minorities in the United States and Britain.

Null Hypothesis Three There is no difference in the rate of violent crime committed by ethnic minorities in the United States and Britain Case Study Compare Glasgow and Detroit with regards to rates of violent crime and its causes.

Participants and Sampling Procedure The researcher used existing data on those arrested and those who were victims of violent crime in the US and England in a causal-comparative study to evaluate the null hypotheses. These topics helped the researcher to examine how an environmental factor, the more racially divided culture in the United States, affects the frequency of violent offenses committed by or against different races.

The case study sampled information about firearm regulation and ownership as well as the rate of homicide.

186 Research Design Based on information from the FBI and Ministry of Justice about those arrested and victims, the researcher ran a causal-comparative study to quantify and compare an aspect of violent crime in each country, the rate of crime committed by and against ethnic minorities compared to the overall crime rate. The case study used artifacts and texts about Glasgow and Detroit. These two cities were chosen because they Glasgow and Detroit have some of the highest crime rates in the United States and the United Kingdom, respectively. The researcher used this method because qualitative evaluation of each city provided a better understanding of the factors affecting crime rates than a particular set of statistics would have provided.

Experimental Manipulation/Interventions/Instrumentations As previously stated, data collection was conducted by gathering information on arrests of suspects and self-reports of victims. The researcher chose arrests and self-reports listed by the two agencies because those were the most accurate pieces of information publicly available in both countries. The independent variable for each null was the country, and the dependent variables for each null were: overall violent crime rate, violent crime rate for offenses committed by ethnic minorities, and violent crime rate for offenses committed against ethnic minorities, respectively.

The researcher used arrests for the number of violent crimes committed and for the statistics on how many offenses are committed by a given race, and self-reports for determining the race of victims of violent acts. These were used to generate a table comparing crime committed by and against ethnic minorities in each country. This method was not completely reliable because it assumed the only factor affecting who commits and who is victimized by crime is a cultural difference in race relations.

The comparison of Glasgow and Detroit was conducted as a case study of both cities. For the case study, the researcher examined artifacts and texts concerning the criminal history of the two cities and the laws governing the sale, purchase, and possession of firearms, as well as current ownership rates in each city. The researcher considered most of the information used for the case study to come form reasonably accurate sources; however, the study which determined the gun ownership rate for Michigan was a survey, which is limited by the ability of researchers to gather a representative sample.

Data Collection Data for the three null hypotheses was gathered from the FBI and Ministry of Justice databases on violent acts committed in the year 2009. The timetable was dependent on the accessibility of the information available, but the research was initiated and completed during the month of November 2014. Reminders were not used for this study because the data used was published prior to the time the researcher conducted his study.

Data for the case study came from relevant artifacts and texts on crime committed in each city and laws governing firearms. Reminders were not necessary as respondents were not a part of the study.

Data Collection The causal-comparative studies were described using three sets of descriptive statistics with two independent samples each comparing the relative frequency of crime between the two countries. The null hypotheses were tested using a two-proportion z-test with p1 being the US crime rate and p2 being the English crime rate was used to analyze the differences in crime in the two countries. The descriptive stats used in the case study will be rate of homicide, rate of firearm ownership, along with data on obtaining firearms and restrictions on ownership.

Nature Versus Nurture In Sentencing Criminals

187

Ethical Considerations

No human subjects were used in the any of the studies, and no private information was gathered on any people.

Bias Part of the null hypotheses relied on self-reports of victimization. Victims of murder were necessarily excluded, as are those who may have been afraid or otherwise failed to report an offense. Additionally, the statistics may have been affected by crimes in which the police make no arrests.

For example, in gang-related killings, police often encounter difficulty in determining a suspect, so arrests are rarely made.

For the case study, many articles concerning firearm restrictions were written by authors who felt strongly about the subject and may have consciously or unconsciously misrepresented the role firearm restrictions or lack thereof play in promoting or discouraging criminal behavior.

Figure 1

Assumptions The researcher assumed for the causal-comparative studies arrests accurately reflected crimes committed, both in number of arrests made and the race of the person arrested. For example, police may be more likely to arrest a minority than a white person, but this study could not account for police bias.

Additionally, the data provided a rate of 412 arrests of ethnic minorities per 1,000 arrests in the United States and 926 arrests of ethnic minorities per 1,000 in England, as seen in figure 2.

The researcher made the assumption differing crime rates are at least partially attributable to differing firearm restrictions in each city.

Limitations The null hypotheses examined could not conclusively attribute the differences in crime in the US and England to the more racially divided culture of the United States because not all variables could be controlled.

Additionally, crime rates are affected by a complex myriad of factors, so the ability of the researcher to isolate the effects of different laws governing the use of firearms is severely limited.

Findings Sample For the first null hypothesis, the researcher used the number of arrests for a violent crime compared to the total population of the United States and Britain, for the second null hypothesis, the research used the number of arrests of ethnic minorities for violent crime in the United States and England compared to the total number of arrests, and finally, the researcher used the number of self-reported victims of violent crime who were part of an ethnic minority compared to the total number of self-reported victims in each country. Violent crime, for this paper, was defined as murder, rape, robbery, and aggravated assault.

Survey Findings/Interviews/Observations In 2009, there were 457,375 arrests for violent crime in the United States with 189,029 of those arrested being ethnic minorities, while in England, the police arrested 107,837 people, of whom 99,887 were ethnic minorities, giving an overall arrest rate of 14.599 violent per 100,000 people in the United Sates and 203.42 per 100,000 in England. The graph of this information in figure 1 shows a distinct difference in the rate of violent crime in England and the United States.

Figure 2 Self-reports of violent crime victimization in the United States show a rate of 22.6 victimizations per 1,000 citizens compared to England, with 38.7 victimizations per 1,000 citizens, also illustrated below. The victimization rate seen in figure 3 clearly shows a higher rate of victimization in England.

Nature Versus Nurture In Sentencing Criminals

188

Figure 4 Figure 3

Analysis

The populations used for the United States and England were 316,100,000 and 53,012,000, respectively.

The researcher compared the total population of each country to the total number of arrests for violent crime, and determined a p value of 1. The values used for the second null hypothesis, comparing arrests of ethnic minorities to total number of arrest also produced a p value of 1, as did the third, comparing victimization of ethnic minorities in each country.

In all three cases, the researcher had to uphold the null hypothesis.

Therefore, the researcher concludes the overall crime rate, the rate of crime committed against ethnic minorities, and the rate of crime committed by ethnic minorities is not higher in the United States than in Britain.

The analysis of Glasgow and Detroit found that Detroit had a violent crime rate of about 45 per 100,000, around 17 times higher than Glasgow, which had a violent crime rate of 2.7 per 100,000 in 2013 (Glasgow ranked UK’s most violent area, 2013; MacDownald, 2014). To obtain a firearm in Michigan, one must be 21 years of age or older, be a citizen or legal resident, reside in the state for at least six months, complete the pistol safety course, not to be subject to a conditional bond release prohibiting the possession of a firearm, or personal protection order, or otherwise be prohibited from possessing, using, transporting, selling, carrying, shipping, receiving, or distributing a firearm, have never been convicted of a felony, have not been dishonorable discharged from the United States Armed Forces, or convicted for failing to stop when involved in a personal injury accident, operating a vehicle while intoxicated after more than one offense, seconded offense, found not guilty by reason of insanity, not be under a court order of legal incapacity in Michigan or anywhere else, not be detrimental to the safety of his or her self or any other person, or diagnosed with any mental illnesses (Firearm laws of Michigan, 2013).

The BBC describes the process of obtaining a firearm in the United Kingdom as deliberately convoluted and time consuming, with some of the tightest firearm restrictions of any nation (Casciani, 2010). Police chiefs may revoke a certificate permitting firearm ownership from anyone they feel is unfit to possess a weapon (Casciani, 2010). Certificates must be renewed every five years, and each time, the person must endure the difficult process from the beginning (Casciani, 2010). The first step of the application requires applicants to provide a ‘good reason’ for obtaining a firearm, such as use at a firing range or the purpose of protecting livestock (Casciani, 2010). ‘Referees’ provide private character statements about the applicant, and then research the applicant for signs of addiction or personality disorder (Casciani, 2010). After this, an applicant must show he has a satisfactorily safe container for the firearm (Casciani, 2010).

Including illegal firearms, the number of firearms in Scotland is estimated at 5.5 citizens who own firearms per 100 citizens, while in Michigan, there are about 38.4 citizens with firearms per 100 citizens (White, 2012; Scotland – guns, facts, figures, and the law, 2014). Figure 4 compares visually compares the two rates.

The enormous difference in crime in Glasgow and Detroit correlates with the significant discrepancy in gun ownership rates. Therefore, the researcher posits the data points to a possible relationship between these two factors; however, to eliminate all other variables for the purpose of determining with certainty the two quantities are related would require a complex multitude of studies and is, therefore, not within the scope of this study.

Discussion Prior to testing the null hypotheses, the researcher anticipated a higher rate of violent crime in the United States would be the result of each; however, each null hypothesis indicated higher rates in England than the United States. The first null hypothesis, there is no difference in the rate of violent crime committed in the United States and Britain, indicated a higher rate of overall violent crime, the second null hypothesis, there is no difference in the rate of violent crime committed against ethnic minorities in the United States and Britain, indicated a higher rate of crime committed by ethnic minorities, and the third null hypothesis, there is no difference in the rate of violent crime committed by ethnic minorities in the United States and Britain, indicated a higher rate of crime committed against ethnic minorities. When researching the case study, the researcher anticipated the firearm policies applicable to Detroit would be less effective than those applicable to Glasgow with regard to controlling crime, which the researcher found significant information which corroborated this expectation Findings on English and American Crime Rates Possibilities which explain the differences between the expected results and the actual results of the null hypotheses include differences in immigration and social mobility. Any nation in the European Union must allow its own citizens to leave the country and citizens of other nations in the EU to enter, as the union considers this freedom a fundamental right. Multiple British newspapers attribute increasing crime rates to the influx of immigrants. Immigrants from Europe have moved to Britain in

Nature Versus Nurture In Sentencing Criminals

large numbers, and many newspapers claim the Home Office has affected crime rates by unintentionally allowing those convicted of murder and other violent crimes into the country because officials failed to properly investigate individuals entering the country (Killers, 2014). Also, because many immigrants are attracted to Britain because its economy is better than elsewhere in the European Union, so the possibility exists immigrants who are unable to find work are forced to support themselves and their families through criminal behavior.

Furthermore, the class system in Britain only began to break down during World War I and World War II and as a result, social mobility is quite poor in Britain, so those of lower classes may seek to improve their station in life through illicit means. Conversely, in the United States, although success generally favor those born into wealthier families, one can be born to a relatively poor family and still have a reasonable chance of improving one’s economic position without resorting to criminal behavior.

Findings on Firearm Policies In both Glasgow and Detroit, firearm restrictions were quite strong; however, the process to legally obtain firearms in Glasgow was far more thorough. In Michigan, generally, one can obtain a weapon unless the police find some reason an applicant should be considered unfit, whereas in Scotland, an applicant for a firearm license must prove fitness to possess a weapon to the satisfaction of the local police department. The significantly higher murder rate in Detroit correlates with the easier access to firearms and higher gun ownership rates. However, the researcher’s null hypotheses found a higher rate of overall violent crime in England. Given the firearm restrictions in England are similar, the findings from the null hypothesis detracts from the otherwise obvious conclusion fewer firearms mean fewer violent crimes.

Policy / Practice Immigration may be negatively affecting the English crime rate, so England may consider efforts to reduce immigration through measures such as leaving the European Union. A less drastic measure may simply involve requiring the Home Office to conduct a more thorough screening of potential immigrants. This also suggests immigration in the United States

189 may have a greater impact on the crime rates of states bordering Mexico in the future. Both the United States and England should work to promote social mobility to provide legitimate means of economic improvement as an alternative to criminal careers. Since both countries have high rates of crime committed by ethnic minorities, one possible reason for the crime rate is a lack of opportunity in legitimate occupations, so policies such as affirmative action may help reduce crime rates.

The case study suggests Glasgow is far better at controlling criminals than the United States, and both Michigan and the city of Detroit should attempt to learn from laws and policies implemented in Glasgow to more effectively control crime. More thorough background checks and psychological evaluations may keep weapons from gang members and other potential threats.

Future Research The researcher’s null hypotheses suggest a high rate of victimization of ethnic minorities in both the England and the United States. In the future, a researcher may try to determine the causes for this high rate of victimization so policy makers may more effectively protect members of society from violent persons. Another researcher may also study more ways to reduce England’s overall rate of violent crime, and determine other factors that may be responsible for the lower violence in the United States.

With regard to the case study, the researcher determined a far higher rate of murder in Detroit, than in Glasgow, the city with the highest rate of crime in Scotland. Another researcher may investigate why firearm restrictions in Scotland seem to be effective at keeping guns out of the hands of criminals and where the policies of Michigan fail.

Final Implications The differences in criminal behavior in England and the United States show how differences in environment can encourage or discourage crime, and how legislation or policies can be used to alter environmental factors to deliberately alter crime rates. In Scotland, where firearms are difficult to obtain, criminals seem to be less inclined to commit violent acts, which shows how changing certain aspects of an environment can have dramatic effects on human behavior.

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192

Appendix I: Research Data

Arrests and Victimizations

United States

England

14.599

203.42

Arrests of ethnic minorities per 1,000 arrests

412

926

Victimizations of ethnic minorities per 1,000 residents

22.6

38.7

Glasgow

Detroit

3.3

42.4

Scotland

United States

5.5

38.4

Total arrests per 100,000 residents

Rates of Murder Murders per 100,000 residents Firearm Ownership Firearm owners per 100 residents

The Moral and Social Implication of Allowing Disease, Poor Sanitation, and War to Run Their Course In Order to Reduce Man’s Impact on the Environment and Earth’s Limited Resources John D. Bunch

The Future Of Growth Of The Human Population

Table of Contents

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 The Impact of Overpopulation on the Earth and the Moral and Social Effects of Stopping it. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Sanitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Exponential Growth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Smallpox. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Antibiotics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 The United Nations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Social and More Impacts of Solving Overpopulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Social Impacts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Moral Impacts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Methodology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Purpose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Participants and Sampling Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Research Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Experimental Manipulation/Interventions/Instrumentation. . . 203 Data Collection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Data Analysis Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Ethical Consideration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Findings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Sample. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Case Study/ Survey Findings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Findings on Peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Awareness of Overpopulation. . . . . . . . . . . 205 Implications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Remaining Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Biblical Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Reference List. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Appendix I: Survey Questions and Responses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Appendix II: Quantitative Study Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

195

The Future Of Growth Of The Human Population

Abstract

This Researcher examined the moral and social implications of using natural inhibitors of human population growth, such as disease, to prevent overpopulation from affecting the human species. While the benefits to such a solution are vast, the Researcher found other artificial means, such as wider access to birth control and contraceptives, were much more humane.

The Researcher composed a null hypothesis stating the average life expectancies of developing nations was greater than developed nations in order to analyze average life expectancies and a second null hypothesis in order to analyze Houstonianâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s awareness of overpopulation. For the first null hypothesis, the Researcher conducted a quantitative study using data collected from the World Health Organization, and for the second, the Researcher conducted a survey using respondents from Memorial City Mall in order to reach a wider cross section of Houston society.

After testing the results, the Researcher was able to reject the first null hypothesis but was forced to retain the second. After researching the dangers of overpopulation and its solutions, further questions were explored such as the source of the ignorance and apathy of the American voter and how it can affect the political future of the United States. The Researcher found the source of both phenomena to be rational ignorance, which could allow for the subversion of democracies around the world.

197

Nature Versus Nurture In Sentencing Criminals

The Impact of Overpopulation on the Earth and the Moral and Social Effects of Stopping it

Over the past century, the population of humanity has expanded at an explosive rate. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, humanity reached a rough total population count of one billion. Since then, humanity has increased by a factor of seven, and despite recent trends suggesting the slowing of total population, growth continues at an exponential rate.

This rise in population has been the direct result of better technology, improved medical techniques, eradication of disease, better sanitation, and a general decline in the world’s level of war. With fewer opportunities for death, the population has expanded at a much faster rate over the past century. This massive increase in population has led to a strain on both the earth’s environment and resources. As the population increases, food, water, shelter and other resources become harder and harder to provide in adequate amounts for all mankind. The total population on earth is beginning to reach the point of unsustainability, and if left unchecked, it will eventually lead to mankind’s demise (Olshansky, 1997). From the Black Death of the 14th century to the death of millions of North and South American natives at the beginning of European colonization, disease has been the biggest enemy of mankind throughout history. However, in recent years technological innovation has led to the eradication of many diseases and a general decrease in their mortality rate (Sharpe, 2012).

When combined with the benefits of sanitation and other improvements in modern day quality of life, overpopulation has become a major concern of the 21st century. Despite the indiscriminate killing of disease, infection, and war, all have provided a way for humans to avoid overpopulation and the terror of exhausting the earth’s natural resources (Genuis, 2012). This leads one to ask, How have the prevention of disease, improvements in modern day sanitation, and the decline in war, led to increased population growth and what are the moral and social implications of allowing disease, less sanitation, and war to run their course in order to prevent humans from becoming too much of a strain on the Earth’s environment?

History From the dawn of human history to the rise of the mighty Roman Empire, from the widespread innovation of the Renaissance to the colonization of the New World, only a few things remained constant: taxes and death.

While still a part of life, modern day society has become more concerned with prolonging life and seeking ways to hide from the cold touch of death.

Throughout Ancient, Classical, and Medieval history, death came to all, indiscriminate of background. Whether in the form of disease, infection, or war, one’s life expectancy has significantly increased in Modern times.

Disease Diseases have had a major impact on the development of mankind’s history. In the ancient Fertile Crescent, disease was seen as a weapon of the gods to be used against those who crossed them (Cockburn, 1971). Due to the lack of understanding of diseases, man saw irreverence as the main cause of illness. In man’s eyes, a person stricken by disease had somehow angered the gods. It was suggested that if the sick wanted healing, they should find a way to atone for their evil actions to whatever god they happened to worship (Cockburn, 1971).

The Sumerians were the first civilization to experience the growth of major cities, facilitating the spread of disease in the region (Sharpe, 2012).

Diseases were given the perfect environment to spread at a lightning rate because of the large number of people all living in close proximity to each other (Sharpe, 2012). This fundamental problem with cities continued to exist throughout the Ancient world, yet lack of understanding meant the people of the world knew nothing about it.

199 In Ancient Greece, the city-state of Athens was a perfect example of the power of disease to curb the population (Littman, 2009). In the year 430 B.C.E., Athens was struck by a plague current historians believe to be the first recorded example of a Typhoid outbreak. The infection was spread through the city public water supply and had a high mortality rate due to the lack of any real medicine of the time. In the end, 25% of the population died (Littman, 2009). Disease played a tremendous role in this age of human history and would continue to do so in the next period of human development, but on an even more global scale (Littman, 2009).

In the middle of the 14th century, the Black Death spread like wildfire from the East as traders carried it to Italy on their ships and from there to the rest of the European continent. Carried by fleas on the backs of rats, it spread throughout the known world and caused a large number of deaths (Gosling, 2012). Records show whole villages and cities just ceased to exist as the population was so decimated, any survivors just moved away.

In the end, estimates have placed the European death toll at somewhere between 25% and 50% of the population with a general consensus of about 30%. The total population of Europe at the time was 100 million, meaning around 30 million people were killed by the Black Plague in Europe alone (Gosling, 2012). Disease kept natural limits on the population and prevented humans from overpopulating a region. This natural barrier helped ensure mankind would not consume too many resources and prevented them from driving themselves into extinction. The widespread death and destruction of disease came not only from its own strength, but also from the terrible sanitation in populated centers (Gosling, 2012).

Sanitation Sanitation in cities prior to the 1800s was practically nonexistent (Genuis, 2012). While some attempts were made at keeping cities clean, the concept of sewage and garbage disposal was nonexistent. Because no one understood the practical impact of a sewage system, diseases, consequently, ran rampant throughout populated areas. Mankind did not connect dirty living conditions with the spread of disease and consequently paid the price in human lives (Genuis, 2012).

The vast majority of the Ancient World’s cities used open sewers on the streets to dispose of any kind of waste. Rotten food, human and animal feces, urine, and anything else imaginable was tossed out on the street.

This exposed garbage allowed dangerous bacteria to thrive and easily infect general population due to their close proximity (Cockburn, 1971).

This lack of sanitation allowed epidemics to spread quickly throughout cities despite attempts to stop them (Genuis, 2012).

Mankind’s misunderstanding of how germs function led to failure in the vast majority of attempts to combat disease. This was because mankind ignored sanitation and instead blamed infections and diseases on miasma or the gods (Halliday, 2001). Miasma was simply any kind of bad smell people encountered. Every bad smell from the stench of rotting bodies to the smell of human waste was called miasma and blamed as the cause of disease. Miasma was more commonly blamed for typhoid as well as the different tropical plagues (Halliday, 2001) Anton van Leeuwenhoek postulated germs were the chief causes of disease after observing microorganisms in the 1670s (Smith, 2011). Over the next few hundred years, the germ theory of disease was developed which stated tiny microorganisms were the real causes of disease and that the poor sanitation and close living quarters created the ideal conception and breeding grounds for disease. Following his theory’s widespread acceptance, sanitation became popular in cities throughout the world and the tide in the war against disease and infections began to turn (Smith, 2011). Sanitation also became popular on the battlefield, helping to spark a movement aimed towards lowering the casualties in war.

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War has been a constant threat to humanity since man first walked the earth. Due to human nature, when a man desires something he cannot have he will often use force to get his way (Engerman, 2010). In the same way a thief steals another’s possessions, nations, kingdoms, empires, and tribes have used war to take another people’s land and resources (O’Connell, 1989). History is rife with examples of humans taking on other humans for their possessions, whatever they are. From the ancient Israelites coming out of the desert to claim the Land of Canaan to the German blitzkrieg of Europe in 1939, man has shown himself, justified or not, capable of claiming the belongings of others (O’Connell, 1989).

Throughout Ancient, Classical, Medieval, Discovery, and even Modern periods, war has been widespread (Engerman, 2010). From the first recorded wars between the city-states of the Fertile Crescent to the Seven Years War between France and England, wars have been used to impose control over others and give the instigator more power (O’Connell, 1989).

The large number of single ruler nations, large numbers of people groups, tight alliances, and poor means of communication all served to spark conflicts that often spread to other neighboring regions (Engerman, 2010).

The wars prior to the modern era were usually more brutal than those of today because any wound had a risk of becoming infected and costing a soldier his life. Combined with the large numbers of engagements, the male population was kept from reaching a level necessary to support rapid growth. Population growth was kept at a steady upward climb, but not an exponential one (Gosling, 2012). War combined with other poor living conditions of the day to cause an even greater stunt to the total growth in population.

However by the late 1800s, most warfare was reduced to fighting between smaller professional forces. World War I and II were the final engagements resulting in mass mobilizations of populations and death on a catastrophic scale (O’Connell, 1989). A general decrease in the casualties of war combined with better sanitation on the battlefield helped set the stage for the exponential growth of the 20th and 21st centuries (O’Connell, 1989).

Exponential Growth For the first 5000 years of human history the worldwide human population slowly, but steadily grew to one billion. However, starting in the 19th century population growth turned parabolic. It took millennia for the total world population to reach one billion (Genuis, 2012). The next billion would come only 120 years later. The third billion followed after 40. The fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh each followed over the next fifty years with little sign of slowing (Zaba, 2013). Medical innovation, new sanitation practices, and the creation of the United Nations, all led to better living conditions for the majority of the world’s citizens. At the time, no one thought the eradication of small pox would ever be undesirable; however, in the year 2014, with the potential of a grim future of mass starvation, water shortages, pollution, and the general threat of overpopulation, it appears what once saved mankind might be the very thing that destroys it (Zaba, 2013).

Smallpox At the end of the 18th century, Edward Jenner discovered something that would change the world. Prior to his discovery it was common knowledge the vast majority of milkmaids were immune to smallpox. Somehow, this deadly blight that infected as much as 60% of the population and killed 20% of those it touched, passed over some of the poorest women. Jenner came to realize their immunity must come from their contraction of cowpox (Rhodes, 2014).

On May 14th, 1796, Jenner took what he learned and put it to the test. He took a young boy and infected him with cowpox in order to test his theory.

200 The boy soon showed symptoms of the disease, however since cowpox is a very weak virus and is easy for the body’s immune system to overcome he soon got better. After the boy recovered, Jenner infected the boy with live smallpox virus and observed that he did not develop any symptoms of small pox and showed no signs of having been injected (Rhodes, 2014).

With this discovery, Jenner became famous, but more importantly, the world finally had a weapon against the most powerful enemy of all. Over the next few decades, vaccinations were discovered for whooping cough, measles, scarlet fever, yellow fever, malaria, and many more. By 1940, there had been a 90% reduction in these diseases in children, the most susceptible age group to disease (Zaba, 2013). Each person saved from disease was one more who was capable of reproducing. The rise of vaccines combined with the rise of antibiotics had a multiplier effect on human births and survivability, and consequently was one of the main drivers of population growth (Rhodes, 2014).

Antibiotics Between 1860 and 1864, Louis Pasteur conducted many experiments on the germ theory of disease (Gosling, 2012). He discovered the primary causes of infections were tiny microorganisms that entered the human body from dust particles, insects, and dirty tools. He realized these were the cause of over 50% of surgery patients and not the devil, as had been predominantly believed. Due to the high increase in death from terrible infections such as gangrene, surgery was only used when patients had no other methods left at their disposal (England, 2013). Pasteur, however, discovered that boric acid, when applied directly to the open area, would kill off any harmful bacteria and significantly increased the likelihood of survival (England, 2013).

Combined with other discoveries such as sterilization of surgical equipment and the development of anesthesia, the likelihood of infection from a surgical procedure has dropped to below 2% in the 21st century (Engerman, 2010). Now that doctors and surgeons are able to prevent infections in patients, more extravagant procedures have become possible.

Heart operations, tumor removals, organ transplants, and amputations have all become feasible and, more importantly, survivable (England, 2013).

Surgery has become a major part of modern day medicine and spawned a whole new side of the medical industry dedicated to saving people’s lives.

These new operations allowed many people who would have died in normal circumstance to live on. The discoveries of Pasteur spawned the discovery of even more work that would eventually revolutionize the field of human medicine (England, 2013). Without Pasteur’s work, mankind would never have developed robotic limbs to replace amputations or developed procedures to treat cancer. The discovery of antibiotics combined with the Germ Theory of Disease brought new, practical resources to doctors who had traditionally relied on luck (England, 2013).

The Germ Theory of Disease not only helped increase the odds of human survivability in surgical procedures, it also helped with the understanding of how diseases spread, revolutionizing the development of cities and introducing the concept of quarantine during an outbreak (Gosling, 2012).

While in Medieval times, if one’s neighbor got Bubonic Plague, one was advised to simply hope and pray to God one would not fall ill as well. It was now understood if a person became sick, he or she should be removed from any place where other members of the population could be exposed (Olshansky, 1997).

While major outbreaks of disease, such as the Spanish flu outbreaks of the 1920s, were still common, they were dramatically decreased in scope from the spread of diseases in past centuries (England, 2013). While as much as 30% of Europe died in the Black Plague only 1% of the world’s population fell to the Spanish flu in 1918, even though it was better at transmission. New methods of quarantine would help localize epidemics and while not completely successful, most of the time kept a disease where it originated (Gignoux, 2011).

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Finally, the design of cities was changed under the new understanding of how diseases were spread. Closed sewers became prominent features in cities around the world, and garbage was no longer dumped in the streets (Scott, 1969). Due to the tendency for sewage to cause infections, cities took the initiative and separated it from population centers and disposed of it as cleanly as possible. Landfills were introduced in order to segregate garbage and potentially hazardous waste from population centers. Also, the realization animals were the primary carrier of disease led to cities’ attempts at segregating livestock animals as much as possible (Gignoux, 2011). Before germ transmission was widely understood animals were commonly kept in a family’s house and where they shared the same living quarters. New city ordinances were established that relegated animals to separate housing and facilities usually in a more rural setting (Scott, 1969).

The one notable exception to this policy was the horse, due to its vital role in transportation and other aspects of day-to-day city life (England, 2013).

Horses were allowed to stay on the streets, however, their waste was no longer allowed to linger on the street, but cleaned by workers employed by the city to manage garbage. These workers ensured cities maintained clean streets and kept the sewage systems running (Scott, 1969). These changes in the structure of cities led to the creation of cleaner and safer bastions of health and growth. The increase in city living standards led to a great increase in population growth and sparked a chain of new developments in other aspects of city life around the globe (Scott, 1969).

The United Nations At the end of the 1800s, humanity appeared to be on the brink of a bright new century of peace, prosperity, growth, and innovation. Discoveries of the nineteenth century led people around the world to claim that the twentieth century would be the era that humanity finally discovered peace.

What really happened, were the two biggest conflicts the world had ever seen, World War I and II. At the end of WWI, Woodrow Wilson and other world leaders of the victorious allied powers created an international body of nations called the League of Nations which would help mediate conflicts and attempt to prevent the outbreak of more widespread wars (Carswell, 2013). The League of Nations managed to hold the peace for an impressive twenty-one years until its collapse and the onset of the largest armed conflict ever, WWII (Engerman, 2010).

WWII made the Great War look tame in comparison. In WWI, 8 million soldiers were killed, as well as around 10 million civilians (Gignoux, 2011). By contrast, WWII led to the deaths of 25 million soldiers and civilians. The huge destruction of the war, combined with the terrible war crimes inflicted by the Germans and the Japanese, led to calls around the world for an international union strong enough to keep the peace. After WWII, the United States was the driving force behind the creation of an international union of nations (O’Connell, 1989). This organization would become known as the United Nations. The United Nations was formed in the hopes it would be more successful than the League of Nations in preventing major wars (O’Connell, 1989). While the United Nations may not have always prevented armed conflicts or been the real reason the United States and Russia did not start WWIII, there is no denying there has been no major conflict on the scale of WWII since its founding (O’Connell, 1989).

The United Nations plays a key role in the world. The International Court provides a way for countries to settle disputes without killing, and its peacekeepers provide means to protect civilians in conflict zones around the world (Chronic, 2013). The United Nations, for all of its faults, has managed to do what it was originally meant to do, prevent another world war from striking again. The decline in the number of wars around the world has allowed even greater population growth over the last half century and is one of the primary reasons population growth has dramatically increased.

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Social and More Impacts of Solving Overpopulation It has become apparent to the world humanity cannot continue to expand at the current rate. If the world’s population were to double again in the next fifty years, the world would see widespread famine and shortages of basic necessities such as water and electricity (Parfit, 2004). Much of this new population would be born in developing nations around the world, and therefore, would be unable to deal with the influx of new people. These countries would experience widespread social unrest, as families would be forced to look on as their children and other family members starved.

Many countries throughout Africa are already experiencing shortages in basic commodities, such as water and food (Parfit, 2004). Many African nations have been experiencing unrest for decades and the battles for control of the individual countries’ resources will only continue to worsen (Gosling, 2012). Africa is merely a harbinger of what is to come in Asia, South America, and the rest of the world if population growth cannot be slowed. While the individual birthrates of European and North American countries are low, immigration will ensure that even these countries will be filled beyond their maximum capacity at one point or another (Parfit, 2004). Scientists have shown evidence where the rising number of humans has led to increases in global warming, sea levels, and pollution. Higher sea levels will lead to the evacuation of coastal regions and force many people to relocate inland into even smaller areas. Higher pollution levels will also cause problems with the land and water sources and could help lead to even more shortages around the world. All aspects of our planet’s environment are under fire from the threat of overpopulation (Gosling, 2012). The destructive powers of overpopulation will also lead to problems between the different societies of the world.

Social Impacts The impact of overpopulation on the earth’s environment is likely to lead to social problems on a previously unseen scale (Parfit, 2004). Country to country relations would become perilous and fraught with danger. All the success of the United Nations in the past half-century could be put to an end (Chronic, 2013). Alliances are already forming between countries to control as much of the world’s resources as possible. Large-scale warfare, unseen since the darkest days of WWII, would become relatively common as the struggle for supremacy of the earth’s food, water, energy, and land supplies (Blomqvist, 2013). Societal breakdown could lead to police states, totalitarian governments, and the rise of new empires seeking to ensure the supremacy of their own people. This is already shown in Africa as many of the countries are either controlled by dictators or have descended into anarchy (Parfit, 2004). The losers of this struggle would be forced to supply goods for the dominant powers and effectively be enslaved.

Already, past innovations in medicine are starting to be put to use to save the strong nations while the weak receive the brunt of the overpopulation problems (Zaba, 2013). Socially, the peoples of the world will be forced to fragment into completely separate groups in order to survive in a more competitive atmosphere (Parfit, 2004). Large-scale resource wars could even see the eventual extinction of humans. Humans must seek to find ways to minimize their impact on the earth, yet at the same time not drive themselves into extinction. It would be truly ironic if all the good innovations in medicine, infection prevention, and world peace would be the eventual cause of humanity’s downfall (Blomqvist, 2013).

Moral Impacts The worldwide fallout of resource shortages, pandemics, and major wars would lead to a moral problem for the majority of the world. As certain countries fall victim to the symptoms of overpopulation before others, those who are better off will be forced to decide whether they should help or stand aside (Gignoux, 2011). Currently, the United States

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provides countries around the world with billions of dollars in foreign aid. However, the current level of funding would become unsustainable and would eventually end as it became apparent the United States would eventually come to the same fate as the poorer countries of the world (Blomqvist, 2013). The developed countries of the world are currently obligated morally to help the weaker and poorer countries in the third world. However, the question remains would this continue in the face of overpopulation within their own borders?

strains of overpopulation and the rest of the world will follow soon if nothing changes. The nations of the world must react proactively in order to take a stand against overpopulation before it is too late (Gosling, 2012).

The fight against overpopulation is dependent on how aware people are of overpopulation’s perils. Understanding how aware the general population is of overpopulation and taking methods to provide greater awareness are the keys to making an impact.

In the current world, new diseases have arisen which strike at the third world countries of the world (Parfit, 2004). Diseases such as AIDS threaten the countries of Africa much more than other places in the world.

Currently scientists and researchers around the world are looking for ways to stop the spread of AIDS. Scientists believe they are on the brink of discovering a cure for AIDS that could save the lives of millions of Africans and others around the world. However, is this really smart? The specter of overpopulation and the terrible moral and social problems that could arise from it are apparent to many (Parfit, 2004). Disease was, for most of human history, the reason why population growth was steady and gradual. Preventing the widespread proliferation of cures for new diseases would keep the countries, which are most responsible for the problem of overpopulation, from becoming to large (Blomqvist, 2013). Currently projections show Africa reaching a total population of two billion by the year 2050. As terrible as it sounds, the developed world may be morally responsible to act against this eventuality (Blomqvist, 2013). If fewer steps are taken to prevent disease in countries around the world, the terrible social situations of the future would be prevented at least until technology has increased in order to handle the strain of further growth.

Methodology

Morally, the developed world is obligated to do what it can to prevent the extinction of humanity and disease could be used as a tool to bring about that end. In the short run, such policies would bring about ill will and hard feelings from the poorer countries of the world (Zaba, 2013).

However, these are more than made up by the fact humanity would be preventing even worse problems from occurring in the future. Charles Darwin believed natural selection would help only the strongest to survive.

This policy to fight overpopulation would fall in line with Darwin’s belief (Darwin, 2009). While people of developed countries might also show widespread animosity against such policies, in the end human society would understand and eventually come to recognize its merits.

Conclusion For the vast majority of recorded history, the human population has a grown at a steady rate. Over the past two hundred years, however, growth has accelerated at an exponential rate. In that time the population has grown from 1 billion to 7 billion (Engerman, 2012). Prior to this growth, disease, sanitation, and war all combined to prevent the human population from growing to quickly. Disease had been the greatest enemy of mankind since the beginning of human history, however, with the development of antibiotics, proper sanitation practices, postulation of the Germ Theory of Disease, and the creation of the United Nations, these traditional enemies of mankind were weakened (Genuis, 2012). The work of Edward Jenner and Louie Pasteur helped to further human advances in all fields of medicine and directly led to an increase in the average human life. Finally, the horrors of WWI and WWII led to a recognition that international organizations such as the United Nations could help provide communication between nations and lower the risk of major conflicts spreading to other regions (Parfit, 2004). If the human population continues to grow at the same rate it has over the past two hundred years, then the human race will be driven extinct under the burden of its own weight (Population peril, 2012).

Already, as shown in Africa, humans are running out of natural resources and have been forced to fight over the little that remains. If mankind refuses to take measures against overpopulation then the entire world will face similar consequences. Asia has already begun to show the beginning

Purpose After looking at the current and future impact of overpopulation on the earth, as well as the moral and social implications of curbing population growth, the researcher decided to focus on the level of awareness of the impact of overpopulation in our world. The majority of other researchers used data they collected themselves or others collected. The researcher believed it would be interesting to find out how aware the general population was of overpopulation since no one had done that before. The researcher then decided to focus on how much of a gap existed between the life expectancies in developing countries versus developed countries.

As a result of this, the researcher tested two null hypothesizes.

First Null Hypothesis On average, the life expectancy in developing countries is greater than the life expectancy in developed countries.

Second Null Hypothesis The majority of people believe that overpopulation is a problem in our world today.

Participants and Sampling Procedures To test the first null hypothesis, the researcher considered the population of all developing countries and all developed countries for whom the World Health Organization had a life expectancy on record. The researcher took all developing nations and mixed their names together then randomly drew ten names recording life expectancies from each country drawn averaging them together in order to get an average for all developing nations. The countries were chosen in a random fashion in order to get an accurate average allowing the researcher to quantify the difference in life expectancies between developed and developing countries.

The researcher used an electronic survey to interview a wide range of the Houston population. The researcher included questions on a person’s knowledge of overpopulation, their views on overpopulation, and how it could impact the future. This survey allowed the researcher to qualify people’s responses to overpopulation and their likelihood of acting against it.

The ideal sample for this survey would include a group diverse in religion, race, affluence, and age as this would ideally mirror the population of Houston as a whole. Affluence was the main characteristic the researcher attempted to get a variety of. A diverse range of affluence would ensure that people of all education levels would be able to experience the interview and answer off of the knowledge they have.

Research Design The researcher created a quantitative study to compare life expectancies in developed nations versus life expectancies in developing nations in a descriptive study. The researcher then recorded these country’s life expectancies and averaged them together in order to find an average for all developing nations. This process was repeated for the developed nations of the world then the two averages were compared.

The researcher created a survey through Google Forms to conduct a

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qualitative descriptive study, which produced data analyzed through a statistical investigation of patterns in people’s awareness of overpopulation.

This design allowed the researcher to reach a large cross-section of the population by conducting it at the mall.

Experimental Manipulation/Interventions/Instrumentation The researched used the data to observe the differences between the life expectancies in developing nations versus the life expectancy in a developed nation. This information was found from the WHO website and was adapted into an understandable form. The random selection of countries was to ensure there was no bias in their choosing. This was a reliable method because the WHO is a reliable source and a large number of countries were used in the study. In the end this research will serve as a better understanding of how much a country’s affluence helps with average life expectancy.

In the case of the second null hypothesis, the researcher created a survey containing multiple-choice questions in order to understand how aware people are of the dangers of overpopulation. The researcher used a series of five questions in order to understand people’s view on overpopulation.

The qualitative variable being tested in this survey was the familiarity people had with overpopulation. The survey was very reliable due to the location of the interviews. The survey was conducted at Memorial City Mall by walking around and asking random strangers if they would like to take a few seconds and answer a quick, anonymous survey. The researcher’s survey determined the proportion of people who are aware of the dangers of overpopulation.

Data Collection The data to test the first Null Hypothesis was found on the WHO website under the most recent statistics for life expectancies throughout the world.

The survey for the second Null Hypothesis was distributed through a structured interview at Memorial City Mall. This survey was available to the public from 3:00 to 4:00 in the afternoon on 11/17/2014. This window was small because it was when the researcher collected responses at the mall. No other times were used to collect responses for this survey.

Data Analysis Plan The researcher conducted analysis on the collected data with descriptive statistics. The researcher found the mean life expectancy in each category of countries and then found the standard deviation between the two. The test used by the researcher was a two-sample and a test for the mean. If the developed nations had a significantly higher mean life expectancy than the developing nations, then the researcher would be able to refute the null hypothesis being tested. If the developing nations had a higher mean life expectancy than the developed nations then the researcher would be unable to refute the null hypothesis being tested.

The researcher used descriptive statistics to summarize the results of the survey by calculating. The researcher utilized a one-proportion z-test, where p is the proportion of people who are aware of the problems of overpopulation. If p was a greater than or equal to 50%, then the researcher would be unable to reject the null hypothesis tested. If p was significantly less than 50%, then the researcher had compiled enough evidence against the null hypothesis to validate the alternative hypothesis.

Ethical Consideration In the first null hypothesis, no humans were used in the study. In the second null hypothesis, the researcher used the phrase “I am conducting a confidential survey for my high school. Would

203 you mind taking a little bit of time to answer a few questions” at the beginning of every interview in order to protect the participants in the study. Also the researcher made sure each person was aware the survey was purely voluntary, and they were not required to take it.

Bias In the first null hypothesis, a potential bias found by the researcher was if the WHO database did not have life expectancy records for all countries.

Another potential bias is if countries falsely report their average life expectancies. Both biases could lead to inaccurate data collected by the researcher if found to be true.

Since the survey was distributed in interview form at Memorial City Mall, it was biased against those who do not visit the mall. It was also biased against those who do not go to the mall in the afternoon. This bias could affect the results by not giving more educated demographics their fair share. The survey was also biased against those who cannot speak English. This could affect the results by skewing the results towards less understanding if someone failed to properly read a question because of language.

Assumptions In order to test both null hypothesizes, the researcher several assumption in gathering data. For the first null hypothesis, the researcher assumed the data collected by the WHO was accurate and up to date. The researcher also assumed he had randomly chosen an accurate grouping of countries.

In the second null hypothesis, the researcher assumed each person who answered the survey was honest and made no mistakes in answering the questions. The researcher also assumed the survey was clear enough to carry the point across to the person answering the survey. Finally, the researcher made the assumption that Memorial City Mall provided a representative sample to answer the survey.

Limitations In the first null hypothesis, the researcher experienced several limitations.

The researcher did not study all developed and developing nations. Also, due to a lack of time and money, the researcher did not study differing disease levels in developing countries versus developed countries.

The researcher experience several limitations when it came to conducting this survey. With more time and money the researcher could also have interviewed more people with more questions in more places.

Findings Sample In total, the researcher looked at average life expectancy in ten developed nations and ten developing nations. A developed nation is simply a nation that has achieved a post-industrialized society where the value of the service sector is greater than the value of the industry sector. The researcher randomly chose ten nations in each category from a container. The ten developing nations chosen for the study were Bhutan, Angola, Burundi, Chad, Cuba, Fiji, Colombia, Zimbabwe, Ecuador, and Maldives. The ten developed nations chosen for the study were England, Germany, Japan, Switzerland, United States, Canada, France, Italy, Israel, and Denmark.

The researcher received 54 responses to his survey. In terms of who took the survey, it was limited to people who visited the Memorial City Mall on Sundays. The survey mainly reached middle-aged minorities due to the subject population at Memorial City Mall. The survey was also limited to people who ate in the food court. Finally, the survey was limited to people

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in Houston, because the majority of people who visit Memorial City Mall are Houstonians.

Case Study/ Survey Findings After deciding what countries to use in the study, the researcher found data on each country’s life expectancy from the year 2013. The researcher was aware the World Health Organization kept detailed records on life expectancies around the world and took advantage of this. The researcher recorded the data for both developing and developed countries into a table. After this, the researcher found the average life expectancy of each developed nation and averaged them together. The researcher then found the average life expectancy of all developed countries and averaged them together. The results of the data collection and resulting averages can be seen in Table 1.

Developing Country

Life Expectancy

Developed Country

Life Expectancy

Bhutan

70.8

England

81

Angola

52

Germany

81

Burundi

53

Japan

84.6

Chad

51

Switzerland

82.8

Cuba

79.4

United States

79.8

Fiji

73

Canada

82.5

Colombia

74.6

France

82.3

Zimbabwe

54

Italy

83.1

Ecuador

76

Israel

82.1

Maldives

77.2

Denmark

79.5

Avg.

66.1

Avg.

81.87

SD

11.9

1.6

Table 1 After conducting this research, the researcher noticed a wide discrepancy in life expectancies for developing nations. In contrast, the developed nations had life expectancies with a much lower difference.

The first questions on the survey focused on the second null hypothesis and determined a person’s understanding of overpopulation. The researcher used the question “Do you think overpopulation is a problem in our world today?” to test the validity of the null hypothesis. As seen in figure 1, 43% of respondents responded “yes” to this question. 54.7% of respondents responded “no” to this question. This number was not high enough for the researcher to conclude that the majority of people believe overpopulation is not a problem in our world today. The researcher noted the general lack of apathy about the dangers of overpopulation. The researcher became aware of a general lack of indifference due to the fact that Americas are sheltered from many of its effects. Despite the general population’s relative understanding of its existence, they do not realize what needs to be undertaken to help curb more population growth. Most people stated they believed overpopulation would eventually curb itself.

Figure 1 Analysis In order to statistically analyze the data from the World Health Organization, the researcher utilized a two-sample.

For the first null hypothesis–the average life expectancy in developing nations is greater than the life expectancy in developed nations–the researcher used only data from the World Health Organization. While the average life expectancy of ten different developing nations or developed nations could deviate from the researcher’s results, the researcher believed that ten countries chosen randomly was not enough for the differences to become statistically relevant. After conducting the 2-sample, the P value obtained was .0012, which was significantly less than .05. Also the standard deviation between developing countries was 11.6 years while the standard deviation between developed countries was 1.6 years. As a result, the researcher must reject the null hypothesis and uphold the alternate hypothesis that the average life expectancy in developed nations is greater than the life expectancy in developing nations when considering the data for life expectancies in the year 2013.

For the second null hypothesis–the majority of people believe overpopulation is currently a problem–the researcher performed a one-proportion z-test to determine if the majority of people are unaware of the problem of overpopulation. The P value was found to be .14. This value was greater than .05 which forced the researcher to retain the null hypothesis that the majority of people believe overpopulation is currently a problem. Although the sample proportion of those who view overpopulation as a problem was less than 50%, the difference was not large enough to make an inference that the population proportion would also be less than 50%.

In summary, the first null hypothesis was rejected, leading the researcher to accept the alternate hypothesis that the average life expectancy in developed nations is greater than the life expectancy in developing nations. The second null hypothesis was retained leading the researcher unable to refute the majority of people believe overpopulation is currently a problem.

Discussion The findings from the researcher’s survey and case study contributed to the discussion found in the Review of Related Literature. As shown before, improvements in the treatment of disease, better sanitation, and a decline in war have all led to the increased specter of overpopulation.

Nature Versus Nurture In Sentencing Criminals

The effects of overpopulation have already started to be felt in the poorer nations of the world. The researcher sought to test the differential effects of overpopulation on life span in developing countries and conducted a case study to find evidence. It was also shown in the Review of Related Literature many people are unaware of the problems of overpopulation and the researcher conducted a survey in order to test the average citizen’s knowledge of the subject. The researcher believed few people understood how dangerous overpopulation could be and sought to determine if a lack of understanding was the reason. In summary, the researcher wanted to validate the higher life expectancies of developed nations and determine the proportion of Americans who believe that overpopulation is a problem in order to reach a greater understanding of the level of awareness of this potentially devastating problem.

Based on the Review of Related Literature, the researcher concluded the effects of overpopulation would begin striking poorer nations first. Since one of the primary symptoms of overpopulation is a much lower average life expectancy, the researcher decided to conduct a causal-comparative study using developed and developing countries in order to determine the validity of this claim.

The previous conclusion of the researcher had been developing nations had a much lower life expectancy than developed nations due to their less developed health care systems and much poorer economies. After conducting research and running data analysis, the researcher concluded developed nations had much higher life expectancies with their average life expectancy being over fifteen years greater than the developing nation’s average life expectancy. This data decisively showed how developed nations are much more capable of dealing with rising populations.

Also in the Review of Related Literature, the researcher looked at socialized health care systems around the world and despite their general ineptness, the researcher recognized their superiority over what poorer nations are forced to deal with. In the end, the findings concur with what was put forth in the Review of Related Literature. With the rejection of the null hypothesis, the researcher concluded life expectancies in developed nations are higher than the life expectancies in developing nations on average. This connection between affluence and life expectancy is vital to learning more about the impact of overpopulation.

Findings on People’s Awareness of Overpopulation The researcher discovered the dangers of overpopulation and the world’s general lack of response in the Review of Related Literature. The researcher questioned if the lack of responses over population was connected to a lack of education among the general public and decided to test whether the majority of people were aware of the dangers of overpopulation. The researcher believed if lack of education was one of the primary inhibitors of action against overpopulation then action must be taken in schools to provide greater understanding.

After the researcher conducted the survey, he found only 54.7% of respondents were worried about the dangers of overpopulation. While this was a majority of respondents, it was not enough to be statistically significant. Thus, although the majority of the sample believed overpopulation was a problem the researcher could not conclude the same would be true for the population.

205 The researcher suggests poorer countries that wish to cut down on overpopulation must seek greater education for women, greater education in general, and promote greater economic growth in order to cut back on overpopulation. The researcher also found, despite a significant portion of the populace’s understanding of overpopulation, increased education could still allow others to become aware of the fight against overpopulation.

The researcher also believed there was an opportunity to discover how the media had influenced people’s opinions of overpopulation.

Conclusion In conclusion, the researcher studied the public’s understanding of overpopulation and compared the life expectancies in developing countries to the life expectancies in developed countries. In the Review of Related Literature, the researcher explored the exponential growth of population and its impact on the future of humanity. The researcher, during the data collection, focused on how aware the public was of overpopulation. This focus was to determine if a lack of education on the problem helped to contribute to it. The researcher determined a large portion of the public in Houston is aware of the problems of overpopulation, yet not a clear majority. Also the researcher discovered that many people have a general apathy for overpopulation’s problems and believe they will solve themselves. The researcher then compared this apathy and ignorance with the majority of the population’s ignorance of American politics and showed how the root cause is rational ignorance. In the end, most people do not see themselves benefiting enough to familiarize themselves with what appear to be obscure facts and politicians who they view as not being very impactful in their lives. After conducting this research, the researcher noticed similarities between ignorance of the general population with overpopulation and the “ignorance and apathy of the American voter.”

Remaining Questions In democratic societies throughout the world, political ignorance has thrived despite all attempts to combat it. Nowhere is this more true than the United States where voters are supposed to make wise decisions about who they vote for, yet often have no clue what their chosen candidate stands for. This political ignorance has been shown in numerous polls over past years such as a 2006 Zogby poll in which only 42% of respondees could name the three branches of the federal government (Shafer, 2013).

Another example is a survey in which only 28% of respondees could name at least two of the rights listed in the First Amendment of the Bill of Rights.

Examples of this ignorance abound. Polls have been published showing that Americans are not aware of Roe v. Wade, the lengths of politicians’ terms, or even how many people are in the United States Senate (Shafer, 2013). The list goes on and on and appears to show there is no end to American ignorance. Further proof of American apathy can be seen in the participation rates in American elections. Usually, voter turnout ranges around 40% at mid-term elections and 60% for presidential elections. This appears to be pitifully few for such an important process in a democracy.

Implications

Political ignorance and apathy is not just a modern problem. Since polling has become popular, the ignorance of the public has been seen, just to greater and lesser degrees over the past decades (Shenkmen, 2008). Many researchers, political pundits, and politicians have attempted to diagnose the root cause of this ignorance. Prior to the internet and major cable news networks, it was speculated that ignorance occurred due to difficult access to political information. When political ignorance persisted even after the development of twenty-four hour news shows and the rise of the Internet, it was theorized that too much information was the cause (Shenkmen, 2008). Both of these theories fail to adequately explain the real reason for ignorance of democratic governments and their activities.

The evidence found by the researcher has important implications for the future of how humanity responds to the growing threat of overpopulation.

In 1957, Anthony Downs, an American economist, coined the term rational ignorance to explain the reason why a majority of citizens are

In summary, the evidence found in the survey did not fully satisfy the conclusions the researcher drew from the review of related literature. The researcher was forced to retain the null hypothesis and conclude that the majority of people are not aware of the dangers of overpopulation.

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206

seemingly out of touch with what occurs in politics. He proposed that in a democracy, one individual’s vote is not important to the result of an election in the sense few elections will ever be decided by a single person meaning if one person chooses not to vote it will not affect the outcome of an election. Simply put, to this one person it is not a valuable use of their time to participate in an election. For these individuals, the cost (how much time it takes to vote, driving to where one votes) is far greater than the potential benefit (their vote deciding an election). These people believe they can shirk their responsibility to vote and hope others will carry the electoral weight for them (Williams, 2001).

power in pre-World War II Germany, it was quite apparent from reading Mein Kampf what Hitler’s plans for dealing with Jews and other minorities was (History Learning Site, 2014). Often times the rational ignorance of voters does not matter right up until the day when it is the most important thing. Government activities are unimportant right up until the day when they directly affect one’s life for the worse. Voter apathy and ignorance, despite its rationality, is one of the most dangerous things for every democracy in the world. Political awareness never matters until suddenly, as shown throughout history, it does.

This inherent cost to benefit way of looking at elections carries on into political knowledge. Since elections occur very rarely and the vast majority of acts carried out by the government do not affect oneself, the costs do not actually outweigh the benefit. In this case the costs are the time spent researching candidates’ views and familiarizing oneself with government legislation, while the benefit is remaining informed about government actions. Generally the people who are familiar with politics are highly interested in it and so see a much higher benefit than the majority of people (Downs, 1957). This interest can be compared to avid sports fans who have memorized the statistics of an entire team or gun enthusiasts who can name every weapon and what ammunition it fired in World War I. Most people’s ignorance and apathy of politics, in the end, results from a subconscious rationality which determines becoming acquainted with what the government is doing is not beneficial enough to that individual to do (Downs, 1957).

Biblical Connection

Rational ignorance, despite its existence, is not a real justification for ignorance. Despite the perceived lack of benefit to being politically aware, it is vital to democracies that citizens understand what is going on. Politicians often abuse rational ignorance by giving benefits to their constituents and deferring the costs to others. People tend to see the handouts because it benefits them, but fail to understand how it hurts them (Downs, 1957) Some more extreme examples of abusing rational ignorance are found when leaders throughout history have played on the ignorance of voters and been elected despite their extreme views. Prior to the Nazi’s rise to

The Bible mandates Christians to help others, as he would want others to help him. According to Matthew 10:5, man “is to Heal the sick, raise the dead, cleanse lepers, cast out demons. You received without paying; give without pay.” The Bible expressly tells Christians that they are to do all they can to help others. As Christians carry out this mission they must be careful. As man continues to save more people from death and the population continues to grow exponentially, the dangers of overpopulation and potential extinction grow. Due to the Bible’s mandate to help others as well as its mandate to care for the world it is clear humans cannot continue to save everyone blindly with no thought to the cost.

However, at the same time it is not right for humans to turn their back on the Bible’s instructions for healing the sick. Christians are called upon by the Bible to provide care for those who need it. If we fail then we are directly going against the Lord’s calling. However, it is impossible to neglect our duty to be good stewards of the earth and manage our total population. It is the duty of Christians to find a middle ground between overpopulation and healing the sick in order to do what is right. Christians must remember that faith in God is of the upmost importance and it is only through his plan we can succeed. Phillipians 4:19 says God will provide for all needs and if Christians are to take this seriously then they must learn to rely on him. As Christians we must do our best to follow his leadership and carry out his will to the best of our ability. It is only through God’s will and following his path that the human species will succeed.

Nature Versus Nurture In Sentencing Criminals Reference List

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(2013). Pakistan Armed Forces Medical Journal, (3). doi:10.1016/ S0140-6736(94)90566-5 Cockburn, T. (1971, Feb.) Infectious diseases in ancient populations.

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207 Halliday, S. (2001). Death and miasma in victorian London: an obstinate belief. US National Library of Medicine, (323), 1469-1471. doi:10.1073/neno.0914274108 Littman, R. (2009). The plague of Athens: Epidemiology and paleopathology. The Mount Sinai Journal Of Medicine, (5), 456-467. doi:10.1002/msj.20137 O’Connell, R. (1989). Of arms and men: A history of war, weapons, and aggression. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Olshansky, S., & Carnes, B. (1997). Infectious diseases—new and ancient threats to world health. Population Bulletin, (2), 2. doi: 10.1423/ pbio.9183956 Parfit, D. (2004). Overpopulation and the quality of life: Essays on population ethics. 7-22. Netherlands, Springer Netherlands.

Population peril. (2012). Charleston Gazette, 1-2. doi:10.1874/ pnas.0819023 Rhodes, J. (2013, July 15). The end of plagues. Kirkus Reviews. doi:10.1633/ pono.0541082

Engerman, D. C. (2010). Reproducing power?. History & Technology, (1), 61-67. doi: 10.1002/path.1700540408

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England, R. (2013, Winter). Louis pasteur: A light that brightens more and more. The Objective Standard, 8(4), 49+. doi: 10.1002/path.170053020

Smith, K. (2011). Edward Jenner and the small pox vaccine. Frontiers in Immunology, 221. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2011.00021

Genuis, S. (2012). What’s out there making us sick?. Journal of Environmental And Public Health, (2), 509-537. doi:10.1124/ jpet.105.084145

Sharpe, P. (2012). Explaining the short stature of the poor: Chronic childhood disease and growth in nineteenth-century England, (4), 1475-1494. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.2011.00629.x

Gignoux, C., Henn, B., & Mountain, J. (2011). Rapid, global demographic expansions after the origins of agriculture, (15), 6044-6049. doi:10.1073/utep.0914274108

Zaba, B., Calvert, C., Marston, M., Isingo, R., Nakiyingi-Miiro, J., Lutalo, T., & … Ronsmans, C. (2013). Effect of HIV infection on pregnancyrelated mortality in sub-Saharan Africa: Secondary analyses of pooled community-based data from the network for analysing longitudinal population-based HIV/AIDS data on africa (ALPHA).

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Nature Versus Nurture In Sentencing Criminals

Appendix I: Survey Questions and Responses

208

Appendix II: Quantitative Study Results Developing Country

Life Expectancy

Developed Country

Life Expectancy

Bhutan

70.8

England

81

Angola

52

Germany

81

Burundi

53

Japan

84.6

Chad

51

Switzerland

82.8

Cuba

79.4

United States

79.8

Fiji

73

Canada

82.5

Colombia

74.6

France

82.3

Zimbabwe

54

Italy

83.1

Ecuador

76

Israel

82.1

Maldives

77.2

Denmark

79.5

Avg.

66.1

Avg.

81.87

SD

11.9

1.6

Cultural Comparisons of Beauty and American Influence on the Worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Perception of Beauty Emily A. Detiveaux

Beauty Comparisons In Culture

211

Table of Contents

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Aesthetics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Symmetry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Asian Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Blended Asian Beauty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 China. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 African Culture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Blended African Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 South Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Western Culture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Germanic Culture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 European and British Culture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 American Culture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 The Cultural Influence of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Methodology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Purpose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Participants and Sampling Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Research Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Experimental Instrumentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Data Collections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Data Analysis Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Ethical Consideration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Findings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Sample. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Findings and Observations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

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Table of Contents (continued)

Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Remaining Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Biblical Connection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 Appendix I: Survey Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Appendix II: Survey Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Survey Key: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Symmetrical Answers: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Percentage of those who chose one of the two symmetrical images:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Appendix III: Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Appendix IV: Case Study Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

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Abstract

This Researcher examined the definition of beauty, the perceptions of beauty, and America’s influence on these perceptions in different cultures. The Researcher’s intention was to analyze the history bringing cultures to the current day perceptions of beauty, and to quantify a subject normally derived from subjective opinion. In order to complete this study, the Researcher composed one null hypothesis and one case study. The null hypothesis tested the effects of facial symmetry on one’s perception of beauty, and found it does contribute a significant effect. By conducting a case study, the Researcher compared the influence of American beauty ideals on other cultures by analyzing one popular magazine from America, Europe, Germany, Asia, and Africa. The Researcher concluded each magazine had a majority of shared American beauty traits. The Researcher then explored a remaining question stemming from the previous research regarding the harmful effects of the drugs and procedures people take in order to make themselves more beautiful. After brief study, the Researcher found there were harmful effects to every drug and procedure, ranging from short-term side effects to detrimental long-term impairments.

Beauty Comparisons In Culture

The world has, for a long time, dictated to its population what is considered ‘pretty’ and accepted whether through media, political leaders, art, or advertisement. These ever changing dictations of what is considered attractive have left people constantly changing themselves to maintain an appearance acceptable to society. With the importance the world has placed on physical appearance, the original meaning of beauty must be revisited. Beauty can be defined as the combination of qualities that makes a person or thing attractive as perceived by an individual according to the Merriam-Webster dictionary. While the object of interest may be constant, the perceiver’s observations may differ. What factors influence these observations is a subject up for discussion. First, one must understand the meaning of beauty before making conclusions regarding where these opinions of beauty derive. Beauty can be seen in two different ways: subjectively and objectively. Subjectively, scientists recognized personal experience as a factor in the perceptions of beauty.

At first glance, when one is subconsciously rating attractiveness, the observer’s idea of what is beautiful and what is not is based on the faces he or she has seen thus far in his or her life (Menadier, 2012). For example, if one grows up surrounded by super models and then ventures out into the ‘normal’ world, his or her expectations of beauty will be much higher than that of a common person. The common person of the ‘normal’ world will define beauty based on the variety of faces he or she sees every day, whereas the person of the super model world will define beauty based on the faces of the models he or she sees every day, exemplifying how views of beauty are solely based on the surrounding which a person has been accustomed to. Therefore, the person of the super model world will think greater amounts of these “normal” people are unattractive. Another factor studied is the environment. If a culture has a certain style exhibited by its people, then this style sets the standard for beauty in the eyes of the culture’s inhabitants. For this reason, people may be attracted to those within their own cultures as opposed to those from outside cultures.

Another lesser-known object of subjective beauty is that of personality.

It is no secret that stereotypically, physical appearance is where the first judgments are made, but personality and character are close seconds.

Studies have shown, however, that in some cases, personality and social traits are favored more than physical attraction in dating (Menadier, 2012).

With this information, only the surface of the mystery behind beauty has been touched. From history, it can be derived that as long as there have been cultures, there have been norms of beauty. In considering body type, facial features, personality, etc., it can be observed these expectations differ depending on the location of the observer. To understand these different outcomes of cultural expectation, one must understand the context and history from where these norms are coming.

History Culture Culturally speaking, history reveals different possible influences on perceptions of beauty. For the purpose of this paper, the Researcher will be focusing on European, Asian, Western and African cultures. For example, in medieval times, European culture was based on a phenomenology of cultural tradition where Europeans respected the ideas passed down to them and looked on them as examples of truth and wisdom (Eco, 2002).

This lack of imagination and tie to tradition can be exhibited in Mark Twain’s novel, A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court, where a nineteenthcentury American is thrown back to the sixth-century. Even when this futuristic American tried to introduce advanced technology and ideas, the Europeans responded in disbelief, only investing thought in what they had been taught their whole lives (SparkNotes Editors, n.d.). The European importance on tradition affected every aspect of European life, including beauty. Chinese culture is also a region with strong traditional values. In late imperial China, the symbol of beauty was exhibited in lotus feet or foot

215 binding. Lotus feet were the symbols of femininity, beauty, hierarchy, and eroticism. It was more than just outward attractiveness; it was a source of identity and livelihood for many. Women even protected their feet from contact with men who were not their husbands. The popularity of lotus feet faded as a result of national propaganda from Chinese intellectuals and Western missionary organizations in the late 1980s. From then on, it became a symbol of national shame (Wang, 2000). Finally there is America, whose actions seem to affect multiple cultures. The expectation of beauty in America has changed drastically over history. For example, between 1890 and 1910, middle-class Americans began stressing the importance of thin bodies and dieting (Stearns, 2002). Continuing through the roaring twenties, as the economy improved, the women became more free, and their wardrobes became more daring. As their roles and their rights were changing, their skirts seemed to get shorter, creating ripple effects in other countries.

Aesthetics Aesthetic sources of beauty can be analyzed in two main sections: perceptual sources and conceptual sources, as well as other minor sections (Zaidel, 2010). Perceptual sources of aesthetic beauty deal with the processing fluency of the perceiver where the more fluently a person can process a visual object, the more positive the aesthetic response will be (Tan, 2011). A factor contributing to this processing fluency is semantic priming, a highly consistent processing advantage relating to meaning in language or logic, as it can increase judgments of aesthetic pleasure (Kellenbach, Wijers, & Mulder, 2000). To further observe how the brain actually processes beauty, scientists averaged images of faces together.

It was shown these faces were seen as more beautiful to the observers, leading to the conclusion it is easier for the brain to process faces based on the mental prototype; the average of all the faces the observer has seen.

In basic terms, the brain likes anything it can process easily. The closer a face is to the observer’s mental template, the faster this image can be processed, supporting the argument our perceptions of beauty depend on the environment and the kinds of faces exposed to the observer (Tan, 2011).

Symmetry There are many points of argument in deciding what are the true factors of aesthetic judgment, most of which include figural goodness, figureground contrast, stimulus repetition, symmetry, or prototypicality (Reber, Schwarz, & Winkielman, 2013). For the purpose of this paper, the Researcher will examine only the factor presenting the most, symmetry.

Symmetry, the similarity between the right and left sides of the face according to modern scientific beauty, is an unconscious source of judgments on beauty (Tan, 2011). Human faces are mainly symmetrical not in size or function, but in content (Zaidel, 2010). Symmetry can be seen in other forms of creation besides human beings. For example, scientific observation reveals swallows prefer symmetrical tails and zebras prefer balanced colored leg bands. In history, the first people to recognize the significance of symmetry were the ancient Greeks, who believed the secret to beauty was “golden proportions.” Meaning the width of the face would ideally equal two-thirds of the face’s length. The nose should also be no longer than the distance between the eyes, bringing up the question of why symmetrical faces are more attractive (Tan, 2011). According to a study on sex appeal, beautiful people are generally healthier and live for a longer period of time; thus, deductive reasoning shows that people with symmetrical faces are healthier. This leads to the theory beauty is an advertisement of genetic quality or fertility (Highfield, 2008). One example of this is estrogen markers, such as fat deposits in the upper cheek and lip areas. Estrogen is a signal of fertility or readiness for reproduction. Thus, estrogen markers are considered attractive to male observers. However, hormone levels vary with age, making the female face “masculinize” as it

Beauty Comparisons In Culture

gets older. Estrogen markers can then be seen as a symbol of youth, or the optimal fertility period. Not only can estrogen markers signal fertility, but they can also signal health. In readying the body for reproductive effort, it is necessary to have plenty of estrogen. Those who give off facial estrogen markers have a surplus of estrogen and thus can afford to divert estrogen away from their reproductive system (Highfield, 2008). Therefore, females who have estrogen markers are strong enough to handicap their vital functions and instead use their estrogen for outward displays of genetic quality (Senior, 2003). These observations reveal the basis of the argument over where exactly beauty is derived. Whether it is the result of scientific facial attributes, such as symmetry or trait advertisements, or cultural influence, can lead one to ask what is beauty, and how do different cultures perceive beauty? How has America influenced the perception of beauty around the world and what is its social impact on other cultures?

Asian Culture Blended Asian Beauty Asian cultures recognize the importance of appearance on a woman’s future marital prospects, job prospects, social status, and earning potential. As a result, they place much importance on skin color for the determination of beauty. The level of “whiteness” is one of the most driving Asian qualities in female attractiveness and it can be seen through the increase of demand for skin whitening products; specifically in India, Hong Kong, Japan, and Korea (Li, Min, Belk, Kimura, Wis Bahl, 2008). Whitening products include applying miansoo lotion, or dregs of honey to the face. Desire for whiteness in Japanese women can be traced back to the Edo period where women applied white powder to their faces. In Korea, women with less freckles or scars have long been preferred. In India, women bathed in turmeric, the boiled, dried, cleaned, and polished rhizomes of Curcuma longa, because light skin is considered a mark of class.

Historically, Chinese women have been known to ingest powdered pearls in order to become whiter (Li, Min, Belk, Kimura, Wis Bahl, 2008). With all of these historical accounts of Asian skin color, research reveals Asian perceptions of beauty out-date that of Western cultures and colonialism since Caucasian and Eurasian ideals of beauty were a postcolonial pattern, leading researchers to believe the current Asian standards of beauty are a mixture of contemporary Western ideologies with traditional Asian values (Li, Min, Belk, Kimura, & Bahl, 2008). However, one of the differences between Eastern and Western beauty is displayed through religious idols.

Eastern religious idols are considered especially beautiful when presented nude, representing a shift away from beauty in material items. Western religious idols are exactly the opposite showing clothed depictions of gods, revealing religion as an additional way to determine a person’s perception of beauty (Jain, 2005).

India Specifically in India, there has been a notable change in the typical woman’s appearance. Especially in post-liberalization India, there has been an increase of time and money invested in appearance. Since India contains a colossal market for consumer products due to massive population size, they have been heavily influenced by outside forces. After the liberalization of India, media industries bombarded Indian women with makeup and fitness products. The use of media and advertisement from outside countries was strongly utilized in order to grow markets in India. With all these points of influence, Indian women are turning away from tradition in the pursuit of other pleasures (Munshi, 2001). All Indian women, however, express their beauty through the clothes they wear. Whether it is the traditional garb, such as the Saris, or a dressier garb, such as the Salwar kameez, Indian women are harshly judged on their choice of clothing (“Indian Culture,” 2004). What makes India stand

216 out against other Asian cultures is its perception of what the ideal body type is. Indian women “naturally have full bosoms and waists,” and, “have persuaded men this conformation is the highest degree of perfection” (Jain, 2005). For this reason, a poll of Indian students showed the ideal Eastern woman is one who is voluptuous and curvaceous with big eyes and a strong nose. In India, women seem to be the controlling factor of the perception of beauty as opposed to in most other countries where it is the man’s opinion that matters (Jain, 2005). Another factor to Indian beauty is religion. Because of the strong history of Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism, and Sikhism in India, religion has a strong influence on the treatment of beauty in a respectful manner. For example, Hinduism suggests beauty should be displayed with actions and behaviors rather than appearance.

The Hindu dictation of goddesses as plump and round figures shows the lack of judgment on appearance. Indian people appreciate the beauty of what is presented in his or her house of worship, and he or she reflects this perception onto the definition of ideal beauty (Jain, 2005). While India embraces these different body types because of their religion, other cultures value thinness, such as China.

China The history of Chinese beauty is a history that is more complicated to follow.

Thinness has always been a significant aspect of Chinese beauty. Chinese men valued the dainty, frail, woman with narrow waists and a posture that resembles a woman walking in heels. A smaller, weaker woman is easier to control, appealing to the Asian male. One way women tried to fit this desire was by foot and waist binding, as discussed earlier (“Cross-cultural,” 2009). Girls as young as seven would wrap their feet tightly to stunt their growth, and would virtually cripple themselves to be beautiful. The use of foot binding was primarily exercised on the upper-class and middle-class women up until 1901 since the peasant women needed their feet to be in excellent condition to work in the fields (Stanford, 2013). The feet of upper and middle-class women were more than just an outward expression of beauty, but they were also an inward expression of identity. For example, as discussed earlier, women often protected their feet from men who were not their husbands (Wang, 2000). On the other hand, through media, specifically American films of the 1920s and 30s, Chinese women have also been portrayed as suppliant concubines who used their beauty to gain political and economic power. While this theory holds some truth, China is predominantly a male driven society where women have little political power (Billingsley, 2013).

African Culture Blended African Culture African women are different than other cultures in body style. In Africa, curves are preferred more than in other parts of the world. Women are expected to physically show their feminine qualities because of the importance the culture stresses on being a mother, thus their bodies must show strength and the ability to carry children (Von Poser, 2012). One example of strength is from scars. Women in Ethiopia’s Karo tribe practice self-scarring because it is considered extremely attractive as well as a form of adornment (“Long necks, stretched,” 2014). Another traditional attribute still embraced by the Masai of Kenya are elongated ear lobes by the use of stones or pieces of elephant tusk (“Long necks, stretched,” 2014).

Today’s African woman, however, has strayed away from her traditional appearance. Achieving beauty in Africa is about adding multiple fake attributes to one’s presence. For example, the importance of African hair, the attribute that attracts the most attention, is explained by Akua Djanie as a ‘beauty myth’. Whether influenced by Brazilian, Russian, Indian, or Peruvian hair, having fake hair, such as a weave, is expected of beautiful women, dictating the standards of nails and eyelashes to be fake and long.

Beauty Comparisons In Culture

Not only that, but society also gives African women another fake attribute; the lighter the skin, the more beautiful the woman (Djanie, 2013). Women go so far as to apply dangerous bleaching chemicals to their skin, despite the risk of cancer. Some lightening creams have even been known to contain Mercury compounds that leave long-term side effects (Djanie, 2013).

South Africa This desire for lighter and brighter skin can specifically be seen in South Africa. The history of apartheid in South Africa has left many misconceptions about beauty in African society that will take years to countermand. The desire for lighter skin can be considered as one of these misconceptions. In South Africa, ‘pigmentary conformists’ are unattractive as well as those with a dull, drab, dusty, or scaly complexion.

Brightness is the chief quality to strive for. This goal is often sought after through the use of skin-lightening creams to treat conditions such as acne, melisma, and postinflammatory hyperpigmentation. The use of so many whitening chemicals in Africa exemplifies just how much western culture has infringed on worldwide traditional values (Dlova, N., Hendricks, N., & Martincgh, B., 2012).

Western Culture Germanic Culture While almost all cultures have a certain standard of beauty and fashion that is central to people’s perceptions, such as thinness, Germany seems to be the country that stands out against these trends. Instead of a fake and enhanced beauty, Germanic cultures favor a more natural beauty with limited make up (Eternal Voyageur, 2012). Since natural and inner beauty are strongly valued, cosmetic surgeries are not something one would find common here (Eternal Voyageur, 2012). Another aspect of German beauty is how beauty is directly correlated to wellness, a concept involving the rejuvenation of the body and soul (Eternal Voyageur, 2012).

While Germans contain numerous of attributes different than those of other cultures, one of their biggest differences is revealed in the fashion world. Most fashion capitals have a sort of unspoken guideline, using thin models, but German beauty goes against the grain. One trend that has transformed into a major problem is the health of models. Since Paris, Milan, and London have a vast control over the fashion industry, their actions serve with great influence. The numerous designers in these cities create exceptionally small sample sizes of new clothing, encouraging models to become thinner in order to model for these companies. This issue has grown to such proportions that 19 Vogue editors worldwide have created a six-point health initiative policy (Von Poser, 2012). While this policy faces opposition from designers who claim the desire for thinner bodies derives from other sources, Germanic cultures strongly stand out against these expectations for models. One example of German frustration is shown through a women’s magazine editor who explained the constant Photoshopping necessary to beef-up their models. To protest this fashion standard, the magazine’s new motto involves more natural appearing models and less lifeless faces. They prefer to present models that Germans can identify with (Von Poser, 2012). For these reasons, among others, Germany stands apart from the rest of European beauty.

But from where does this beautiful curvy body-type come? When looking back to Nazi Germany in 1934, the beautiful German women wore no makeup or jewelry and did not use any enhancing products to change their appearance (“Natural beauty in,” 2008). Some of this came from their view of French and Jewish women as weak. Since the French and the Jewish were petit in size, the Germans associated small body types with weakness. The ideal woman was to be strong and able to bear many children. The Germans also believed “Western cultures had created an

217 ugly and unnatural beauty” (“Natural beauty in,” 2008). They associated gaudy appearances with Jewish and easy women, which was not how the superior Germans wanted to be perceived. Their value of natural, earthy women still remains important today. While other cultures need to wear heavy make-up or change their hair or clothing, German women do not need to blend in with the flawed Western ideal of beauty; the rest of which followed a general pattern of European culture.

European and British Culture British culture follows much of what is generally exemplified throughout Europe. Europeans tend to classify beauty in three aesthetic categories: ideal beauty, which represents nature by means of an assortment of features, spiritual beauty, which conveys what should be through the eye, and useful or functional beauty. Historically, these three categories began when people first attempted to assign a structure to the image of beauty. For example, On Beauty: A History of a Western Idea, by Umberto Eco, gives a mathematical formula as a sample of this structure. Pythagoras was the first person to quantify how the origin on all things derives from numbers.

Since ancient times, proportion, joined by color and light, has also been used to identify beauty. The concept of symmetry, as previously discussed, followed next. Putting these aspects together created a harmony that has for years been strived for in European culture. With this foundation, aesthetic beauty took form. Early European aesthetics were portrayed through paintings and sculptures that were influenced by the religious and spiritual leaders, patrons of the art, Feudal Landlords, and the rich.

The period of the Renaissance, however, allowed for the newly rich and independent practitioners to experiment and give their own interpretation in art, bringing a new appreciation for light, the new principle of beauty (McEwen, 2009). Generally speaking, British culture, as previously seen in many other cultures, does not value a dark complexion. An author studying primitive culture shows how even Shakespeare portrayed dark women as not beautiful in his writings (Gummere, 1892). In Medieval times, the idea of different perceptions of beauty arose with the understanding that beauty is dependent on senses and the recognition of pleasure. In the early 1800s, these perceptions progressed to romanticism and dandyism, emphasizing class, style, and attire as beautiful. Continuing into the period of industrialization, the large working class population began to dictate art, and thus beauty, suggesting that what is beautiful in society could simply be based on who makes up the majority of a product’s audience.

For example, if the majority of a culture consists of a working class, and the working class prefers modesty and elegance rather than flashy displays of wealth, than the market for beauty and the media will compete for the workers’ approval in order to receive his or her dollars. Moving into the 20th century, symbolism, impressionism, expressionism, surrealism, and cubism began transforming the manner in which people view representation. The introduction of photography and movies displaying images of magnificent celebrities suddenly transformed the perception of beauty into a system dictated by mass media (McEwen, 2009). This new weapon of advertisement later proved to be a valuable asset of marketing products, such as beauty products across the world, allowing Western countries, specifically America, to influence foreign perceptions of beauty by constantly showing them what should be considered beautiful through media. America used this weapon to as well as the combination of existing cultures to be a role model throughout the world.

American Culture The United States contains many characteristics that apply to the idea of American beauty, such as thin, blonde, blue-eyed women. Although these are characteristics of the ‘beautiful’ American, these are not characteristics of they typical American. Following the concept of the American dream, the typical American seems to think that simply by living here, where there are so many economic opportunities, means effort is not necessary

Beauty Comparisons In Culture

for success. This lazy attitude has not only taken a toll on the education and occupation of citizens, but also on health. America has become widely known as a country with an overweight population. With a fastfood restaurant on every corner, why use effort to make a healthier meal?

With about 72% of the United States population overweight, America tops the obesity charts at about 7% above England and 12% above Australia (Rampell, 2010). At this rate, about 75% of the population will be overweight in 2020 (Rampell, 2010). While it will take years to eradicate obesity, if ever, many Americans still cling to the ‘beautiful’ ideal as discussed earlier, resulting in several methods of dieting. The general consensus of scholars is dieting began in the roaring twenties, a time of women suffrage and economic independence. The increase in political freedom resulted in an increase of food consumption, weight, and thus dieting; however, scholar Katharina Vester believes the origin of dieting dated back to the 1860s with the white, male, middle-class population. In a time of building white superiority, the white men built muscle and lost weight, exhibiting the control over their bodies. The increase in female dieting in the 1890s can then be seen as an attempt of the female population to obtain the same privileges as their male counterparts (Vester, 2010).

The dieting for both men and women continues on to the present as the anecdote to plentiful fast food and a rushed life style. Today, the ideal body type in America can be seen in beauty pageants such as Miss America.

Between 1979 and 1988, these women exhibited a body weight 13% to 19% below the healthy and expected weight for women that age (Wiseman, Gray, Mosimann, & Ahrens, 2006). An increase of dieting and exercise articles could also be seen in women’s magazines between 1959 and 1988.

The stress on American women to be thin is so great, eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia have become quite common (Wiseman, Gray, Mosimann, & Ahrens, 2006).

The Cultural Influence of America Not only does America instill these expectations on their own citizens, but also on the members of other cultures. America’s beauty influence dates back to the late 19th century. The market for French perfume brands became international and globally joined the beauty ideal. The idea of Paris as the capital of beauty became renown and the U.S. took this idea and ran with it. Hollywood began using mainly white celebrities in global advertising as well as exports of film and television. Once America started broadcasting beauty pageants overseas, it helped form and sustain the Western beauty ideal (Roberts, 2013). From there, the Western ideal can be seen in several cultures such as Asia. Traditionally, Chinese beauty includes the trait of narrow eyes, but now, wide eyes are more desirable. Western culture and medical technology introduced cosmetic surgery to China, encouraging the Chinese to conform to western standards (Roberts, 2013).

Black women are also heavily influenced by western culture, specifically from America. The U.S. pushes many skin and hair ideals that exclude the majority of black women. A study on this stress on black women has revealed the pressure to change can go so far as to affect self-perception, academic achievement, sexual behavior, employment, marital status, and mental health. Those with dark skin, whose hope of reaching the Western ideal skin color is farthest from reaching, experience detrimental effects on life trajectory, deriving mostly from internalized self-hatred (Bryant, n.d.).

With all this information, one can clearly see the effects of western beauty in other cultures, but why do women sacrifice so much of their traditional values, and even their health, to be what is considered ‘attractive’? One opinion is simply because of the value of beauty (Miller, 2010). Physical attractiveness is valued of high importance in every culture, even though each culture may emphasize different aspects. The majority of the time, the value of beauty can be classified as either social or market value (Miller, 2010). The social value is fairly simple; the more beautiful a woman is, the more attention she gets, and the more options she has regarding male relationships. The market value of physical beauty is the advantage

218 attractive women get in economic situations. Regardless of opinion, women can make millions of dollars for being beautiful. For example, beauty does play a large part in an employer’s decisions when highering for jobs involving human interaction. Companies want their employees to represent the company in their actions as well as in their image. An attractive staff is certain to be more visually welcoming and enticing to customers. For this reason, a beautiful woman with excellent skills is much more likely to be highered than an ordinary-looking woman with excellent skills (Miller, 2010). These advantages of attractive momen ring true in every culture. A specific example of the economic benefits of women is the famous tennis player, Anna Kornikova. A world renown athlete, it may come as a surprise to find out Anna has never won a WTA title, nor has she ever been in the top seven female tennis players. Why is she so popular then? Despite her lack of tennis achievements, Anna is a physically attractive person. Thanks to her appearance, Kornikova makes more money than the estimated 100 better tennis players than she (Miller, 2010).

It is all in the advertisements. Just like the beautiful woman who gets hired over the ordinary-looking woman with the same skills, companies also want attractive faces for commercial advertisements. Anna Kornikova was this attractive woman, and for that reason she was paid more regardless of skill (Miller, 2010). The United States was able to identify this trend in the success of beautiful women, and as a result, adjusted their advetisements abroad to further appeal to this type of woman. After examining the social and economical influence America has on other cultures, sometimes comparing American culture to another culture is like apples to oranges.

Although the United States has immense influence, America itself has changed and constantly changes its beauty standard. After the Civil Rights Movement, the decolonization in Asia and Africa, the economic growth of other countries such as China and India, and the increasing number of American minorities, America has developed what can be seen as a “mosaic beauty” (Roberts, 2013). In this day and age, most people, when thinking of America, do not have a specific picture in mind. This blending of cultures causes one to rethink what beauty really is. Does beauty stem from culture or does culture stem from beauty? With the information researched so far, it can be concluded as a culmination of both. Art and music have always seemed to have a muse or a person of influence, but these, as well as other forms of expression, can also be a way for people to influence others (Miller, 2010).

Conclusion All cultures have trends of beauty no matter where they came from.

Although they may emphasize different aspects of beauty, the combination of tradition with outside influence has brought them all to where they are today. For example, Asian cultures generally recognize the importance of appearance on a woman’s future marital prospects, job prospects, social status, and earning potential, and place much importance on skin color for the determination of beauty. In Africa, traditional values exhibit women who are expected to physically show their feminine qualities because of the importance of being a mother. However, African women have strayed from these values, and now are expected to have many fake attributes such as nails, hair, and lighter skin. In Western cultures, generally all Europeans and Americans prefer women with a thin body shape, although the Germans, like the traditional Africans, are the exception.

While all of these cultures have generated from different origins, they are all influenced somehow by Western culture, especially by America.

By taking the international markets by storm, America used media and advertisement to sell beauty products over seas. American beauty pageants were also broadcast in different countries, giving foreigners a Western idea of beauty. Slowly but surely, the idea of Western beauty began invading the traditional values of other cultures, so far as to make women sacrifice so much of their traditional values, or even their health, to be what is considered ‘attractive’. Socially, America has set the standard in other

Beauty Comparisons In Culture

cultures of what physical appearance to strive for. These same standards of beauty also have economic implications in other cultures. Beautiful women are always hired over ordinary-looking women with the same or even sometimes slightly greater skills. In general, beautiful women are simply able to make more money. When thinking about what this ‘ideal American woman’ looks like however, it is difficult to establish one specific image since America’s perception of beauty is that of a combination of cultures. This causes one to rethink what beauty actually is.

With the information regarding the different appearances of women in different cultures, the researcher then proceeded to gather data in order to support the idea America has influenced the beauty perceptions around the world. In order to do this, the researcher tested one null hypothesis and conducted one case study.

Methodology Purpose The origin of this null hypothesis was due to the previous success of related studies. For example, many studies on facial attractiveness and symmetry have been completed in the past, however, this researcher now approaches the same concept in an opposite order. Instead of analyzing attractive faces for symmetry, the researcher analyzed a person’s proclivity to chose a previously determined symmetrical face as opposed to a non-symmetrical face.

Since research has indicated the change in the physical appearance of women all over the world was due to the influence of America, the researcher decided to test this statement by comparing foreign women in magazines to American women in magazines. This case study was chosen in an effort to highlight the similar characteristics of women in American magazines as compared to European, Asian, and African magazines.

If similar traditional American features were found in both American magazines as well as in those of other cultures, it then provides sufficient evidence of the influential powers of America in terms of beauty ideals.

Null Hypothesis Facial symmetry does not affect one’s perception of beauty.

Case Study A study of the standards of beauty exhibited in advertisements in European, Asian, and African cultures as compared to American culture.

219 used the same pre-determined questions and images in a survey.

In opposition to the null hypothesis, the case study was a qualitative study.

The researcher analyzed magazines for certain characteristics, therefore putting the particular advertisement into a group: an advertisement on Americanized characteristics or an advertisement without American characteristics. By collecting artifacts and texts from each culture, the researcher could further understand the amount of influence the United States has on other cultures.

Experimental Instrumentation As previously mentioned, the researcher chose to conduct the survey in the form of an electronic structured interview. This method was chosen for its ability to be quickly and widely distributed, as well as for the ease of recipients to evaluate symmetrical faces. The researcher created this instrument and selected all photographs used in the survey. The qualitative variable being measured was identified as the tendency for people to chose symmetrical faces. The reliability of this instrument can be derived from the random order the pictures were presented. For example, answer choice ‘a’ was not always a symmetrical face. This random order was the same for every participant. For each participant, the same faces were used in the images. This experimentation was also reliable because of the certainty of the symmetrical faces. Two images in each series of photos were perfectly symmetrical since they were a reflection of one half of the face. With this certainty, it was valid to conclude this survey summarized the relative frequencies of people to choose symmetrical faces.

As for the case study, the collection of artifacts and texts in the form of magazines was chosen for the ease of the identification of American traits in this medium. The researcher created this instrument, and chose for what traits to search and what magazines to analyze. The traits the researcher chose as qualitative variables were skin color, body type, makeup, hair, and other observations. When the researcher examined the magazine chosen to represent America, the researcher identified which traits within these variables would be set as the standard American traits for the continuation of the case study. This study summarized the frequency of American characteristics in advertisements of different cultures. The magazines chosen were popular magazines in each region, representing the high influence capabilities of said magazines on the surrounding area.

Therefore, if the traits found in these magazines reflected American ideals, it would then follow that the United States has significant influence in said region.

Participants and Sampling Procedures

Data Collections

The null hypothesis tested generally analyzed the American population.

Recipients were not limited by age, gender, education, or race, however his or her age, gender, and location were recorded. The survey was sent out in the form of a convenience survey, e-mailed to those whose contacts the researcher already had in possession. The recipients then had the power to voluntarily pass on the survey to whomever he or she desired.

The researcher’s survey testing the null hypothesis was distributed electronically through e-mail. Data collection began on October 29, 2014.

At the first checkpoint, on November 6, 2014, 90 responses were recorded.

On the second data checkpoint, on November 13, 2014, 102 responses were recorded. Throughout the collection there were no reminders sent out to possible participants.

To conduct the case study, the researcher chose one major city in Europe, Asia, and Africa, and examined one popular magazine involving beauty from each of these regions in comparison to one popular magazine in the United States. This sampling method was chosen to quantify the influence of American qualities on other cultures in the form of specific characteristics present in magazines.

As for the case study, observations were made by searching for a predetermined list of qualities in pre-selected magazines. By November 6, 2014, the magazines and the variables to be analyzed were chosen.

Research Design The survey used to gather evidence against the null hypothesis is a quantitative study, analyzing the numerical data representing those who prefer symmetrical faces against those who do not. This descriptive study was conducted in the form of a structured interview, where the researcher

Data Analysis Plan The results of this researcher’s survey were summarized by the percentage of people who chose symmetrical faces as opposed to those who did not.

The hypothesis test used was a one-proportion z-test where p was the proportion of people who preferred a symmetric face to a natural face.

The results of the case study were reported as the percentage of American characteristics in each foreign magazine. The comparison of these percentages then showed which cultures were more affected by American influence.

Beauty Comparisons In Culture

Findings

Ethical Consideration

Throughout the gathering of evidence against the null hypothesis, all responses received were completely voluntary. The survey was e-mailed out, but the recipient was not required to respond. If he or she chose to respond, his or her response was anonymous. As for the case study, no humans were used in the process.

Bias When concerning bias in terms of the design of the quantitative study, not all fifty states were represented in the pool of survey responders. The survey also could only reach those with computers. When considering bias surrounding the instrument itself, the vertically stacked pictures may have made it difficult to attain accurate responses. The participant had to scroll up and down to compare pictures as opposed to viewing them side by side. The ability to read English was another point of bias.

220

Sample The survey testing the researcher’s null hypothesis was conducted during the period between October 29, 2014 and November 27, 2014. In total, there were 110 responses received. The youngest age recorded was 14, while the oldest was 61. The gender of the responders was 71% female and 29% male. People responded from a total of 19 states (see Map 1) and 5 countries (see Map 2), including the United States.

When choosing the magazines to be tested in the case study, the researcher only selected one magazine per culture. It was then assumed that particular magazine represented the advertisements of that culture as a whole.

Another point of bias can be seen in the determination of what traits were American. The researcher was the only one who chose the method of making this selection.

Assumptions Assumptions that had to be made in order to conduct the null hypothesis test included the assumption the sample of participants represented the American population. It was also assumed the survey recipients gave honest answers, as well as answered questions by themselves without the influence of another’s opinion. The questions being asked in the survey were also assumed to give valid data to test the hypothesis.

Map 1

In the case study, it was assumed the American characteristics seen in foreign magazines were there because of American influence not because they were the culture’s own beauty ideal apart from America. In addition to this supposition, it was also assumed that the magazine chosen to represent America accurately represented American beauty ideals, and were not from the influence of any other country.

Limitations If a wider variety of people could have been studied, the researcher could have studied the attractiveness of facial symmetry in other countries.

The survey could have then been sent to people overseas. This was not a possibility, however, because the researcher did not have access to the contact information of people overseas. Even in the smaller scope of the American population, the researcher did not have access to the e-mails of people in every state.

In order to increase the accuracy of the case study’s findings, the researcher could have studied multiple magazines from each culture to more precisely represent the culture as a whole. The researcher chose not to do this, however, due to time restraints, as well as the belief one magazine from each culture would provide sufficient data.

Stemming from this subject of study, the researcher could have studied people’s attractiveness to their own race or to people who look most like themselves. The researcher could have also studied the effect of personality on attractiveness. A case study of commercials in different cultures as related to American cultures could also have been an area of study.

However, in order to enhance this particular study the researcher chose, the researcher could have personally visited cities in different countries.

This would have provided a first-hand account of the presence of American influence in other cultures.

Map 2 As for the case study, the magazines selected represented each region studied previously in the review of related literature: America, Europe or the West, Asia, and Africa. To represent America, People magazine was selected from New York, New York. To represent Europe and the West, British Vogue was selected from London, England. To represent Asia, Femina was selected from India. Finally, representing Africa, Fairlady was selected from Cape Town, South Africa. In addition to these sources, the researcher decided to analyze one magazine from Germany, since in previous research Germans indicated a separation from the rest of Europe in terms of beauty ideals. In order to test the American influence on Germany, the researcher chose Donna magazine from Offenburg, Germany.

Findings and Observations As previously discussed, the survey contained eight questions involving three pictures each for the respondent to pick the most attractive photo.

Beauty Comparisons In Culture

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Series 2 In the survey results, as seen in the graph above where the blue represents symmetrical responses and the red represents asymmetrical responses, 53% of survey responders chose a symmetrical image. In the second series, 69% chose a symmetrical image. In the third series, 70% chose a symmetrical image. In the fourth series, 40% chose a symmetrical image. In the fifth series, 51% chose a symmetrical image. In the sixth series, 62% chose a symmetrical image. In the seventh series, 79% chose a symmetrical image.

Lastly, in the eighth series, 60% chose a symmetrical image. By averaging these percentages together, the researcher found the average percentage of symmetrical faces chosen in the overall survey to equal 60.5%.

As shown in series 2 regarding body types, 100% of the women in Vogue were described as “skinny.” In the German magazine, Donna, 78.57% were “skinny.” In the Asian magazine, Femina, 77.3% were “skinny.” Finally, in the African magazine, Fairlady, 100% were “skinny.”

When conducting the case study, the researcher first analyzed People to establish which traits were most prevalent in America. The researcher found the majority of models and celebrities observed had light or fair skin, a “skinny” body shape, heavy makeup, and brown hair. When analyzing body shape, the researcher used the term “skinny” to mean the appearance of weighing below the average healthy amount for someone at that age. Whether a model was considered “skinny” or not was left to the discretion of the researcher, and is recognized as a subjective perception.

These traits were then searched for in the magazines from other regions.

Series 3 As shown in series 3, the European magazine, Vogue, showed 65.2% of their models wore heavy makeup. In the German magazine, Donna, just 20% wore heavy makeup. The Asian magazine, Femina, showed the most heavy makeup at 72.7%. Lastly, the African magazine, Fairlady showed 40% with heavy makeup.

Series 1 As shown in series 1, out of the models observed from the European magazine, Vogue, 100% had light and fair skin. From the German magazine, Donna, 100% had light or fair skin. From the Asian magazine, Femina, 0% had light or fair skin. Lastly, from the African magazine, Fairlady, 70% had light or fair skin.

Series 4 As shown in series 4 regarding hair color, 69.6% of models in the European magazine, Vogue, had brown hair. 25% of women in the German magazine, Donna, had brown hair. In the Asian magazine, Femina, 90.9% had brown hair. Finally, in the African magazine, Fairlady, 55% had brown hair.

Beauty Comparisons In Culture

Series 5 This data lead to the conclusion that, as seen in series 5, Vogue contained an overall average of 83.7% of American beauty traits. Donna contained an overall average of 55.89% American beauty traits. Overall, Femina had an average of 60.2% American beauty traits. Finally, Fairlady had an average of 66.25% American beauty traits.

While the researcher made no particularly interesting observations among the survey findings, the case study did reveal some interesting information. While the prior research revealed Americans prefer blondes to women with other hair colors, it was surprising for the researcher to discover about 65% of the models used in People had brown hair.

Analysis The hypothesis test used for the survey was a one proportion z-test, where the P-value was determined to be 0.01. Since this value is less than 0.05, the null hypothesis was rejected. The researcher came to the conclusion people prefer symmetrical faces as opposed to non-symmetrical ones.

Analysis of the case study revealed that over 50% of each category within each magazine reflected American beauty traits. The exceptions to this included the skin category in the Asian magazine, the makeup category in the African magazine, the makeup category in the German magazine, and the hair category in the German magazine. Every magazine had an overall majority of shared American beauty traits, showing just how much influence America has through media around the world. For example, the African magazine, Fairlady, contained 70% fair skinned models, when in fact South Africa is only 8.9% white (“The World Factbook,” 2014). Even though some of the people in these cultures physically look different than Americans, the case study confirmed their women portrayed in media look generally similar to Americans.

Discussion At the conclusion of the findings, the researcher found the survey analysis agreed with the review of related literature. The survey showed people generally prefer symmetrical faces as opposed to asymmetrical ones, resulting in the rejection of the null hypothesis. With all of the research conducted and data collected, this information could alter the practice of marketing companies. It is well known that magazines commonly edit and touch up the appearances of models to make them almost perfect, whether that be a change of skin tone, complexion, body shape, etcetera.

If more companies also began to edit the symmetry in the faces of their advertising models, it could create more sales of the magazines and of the products. This policy does not need to be confined to the fashion world, but can be extended to the world of politics. If politicians were made to look more symmetrical in political campaign photographs and videos, Americans may have an increasing proclivity to side with and vote for these politicians as a result of his or her attractiveness. The same can be applied to make actors look more symmetrical. If attractive faces are

222 placed in promotional film or television photographs or DVD covers, this will attract more buyers. In the case of books that include images of people on the covers, this policy could also prove useful. The same could be said for the appearance of musicians on album covers. The situations where this policy proves useful are endless, and the use of symmetry is a powerful vehicle that can help propel companies forward.

With the discoveries uncovered throughout this research process, this data could prompt future research in related subjects. For example, the practice of using seemingly flawless models in magazines can create an unrealistic image in the minds of young women in what they should look like. An excellent example of this in America is Barbie. The Barbie doll is a Western creation that places the ideals of western beauty into a plastic role model. With a slim body, blonde hair, and her little dog, the Barbie doll has given children an image to aspire for. When trying to branch out into international markets, Barbie began manufacturing the World Collection, exhibiting dolls from Chile, Argentina, Spain, Brazil, and Mexico.

Although their goal by creating these dolls was to introduce new cultures to young girls in a relatable way, some argue these dolls promote hackneyed, and some offensive, stereotypes (Capobres, 2013). Other problems with this product are many people believe it causes eating disorders as well as promotes shopping and dressing up as what life is about. While it is easy to criticize the cons of owning a Barbie doll, there are also reasons to argue from the other side. For example, the dolls created a world for girls to use their imaginations and generate a life for Barbie. With more than eighty different Barbie professions, it can also show girls that a woman can be whatever she wants to be. One can argue this gives girls a woman to aspire to be rather than a “perfect” woman they must be (Smith, n.d.).

However, no matter from which side it is viewed, it is undeniable that the Barbie doll and models alike leave a lasting impression on girls around the world. Whether this impression is positive or negative, however, is up to speculation.

Another question that arises from this topic is the question of what people value most in attractiveness. Some people value physical appearance more than others, while other people consider personality an important factor of attractiveness. Everyone seems to have a different balance between these two categories. It is possible that the factors of attractiveness could be specific to the region of the observer. Answering these questions would not only be an answer simply to curiosity, but it would also provide more marketing tips for different industries. Specifically in books, movies, or television shows, the progression of a character could be appealing to a larger audience if the knowledge of this audience’s perception of attractiveness was known.

When considering the case study, the researcher also found this data agreed overall with the findings in the review of related literature, in that every magazine analyzed contained at least 50% of American beauty traits as seen in models. While the overall purpose of the case study agreed with the previous research, more specific data was uncovered throughout the process that disagreed with earlier study. For example, in the review of related literature, the researcher found Germany to show different beauty ideals than the rest of Europe. The difference mainly involved the preference for body type. While the rest of Europe used extremely thin women in advertisements, Germany claimed to value a more natural appearance that mirrored the average German. However, when the researcher analyzed the German magazine, Donna, about 79% of the models were what the researcher considered ‘skinny’. Even though this percentage was high, magazines from other countries did contain a higher percentage of skinny models than the German magazine. The cause for the use of skinny models in Donna could simply be an example of just how much American advertising has influenced Germany. It is not so surprising to see a magazine from a place like Europe contain substantial amounts of American beauty ideals since both cultures had similar ideals to begin with. In Germany’s case however, the original ideals were very different

Beauty Comparisons In Culture

than that of America. The idea that this culture, which had so much of an individual opinion, is now transforming into the American standard was startling. This further confirms the researcher’s earlier proclamation of the strength of American influence through advertisement.

Another example of a data disagreement between the case study and the review of related literature concerns the American hair color preference.

In the review of related literature, research showed the average American prefers blonde haired women to women with other colored hair; however, when analyzing People magazine, the number of blonde haired models seen was significantly outnumbered in comparison to women of other hair colors. In fact, about 65% of the models in this magazine had brown hair.

While the researcher found this information surprising, it was possible that this data did not disagree with the previous research. This magazine could be trying to appeal to a broader audience of women by using more models with whom Americans can identify with. While research showed blondes to be the preferred woman, this does not mean the majority or average American is blonde. If this magazine was trying to reach a male audience, perhaps they were not aware of the American trend to see blonde haired women as more attractive. It is also possible the mixture of blonde models and models with other hair colors was purposely used to attract both the male and female audience. The use of numerous brown haired models could also be due to the ability to alter the appearance of these models. Certain brown haired models can be made to appear from a different race then they actually are. These models can be especially valuable to the world of fashion and media, since they can be made up to attract audiences of various races and ethnicities. The more people a magazine can identify with, the greater the pool of potential readers.

Another surprising part of the case study findings included the models seen in the African magazine, Fairlady. As mentioned earlier in the case study results, this magazine had 70% fair skinned models. However, when compared with the World Factbook, South Africa is only 8.9% white (“The World Factbook,” 2014). Out of all the calculations gathered, this is one of the most surprising numbers. This, along with all the other surprising data points, only further confirms just how much America can influence other countries. Even in a place where the American ideal skin color is almost never seen, the magazines in this same place will still advertise American beauty traits.

Continuing on from the research completed in the case study, some companies may find a change in policy beneficial. Every magazine seems to have a trend of models who all appear relatively the same. If a magazine, or any advertisement for that matter, used a greater variety of body types and skin tone, the magazine would become relevant to a much broader audience. Especially in a melting pot like America, appealing to different ethnicities would drastically expand the range of consumers. This policy could be used not only in the fashion world, but in movies for example.

Movies that include a cast of a variety of ethnicities appeal to a wider audience. This can also be applied to the characters in television shows as well as the characters in books. One place that commonly uses a variety of ethnicities is in staged pictures of an organization. For example, when colleges send out information to prospective students, they often include a photograph containing students of varying appearances in order to appeal to all races of possible new students.

The information discovered during this case study could provoke future research with related questions. For example, while some people value the opinions of magazines and read them almost religiously, there are those on the opposite extreme who pay no mind to this form of media.

An interesting point of research could be to calculate how much citizens of other countries value magazines versus how much Americans value magazines. This certainly would be an important factor on how much power of influence a magazine has on its readers.

Conclusion

223

The Scholar found all cultures have trends of beauty despite their origin.

Although they may emphasize different aspects of beauty, the combination of tradition and outside influence has brought them all to where they are today. For example, Asian cultures generally recognize the importance of appearance on a woman’s future marital prospects, job prospects, social status, and earning potential, and place much importance on skin color for the determination of beauty. In Africa, traditional values exhibit women who are expected to physically show their feminine qualities because of the importance of being a mother. However, African women have strayed from these values, and now are expected to have many fake attributes such as nails, hair, and lighter skin. The Scholar found in Western cultures, generally all Europeans and Americans prefer women with a thin body shape, although the Germans, like the traditional Africans, are the exception. While all of these cultures have generated from different origins, they are all influenced somehow by Western culture, especially by America. The Researcher discovered by taking the international markets by storm, America used media and advertisement to sell beauty products over seas. American beauty pageants were also broadcast in different countries, giving foreigners a Western idea of beauty. Slowly but surely, the idea of Western beauty began invading the traditional values of other cultures, so far as to make women sacrifice so much of their traditional values, or even their health, to be what is considered ‘attractive’. Socially, the Scholar disclosed America has set the standard in other cultures of what physical appearance to strive for. These same standards of beauty also have economic implications in other cultures. Beautiful women are always hired over ordinary-looking women with the same or even sometimes slightly greater skills. In general, the Scholar found beautiful women are simply able to make more money. When thinking about what this ‘ideal American woman’ looks like however, it is difficult to gather one specific image since America’s perception of beauty is that of a combination of cultures. This causes one to rethink the actual definition of beauty.

Remaining Questions One way to see how the public views beauty is by observing the actions a typical American might take to appear more beautiful. As the researcher previously mentioned, it is no secret American advertisements strongly emphasize the importance of beauty. Whether this is shown in makeup ads, hair ads, clothing ads, models, movies, television shows, or even underlying messages in commercials, Americans are constantly being bombarded with images of unrealistic beauty ideals. This relentless message is drilled into the heads of both men and women; however, women seem to be the predominant target. To see just how much people are affected, one can simply observe his or her actions. With the availability of procedures, diets, topical creams, pills, and much more, there seems to be almost no limit on the extent people will go to achieve a ‘beautiful’ appearance, which leads the researcher to one further question; Are the procedures, drugs, and extraneous actions people take on their bodies worth the effect?

People will try almost anything to be skinny. This phenomenon is by no means a new topic and has been topping the new years resolution lists for years. The ways people attempt to obtain this image however, might do more harm than good. For example, some people might skip meals in attempt to lose weight. While eating less may be reasonably effective in losing weight, skipping meals can actually make the skin dry out and result in the skin’s increased rate of aging (Verdone, n.d.).

Another way women try to lose weight is from the increasingly popular trend of detox diets, or fruit juice cleanses. While drinking only fruit juice for several days may make some feel healthy for their dieting choices, the harmful effects of these detox diets are numerous. When participating in either a fruit based or vegetable based cleanse, both drinks contain significant amounts of sugar, which one’s body then converts to glucose

Beauty Comparisons In Culture

(Beil, 2012). As the cells take in the glucose, the blood sugar level can drop, which can result in dizziness. Since one’s body is now operating on a low amount of calories, leaving the person feeling weak and fatigued, the body begins taking energy from fat cells and from muscles. The body might be losing the initially desired fat content, but it also begins to lose muscle mass. All of these harmful effects take place in only the first two days of the cleanse (Beil, 2012). On the third day, the body begins taking energy from ketones, resulting in a lack of focus and irritable behavior. On the fourth day, the small intestine’s villi start to break down as a result of no food to digest, leading to dehydration and diarrhea. After a weak, even if the body is returned to a normal diet, there is now a lack of muscle mass to burn the sudden intake of calories. Since it is harder to dispose of these calories now, they will most likely be transformed into fat, defeating the initial purpose of the cleanse (Beil, 2012).

Another way people attempt to lose weight is by smoking cigarettes, as the nicotine present in tobacco serves as an appetite suppressant, resulting in the smoker’s proclivity to pick up a cigarette instead of a snack (Wanjek, 2012). While there are reportedly some benefits to smoking shown in research studies, such as a lower risk of joint-replacement surgery and a lower risk of Parkinson’s disease, the list of harmful effects is endless (Wanjek, 2012). Reports from the Center for Disease Control and Prevention state smoking harms nearly every organ of the body, can cause fifteen different types of cancer, and can lead to sixteen different chronic diseases (“Health Effects,” 2014). Cigarette smoking can significantly decrease one’s life expectancy; 480,000 deaths every year are attributed to cigarette smoking in the United States (“Health Effects,” 2014).

On more extreme levels, more and more women are turning to drugs such as crystal methamphetamine to lose a few pounds. About 60% of crystal meth users are female, and about one third of women who use crystal meth state weight loss is their main motive for taking this drug (Lyons, 2014). Limited forms of methamphetamine have been used to treat ADHD and obesity under strict control, however, use of this drug outside proper medication is detrimental (Lyons, 2014). Short-term effects can include irregular sleep patterns, hyperactivity, nausea, delusions of power, aggressiveness, irritability, insomnia, confusion, hallucinations, anxiety, paranoia, and occasionally convulsions that lead to death (“The Deadly Effects,” n.d.).

Long-term effects can range from depression, tooth decay, psychosis, disorientation, and the destruction of nose tissue, to liver, kidney, and lung damage, respiratory problems, malnutrition, damaged blood vessels, high blood pressure, and memory loss (“The Deadly Effects,” n.d.).

Detrimental effects at attempts to lose weight can also be seen in bulimia.

Bulimia is an eating disorder where the person affected eats normal to large amounts of food and then engages in self-induced vomiting (“Definition of Bulimia,” 2015). This process of eating and purging can become habitual or even addictive, much like the use of drugs. People suffering from bulimia are extremely preoccupied with weight and the body’s appearance (“Bulimia symptoms and effects,” n.d.). They are hyperaware of any flaw his or her body may possess, and they feel guilt and shame for any imperfections they discover (“Bulimia symptoms and effects,” n.d.). Over time, this condition creates a lack of nutrients in the body as well as other health problems ranging from the cardiovascular system to the nervous system (“Long term health,” n.d.). For example, bulimics might use laxatives to help dispose of the food recently ingested, resulting in electrolyte imbalances, which can lead to heart attacks, one of the most common fatal effects of bulimia (“Long term health,” n.d.).

Extreme cases over time can involve high blood pressure, headaches, fatigue, and even seizures (“Long term health,” n.d.). Another example of long-term effects is in the stomach. Self-induced vomiting damages the

224 ability of the stomach to signal to the brain it is full, an effect that can become irreversible (“Long term health,” n.d.). Other effects can include Osteoporosis, resulting from a lack of bone mineral density due to nutrient deficiency (“Long term health,” n.d.). The list of negative effects is endless, including depression, kidney failure, and tooth decay (“Long term health,” n.d.). Bulimics are hard to spot however, since they typically are of a normal body weight (“Bulimia symptoms and effects,” n.d.). This medical condition is considered to be from psychological development, and one cannot help but question if this is a result from the stress to be beautiful in society (“Definition of Bulimia,” 2015).

In close comparison to bulimia comes anorexia, an eating disorder where one has a fear of gaining weight that results in a distorted body image (“Anorexia nervosa,” n.d.). Thoughts of appearance and weight become the most important part of daily life and completely overtake anything else.

Even if someone suffering from anorexia loses weight, he or she will never lose enough to be satisfied. While some anorexics lose weight by attempting extreme diets or fasting, others resort to self-induced vomiting, laxatives, or diuretics (“Anorexia nervosa,” n.d.). Some negative effects of anorexia include poor memory, dizziness, constipation, and bloating (“Anorexia nervosa,” n.d.). Anorexia can affect the brain, hair, heart, blood, muscles, kidneys, body fluids, intestines, hormones, and skin (“Anorexia nervosa,” n.d.). While some people suffering from anorexia are men, the majority of anorexic people are women. Even though not everyone is anorexic or bulimic, the majority of Americans struggle with the appearance of the body.

Aside from weight loss techniques to improve appearance, there are still many other actions people take to obtain the beauty ideal. For example, media has placed a heavy emphasis on breast size when examining the attractiveness in women, leading to a popular practice of breast implants in order to increase the size of one’s breasts. While many women may see this as an easy way to boost appearance, this surgery can come with many complications. The United States Food and Drug Administration lists an abbreviated version of the disadvantages to implant surgery including twenty-six different downsides (“Risks of breast,” 2015). While these downsides do not seem life threatening, they are still potentially harmful to the body. Some of these include capsular contracture, breast pain, rupture of the saline-filled implants, or complications leading to more surgeries, such as infection (“Risks of breast,” 2015).

Another procedure women commonly partake in is Botox. While this injectable neuro-toxin can be used for the treatment of some issues such as limb spasticity and chronic migraines, it can also be used for cosmetic purposes (Ogbru, n.d.). This procedure, like all the other treatments discussed, has unfortunate side effects. Some of these effects include neck pain, shortness of breath, and double vision, although there are at least fifteen other known side effects (Ogbru, n.d.).

Skipping meals, detox cleanses, cigarettes, crystal methamphetamine, bulimia, anorexia, breast implants, and Botox are just a few wide spread examples of the situations in which women attempt to create a more beautiful appearance. While every one of these strategies has effects women perceive as beautiful, most of the positive effects were temporary and not worth the risk of negative effects. Especially when taking into account the more harmful methods such as drug use, one must way the possibility of losing ones life or quality of life as compared to a slightly better outward appearance. Unfortunately many Americans have been brainwashed into prioritizing appearance over other aspects of life. Maybe if more Americans understood how these treatments harm the body, they might reconsider a long, healthy life to a shorter, attractive one.

Beauty Comparisons In Culture

Biblical Connection

With acceptance being a valued aspect in American culture, it is all too easy to get distracted in always trying to impress. What can start out as some slight changes in appearance can evolve into materialistic idols. This is when one’s clothing, appearance, or other idol, becomes the upmost priority in one’s life. In the Bible, 1 Timothy 2:9-10 states “that women should adorn themselves in respectable apparel, with modesty and selfcontrol, not with braided hair and gold or pearls or costly attire, but with what is proper for women who profess godliness—with good works.” This verse explains not only the outer beauty of the ideal Christian women, but

225 also the inner beauty. On the outside, women should wear clothing that is modest and respectable, not flashy or inappropriate. There is no value of beauty in the amount of money one spends on an article of clothing. One should dress in a respectful manner, not in order to gain attention or flaunt wealth. On the inside, women should maintain self-control and humble attitudes. Over all, Christians should simply be a reproduction of Christ’s godliness to the best of our abilities. After all, it is the Christian belief that man was created to be a reflection of God’s image. In summary, we should not be so concerned of our outward appearance, but our inward state is much more valuable.

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227 Verdone, B. (n.d.). 32 surprising things that ruin your skin. Good Housekeeping. Retrieved 25 January, 2015 from http://www. goodhousekeeping.com/beauty/anti-aging/surprising-things-ruinskin#slide-5 Vester, K. (2010). Regime change: Gender, class, and the invention of dieting in post-bellum America. Journal Of Social History, 44(1), 39-70. Retrieved from Ebsco Host (54454099) Von Poser, T. (2012). The globalization of ideal beauty. Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 4 February, 2014 from http://blogs.dw.de/ womentalkonline/2012/05/24/the-globalization-of-ideal-beauty/ Wang, P. (2000). Aching for beauty: Footbinding in China. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. Retrieved from http://books.google.com/ books?hl=en&lr=&id=CdJKLd2jJq0C&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&dq= history of beauty in china&ots=uW1_Q1ndQk&sig=UAmt2gl5C00lngyyiuT_YbDRiM Wiseman, C.V., Gray, J.J., Mosimann, J.E., & Ahrens, A.H. (2006). Cultural expectations of thinness in women: An update. International Journal of Eating Disorders. doi: 10.1002/1098-108X(199201)11:1<85::AIDEAT2260110112>3.0.CO;2-T Zaidel, D. W., & Hessamian, M. (2010). Asymmetry and symmetry in the beauty of Human Faces. Symmetry (20738994), 2(1), 136-149. doi:10.3390/sym2010136

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Appendix I: Survey Questions

1. Where are you from?

2. Age: 3. Gender: 4. Which picture in each series do you find most attractive?

A.

B.

C.

5. Which picture in each series do you find most attractive?

A.

B.

C.

6. Which picture in each series do you find most attractive?

A.

B.

8. Which picture in each series do you find most attractive?

B.

C.

A.

B.

C.

10. Which picture in each series do you find most attractive?

C.

7. Which picture in each series do you find most attractive?

A.

B.

9. Which picture in each series do you find most attractive?

A.

C.

A.

B.

C.

11. Which picture in each series do you find most attractive?

A.

B.

C.

Beauty Comparisons In Culture

Appendix II: Survey Results

Appendix IV: Case Study Results

229

American Magazine Traits (People): -17 models/celebrities analyzed

Survey Key:

-Skin: 64.7% fair/light

O= Original Photo R= Right half of photo is flipped to make a symmetrical face L- Left half of photo is flipped to make a symmetrical face (order of O,L,R chosen randomly) 4. Tina Fey: O-R-L

8. Jamie Lee Curtis: O-L-R

5. Halle Barry: O-L-R

9. Lea Michele: L-R-O

6. Meryl Streep: L-O-R

10. Lucy Liu: O-R-L

7. Salma Hayek: L-R-O

11. Eva Longoria: O-L-R

Timeline: 10/29/14 – 11/27/14

-Body Type: 100% skinny -Makeup: 100% heavy eye-makeup -Hair: 64.7% brown European Magazine Traits (Vogue): -23 models/celebrities analyzed -Skin: 100% fair/light -Body Type: 100% skinny -Makeup: 65.2 % ‘heavy’ -Hair: 69.6% brown

Symmetrical Answers: 4. B, C

8. B, C

German Magazine Traits (Donna):

5. B, C

9. A, B

-20 models/celebrities analyzed

6. A, C

10. B, C

-Skin: 100% fair/light

7. B, C

11. B, C

-Body Type: 78.57% skinny -Makeup: 20% heavy -Hair: 25% brown

Total Responses: 110 Age Range: 14-61 Gender: 71% female (78 people) and 29% male (32 people)

Asian Magazine Traits (Femina):

Locations: 19 States (TX,TN,MA,OK,GA,AL,FL,NC,PA,MS,IL,LA,OH,CT,VA,NY,NJ,CA,SC)

-22 models/celebrities analyzed

5 Countries (including the US)

-Body Type: 77.3% skinny

Percentage of those who chose one of the two symmetrical images: 4. 53%

8. 51%

5. 69%

9. 62%

6. 70%

10. 79%

7. 40%

11. 60%

Average percentage of symmetrical faces chosen: 60.5%

Appendix III: Case Study Advertisement Location (city, country): Title of Advertisement: Describe these qualities as represented in the advertisement…

Skin Color?

Body Type?

Makeup?

Hair?

Other Notes:

-Skin: 0% fair/light -Makeup: 72.7% ‘heavy’ -Hair: 90.9% brown African Magazine Traits (Fairlady): -20 models/celebrities analyzed -Skin: 70% fair/light -Body Type: 100% skinny -Makeup: 40% ‘heavy’ -Hair: 55% brown Overall % Match with American beauty traits (fair skin, thin, heavy makeup, brown hair): Vogue: 84% Donna: 56% Femina: 60% Fairlady: 66%

The Development of Modern Genetic Engineering and Overall Future Social Implications as Seen in Literature and Film Chesli Nicole Lobue

Human Genetic Engineering

233

Table of Contents

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Past Genetic Engineering Ideas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Eugenics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 World War II Nazi Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Successful Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Dolly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Clonaid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Overall Goal of Genetic Engineering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 The Progression of Human Genetic Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Present Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Negative and Positive Genetic Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Gene Therapy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 The Next Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Redesigning Man. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 The State of Normality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 Previously Fulfilled Literary and Film Patterns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 1984. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 The Island of Dr. Moreau. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Total Recall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Case Studies of Science Fiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Science Fiction and Genetic Engineering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 A Brave New World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 GATTACA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Friday . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Purpose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Participants & Sampling Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Research Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Experimental Manipulation/Interventions/Instrumentation. . . 244 Data Collections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Data Analysis Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Ethical Consideration (Human Subject Protections). . . . . . . . . . 244 Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

Human Genetic Engineering

234

Table of Contents (continued)

Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Sample. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Survey Findings/Interviews/Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 MOVIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 BOOKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Findings on Books and Movies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Findings on Peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Remaining Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Biblical Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Copy of Survey Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Copy of Book Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Copy of Movie Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

Human Genetic Engineering

235

Abstract

The Researcher examined the development of the field of genetic engineering and its effects on the field as seen today. The Researcher then conducted a literature review in order to predict possible societies resulting from the future integration of genetic engineering into everyday life. The Researcher was interested in bringing a new perspective towards oncoming scientific developments and providing quantitative data to depict manâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s acceptance of these developments.

To do this, the Researcher composed three null hypothesis: Movies have developed a stronger negative view concerning the genetic engineering of humans and other organisms, Books have developed a stronger negative view concerning the genetic engineering of humans and other organisms, and Americans are not opposed to genetically designing their children in utero in order to better the childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s chance of survival. The Researcher conducted both a positive and negative quantitative comparison from qualitative viewpoints of science fiction literature and cinema. For the third null, the Researcher sent a survey of three varied scenarios both to the Houston Christian community and to a voluntary, convenience sample via e-mail. The first null was retained and the second was rejected. The third null was retained for the first two scenarios but rejected in the final instance. For further research, the Researcher looked into two areas: the genetic modification of food more commonly known as GMOs as well as altering physicality and memory through the injection of hormones. Lastly, the Researcher considered the possibilities of committing the blasphemous act of playing God resulting from the extensive implementation of genetic engineering.

Human Genetic Engineering

Man is anything but a perfect creation. Humans are flawed from both an individual standpoint as well as an entire race as a whole. Even if man seems to be content with his current state, he has a subconscious desire to change and perfect his standings in the evolutionary scale. Where then do the people turn? They turn to science; more specifically, they turn to genetic engineering, but what is genetic engineering. Genetic engineering can be defined as the group of applied techniques of genetics and biotechnology used to cut up and to join together genetic material, and especially DNA, from one or more species of organisms and to introduce the result into an organism in order to change one or more of its characteristic (Clapper, 2013). While this definition is standard, it can be broken down further. The revolutionary aspect of genetic engineering in present day is the ability to change and alter mankind itself, but how do the scientists carry out this unbelievable feat. Before looking at the history of how genetic engineering came into being, one should gain an understanding of how a scientist carries out his task. Genetic engineering deals with altering existing genes by introducing new strains from an outside source (Clapper, 2013). Unlike steroids, which are introduced and filtered through the blood stream, use of genetic enhancement will be sent straight to the targeted area for immediate use (Bjerklie & Park, 2004). There are three types of genetic engineering: somatic, germline, and cloning. Somatic deals with preexisting organs in an already developed organism. Germline engineering targets the fetus in the early stages of development (Clapper, 2013).

Cloning works on a smaller level, which deals with transferring DNA from one organism to another; this differs from the previous listed types because of the scale of work as well as the results from the conclusion of the process. The others are intended to alter or repair pre-existing tissues or organs while cloning is intended to duplicate what is already present (Clapper, 2013). These processes of altering genetic material will greatly benefit man. By altering the genetic structure, man will become a stronger and more viable form of himself (Bjerklie & Park, 2004). These new traits and repairs will in turn be passed down through succeeding generations thereby lessening the probability for severe disorders (Clapper, 2013).

As scientific knowledge grew from its fledgling state, people began to gain more evidence and information concerning human genetics. Once scientists discovered the ways nature dictated the passing of traits in animals, it was not too long until man began attempting to alter fate purposefully in hopes to create an ideal person These ideas lead one to pose the questions: How did genetic engineering develop throughout history and what repercussions did past scientific developments have on genetic engineering in humans today? If man continues to develop and utilize genetic engineering, what is the possibility of society’s future degeneration mirroring social destruction depicted in both film and literature based on the past literary predictions which have already become reality?

History Past Genetic Engineering Ideas Behind every great scientific process lie the ideas, which brought mere figment into reality. The ideas, which resulted in the future development of genetic engineering, were found throughout the early 19th century to the middle of the 20th century (pre-World War II) (Orr, 2009). The ideas for creating a better race started with Charles Darwin with his publication of The Origin of Species. His writings stressed the struggle for existence, which would result in the survival of the fittest (Orr, 2009). The weak would die and give way to a stronger, thriving race of beings (McCann, 1998).

This new race would be the crème de la crème of the prior generations and would have the genes needed in order to ensure survival. Resulting from mutation passed down through heredity; they would have heightened senses and cognitive reasoning as well as a durable anatomy, which would ensure survival (Orr, 2009).

237 Eugenics Once man knew about the processes of natural selection, he began attempting to control and speed up production of stronger and fit beings which led to the introduction of a new idea: eugenics (McCann, 1998).

Francis Galton, a British statistician, crafted eugenics in 1883; his idea relied on choosing humans with desired traits and then mating them to produce ideal offspring (McCann, 1998). In the early years of America (circa 20th century), America saw a boom in population as well as an increase in ethic diversity (McCann, 1998). Many worried for the lessening majority of the white populace (McCann, 1998). As a result, the American Eugenics Society was developed and worked closely with other similar groups developed in Europe at the time (O’Keefe, 1993).

Their goal overall was to ensure “racial purity, racial superiority, and the heritability of intelligence, virtue, or vice” (O’Keefe, 1993). Pre-World War II and Pre-Hitler, the society focused on conscious selection and race building by force; however, after Hitler tainted the idea of eugenics, the society switched to voluntary selection as well as deceptive tricks in order to manipulate people into complying with their utilitarian and idealistic mindset towards creating a better populace (O’Keefe, 1993). Eugenics culled the reproductive gene pool by both negative and positive means. The latter deals with encouraging those deemed physically fit to procreate; the former intends to discourage those seen as existing below the evolutionary line from reproducing (McCann, 1998). In order to ensure the best for the future, the American Eugenics Society implemented smaller organizations in order to control the population such as the Population Council and International Planned Parenthood (McCann, 1998). Both worked to ensure the best for the upcoming generations, but at a terrible cost. They implemented heinous laws, which most commonly included forced segregation and sterilization. People would be chosen to live in colonies essentially as test subjects who would be paired genetically in order to produce the perfect child (McCann, 1998). The entire idea was to enhance the image of the wholesome American family, the stereotype as seen by the world (Boukari & Otchet, 1999).

World War II Nazi Regime Perhaps the most notable proponent of eugenics in the past was Hitler during World War II (Brewster, 2002). The ideal image he perceived for the world would be one filled with Arian people – blond-haired, blueeyed, fair-skinned people-who basically resembled Northern Europeans (Brewster, 2002). His picture for the “perfect race” was centered more on appearance as opposed to mental or physical vitality (O’Keefe, 1993). The type of reform eugenics the Nazis employed worked as a form of forced negative eugenics, which was intended to prevent any non-Arian from reproducing by culling those deemed unfit from mating, and resulted in the mass sterilization of many as well as the mass execution of anyone deemed unfit, which included Jews, the mentally ill, and those who attempted to go against the regime (McCann, 1998). In order to counterbalance the loss of populace, the Nazis also implemented the use of stud farms in which the genetically elite were forced to reproduce (McCann, 1998). These resulted in a minute increase in population standings, but the rates of reproduction could not cope with the quickening increase in mortality rates due to the ongoing war. The stud farms were ultimately a failure; however, the premise behind the farms was sound. In order to have a genetically superior race, there needs to be a way in order to perpetuate the more refined and superior genes later in the lineage. One option of doing so would be to court off and carefully monitor the mating processes of those who were deemed genetically superior (McCann, 1998). Nevertheless, an idea alone does not result in monumental ends, which is why this attempt for successfully completing the goal of eugenics was nothing more than failure (McCann, 1998).

Human Genetic Engineering

Successful Developments

After years of creating the theories and ideas within the science, many began to take what was mere thought and implement the new ideas into practice to see whether or not there was any credibility behind concept.

The first steps began in the 1940’s after the war and continued into the 21st century. The process began with cloning, a form of genetic engineering (Clapper, 2013). Cloning is the “creation of an organism that is an exact genetic copy of another” (“What is Cloning,” 2013). This process occurs naturally with twins; however, scientists have tried to recreate this artificially. There are two ways in which scientists have attempted artificial twinning: artificial embryo twinning and somatic cell nuclear transfer.

Artificial embryo twinning is a delicate procedure which calls for a zygote to be placed on a petri dish and then prodded manually until it divides and becomes two zygotes (“What is cloning,” 2013). Somatic cell nuclear transfer is more complex. The nucleus is removed from the egg and is then replaced with the nucleus of a somatic (body) cell from the person intending to be cloned (Ballantyne, 2009). In essence, the clone receives all of its genetic material from the somatic cell donor as opposed to the alleged mother and father (“What is cloning,” 2013).

Dolly There have been successful clones of non-human life in history. When first beginning trials, scientists started with simple plant life and then moved on to more complex mammals (History of Cloning, n.d.). F.E. Steward preformed the first successful clone of plant life in 1964; he successfully developed a replica carrot from the root cell of a donor carrot (History of Cloning, n.d.). Gardeners have also implemented these tactics of taking part of one plant in order to grow a new one with the cultivation of tomatoes and cannabis (History of Cloning, n.d.). After perfecting techniques with less complex life forms, scientists attempted to carry out trials with animal life and successfully cloned Dolly the sheep from adult cells (History of cloning, n.d.). Ian Wilmut and Keith Campbell cloned her in 1996 by utilizing the Roslin Technique (Drea, 2009). This slight variation to somatic cell nuclear transfer allows somatic cells to grow and divide unrestricted; following this, the egg’s cell has its nucleus removed and is then placed near the somatic cell. After a small electric shock, the two cells fused and slowly developed into an embryo, which could be placed in a surrogate (History of Cloning, 2009). Dolly was an important milestone for the cloning of complex creatures (History of Cloning, 2009). Other clones were soon to follow. Cumulina the mouse was the first successful mouse cloned in 2000 (Drea, 2009). In 2001, cloning was seen to have a possible ecological benefit when Noah the Guar, an endangered type of African wild ox, was cloned successfully demonstrating the possibilities for controlled population boosts in animals nearing extinction. While he only lived two days, it was obvious he provided possible outside uses for cloning as opposed to solely developing a race beyond natural bounds (Drea, 2009).

Clonaid Scientists soon began taking what they had gleaned from these animal trials and implementing the new knowledge into human trials. The first noted event of this case was with Clonaid, a cloning company founded in 1997 which mainly focuses on the development of human clones, and in 2003 with Raëlian, a religious sect who held beliefs which stated mankind was merely the science experiment of an extraterrestrial race known as Elohim (mistranslated from the word God) (Clonaid, 2003). If outer world beings could clone man, then there was nothing stopping man from doing the same (Clonaid, 2003). Clonaid believed by cloning oneself, he or she could in essence achieve immortality and perpetuate the existence of the current race. The clones would be stronger and healthier than the previous existing body but would be able to tap into the memories and thoughts of

238 the past body; in layman’s terms, the body would decay or change while the mind would remain constant (TheLabRat.com, 2005). They successfully cloned the first two human female girls; one in Canada and the other in the Netherlands, but there was no documented verification for either case (Clonaid, 2003). Clonaid also claimed to have cloned a young boy as well by taking cells from the deceased son of a Japanese family, combining the material with the mother’s egg and then having her carry the child to term. There were no detectable problems with either the mom or the boy (Clonaid says it’s cloned first boy, 2003). Aside from the supposedly cloned infants, there were also attempts at cloning embryos. Dr. Panayiotis Zavos, a doctor who worked at fertility clinics, had previously attempted to clone an embryo and place it within a surrogate in 2004, but, as with the Clonaid case, there was no evidence of such an attempt (Ballantyne, 2009).

In both cases of Clonaid, the absence of evidence is mentioned, because official scientific reports were not filed. If the children were really cloned, however, they would serve as evidence of a successful trial (Ballantyne, 2009). Five years later, in 2009, it was reported “he [had] cloned fourteen human embryos” successfully with eleven successfully transferred to women surrogates (Ballantyne, 2009). He had utilized the process of somatic cell nuclear transfer which enabled the genes to be cloned on a molecular level thus minimizing the copied information and making it easier to access the necessary bits of DNA (Ballantyne, 2009). After the gene was specified, the gene would be removed and inserted into the plasmid, a genetic structure within a cell which replicates independently of the chromosomes, of the subject one was intending to create. The inserted gene would then duplicate and result in a clone (Ballantyne, 2009). Science is making leaps and bounds into undiscovered territory, which brought man into determining his own humanity and mortality.

Overall Goal of Genetic Engineering At first, the goal of genetic engineering seemed to be straightforward: correct what has allegedly gone wrong with humanity; however, the call for genetic engineering is more complicated than this. Focused on the human aspect of genetic engineering, one can discern why this particular science came into existence. The main goal of genetic engineering is to enhance humanity’s current genetic form (Gordon, 1999). Man will be enabled to select and control the choice for genes in the coming generations. Genes which have been linked to mental and physical ailments will have been eradicated. Diseases such as schizophrenia, manic depression, muscular dystrophy, and so forth will no longer be able to hamper the development of man (Boukari & Otchet, 1999).

As stated before, genetic engineering will also have long-term impact on heredity, the transference of genes (Fox, 1999). Man will have a more controlled choice over his child’s traits as parents could then choose both physical and emotional traits before their children were even born – possibly even before conception (Keim, 2009). In the future, parents will be able to weed through various levels of mental strength, predicted social capabilities, as well as a heightened perception for world situations. Parents could also alter the physicality (i.e. muscles, endurance, and flexibility) in order to ensure vitality within any environment (Keim, 2009). While this does seem like a successful process, it does take some of the personal accents away from the process of creation. Children, as opposed to being conceived, have already begun to be formed in the laboratory or within a hired surrogate for convenience. The seemingly futuristic procedure is becoming readily available to the public (Ballantyne, 2009). These changes, which have targeted the developing fetus, could permanently change the entire development of child as well as later generations reproduced by the child. For example, one case of child being created through ooplasmic transfer – explained later in the paper – resulted in the child developing Pervasive Developmental Disorder, a mild form of autism. Scientists showed this development resulted directly from the scientists culturing and implanting the embryo (Mercola, 2012). Any trait given to the fetus

Human Genetic Engineering

would then be able to be passed down to his or her offspring (Clapper, 2013). While this does pose a possibility for change in later generations, it does prevent certain genetic diseases from being transferred (Keim, 2009).

The near perfect gene transference will hopefully result in the eradication of genetic deformity in the majority of the future’s populace (Boukari & Otchet, 1999).

The process of genetic engineering will affect the chemical make-up of man. There will be a process of systematic gene assignment, which will ensure for the human specimen to only have the best genes, which will allow for survival. Any and all possibilities for hindrance will be addressed and removed (Gordon, 1999). The elimination of these problem genes will also eliminate gene-produced ailments (Boukari & Otchet, 1999).

Muscular dystrophy will become nearly eradicated in the future. Chronic pain resulting from less than perfect organ transplants as well as cellular atrophy will also be eradicated (Clapper, 2013).

The Progression of Human Genetic Engineering Present Day Modern day genetic engineering has progressed immensely from the early days of animal and plant cloning. The early theorists who initiated genetic thought could not have fathomed the growth seen in both technology and scientific thought which allowed for extensive, modern surgical procedures to be possible and effective. These advances are what lead many to believe in a future of complex genetic choices being completely mundane. If scientific knowledge keeps becoming refined and more detailed then everything from targeted drug testing to creating “designer babies” will be societal norm (Chitty, 2005). While man still has not been able to perfectly re-create a human, science is well on its way to being able to manufacture a human-like creation – the topic of what being truly human will be discussed later in the paper.

Negative and Positive Genetic Engineering Before one can look into the future, one must have an understanding of what is happening in the present. As with the different processes of eugenics, genetic engineering can be broken down into the two smaller sub-categories of negative engineering and positive engineering. Negative engineering deals with the correction of genetic disorders received at birth and with repairing tissue, which has been damaged after maturity has been reached (Courtois, 2006). Genetic engineering of this variety deals more with correcting what is wrong with the body as opposed to creating a stronger, new generation of mankind (Clapper, 2013). Positive engineering deals with the latter and is mainly focused with the enhancement of the genes, which have already been present. Changes made by utilizing positive genetic engineering will be able to be passed down genetically to upcoming generations thus producing a more hearty and robust species of man (Courtois, 2006). Of course, most new extraordinary traits, which would appear in the succeeding generations, would be the product of biological modification as opposed to being solely a natural occurrence (Courtois, 2006). Overall, man’s development of engineering has shown attaining the seemingly impossible goal of eugenics – perfecting the pedigree of humanity – is achievable, in a sense, by encouraging the continuation of acceptable traits while simultaneously discouraging the weaker, less-appealing ones (Kirby, 2007).

Gene Therapy This quickly approaching genetic age has ushered in new medical procedures such as stem cell research and gene therapy. Gene therapy is defined as the process of treating genetic defects by introducing new genetic material into the afflicted patient’s genes (Boukhari & Otchet,

239 1999). While one could accomplish this by inserting like cells of the damaged area such as gum graft of pre-existing gum tissue onto an area lacking necessary tissue, one could also utilize cells labeled as ‘stem cells’ or ‘embryonic stem cells’ (Gifford, n.d.). Unlike somatic or “adult” cells, which have already been formatted to a specific location of the body, stem cells have not been assigned to a specific task. They are essentially blank cells which will form to match the cells surrounding them during implantation (Boukhari & Otchet, 1999). The hope is for these types of cells to be harvested and utilized in curing various diseases such as cancer and muscular dystrophy; however, the methods of obtaining this type of cell are rather complicated in both terms of legality and physical process (Gifford, n.d.). The two types of stem cells can also be culled by utilizing the previously mentioned process of somatic cell nuclear transfer; however, this process is only in the experimental stages and needs further testing before human trials begin (What is cloning, 2013). Embryonic stem cells are harvested from either a three-day-old human embryo, which has been procured through abortion, or through replication in the lab. These cells can be forced to become any type of cell and will be essential in scientist’s process of slowing and stopping many different diseases (Gifford, n.d.).

Adult stem cells are a bit more limited and can only be found in a limited area of fully developed bodies and must be quickly preserved after they have been harvested to prevent decay (Gifford, n.d.). These stem cells are most beneficial in the areas from which they have been taken and have been successfully used in bone, skin, and hair transplants. While their range is limited, they, too, serve a key purpose into furthering gene therapy (Gifford, n.d.). These techniques and different cells are being used to raise a new area of science called “reprogenetics.” This type of genetics will intertwine cloning and genetic engineering to create stronger embryos which will, in the end, render stem cell research and genetic engineering obsolete. Enhancing man will advance beyond simple repair to complete behavioral and physical modification (Boukari & Otchet, 1999).

The Next Generation While being able to pick and choose between the functioning and defective strains of DNA may be seemingly beneficial to modern day society, there are problems with both the procedures as well as with moral and ethical implications of deeming someone’s life less worthy than another’s. The development of a new type of embryo screening and development was mentioned previously in the paper as a way to enhance future generations of man; while this process is not readily available to the public today, there is another established procedure which works in similar ways. Preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) functions as a way to sort through and eliminate embryos with the possibility of developing a debilitating genetic disorder. (Pray, 2008). Developed in the 1990s primarily to determine the gender of the child, this method could also be used to determine the likelihood of the child contracting a sexlinked disease (Pray, 2008). Currently, PGD screening can aid with the discovery of up to 170 different ailments as well as with helping reduce high miscarriage rates seen in in vitro fertilization. This method, though successful, is highly controversial due to the ultimate decision of one embryo being chosen over another based on a statistical probability which is not always accurate (Chapman, 2002).

While preimplantaton genetic diagnosis is definitely a debated topic, it pales in comparison to what occurred in 2001. BBC news online announced the unthinkable – genetically altered babies had successfully been created and born (Whitehouse, 2001). These children were developed by utilizing ooplasmic transfer, which entailed implanting genetic material from a donor cell and implanting it into an egg of an infertile woman which also aided with the donation of healthy mitochondria to supplement the malfunctioning ones of the patient (Whitehouse, 2001). What was surprising about the outcome from this procedure was two of the thirty children were found to have genes from three parents. This resulted from

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the before mentioned mitochondrial transfer, and it also resulted in the alterations of the human germline. It was now proven: man could alter his own genetic make-up (“World’s First GM Babies Born,” n.d.). Ooplasmic transfer, which was originally intended for the purpose of allowing infertile women the ability to bear children concluded in the possibility of creating new races of human. Many specialists believe this process is not worth the extensive procedures and time necessary for it to be successful (Whitehouse, 2001). Many scientists also believe the ramifications of this procedure are too great, and man, as of now, is not equipped to deal with such a weighty responsibility (“World’s First GM Babies Born,” n.d.).

The public sees determining the sex of an embryo as being too much responsibility. What, then, will people think when the ability to alter a child’s genetic makeup in order to create a “super-human” (Bohlin, 2000)?

These changes to an individual’s athleticism, intelligence, and physical appearance will have unforeseen ramifications on the individual as well as global social scale. Not only will those who are created scientifically be held in different regard than those conceived in natural measures, but there will also be an issue with setting up a standard for how far one can enhance man without the process becoming some sort of horrible science experiment (Bohlin, 2000). This predicament raises two questions: who decides the standards for humanity’s perfection, and how far can man push the boundaries of altering his own DNA until he creates something inhuman?

Redesigning Man Humanity is a curious thing and cannot be manufactured in a manner likewise to growing tissue or bone. Before discussing the possibilities (more likely improbabilities) of man creating humanity, one must look at what humanity is. What makes man act and think so differently from every other living creature on the planet? More importantly, what is the baseline of humanity? In order to re-create man, a baseline must be defined; however, this is a problem (Boukari & Otchet, 1999). Scientists believed they could finally be able to define what humanity is after they succeeded in drafting the human genetic code in June of 2000 (Chapman, 2002). While prospects were high, the strains of DNA proved too complex and too numerous for an actual definition to be created. The development of a baseline was then shifted from the scientific side of things to the psychological. It is now hoped an understanding of man’s mind and actions would aid to define a baseline for what is normal. This task has proven to be incredibly hard even with new scientific studies and findings (Chapman, 2002). Normality is subjective and not easy to define, yet creating a thriving, “normal” population is what eugenics wants to accomplish (Brewster, 2002). Eugenics strives for what is better, but the trouble with this is something will always be better, thus rendering what is normal as indefinable as a constant from generation to generation (Brewster, 2002).

It is better left as a relative term dependent on an individual’s needs as well as the apparent average person at the time. While this seems simple, the question is regarding certain ailments and handicaps as well as what to do with them if they become apparent in a body (Boukari & Otchet, 1999).

These complications bring up numerous ethical problems which cannot be discussed in length during this paper; however, it can be said the majority of trouble with furthering scientific research results from complications with the moral and ethical values of society (Gifford, n.d.).

The State of Normality Many attempt to define normality with the baseline of health. If one can function in society without aide from an outside person, then one is deemed suitable for everyday life. The problem with this mentality is it throws everyone with the slightest defect such as nearsightedness to the more extreme illnesses such as cancer into the category of being unacceptable for further continuation of life on earth (Boukari & Otchet, 1999). As harsh as it sounds, this is practically what the idea of eugenics

240 preaches. The weak are weeded out, while the strong are permitted to live (McCann, 1998).

The previous definition of those allowed to live only accounts for physical health, but says nothing for the mental state of being. When the concept of the mind and psyche arise, this muddles the aforementioned definition of who is deemed human enough to live. The question to then ask is: what makes man human? There is no doubt man is different from other living beings. Mankind has developed beyond the cognitive and creative levels of animals even similar to its genetic makeup (Mickens, n.d.). Man has developed beyond his primal instincts into a mindset more suited for symbolic and higher level thinking encompassing ethical and moral thought (Criswell, 2006). He has developed a certain range of emotion, which is absent in other living beings, which serves to prove man has evolved past his Neanderthal being (Mundt, 2000). From this standard, everyone who can think and manage himself in a higher manner than an animal is deemed on par with human status (Criswell, 2006). All have the ability to reside in a higher ethical and religious system (Mundt, 2000).

This applies to all of made creation as well as what man creates. If man is the baseline for humanity, and this baseline is too complex for even man to understand, then man can never fully recreate man (Chapman, 2002). Man is seen as the ultimate form of creation with the simple processes necessary for survival as well as the complexities of emotion and thought. Aside from the mental capacity, man’s genome is also far too complex to recreate on its own (Chapman, 2002). The only option for man to re-design himself is not to start from scratch but to alter what is already present. He shall alter and take away different parts from existing humans in development to create a new generation of humanity, which would be stronger than the prior. These creations will in essence be human; however, their status in society will be seen as a successful science experiment as opposed to being a natural member (Whitehouse, 2001). Humanity will be taken from them not by science but by society (Cripps, 2004). These altered humans will be de-humanized by their creators and will live under the stigma of believing they are indeed less than human (Worlds First GM Babies Born, n.d.).

Previously Fulfilled Literary and Film Patterns While literature and film are free forms for creative expression and release, the writers more often than not find themselves touching on crucial subjects for both the present and the future. It is not uncommon for literature to, in colloquial terms, predict the future. Identifying the previously fulfilled scientific predictions in literature is necessary; if not, then the current predictions concerning genetic engineering would have no academic merit. The pieces in question are George Orwell’s 1984, The Island of Dr. Moreau, and Total Recall. All pieces have certain aspects which have been performed or published in the past and have now begun to show them eerily in the modern day world; these points can be anything ranging from the way a particular government is run to the growing complexity of technology. It is almost as if these works have indeed foretold the future to some degree. These parallels then lend themselves to proving the popular belief of reality imitating art as opposed to the reverse of art imitating reality.

1984 First, there is the iconic novel 1984, which has been referenced constantly in order to describe the current state of America and more or less the entire world. The novel begins with the lead character, Winston Smith, going through his day-to-day life as a clerk in the Records Department within the Ministry of Truth. All seems more or less normal in this futuristic country of Oceania; it is a bit dreary and monotonous, but it is merely how things are set up in the dystopia depicted in this Orwellian future (Orwell, 1949). The reader does not truly know something is wrong with this future society until Smith begins to hide himself away to write in a journal. It is

Human Genetic Engineering

then the reader becomes aware of how stringent the government is. The persona of Big Brother is everywhere, always watching and waiting for the proletariat to make a mistake and commit crimes such as doublethink which rely not on action but on thought (Glover, 2010). Oceania is slowly revealed to have a government not of equal treatment for its people but of control. The government keeps the citizens from any individual thought by preoccupying them with constant war and the threat of the constant enemy, Goldstein. It also limits their ability to speak by instituting the new language style of newspeak, which is basically a mangled, shortened version of the English language (Glover, 2010). The public works as automatons, steadily going about their work and participating in the various organizations set p by the government. Everyone is cared for, yet no one is safe (Orwell, 1949). This futuristic, limited world of Orwell’s depiction seems to extreme to ever become a reality; however, in a way, there are aspects of it which have already come true. The two most prevalent predictions would be with Big Brother and Newspeak. The idea of Big Brother is very prominent in today’s society. Everyone is plugged into some form of Internet social media or constantly contacting people via IPhones and BlackBerrys. Man places everything about himself onto these localized sites where everyone then has access to it (Beale, 2013). The government can track everything from computer searches to text messages in an instant; privacy is nonexistent. The government has agencies such as the NSA (National Security Agency) who instituted data analysis systems such as MARINA and PRISM, which specialize in data-mining via the Internet and cellular devices (Denvil, 2013). This ability of the government to keep the lives of everyday people under surveillance was only magnified with the introduction of the Patriot Act enabling law enforcement and government agencies to view any message or posting sent either by internet or phone line as a means to monitor potential terrorist activity.

This is similar to the government depicted by Orwell, which wished to identify and expel any thought which could possibly lead to social disruption (Denvil, 2013). Secondly, there was the issue of Newspeak, the shortened version of the English language with the intended purpose of limiting free thought (Beale, 2013). Modern day society deals heavily in the use of “euphemism and linguistic evolution” (Denvil, 2013). On a smaller scale, text speak has marred the English language by substituting mere letters for words and even complete thoughts. One could also see this working in social media sites such as Twitter; the bits of text a single person can produce have been limited to 140 characters and even fewer on other websites (Beale, 2013). On a large scale, the government deals with the twisting of words to make certain actions appear to be either legal or milder in appearance when in reality they are not, such as calling the massacre of thirteen active servicemen by their own major an issue of mere workplace violence rather than an act of terrorism (Denvil, 2013).

The third similarity can be seen in the constant war, which is occurring in the world today. In 1984, Oceania was constantly at war with one of the two world powers (Eastasia or Eurasia) and then allied with the other. The country’s stance on things would change from week to week; nothing was ever constant, but the people never question world affairs (Orwell, 1949).

This ongoing war kept the people occupied and is like today’s constant war on terror. There is no apparent end to this battle; the only result is people’s confusion and a vague enemy to unite the people (Beale, 2013). As the war in the Middle East is slowly encompassing a larger amount of people and as the Asian powers advance their technological strength, America has no other option than to unite and fight; however, while the public is united, they do not always know everything when it comes to war (Denvil, 2013).

The world is moving further toward corruption while simultaneously keeping the majority of the populace blind to the problems at hand.

The Island of Dr. Moreau Secondly, there is H.G. Wells’s novel The Island of Dr. Moreau. In this gruesome story, Edward Prendick, a shipwreck survivor, finds himself rescued and then deposited on an island with only one inhabitant. Doctor

241 Moreau, the lone occupant, is a mad scientist, so to speak, who is obsessed with the creation of new beings (Novelguide, 2014). It appears Moreau is trying to create an expedited version of evolution which involves transforming animals into humans (Best & Kellner, n.d.). Through vivisection, Moreau has created a type of middle-linked species, which is halfway between instinctual beast and intellectual humans. Eventually the barbaric side of the creatures reveals itself through alcohol, and they kill their creator and wrecks havoc on the island (Novelguide, 2014). While the results of Dr. Moreau’s work were rather advanced, the actual practice of vivisection is by no means a scientific figment. Vivisection is merely the use of animals in scientific experimentation in order to further research (Klug, 2011). In the book, Moreau was trying to attempt to give animals human emotion. Past realistic research has not attempted anything so complex, but vivisection has been present as early as the Renaissance period and is even present today with animal testing seen in labs (Best & Kellner, n.d.). William Harvey executed and documented one of the earliest vivisections in the early 1600’s. In order to publish his 1628 paper titled “An Anatomical Exercise on the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Living Beings,” Harvey relied on the intense experiments performed on live animals. These experiments coupled with both a scientific and mathematic knowledge enabled him to create a detailed description of the circulatory system (Franco, 2013). In modern day, the most commonly heard practice of vivisection would be with lab rats. These creatures are the ones most commonly used and can be tried in a variety of different experiments ranging from reaction time to medication trials (Franco, 2013). There have also been successful trials of implanting animal parts into man or even growing different organs as external/internal attachments into the host animal. Mature animals are often killed in order to harvest their organs which are incredibly valuable to people who have failing organs (Ryall, 2013). One of the more famous cases of vivisection was in 1984 with Baby Fae. Her heart stopped beating for a short period, but a quick baboon transplant saved here momentarily and kept her alive for three weeks until her other organs started to fail. The scientific community learned transspecies transplants were possible (Fitzpatrick, 2009). Throughout the years, this experimental side of surgery has grown and developed with the use of new techniques and antirejection drugs. Slowly, the numbers of people receiving animal organ transplants rose and, in May of 2008, 85% of the 2,210 patients who received an animal heart survived over a year after their surgery (Fitzpatrick, 2009).

Total Recall Lastly, there is the movie, Total Recall, made in 1990 and then re-made in 2012. While not as popularly received as the latter works in the aspect of paralleling the present, both versions of the movie do indeed predict the future (the technologic future) to some extent. The world of Total Recall is set in a future where memory is key and the mind is something that can readily be tampered with for both medical as well as recreational purposes. The main character, Douglas Quaid, resolves himself to fix his dull, unsatisfactory lifestyle with a quick visit to ReKall, Inc., a place where one can have fake memories implanted into alongside the real ones. Quaid then realizes his mind had been previously wiped before in order to hide his prior –life as a spy. The story then caries on from there as Quaid tries to rediscover who he truly is (Total Recall, 2013). While this movie did display certain aspects of today’s world such as holograms and the ability to track a person’s location, the most innovative and scary action is the one of memory implantation. While modern-day science cannot implant a memory as certainly as it did in the movie, there have been some modern day advances with both modifying old memories as well as suggesting bits and pieces of new realities (Chaney, 2012). A modern day experiment with the hippocampus of mice has proven science can indeed alter the mental history of a living creature. The procedures preformed on the mice allow them to recall forgotten actions as well as enabled them to retain information better. When the experiment was pushed to the furthest

Human Genetic Engineering

extent of its boundaries, the scientists could force the mice to believe certain things were happening when in reality nothing was (Nelson, 2012).

These experiments have not yet progressed to human trials; however, there have been certain instances in which a certain amount of exposure to subliminal messaging can lend a person to believe certain pieces of a false history. Instances such as this lend credibility to the processes seen in the film (Chaney, 2012).

Case Studies of Science Fiction Science Fiction and Genetic Engineering If books and film have predicted scientific and social revolutions for today, what have the authors claimed about the future concerning genetic engineering on humans? While the majority of processes utilized in genetic engineering are fairly new such as gene therapy, many books and movies have touched on the concept. The somewhat fictitious worlds of literature and film have seemingly given man a look into the possible future of society if the world was to continue along the path for developing genetic perfection. It is projected the creation of a healthier human race will in turn lead to the development of a new social system in which genetic discrimination would be the norm. Those who have abnormal or defective genes will allegedly be valued less in society’s eyes. This segregation will in essence be a heightened form of today’s health discrimination seen with insurance companies and health care providers (Geller, Alpher, Billings, Barash, Beckwith, & Natowicz, 1996). For the purpose of this paper, three works heavily connected with genetic engineering and the productions of social stratification were chosen - Huxley’s Brave New World, GATTACA, and Heinlin’s Friday are by no means the only pieces of science fiction related to this topic, but they held the necessary information necessary for the topic at hand.

A Brave New World One of the more famous pieces in science fiction concerning genetic engineering in humans would be Aldous Huxley’s A Brave New World.

In this novel, Huxley depicts a futuristic, utopian society where genetic engineering and scientifically designed humans are the cultural norm.

Huxley centered his novel in a dystopian, futuristic society like George Orwell’s 1984 (Aiman, 2012). In this future, man is both “genetically bred and pharmaceutically anesthetized” in order to be more compliant to the overruling government structure (Huxley, 1932). In this universe, man is processed before the time he is even conceived. The male and female contingents are addressed and inspected before their genetic material is combined in order to ensure the upcoming generations will be grown to fit the specific jobs they need to carry out (Huxley, 1932). The embryos are then put through several processes in order to increase growth rate as well as the quantity of man made per embryo by a type of modified cloning. The embryos are also put through various processes to further cultivate them for specific jobs when they mature; for example, the embryo of a potential astronaut will be continuously spun, so the lack of gravity and resistance in outer space will be easier to acclimate to (Huxley, 1932).

Man is no longer made as a result of a loving union between a man and a wife, but is rather grown clinically for the purpose of social and political reasons. In present day, man is now gaining the ability to manipulate embryos during development in order to lessen the possibilities for contracting certain diseases as well as determining the sex of the child (Whitehouse, 2001). Huxley’s future is just a heightened level of this; now the scientists can pre-determine intelligence, physical strength, as well as mindset of a human (Champ, n.d.). The government Huxley depicts sets up a scientifically produced combination of totalitarianism and feudalistic society. While everyone is not equal, they all work towards fulfilling the position they were given to fulfill (Aiman, 2013). This forced genetic

242 engineering of man results in the social stratification as seen in the forced caste system ranging from Alphas, the elite, all the way down to Epsilons, the lowest –and most underprivileged- of the caste system (Huxley, 1932).

The intervention of science into what was once a natural act has created a forced division between the people. Each individual’s entire future is decided in one instant as they are brought to the Social Predestination room as embryos. This embryonic re-structuring of man as well as the forced social stratification also limits the true potential of the person as an individual by merely guessing at what he or she would be good at doing (Champ, n.d.). This can be seen in a modern light with comparisons to various governments controlling the developments and career paths of upcoming generations. In today’s world, this type of government control can be seen in socialist/communist governments where they promise work for all and will often designate jobs to certain people based on body type or intelligence level (Hoffman, 2014). These countries will also implement these long-term development processes into cultivating rising world-class athletes (Palmer, 2013). Examples of this can be seen in both Russia with the ballet and China with the Olympics. Russia has developed an exemplary (and sometimes unhealthy) program for ballet, renowned by the entire world. These ballerinas are tested as young as four years old in order to discover if they will be successful later on in the company (Palmer, 2013).

Further training is used to enhance the natural flexibility and strength the dancers have (Palmer, 2013). China’s athletes are more or less cared for as wards of the state. If they appear to have a promising future in a particular sport, they will be recruited and trained for further development. The sports bureaucracy will then look after the athletes as long as they are winning. If the athlete does not hold up his or her end of the bargain, he or she is then cut off from financial aide, accounting for the rising number of poverty stricken athletes in China, and can possibly be seen as a way to eliminate and weed out the weak (Xu, 2007). China is also noted for using the civil service exam in order to determine an individual’s aptitude for a specific area of work. This process began early in Imperial China with Imperial exams, which enable an individual to break free of previous social constraints and achieve a new place in society (or fall depending on one’s skill level) (Xu, 2007). The goal of this exam is ultimately for the country as a whole. The people are placed in positions for which they both are qualified and suited (Xu,2007). While both of these cases deal with the children after they have already been born, it is likely the governments will take the process a step further and genetically engineer dancers, athletes, workers, and so forth in a similar process as seen in A Brave New World.

This will save the governments and other organizations time in searching for the perfect students; they will merely grow their own.

GATTACA Made in 1997, GATTACA may be seen as a bit dated in comparison to other aspects of Hollywood’s scientific theories and predictions; however, this could not be further from the truth. GATTACA’s storyline begins to depict not only genetic engineering’s implications in the work place but as well as in the home environment. The motion picture begins with the life of Vincent, a man who was conceived by means of natural reproduction, who is constantly living in the shadow of Anton, his younger brother who was genetically engineered (Philosophical Films, n.d.). The world envisioned in GATTACA holds genetic make-up to the same societal standard as most people in today’s world see economic status. It is not seen as abnormal for parents to have their children screened for everything while they are still in the embryonic state; the process would merely ensure their child would have the best opportunity for his or her future life (Sandel, 2009). Any type of genetic defect, no matter how minor, is cause for discrimination.

Only those with perfect DNA can get the best jobs and receive the greatest opportunities. Everyone else is left to fend for themselves as second-string humans and why, during the movie, Vincent takes on the persona of Jerome, a genetically fit being by taking samples of blood, hair, and skin from the real Jerome, who is now a paralyzed ex-athlete (Mitchell, 2012). Through

Human Genetic Engineering

clever trickery, he is able to evade the scans and tests, while constantly being reminded of his low level status (Philosophical Films, n.d.). Without the valid genetic material, Vincent would not have been able to hold his job, nor would he have been able to be cleared for the Saturn voyage. This film again re-iterates a terrible future society destroyed by further genetic engineering, a future of social stratification (Philosophical Films, n.d.). As stated earlier in the paper, the practices of having genetically engineered children are indeed a possible option in the present. Parents only want the best for their children, and who would deny them the ability to give their children an extra edge when it comes to life? They want the smartest, strongest, and best-behaved children; genetic engineering will only allow them to ensure this (Steere, 2008). Diseases will be able to be limited and injuries will be able to be healed at a quicker rate than before (Parry, 2013).

Today, there have been attempts to limit designation of sex for anything except for sex-linked disorders; however, with increases developments and availability, these restrictions are fading into non-existence (Brownlee, 2002). With parents competing for the welfare of their children, it is no surprise that the standard of humanity will be raised. The baseline for all tests will slowly increase as more and more children are engineered to be geniuses. Those who are conceived naturally will have to rely on chance in order to compete with the genetically elite; they will essentially have no chance in the upcoming working world.

Friday One of the less popular pieces of science fiction is the novel Friday by Robert Heinlein. Heinlein’s work is not as renowned as the works of either Huxley or Orwell, but he is seen as the father of modern social science fiction. He looks not only at the development of new technology, but as well as the impact it has upon society’s structure (Wilde, 2013). While GATTACA showed a favor of those genetically modified, Friday shows the complete opposite. The main character, Friday, is a genetically modified being who is far superior to her human counterparts. She must, however, keep her part of her life a secret to avoid facing prejudice (Heinlein, 1982). Over the course of the novel, she is hired to travel throughout the politically fragmenting world as a courier. Her job is ruthless and, in the end, becomes near life-threatening due to difficulties resulting from both the location of the job as well as her hidden identity (Friday(novel), 2014). She then resolves to hide herself away in a pioneer colony with friends she made throughout her journeys; here she would not have to be ashamed of her altered genetic make-up (Friday(novel), 2014). This novel demonstrates the alternative option to having genetically engineered beings: ostracism. It is possible for those different from the humanity’s normal standard to, instead of being revered, be shunned and rejected by the majority of the populace (Chan, 2013). This bullying is triggered by the new being appearance as a threat to the bully. The bully will react violently in a derogatory manner in order to break down the developing adversary (Tim Field Foundation, 1996). This constant degradation of the elite can possibly result in the break down of the intellect created by the genetic modifications. The elite will no longer see himself as elite, but rather as an outcast with little aspiration. Paranoia, shattered self-confidence, and obsessiveness are only a few of the results from constant bullying (Tim Field Foundation, 1996). While the act of ostracizing may seem harmful solely to the person being bullied, it actually damages the bully as well.

Both parties are subject to psychological damages from this act (Chan, 2013). With the introduction of genetically engineered beings to society, all of man will suffer. Segregation will increase to such an extent that complete fragmentation will be the only result.

All three works depicted worlds engrossed with value of the scientific aspect of oneself. The cultures have developed by the means of genetic engineering in order to create humans better fitted for the strains and problems of the world. In two of the aforementioned novels, the higher pedigree one’s genetic makeup then the higher his or her position would

243 be in society. Friday was the odd one out in which the genetically superior girl had to stay in hiding so as not to be ridiculed. Nevertheless, all three show genetic engineering can indeed create a division within society to the point where individual worlds are working against each other and with one sometimes in the shadow of the other. Brave New World demonstrated a world in which the government controls the genetic engineering of man for both its own gain and for the safety of the people. GATTACA depicts a world where civilians are able to utilize genetic engineering to protect and ensure a stable life for their offspring, which would ultimately result in a social division between the engineered and the naturally born. Lastly, Friday held a third and different option where the genetically elite is the outcast rather than the elite and must hide in fear of those in lesser genetic/ intellectual standing.

Conclusion The overall goal of genetic engineering was and is to enhance man and take away his defects. This stemmed from scientific influences such as Charles Darwin, with his idea of natural selection, and Francis Galton, with his idea of eugenics. These ideas were then implemented in scientific experimentation first with plants, which have simple genetic makeup, and then with animals, which have more complex genetic makeup. Scientists then took the information they learned from these tests and moved into human trials. In these, they discovered they were able to force the embryos to divide in order to create identical twins; however, these intermediary steps did not involve genetic engineering. The later developments include gene therapy, the regeneration of missing or the repair of damaged genes, as well as redesigning man in his entirety through reprogenetics.

Previously fulfilled literary patterns were established through The Island of Dr. Moreau, 1984, and Total Recall enabling readers to find validity in Friday, GATTACA, and Brave New World when seeing possible futuristic societies. While this paper covered modern day genetic engineering as well as the possible paths it could follow, it begs the questions of whether people view these changes in a positive or negative light.

Method Purpose While the possible routes of genetic engineering are evident, the rate of receptiveness of the everyday population is not so clearly determined.

Researchers in the past have attempted to quantify this information through various means. Two of the more popular would include: viewing the tone of literature and other artistic means towards genetic engineering and surveying the populace for its individual opinion. The researcher hoped to be able to quantify the trend in being accepting of genetic engineering. In order to do this, the researcher tested three null hypotheses.

First Null Hypothesis Movies have developed a stronger, negative view concerning genetic engineering of humans and other organisms.

Second Null Hypothesis Books have developed a stronger, negative view concerning genetic engineering of humans and other organisms.

Third Null Hypothesis Americans are not opposed to genetically designing their children in utero in order to better the child’s chance of survival.

This researcher focused on both the literary and cinematic predictions of genetic as well as defined responses from the populace in order to determine the populace’s views of genetic engineering and how accepting they are of the new scientific developments.

Human Genetic Engineering Participants & Sampling Procedures

For the first two nulls, the researcher randomly selected books and movies from two different time periods. The first collection being either published or aired prior to the 1990s and the second collection being published or aired from the year 1990 to present day. The researcher tried to avoid popular or well-known books from the sample as well as those, which had been previously mentioned in the paper. The books and movies were picked through researching titles dealing with genetic engineering and then screening them to see if they actually pertained to the topic of genetic engineering. If they passed the test, they then were used for data collection.

In order to analyze the third null, the researcher used two sample groups of the overall population of Americans. The first group was a convenience sample from the survey being distributed on the Houston Christian High School weekly newsletter. The second group was a voluntary, convenience sample after the researcher posted the survey on social media and sent the survey through e-mail to various persons who would then forward them.

The researcher hoped the sample population would demonstrate a diverse collection of ages, professions, ethnicities, and religions in order to have the sample population mimic the diversity of the American population.

These diversities would also affect how one would view genetic engineering (for example, occupation would affect the thought of cost, religion would determine moral perspective, and so forth).

Research Design The first two null hypotheses the researcher tested were very similar. They were both quantifying qualitative observations gleaned from the collected artifacts and texts. The sole change between the two lied in the usage of cinema in the first and then literature in the second. The researcher for both the first and second nulls collected descriptors for each artifact analyzed and recorded them on a simple chart noting as follows: the title of the work, year of creation, brief description, positive examples, negative examples, and whether the book was majority negative or positive. The final task was to divide and record the positive and negative books and movies between two groups, those before 1990 and those after 1990.

For the third null, this relied on the collection of quantitative data taken from the populace in the form of structured interview (survey). The researcher created a simple survey using Google Forms to be sent out to the testing population. This method enabled the researcher to easily collect data discerning how receptive people would be towards genetic engineering of embryonic humans. Due to the modern age and expanded use of technology, the distribution of the survey through means of social media and electronic messaging also aided in gathering of responses.

Experimental Manipulation/Interventions/Instrumentation Mentioned previously in the paper, the researcher analyzed the first two null hypotheses by designing a chart in order to chart the positive and negative occurrences and effects of genetic engineering. This was done in light of having previously proven literature and film can indeed predict future occurrences. The chart, which was created by the researcher, would mark qualitative responses of “negative” or “positive” and then analyze them through quantitative means. The evidences of positive and negative occurrences would be expressed in words and numbered and then the book or movie would be labeled for which view they expressed more.

The total numbers of positive and negative artifacts would be sorted accordingly and placed in their corresponding time period. The movies and books were interpreted for their portrayal of genetic engineering and independently from their cinematic success. The majority of the work from a certain time period would most likely be consistent with one another and enabled the researcher to approximate cultural perception of genetic engineering through media.

244 For the third null, the researcher created a survey in order to collect data. It was an anonymous structured written interview distributed electronically via Houston Christian’s weekly letter, social media (Facebook), and forwarding e-mails. The simple survey served as a collection of personal opinion to view the collective cultural view consisting of simple introduction questions to gauge race, profession, age, and religion of the populaces. The variable was the individual’s reaction (either “yes” or “no”) to three different scenarios of genetically engineering a child in utero. The first one depicts a matter of life and death. The second was a matter of physical ailment or deficiency (for example, poorly functioning immune system). The third and final scenario was simply the matter of enhancing a perfectly healthy child beyond the norm. The scenarios were created to gauge the response to increasingly superfluous genetic changes in order to view American’s willingness to genetically design their children. The questions and responses are reliable because they did not lead the party to answer in a specific way; they were merely to show the individual’s views taken from a diverse population. The scenarios were also well researched which lends itself to being based in valid terms.

Data Collections The positive and negatives table was filled out in a room without any distractions to the researcher. She analyzed each novel and movie independent of personal preference. Each instance of either positivity or negativity was marked (excluding repeat instances if no new information was presented). The data collection occurred from October 29, 2014 to November 20, 2014. The amount of data was checked on November 6 and 13, 2014 The survey was distributed through electronic means on Facebook, the Houston Christian newsletter, and forwarding e-mails. The researcher expected those who received the survey via e-mail to forward the link to other people thus expanding the sample group. The survey was available from October 29, 2014 to December 4, 2014. It was posted on Facebook on November 8; this was also the same time the researcher began the e-mail forwarding process. The survey responses were checked on November 6 and 13, 2014.

Data Analysis Plan The researcher analyzed the data collected through the positive-negative chart through inferences made with statistics. The first two null hypotheses represented two independent samples with a dichotomous outcome. They showed relative frequency and proportion in two clusters of randomly sampled material. The researcher used a two-proportion z-test. The value of p1 represented the proportions with negative outcomes in the earlier time period while the p2 represented the proportion in the later time period. The researcher would like to note a test was run for each null; the information obtained from books and movies was regarded as two separate data collections. This method served to test evidence against the claims stated in the first two null hypotheses.

The third null hypothesis utilized one sample (one populace) and also had a dichotomous outcome. As well as the previous two, it served to show relative frequency and proportion in the data collected. This null was analyzed through the use of the one-proportion z-test. The p represented the proportion of people who opposed genetically designing their children in utero.

Ethical Consideration (Human Subject Protections) To preserve the reliability of the testing for the first two null hypotheses, the researcher served as the sole movie viewer and book reader. This served to eliminate discussion between multiple readers and viewers. The books and movies chosen were those of which the researcher had not previously

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heard. This enabled the tester to take each item in without previous ideal.

The movies and books were not judged on the basis of the researcher’s enjoyment or public success.

and resources. Lastly, the true meaning of the works could be obtained from interviewing directors and authors still living in order to see their intent.

The survey began with the quick disclaimer, which stated, “Your responses to this survey will be kept anonymous. This study is collecting data concerning Americans views of utilizing genetic engineering with living organisms.” This was to enable the subject to respond freely without fear of criticism or judgment. The Google form collected only the characteristics of the subject but not his or her name. If an individual was e-mailed, he or she did not have to take the survey and their responses were not spoken of to the researcher after the survey was taken. None of the questions were leading questions, which ensure the responses were truly that of the individual.

The testing for the last null intentionally leaves out people from other nations simply to avoid having an unequal representation from the differing groups. The researcher, given more time, could have compared different regions, ethnicities, religions, age groups, and professions as opposed to merely noting them to see the diversity of the sample population. The survey could have included more scenarios with different details and outcomes. In addition to the surveys, the researcher could have tested for people’s baseline knowledge of genetic engineering merely to have more data concerning the tested populace. Lastly, the aspects of the survey could have been discussed with a doctor who works with genetic engineering in order to better refine the vocabulary and phrasing used to convey complex topics to the everyday citizen. This could have also led the researcher to develop alternate scenarios with varying complications.

Bias There are many areas which could have possibly skewed the research. For the first two null hypotheses, certain movies or books could have been left out and not even considered in the researcher’s random sampling. This could have led to a trend not truly depicting the main view of the time.

Movies and books without English translation or subtitles were also left out of the work due to a language barrier between the researcher and nonEnglish speaking countries, thus meaning only English speaking country’s views were taken into account. The movies and books the researcher had already known or used in the research were also eliminated preventing the popular and familiar works from being further analyzed.

There existed also similar problems with the survey. Due to the manner of the survey, there exists a bias against those who could not read English as well as those who did not have computers. There was also a limit on varying religions, ethnicities, and professions due to no representation through reply. The survey could have also had bias against those who did not feel qualified to answer due to the complexity of the topic or the length or verbiage of the scenarios used. The manner of sending the survey limited the population able to respond and did not consider all Americans.

The results did not represent the views of a varied population and were bias towards the Christian and Caucasian population.

Assumptions There are several aspects, which had to be assumed simply while testing the null hypotheses. For the first two, it was assumed the viewer or reader would record each movie without personal interpretation coming into play. It was also assumed the works chosen would truly represent the time period they were chosen from. While it was crucial to the research, the researcher’s interpretation of the work as it pertains to genetic engineering to be the correct interpretation.

In consideration to testing the third null, it was assumed the researcher was receiving honest responses from the participants. The views represented should have all been from American citizens. The participants were assumed to have answered individually and to have kept their answers confidential while and after responding in hopes to prevent skewing another person’s response. It was also assumed each response represents the view of a single person and no one answered the survey twice.

Limitations Certain restrictions exist in the researcher simply due to the limitations on time, money, and resources of the researcher. In respect to the first two hypotheses, the researcher intentionally left out well-known works to eliminate preconceived notions. The researcher could have also linked the region of production or publication as well as the background of the creator of the work in order to have the work’s true view shown. The basis of research could have also been expanded to foreign films with extra time

Findings Sample For the first null, the researcher analyzed five movies produced in the 1980s and before as well as five movies from the 1990s to present day. These were randomly selected from Google searches in hopes to eliminate bias from the researcher. The researcher then checked the validity of each work in order to ensure consistency with the topic at had. A similar process was repeated for the second null except with books in lieu of movies. At the end of the sampling process the researcher had ten artifacts for each null.

The movies reviewed are as follows: Splice (2010), The Kindred (1987), Multiplicity (1996), The Island of Lost Souls (1932), Blade Runner (1982), Tail Sting (2001), Zenith (2010), Gene-X (2006), Forbidden World/Mutant (1982), and The Boys from Brazil (1978). The books analyzed were: Never Let Me Go (2005), Beggars in Spain: Book 1 (1993), Adulthood Rites: Book Two of the Xenogenesis Series (1988), The Atlantis Gene (2013), Last and First Men (1932), Beyond This Horizon (1948), Anvil of the Heart (1983), The Left Hand of Darkness (1969), The Third Millennium (1985), Beaker’s Dozen (1998), and Double Helix (2005). The books and movies exhibited a wide array of stylistic choices (i.e genre, setting, and so forth); however, all were linked through their commonalities of altering genetic makeup of either humans or other organisms.

At the completion of the survey for the third null, the researcher received 56 responses. Ethnicities were not as varied as the researcher would have liked. The majority of people who responded to the survey were mainly Caucasian (47 responses). The minorities of the represented ethnicities were Hispanics (3), Asians (3), Arabics (2), and African Americans (1). Religion, as with Ethnicity, was not extremely varied with fortyseven people out of fifty-six responding with various denominations of Christianity. The final seven responses represented the Agnostics (3), the Atheists (3), and the Satanists (1). Professions were widely varied and not as easily categorized as the prior identifications. The highest amount of responses was from students (18) ranging from middle school to high school levels. The medical field had the next highest amount of responses with five; these professions included physicians, an RN, a medical records keeper, and a physical therapist. Four categories, the homemakers, manufacturers, assistants, and businessmen, had three representatives each. CPAs, sales, educators, and retired persons all had two responders.

This leaves ten professions with only one representative; these included arts manager, human resources, web developer, event management, selfemployed, oil and gas, realtor, risk management/insurance, and host.

Lastly, the age ranges from ages fourteen to seventy one with little to no representation from the twenty and thirty year olds. While the categories of ethnicity, religion, profession, and age were not specifically addressed

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in the null hypothesis, they do help determine and analyze the sample population survey in comparison to the complete American population.

Responses of Participants to the Life or Death Scenario

Survey Findings/Interviews/Observations After identifying the movies and books to be analyzed the researcher analyzed each work and recorded a brief description of each into a chart created by the researcher. After going over the entire work the researcher would weigh positive examples against the negative examples in the work in order to determine whether the work was for or against genetic engineering of any form. Once this was done with all ten movies for the first null and all ten books for the second null, the researcher tallied the total number of positive and negative works per the two time periods (1980s and prior and 1990s to present) as seen in Figures 1A and 2A. Figure 2C

MOVIES Period in History

1980’s and Before

1990’s and 21st Century

Positive

-

III

Negative

IIIII

II

Figure 1A

BOOKS Period in History

1980’s and Before

1990’s and 21st Century

Positive

IIII

II

Negative

I

III

The next scenario lessened the severity of the actually genetic abnormality to the point where the child was in no mortal peril; he or she was merely going to have a complicated but manageable lifestyle. The researcher phrased this scenario as follows: “Your genes will leave your child at a disadvantage according the norms of society. He or she will have stunted growth and a poor immune system amongst other disadvantages. You have the choice to genetically enhance the child so he or she will have an easier time in life. Would you do this or would you let nature run its course?” The higher rate of survival swayed many and led them to opt against genetic engineering. As seen in Figure 2D, one can see more of people responded with “No genetic engineering”; however, the results are fairly close to each other. The last scenario more or less eliminated all genetic abnormalities and ailments. This scenario is

Responses of Participants to the Lessened Medical Ailments

Figure 2A As seen in Figure 1A, the movies chosen with a negative view of genetic engineering decreased moving from the earlier time period to the later one. This suggests movies and therefore society developed to have a more positive view on genetic engineering. Judging from Figure 2A, one could see the amount of negative perspectives in books actually increased as time progressed; this could show authors and the populace they represented grew cautious and distrusting of genetic engineering with ongoing progressions in the scientific field.

While analyzing the creative products of the people in the two time periods could gauge acceptance of genetic engineering, the researcher also saw it fit to actually survey the populace for a concrete standing of how modern Americans stand in their opinions of genetic engineering. The researcher analyzed this by a simple survey which asked three different scenarios of various ranges of genetic engineering affecting the child’s survival. The first scenario stated the following: “Your family suffers from a disease which is passed genetically from parents to offspring, which can be deadly (ex. cystic fibrosis). Genetic testing shows your child does have it, but there is hope to change this fate. While in the womb, it is possible to alter the genetic code in order to prevent the development of the disease. Would you do it?” The response to this was either a yes or no without commentary by the responder. The first scenario was intended to evaluate one’s response in a life or death scenario. As seen in Figure 2C, the majority of people opted to go ahead with the genetic engineering in hopes to alter the fatal gene.

Figure 2D centered around solely enhancing the child beyond his natural means. The researcher formatted this into the third and final scenario: “Nothing is genetically wrong with your child. He or she appears healthy and normal.

There is an option to genetically enhance the child in order to better his or her chances in school and athletics. Would you genetically enhance your child to put him or her ahead of the others in the age group?” Due to the fact there was no reason other than enhancement for the use of genetic engineering more people rejected the use of genetic engineering than in the previous scenarios. As seen in Figure 2E, fifty-two of the fifty-six people who took the survey responded with “No.” From the responses to these three scenarios, it can be determined the populace is more likely to chose genetic engineering if the individual’s life is at risk than if it was not in any jeopardy.

Human Genetic Engineering

Responses of Participants to Pure Genetic Enhancement

Discussion

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The findings from the researcher’s work with the previous null hypotheses contribute to a large portion of ideas found in the review of related literature. Genetic engineering serves to alter man’s genetic code to both enhance him and to take away his defects. While this proves to hold many benefits for the future health of many individuals, it does raise questions for possible ethical ramifications not only because one could be doing harm to the individual, but also because one could be breaking close to the lines of playing God. Nevertheless, work is still being done to perfect techniques, thus propelling the future of man into both a healthier and possibly dystopian future.

Findings on Books and Movies Figure 2E Analysis For the first two null hypotheses, a two-proportion z test was used in order to analyze the data. The value of p1 represents the proportion of movies or books with a negative view concerning genetic engineering of humans and other organisms in the earlier time period. The value p2 will be the analogous proportion in the later time period. If the p-value obtained is equal to or greater than .05 the researcher would then have to retain the null hypotheses. In respect to the first null concerning movies, the researcher obtained a p-value of .0384. Because this is less than .05 the researcher must reject the null and uphold the alternative hypothesis. The research claims Movies have not developed a stronger, negative view concerning the genetic engineering of humans and other organisms. In respect to the second null concerning books, the researcher obtained a p-value of .1967 after conducting the two-proportion z test. This results in the null hypothesis being retained thereby stating Books have developed a stronger, negative view concerning the genetic engineering of humans and other organisms.

The third null will be tested with a one-proportion z test where p is the proportion of people opposed to genetically designing their children in utero in order to better the child’s chance of survival. The test will be conducted three times, one for each scenario asked in the survey. As with the last tests, if the p-value is less than .05, the null will be rejected. The first scenario of a life-threatening genetic problem obtained a p-value of 1, which means the null is retained and Americans are not opposed to genetically designing their children in utero in order to better the child’s chance of survival. The second scenario with only mild complications obtained a p-value of .6054, which is still greater than .05. This means the null is still retained and the populace is generally for genetic engineering.

The third and final scenario obtained a p-value of 7.108 x 10-11 , which is substantially less than .05. In this scenario, the null is rejected and the alternative hypothesis must be accepted. This states that Americans are opposed to genetically designing their children in utero in order to better the child’s chance of survival.

To summarize the findings, the first null hypothesis was rejected, enabling the researcher to accept the alternative hypothesis that, Movies have developed a stronger, positive view concerning the genetic engineering of humans and other organisms. The second null hypothesis was retained thus stating books have indeed developed a stronger, negative view towards genetic engineering in recent years. The third and final null was tested three times with varying scenarios necessitating genetic engineering. The nulls were retained in the first two scenarios where genetic engineering would actually save the child’s life or better his or her standing of living.

It was, however, rejected in the final scenario when genetic engineering was used merely to enhance the child’s normal attributes; the alternate hypothesis of Americans are opposed to genetically designing their children in utero in order to better the child’s chance of survival.

In the review of related literature, the researcher analyzed Friday, GATTACA, and Brave New World in order to determine how likely it was for man to progress and mirror situations depicted in these books.

All showed dystopian futures, which crumbled at the result of genetic engineering. Friday, different than the other two works, showed a world where the genetically superior being was ostracized due to her advanced nature. The movie GATTACA showed a more stable living environment; however, it did create a social stratification between the naturally born and those who were genetically engineered in their embryonic stage. Lastly, Brave New World was most likely one of the more devastating futuristic worlds. While everything appeared to be structured and sound, the scientific dealings completely eliminated all traces of humanity in a large portion of the populace. The genetically mass produced populace were only able to carry out their specified tasks and were otherwise limited to trivial acts and past times. All of these three served to warn the reader about the dangers of scientific development. Yes, they could potentially hold great things for humanity, but the cost is far greater than the reward.

In regards to the null hypotheses, the findings from the review of related literature concur with the results from the second null but do not concur with the results from the first. After analyzing the movies, they appeared to have an increasing positive view in favor of genetic engineering. The second null demonstrated books developed a more negative view as they became more wary of genetic engineering. The second null demonstrates a view more in accordance with what was depicted in the review of related literature. While rejected in the first, the overall concordance with science is to be rather cautious, especially since this is affecting living organisms including man himself. This is not to be taken lightly by any means.

There are many possible explanations for the varying outcomes. One of the simpler reasons would be to differing audiences to which the mediums appeal. Books and movies appeal to two very different groups of people.

Books tend to have the more analytical audience whereas movies have the more visual, thrill-seeking audience. Movies would be more inclined to have the scientific world shown in a better light merely because that is what would be visually appealing to the audience. Futuristic feats of science would ultimately combine to have a positive outcome at the conclusion of the film, which would therefore translate to profitable box office reviews.

Books, on the other hand, would have developed stronger more nuanced views amidst their works. While the reader does not necessarily have to be an analytical thinker the books could present topics not otherwise thought of before. Also, the ending does not necessarily have to be a happy one; the only real task at hand is to break down life as man sees it and shed some new light on the matter. The researcher does know there are books and movies, which can break this common thought, but this is merely a possible reason for the different outcomes when testing the null hypotheses. Another possible explanation for the disagreements would be the books chosen actually being in the minority view when chosen.

While the researcher did put in certain processes to reduce the possibility of choosing an obscure book or movie, there always lies the possibility in

Human Genetic Engineering researcher error.

While this portion of the research would not go outright to slow or completely halt scientific research, it may serve to temper any further developments with an even more cautious attitude. Policies in regards to who is chosen for genetic engineering as well as to what it is to do would be further analyzed and more regulations would be put into place in order to monitor the proceedings with this potentially dangerous science. While the use of genetic engineering is quickly developing, especially with the progression of several gene therapies, it is possibly the practice of genetic enhancement would be halted. Scientists would utilize this science merely for the regenerative and healing purposes and rarely (if at all) for the further development of healthy beings. With this being said, future research on the topic would be slowed because use of the actual practices would not be allowed in bulk. Research on this topic, however, would not be halted.

Science is always going to be discovering new things and learning about the human body. This only means progression would be for the sake of accruing knowledge and not for the development of incoming revenue.

Findings on People’s View In the review of related literature, there were two possible uses for genetic engineering as scene in present day including gene therapy, the regeneration and regrowth of diseased or missing genes, as well as genetic enhancement, redesigning man in his entirety through the merging of reproductive and genetic technologies. Both of these are currently available and in development in the scientific field. There are different acceptance rates towards each of them. The majority of society is generally more accepting towards the gene therapy side of genetic engineering as opposed to the genetic enhancement side. As seen with the works analyzed in the review of related literature, society more or less begins to crumble or at least obtain a warped view once mass genetic engineering is implemented into society. As one could see in GATTACA, the original intent of the society with genetically engineered children was to produce an overall healthier and more elite populace for the future generations. What occurred instead was most likely not in the scientists original intentions. As stated before, the manipulation of man’s genome in the embryonic stage led to a schism to be developed in future society once the children were grown. Those naturally born were left to try to survive and barely get by in the shadow of the more genetically superior people.

The trend of being cautious of unnecessary genetic engineering in the forms of genetic enhancement can actually be seen in the tests conducted to analyze the third null hypothesis. The majority of people agreed to genetic engineering if the child’s life was at stake. This number then lessened when only the child’s quality of life was in jeopardy. Lastly, the about of people who favored genetic engineering dwindled immensely when the child was only being enhanced to compete with his fellow peers and did not serve to save the child from any harm. This gradual switch from one view to the next depicts Americans need for there to be a definite reason in order to go through with such a costly procedure. While one may think scientific advances would actually be welcomed by the public due to increased state of health it would bring, the opposite is actually the case.

The large portion of Christians who responded to the survey could possibly have affected the results and depicted this cautious behavior in response to manipulating man’s genetic code. They may see it against their religious constraints to try and play God by circumventing his preordained plan. Their religious burden would outweigh their need for scientific development thus letting them carry out as if the could not have done anything in the first place. The majority of the responders to the survey were most likely from the Houston Christian Connection, which would ensure a large portion of the sample population to be well educated. Because of this, they could have come into contact with a variety of the literary works, which depict dystopias, and broken societies, which

248 cracked at the hands of science. Both of these reasons would lead the sample population to generally be cautious of anything tampering with man’s genetic code for anything other than therapeutic reasons.

The researcher conducted this portion of the research in order establish an understanding of how the populace reacts to genetic engineering. The way the people react to developments in genetic engineering could definitely impact future developments in the field. The findings established the people were less accepting of genetic engineering as it transitioned from gene therapy to genetic enhancement. While general populace does not have a firsthand impact on what goes on in the labs, they can appeal to their congressmen and other government bodies in order to enact certain laws and policies to restrict unnecessary testing. The practices in the labs would then be limited to regeneration with only a very small sliver actually devoted to enhancement. Future research could possibly be affected for the worse solely because people are too afraid of what may occur.

Conclusion In conclusion, the Researcher studied the development of genetic engineering as well as the impacts of these developments on present day genetic engineering. Ultimately, this has culminated in the development of two different areas of genetic engineering: gene therapy, for repair, and genetic enhancement, for improving man’s genetic code. The Researcher discovered the view on this process to be split especially in regards to enhancement due to some seeing it as pushing the bounds of what science should be allowed to do. To further delve into the public opinion the researcher analyzed three key works (GATTACA, Brave New World, and Friday), which are synonymous with genetic engineering; these works more or less had a foreboding air in regards to genetic engineering. After seeing these trends, the Researcher decided to experiment to further add data to the field of comparing the literary works to views on genetic engineering. The Scholar tested the public’s acceptance rate of genetic engineering by polling a sample of the population and analyzing trends in books and movies; the overall consensus showed people were less likely to accept genetic engineering if it was not utilized in a life or death scenario.

The Researcher could have tested more artifacts and surveyed more people, but the findings given at the conclusion of this research period are sufficient to answer the Researcher’s questions at this time.

Remaining Questions While the previous sections of this paper were centered on social ramifications based on the genetic engineering of humans, it did not discuss the genetic engineering of other organisms. The science of human genetic engineering is still in a budding state due to the complexity of man’s genetic makeup as well as ethical debate concerning the extent of this minor branch of science. Scientists have, however, become more advanced in the manipulation of simpler organisms such as plant life. After previous research, the Scholar concluded a large portion of consumer plant life being used in the United States had been modified in some way (ex. to produce more product per unit or to grow in a different climate/region).

A controversial topic in the modern world concerning the manipulation of organisms would be with recent development and use of genetically modified organism.

A genetically modified organism, or GMO, is a plant or an animal, which has had its genetic makeup, altered with the introduction of bacteria, viruses, or the genetic material from other plants or animals (Non GMO Project, 2014). One of the more recent cases in which GMO’s came under fire was during the Monsanto case. Monsanto, a sustainable agriculture company, was ousted in May of 2013 for its attempt to gain a large control over food supply via the development and cultivation of GMO’s. Monsanto claimed its company could grow a sufficient amount of food to feed a larger amount of people. This could be construed as a profitable and sustainable

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action for all. Unfortunately - or fortunately depending on the side one is one - this is not the case (Landsman, 2013).

released out into the open there are negative repercussions on the existing environment (Kantor, 2013).

Before looking at the negative, one should see the positive side of GMO’s.

First of all these new genetically modified organisms (i.e. stronger food crops) will support the agriculture business. There will be a higher level of food production as well as an increase in the quality of said product.

In Australia, at the Queensland University of Technology, scientists developed a new strain of Cavendish bananas which had heightened levels of provitamin A, vitamin E, and iron (“GM bananas…”, 2008). To combat malnutrition in third-world countries dependent on mainly one crop, the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology’s Institute for Plant Sciences engineered a new strain of rice which contained a higher amount of vitamin A, also known as beta-carotene. This new strain of rice – combined with funding from the university’s donors- could be sent to and grown in mass quantities in these third world countries; the rice with an increased nutritional benefits could boost the health and well-being of those previously unable to grow sufficient food stock (Whitman, 2000).

These foods will also be more resilient against disease and pests, which will ultimately save the farmer money in the long process of cultivation.

It will also ensure the likelihood of sufficient to abundant crops during harvest season leading to the rise in sustainable farming (Kantor, 2013).

Scientists have predicted the demand for farming will have doubled from current standards in merely thirty-two years (Agri-biotechnology, 2008).

The new GMO’s will be resilient enough to be grown with little water and in below standard soil. GMO’s will have revolutionized the farming industry not only for modern countries, but also in third world countries (Agri-biotechnology, 2008).

In the past Monsanto supreme court scandal, the supreme court ruled Monsanto was not only legally able to utilized genetically modified seed patents but to also sue rival farmers whose fields were accidentally tainted with the GMOs (Hauck, 2014). It has also been shown these organisms may also hold negative effects on the ecosystems and on the human populace (Kantor, 2013). How then are these allowed in society? The majority of developed nations in Europe and North America do not believe in the safety of these genetically modified organisms with the exception being United States because it has placed its belief on studies and experiments completed by the manufacturers of GMO’s. Of course, these studies are most likely skewed, which results in the majority of America being treated as a nation-wide science experiment (Laxman & Ansari, 2011). Consent does not matter; everyone in the nation who buys food is consuming a genetically modified organism (Landsman, 2013). While the FDA and other organizations have claimed to test the safety of these organisms, they are not required to label the products as being genetically modified (Kantor, 2013). Over 80% of conventional processed food in the U.S. is altered, and none of it is labeled as such because of a convincing biotech lobby. In the absence of government mandated labeling, a number of organizations, such as the Non-GMO project have come into being, so as to warn and to inform people on what exactly they are eating (Laxman & Ansari, 2011).

Unfortunately, the negatives outweigh the positives in this case. While the FDA regulates GMO foods and products, there is always the chance for the product to be altered horribly with the tampering of genes (Environmental and Occupational Health, 2003). One should keep in mind genetic modification can be seen as natural due to the evolutionary process.

The introduction of new genes into an organism’s genome is a common way for the organism to further ensure its survival; however, the radical introduction of new and unnatural genes into the genome of an organism can drastically affect said organism for better or for worse (Weil, 2008). In a micro-array gene chip study, where the genes introduced are arranged in close microscopic DNA spots, scientists discovered 5% of the host’s genes altered the levels of information used in gene synthesis after only one gene introduction (Natural Revolution, 2013). Complications with GMO’s can range anywhere from development of food allergies to increased toxicity in poisonous plants to decreased nutritional value in everyday life (Environmental and Occupational Health, 2003). These new strains of GMO’s could fare poorly in the intestinal tract of humans because the new strains will lower their immune system (World Health Organization, 2014). In a study to gain evidence for the repercussion GMOs have on a human system, scientists discovered genetically modified foods could transfer their DNA into genetic structure of human stomach bacteria after they were ingested with effects seen weeks after the GMO was ingested (Natural Revolution, 2013).

Science and technology had promised new developments of the food source, but it has instead twisted the basic genetic material (Laxman & Ansari, 2011). The health tolls on animals have been rather deadly. There have been cases from across the U.S. of animals perishing after ingesting genetically modified foods. In Séralini’s GMO study, rats were fed Monsanto’s genetically modified corn. These rats slowly began to develop large, life-threatening tumors. In this case, GMO’s were compared to the harmful chemical, thalidomide (Adams, 2012). A later problem arose in 2010 when around 10,000 sheep in India died after a week of being fed cotton plants which were genetically engineered to produce a Bt-toxin pesticide (Natural Revolution, 2013). Once these altered organisms are

It seems as though the production of GMO’s is an inevitable process. These organisms are too deeply entrenched into the food production lines to be removed quickly (Kantor, 2013). The question now would be whether or not the ecological damage is worth the supposed increase in food production. The risks of altering the environment increases dramatically when there is an immense amount of GMO produced in an area with little regulation. While this may seem redundant, it is crucial to say, because many people will assume, while a generically modified organism has been tampered with, these organisms can simply assimilate back into nature with little to know repercussions. The unwelcome result from the introduction of GMO’s will be the alteration of pre-existing plant life (Laxman & Ansari, 2011). The new gene strands will be able to be passed on during germination and will create new strands of plants –part GMO and part naturally existing (World Health Organization, 2014). GMO’s have also aided in producing stronger species of pests such as insects and weeds. GMO’s have been created with a stronger resilience to these harmful bodies, so in turn these same things will grow stronger and immune to certain poisons. These new immunities will result in the development of stronger and more harmful pesticides and GMO’s. Eventually this will end in the complex and never-ending cycle of both the genetically modified organisms and naturally existing organisms challenging and defeating the other in turn without a clear winner. All that will be left at the fight is the destruction of the battlefield (Laxman & Ansari, 2011).

While GMO’s are accounting for the impacts on man’s ecosystem, economic structure, and on his well being in regards to his body, science has delved into other routes which affect man in a different aspect, his mental and emotional state. Most people are familiar with scientific advancements aiding in the rehabilitation of man’s form as well as with his inner structure, but, now, science is reaching into new areas of manipulating the mind. This involves altering brain chemistry and neuron paths in order to rewire man’s way of thinking, so to speak. This route merely shows an alternate impact scientific developments have on society’s day-to-day life and ongoing development.

The previous thoughts were commenting on genetic engineering in the realm of the simplest organic material, plant life. While this is one possible tangent from the paper’s overall focus of developments in genetic engineering, another possible topic could be scientists’ other attempts at

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manipulating and changing man through means not necessarily labeled under genetic engineering. The majority of the paper has dealt with the complete genetic engineering of man in his embryonic stage; in other words, man was completely re-structured from his basic building blocks in order to create a ‘perfect’ being. While these processes also contribute to man’s development, they can also be carried out on already developed entities by “changing [their] conditioned emotional responses” (West, 2014). Hormones released in the organism’s system monitor these instinctual responses. A hormone is “a chemical that is produced and realized by the endocrine system” (IvyRose Holistic, 2014). Learning how to harness these processes would be monumental in gaining knowledge of restructuring the brain because “the complex and subtle details of assembly and intellectual development involve more than direct genetic control…”

(Hanna, 2006). These key bits of information will enable scientists to finetune man’s neuro-processes. Of course, as stated prior, the brain is not a simple organ; however, it can be changed through actions of both an experimental and medical variety (West, 2014).

To give extra support for the successes of scientific altering in its experimental form, there have been various experiments on plants, animals, and humans. One such experiment was labeled “Schwarzenegger mice”; these adult mice had been injected with a certain gene, which enabled their current muscles to rapidly expand. This idea could possibly be transferred to humans in aid of degenerative muscle disorders (Hanna, 2006). Another example of successful genetic altering would be with the recent developments in treatment of Adenosine Deaminase (ADA) Deficiency, a “form of SCID (severe combined immunodeficiency), a disorder that affects the immune system” (Learn. Genetics, 2015). Small trial tests where manufactured DNA with the ADA gene was inserted into the immune cells of the ailing patient have proved fruitful for future medical developments. With the way these developments have transpired, it seems it will be possible to alter the more complex areas of the man, specifically his mind. An experiment occurred in 2003, which showed one could cause a “local gene knockdown in the brain using viral-mediated RNA interference” (Hommel, Sears, Georgescu, Simmons, & DiLeone, 2003). The process has not been issued for human trials, only animal ones (more specifically, mice). Blocking the development of the gene, which is responsible for creating the dopamine synthesis enzyme, has shown to induce several behavioral alterations in said mice. Motor performance and reduced reaction to neurological and environmental stimulants were both compromised. Now the stunting of brain function may seem to prove problematic; however, this could prove fruitful for understanding processes and ultimately reversing them in order “to improve memory and problem-solving, reduce the need for sleep, increase musical capacity, attain desirable personality traits, … and increase longevity” (Hanna, 2006). Of course, the current capabilities of science are not yet developed and “lack sufficient spatial control” necessary for these complex genetic modifications (Hommel et al., 2003). Other trials have demonstrated an ability to alter even erase memories within a subject. In one experiment recorded by the Journal of Neuroscience, scientists “stimulated the nucleus basalis” in rodents “releasing acetylcholine, a chemical involved in memory formation” (Kim, Pare, & Nair, 2013). This increased the brain’s receptiveness towards utilizing this chemical and thereby creating a specific memory due to the change. The memory’s strength was only heightened with the number of cells it held in the auditory cortex. Nevertheless, these created memories served to hold all similar features to natural memories (Kim, Pare, & Nair, 2013). The introduction of this increased chemical production will serve well with the understanding of the brain’s inner workings and, as a result, the creation of process to enhance and alter it.

Over the past section, the researcher has discussed two areas depicting how science manipulates and modifies pre-existing, living organisms.

Genetically modified organisms serve as the scientists’ testing grounds

250 by using organisms with simpler genetic structure. Because GMOs are so easy to manufacture and grow, they have become a key part of diet of modern U.S. citizens (mostly without the consumer’s knowledge). These alterations have resulted negatively with poor health in the population and grave repercussions on the various ecosystems. Science has also developed the ability to fix genetic abnormalities and mental ailments in patients. Trials have been run with hormones, which permit doctors to halt the development of certain genes by mere injection of said hormones.

Possibilities of this test range from improving mental capabilities as well as aiding to cut off genes, which are malfunctioning in some manner.

With both of these developments in science, the problem lies not with the question of “What can science do?” but rather “How far is science allowed to go?”

Biblical Connection While genetic engineering has many pros and cons when looked at from an intellectual, social, economic, or political standpoint, there is possibly no other area more lividly against this topic than the Biblical viewpoint.

The other areas are not as concrete as this one, which lends people to have varying views and ideas of how things should and should not be carried out. This particular school of thought, however, lends itself to not being as lenient. Why would something so good and beneficial as genetic engineering be viewed so negatively in the eyes of the church? One would believe most Christians would encourage and fund this sort of research seeing as how it would aide those who suffered from genetic ailments and would otherwise live difficult, uncomfortable lives. The predicament with genetic engineering is it, in a sense, lends man to playing God. He or she decides what is acceptable for creation and what is not. While God did give man the right to rule over creation in Genesis 1:28, He did not give the right to alter His creation. Healing is justifiable; it is the action of trying to perfect and enhance humanity where the issue begins to arise. In the beginning, God gave man dominion over the earth, which means man could govern and protect His creation; however, as mentioned before there is a thin line between nurturing and enhancing (ultimately re-creating) man’s design. Man could eventually tailor certain traits in order to create the consummate human being, thereby making a version of man, which is no longer in God’s design, but rather man’s.

First, one can analyze this on a small scale with processes such as gene therapy and culling of embryos. These processes are fairly simple and are readily available today. Both of these try to make the lives of the afflicted better by altering minute amounts of genetic structure. Overall, this seems beneficial, but, at the same time, it does not always fair well in the biblical light. Ecclesiastes 7:13 states, “Consider what God has done.

Who can straighten what he has made crooked?” He has made everything for a purpose fitting into his overall plan which common man cannot see clearly. Man merely sees the outer fringe of His works. By no means is this an argument to stop curing disease altogether, it is instead an argument to halt further tampering with man’s genetic makeup. God designed man in his likeness and designed him on the molecular level. Man is in no position to tamper with His design. Humans do not know enough to truly understand the ramifications of tampering with the work of the Almighty.

Does this mean one cannot seek medical aid to cure debilitating diseases and ailments? Does this also mean one cannot undergo superficially changing ones outer appearance such as dying hair or tanning skin? No, it does not. By giving man dominion over His creation, God entrusted man with the task of taking care of and ensuring the longevity of all His creation. Naturally, one would assume this to entail caring for the health or every plant, animal, and man by curing disease and preventing future problems from occurring. When Jesus was on earth, He healed those wrought with physical and mental ailments, and, while man is not capable of such miracles, he is capable of harnessing science and medicine. As for

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the superficial alterations, these do not affect the genetic structure of man.

Of course, there are varying views and ideas on where this line exactly is, and the line remains open to interpretation.

On the more extreme end, it can be said by altering humanity for better specialization, man is trying to re-create man. In Genesis 1:26-27, God says, “Let us make mankind in our image, in our likeness so that they may rule over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky, over the livestock and all the wild animals, and over all the creatures that move along the ground” and “ God created mankind in his own image, in the image of God he created them; male and female he created them.” Humanity is the

251 handiwork of God set apart from all other creation made to live and to glorify Him. Man is a reflection of God and not a creator himself. While man can create things, he cannot (should not) be able to decide who ultimately lives and dies. That power is specifically God’s, for only He can give life and take it away. It is wrong for man to decide who lives and dies based on some human-made standard of perfection. God designed every man with a purpose. Everyone deserves an equal opportunity and a chance at life; He said it, and so it shall be. An inadequate creature such as man is in no position to degrade God’s work by altering it.

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Appendix

Copy of Survey Genetic Engineering of Humans and Other Living Organisms Your responses to this survey will be kept anonymous. This study is collecting data concerning Americans views of utilizing genetic engineering with living organisms.

Ethnicity: Religion: Profession: Age: Scenario 1: Your family suffers from a disease which is passed genetically from parents to offspring, which can be deadly (ex. cystic fibrosis). Genetic testing shows your child does have it, but there is hope to change this fate. While in the womb, it is possible to alter the genetic code in order to prevent the development of the disease. Would you do it?

Yes or No Scenario 2: Your genes will leave your child at a disadvantage according the norms of society. He or she will have stunted growth and a poor immune system amongst other disadvantages. You have the choice to genetically enhance the child so he or she will have an easier time in life. Would you do this or would you let nature run its course?

Genetic Engineering or No Genetic Engineering Scenario 3: Nothing is genetically wrong with your child. He or she appears healthy and normal. There is an option to genetically enhance the child in order to better his or her chances in school and athletics. Would you genetically enhance your child to put him or her ahead of the others in the age group?

Yes or No Thank you for your contribution. Your response has been recorded.

255

Human Genetic Engineering

256

Copy of Survey Results

Age:

Ethnicity:

18 17 17 18 58 54 52 17 47 14 47 14 55 55 16 25 45 39 44 55 52 57 50 47 48 17 19 46 17 52 18 38 24 53 17 18 18 18 47 71 71 67 67 60 71 65 43 56 59 18 43 51 54 50 39 16

Caucasian (47) Hispanics (3) Asians (3) Arabic (2) African-American (1) Religion: Christian (47) Agnostics (3) Atheists (3) Satanist (1) Profession: Students (18) Medical (5) Homemaker (3) Manufacturer (3) Businessman (3) CPAs (2) Sales (2) Educators (2) Retired (2) Arts manager (1) Human resources (1) Web developer (1) Event management (1) Self-employed (1) Oil and gas (1) Realtor (1) Risk management/Insurance (1) Host (1)

Scenario 1: Yes (49) No (7) Scenario 2: Genetic engineering (29) No Genetic engineering (27) Scenario 3: Yes (4) No (52) Number of daily responses

Human Genetic Engineering

257

Copy of Book Results

Data Collection DSP - BOOKS

Title of Book

Year

Description (brief)

Never Let Me Go

2005

Children are cloned and genetically altered for perfection in order to be used for their organs. Shown a social stratification between the cloned and the natural born. Practical dehumanization. Thought to have no souls.

Positive Ex.

Negative Ex.

1. Benefit of the main populace

1. Certain humans are dehumanized.

2. Does not rely on untimely deaths to save lives

2. Social stratification yields cloned/ altered lesser than that or natural.

3. The clones are eventually told and coached through the experience.

3. Man has turned man into stock animals.

Mainly

(Pos or Neg) Negative

4. They are kept in the dark at a young age of what their future holds.

5. They have to prove they have a soul.

6. Denied simple passages of life (marriage, children, etc.)

Beggars in Spain: Book 1

Adulthood Rites: Book Two of the Xenogenesis Series

1993

1988

Certain humans have been genetically modified for sleeplessness (don’t need and cannot sleep). They are more productive, intelligent, and cheery than normals. Complications when normal parents could not deal with a baby who couldn’t sleep.

The Sleepless while advancing successfully are not able to fit in with those who need sleep.

They seek justice and isolation for themselves.

1. Enables for a more efficient human.

1. Parents cannot care for their child

2. More time for solving problems then sleeping.

2. Abuse because of misunderstanding

Humans live in tandem with a new species called oankali, those evolved beyond human norm. Life is not pleasant, but some have given to breeding and creating a new hybrid creature and understanding life from his perspective.

1. Understanding of Hybrids life.

1. Tension with varying groups

2. Realizing man’s innate ability to survive and progress.

2. Man regains identity through remaining pure to his simplistic line.

3.Heightened intellect 4. Better demeanor

Last and First Men

Beyond This Horizon

2013

1932

1948

3. Ostracized because of intellect 4. Discrimination against the Sleepless in sports and jobs 5. Family strife (unequal siblings) Negative

3. World is in a post apocalyptic, splintered lifestyle

(GOOD FOR UNDERSTANDING HYBRID; POSSIBLY NOT ENOUGH GENETIC ENGINEERING)

The Atlantis Gene

Negative

Human genetics plays a key role in this novel. In the lost city of Atlantis, Plato described a type of superhuman who dominated before Atlantis ceased to exist. One character, Kate Warner, tries to look for a cure for autism. Another tries to decode a type of hybrid called the Immari.

This is a very science heavy book.

1. Life was better when man had a better genetic code and higher intellect

Gives a detailed history of man from it’s current stage to around two billion years into the future.The history describes a total of 18 different species of man and several subspecies. The author hints at the future developments with genetic engineering and hints at the possiblity of creating superhumans who are linked telepathically. As time endures, the majority of man becomes comple;however, there are always the genetic defects which seem to leave the developmental process stunted.

1. Man will continue to develop and achieve great things

Heinlin shows a futuristic earth where man is selected based on genetics in order to ensure longevity,health, and intelligence. This occurs so often that it has become culturally accepted. The Earth has become fruitful and is experiencing a surplus of goods to the point where no one has to work. The genetic coding of the individual is what determines someone’s value. It’s as if man has been reduced to the role of purebred dogs.

1. Man has ensured his society has survived

2. Less diseases and disorders

1. Genetic engineering seen as dangerous (as a bioweapon)

Positive

2.

3. Evolution is bound to happen;this is merely doing the inevitable - no harm

2. Each generation has an ideal of self preservation.

1. Not all man is on equal grounds

Positive

2. The changes are unpredictable

3. The new creations are not repressed by the creator, but merely flourish as a new generation.

2. He has furthered himself intellectually 3. Man no longer has to toil in order to survive/get by

1. Man reduced to his DNA solely

Positive

Human Genetic Engineering

258

Title of Book

Year

Description (brief)

Anvil of the Heart

1983

The species of Homo sapiens is dying out;however, genetic engineers are able to design a new race of man. These are far superior in athletic and scholastic ability. They are also more in control of their emotional state. The government also protected the new beings by ensuring they had the ability to craft their own future. The old race merely has to wait to die out as the new race is coming in.

1. Man seems to accept his fate

This gives rise to the peculiar setting where gender does not exist. Each individual is a biological/emotional summation of both male and female. The citizens are all ambisexual and only partake in sexual acts once a month for reproductive purposes.The main characters interact with each other and try to accomplish what they were set out to do.

1. Gender equality completely achieved

The entire book is written as a historical account documenting life in the year 3000. It depicts different geopolitical events occurring as well as different scientific developments. GMO’s are common to the people as well as using genetic engineering/ transhumanism in order to extend life or survive in extreme environments.

1. Man seems to accept and encourage the developments

This collection of 13 short stories (clever title) demonstrates the effects of different scientific developments on mankind. Each story addresses how necessary each development is in each respective scientific field.Genetic alteration were addresses in an easy to take and humanizing manner. While some stories demonstrate fatal superhuman developments, others show the internal conflict of an altered human trying to discover what he or she truly is.

1. Acceptable and should be done (with just an air of caution)

Depicts the life of an 18 year boy who is the son of a woman with Huntington’s disease. he works for a famous molecular biologist. As the novel progresses, the boy realizes the doctor has become particularly interested in him. In this universe it is possible to detect flaws in utero in order to genetically engineer the “perfect” child. The main character realizes he was the product of a highly unethical eugenics experiment. Another character, and love interest to the main, also demonstrates attributes of being genetically engineered because of her perfection in beauty and athletics.

1. Eliminates diseases being transmitted to the child.

The Left Hand of Darkness

1969

The Third Millennium

1985

Beaker’s Dozen

1998

Double Helix

2005

Period in History

1980’s and Before

1990’s and 21st Century

Positive

IIII

II

Negative

I

III

Positive Ex. 2. As opposed to saving himself, man creates a new, more evolved creature to take his place

Negative Ex.

Mainly

(Pos or Neg)

1. Certain people seemed upset at the new beings taking over.

Positive

1. A bit of individuality has been stripped from man

Positive

1. Man’s focus has shifted somewhat to vanity and beauty.

Positive

3. The youth were given control of their own future; it was not dictated for them.

2. Allows a pure bond to be formed between individuals.

2. No negative effects seems to occur which were too drastic to fix

1. Ethical dilemma arises when changing and damaging an individual’s concept of whom they are

Negative

2. People will take the alterations to the extreme which will only conclude in them harming themselves.

3. Tampering with genetics could stress social and political interactions globally 1. Treads to close to the whole aspect of playing God. 2. Picking and choosing which lives to save dehumanizes a large portion of mankind.

Positive

Human Genetic Engineering

259

Copy of Movie Results

Data Collection DSP - MOVIES

Title of Movie

Year

Splice

2010

The Kindred

Multiplicity

The Island of Lost Souls

Blade Runner

Tail Sting

1987

1996

1932

1982

2001

Description (brief)

Positive Ex.

Negative Ex. 1. Out of control experiment

Genetic engineers splice animal DNA with human to create hybrid humanoid creatures. Their goal is to create a viable human-animal hybrid; however, they are instead instructed to merely obtain genetic material from intermediary specimens. They create the hybrid, Dren; it is amphibious and ages rapidly.

Then develops new traits (carnivorous, wings). The hybrid creature is killed but the protein samples contain various chemical compounds to further scientific development.

1. Allows for the progression of understanding hybrids,

On her deathbed, the mother,Amanda, asks her son to destroy all the lab equipment and notes. She then tells her son,John, he has a brother named Anthony,who was a product of genetic experimentation. They have to search and destroy this experiment gone wrong. Essentially, Anthony was a designer baby with poor mutations.

1. Developments in altering human DNA

1. Failed attempt at creating a full human.

2. Successful attempt at creating a living creature.

2. Anthony considered less human and more animal/savage.

While the film has a clear theme which beckons cloning. There are genetic engineering tones. This can be seen when multiple clones start to be made as well as clones of clones. The ongoning copying of genetic material will lead to the degradation of the value of material. The altering of codes to yield identical people seems to eliminate individuality but the clones do have the ability to stand on their own.

1. Those altered have the Identity of their own.

(An adaptation of Island of Doctor Moreau) The megolomaniac scientist engineers new creatures by splicing animal DNA with human DNA. The creatures are pushed into positions of slavery and isolation. It also brings up the key problem of regarding humanoid scientific experiments as real people.

1. Insight of successfully splicing human and animalian DNA

The main character is a detective whose main goal is to track down genetically engineered super beings, or replicants, who have gone rogue. This depicts a futuristic dystopian society in which every aspect of life, including man himself, to be controlled by megacorporations.

1. New jobs are created because of them

1. Genetically engineering are criminalized

2. Emotional stability of replicants are protected

2. Genetically engineered are solely used for work to menial/ dangerous for man

A group of people try to hijack a van leaving a genetic engineering institute;however, the cargo is successfully sent to the airport. Chaos ensues when a mixup at the airport leads a variety of people to get on a charter flight to LA along with the hijackers who were in their second attempt. The objects of interest were scorpions who were genetically engineered to be used to develop new drugs for AIDS and cancer. The scorpions are released and grow exponentially and wreak havoc on the plane. Eventually one passenger has developed an immunity to the stings and manages to kill the queen.

1. Genetic engineering of animals in order to aid with disorders and diseases.

2. Benefits biological and medical fields.

3. Understanding of science experiments gone wrong.

Mainly

(Pos or Neg) Positive

2. Deadly products (stinger) not handled well 3. Dren is created just to be analyzed then killed; treated as a lab animal.

4. Successful action of tampering with genetic coding.

Negative

3. Warnings against designer baby.

1. Genetic engineering could be used for negative purposes.

Positive

1. The creatures see themselves in secondary positions.

Negative

2. Does serve purpose aside from being a science experiment.

2. The situation concludes itself into complete anarchy 3. Animalian humans do not have adequate social skills in order to function well in society Negative

3. Defective “replicants” are killed if they defy the laws (specifically the ban on replicants)

2. Successful enhancement of growth genes in animal species

1. Deaths ensue because of poor precautions

Positive

Human Genetic Engineering Zenith

Gene-X

Forbidden World/Mutant

The Boys from Brazil

2010

2006

1982

1978

260

Year 2044. Human populace has been 1. Good intentions of trying to genetically altered to be constatly happy eliminate pain without ever feeling pain or sorrow. This constant state of happiness causes people to feel numb to the extent that only pain will make them feel something. Substances are peddled in order to induce pain to the populace for a cheap thrill. The main character has to go on a quest to solve the puzzle ultimately facing a challenge to forget himself or give up his soul. The character is revealed to be an institutionalized, epileptic patient with a brain tumor. He is left in uncertainty about the conspiracy.

1. Create a race of humans who cannot cope with life and must resort to medication to feel alive.

Young researcher is on edge of cure for canswer. His cure is stolen by a large pharmaceutical company. There is a flaw in the cure. He is unsure of the implications and if they are fatal or not. Eventually he discovers it creates a tumor which produces violent behavior in the patient. It is up to the researcher to collect his creation in hopes to curb the spread. Ultimately this will cost him his job and will cost others their lives

1. Successful cure for a deadly disease

1. Implications of product were not considered/Ethical problems

In the future on a distant planet, scientists have toyed around and created a new creature they dubbed “subject 20.” He was constructed from genetically altered DNA strains in hopes to provide sustenance for the galaxy. Complications ensue, subject 20 grows and kills its creators as well as other lab personnel. The creature uses his altered DNA in order to affect his prey who dissolves into jelly after injection.The beast keeps mutating and is only able to be stopped when it eats a diseased human organ and genetically self destructs. It reaches the point where it could no longer support itself.

1. Successful attempt at creating a new creature

1. Man has lost control of his experiment.

2. Genetic engineering in hopes to stave hunger crises

2. Genetic mutations have produced an unstable creature.

1980’s and Before

1990’s and 21st Century

Positive

-

III

Negative

IIIII

II

2. Life is hollow and without meaning.

Negative

2. Human genetic code is still too complicated to aid without side effects.

The main character uncovers a sect of 1. Preserving a person’s legacy Third Reich war criminals holding secret meetings in South America. He phones a Nazi hunter in order to deal with the uprising. The Nazi hunter uncovers a group of families whose (adopted) sons bear an uncanny resemblance to each other (blue eyes/black hair). The commonalities in the parents were also striking. It was then revealed that Hitler’s DNA had been preserved and been used to fertilized eggs within the women to create ultimately 94 clones of Hitler. thoughts have been discussed in order to kill the children before they grow up;however, some see this as unethical because they are children. The man ultimately destroys the list to protect the children.

Period in History

Negative

Negative

3. Altered genetic material has been weaponized.

4. Altered code could not manage the rapidly growing being.

1. Using genetic engineering to cause chaos in the world.

2. Ethical qualms of genetically engineering a person specifically for world domination

Negative

Introversion/Extraversion: Cultural or Genetics?

Roles of Personality in Leadership Collin McGrath

Introversion/Extraversion

263

Table of Contents

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Pioneers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Introverted Personality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Introverted Response to Dopamine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Introverts and Conversation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Morality of Introverts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Introverts Skilled at Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Introverts as Friends. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Extroverted Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Extroverted Reaction to Dopamine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Extroverts and Conversation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Review of Related Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Nurture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 American Culture Trends Towards Extraversion . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 American Parenting Effects on Personality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 American Academics Effects on Personality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 American Religion Effects on Personality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Asian Culture Trends Towards Introversion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Asian Parenting Effects on Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Asian Academics Effects on Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Asian Religion Effects on Introversion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Tiger Moms Effects on Personality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Different Parenting Causes Different Personality. . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Genetics and Predictability of Personality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Free Trait Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Different Dopamine Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Different Regions of Brain Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Role of Personality in Business. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Basic Leadership. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Transformational Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Emotional Intelligence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Personality Correlated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Introverts at Leadership. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Leaders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Gandhi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Business Leaders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

Introversion/Extraversion

264

Table of Contents (continued)

Methodology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Purpose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Participants & Sampling Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Research Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Experimental Manipulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Data Collections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Data Analysis Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Ethical Consideration (Human Subject Protection) . . . . . . . . . . 275 Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Findings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Sample. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Survey Findings/Interviews/Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Implications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Remaining Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Attraction to Acting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Introverts Suitability for Advanced Acting Processes . . . . . . . . . 281 Biblical. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 Appendix I: Survey Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Appendix II: Survey Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Appendix III: Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

Introversion/Extraversion

265

Abstract

The Researcher examined the personality types of introversion and extraversion and how these personalities are caused by culture, genetics, and family upbringing. The Researcher then examined how introverts can succeed as business leaders, particularly as transformational leaders. After researching personalities and leadership, this Researcher conducted further research evaluating how Americans perceived their employersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; personality and which personality they would prefer for their employers; the research indicated a majority preferred introverted.

The Researcher also did a case study comparing an introverted CEO, Douglas Conant, with an extroverted CEO, Harry Gordon Selfridge, in terms of generosity, listening abilities, risk-taking actions, and transformational leadership qualities. The Researcher found they demonstrated equal generosity, Conant demonstrated more listening abilities, Selfridge demonstrated more risk-taking actions, and Conant demonstrated more transformational leadership qualities. For future research, one could examine how personality affects acting skills and abilities.

Introversion/Extraversion

In this world, there are two kinds of people, introverts, people who receive stimulation from the inner world of thought and need alone time to relax, and extroverts, people who receive stimulation from the outer world of people and activities and need social time to relax, and both are common in different countries (Bainbridge, 2013; Cain, 2012). America and Europe tend to host the most extroverts, dominating businesses and being the center of attention, but Asian countries such as Japan, tend to host the most introverts, quietly working and spending time in thoughts (Cain, 2012). Typically, people tend to have a strong inclination to one personality and will fall into the characteristics of said personality (“The story”, 2013). Introverts and extroverts are radically different personalities, having many qualities that make them distinguishable from each other and make them suited for different tasks. For example, introverts think before they speak while extroverts think while they speak; introverts excel at solitary tasks involving focus and thought while extroverts can excel at social tasks involving pressure and quick reactions. When interacting with people, introverts typically prefer to speak one-on-one while an extrovert prefers being in a crowd. Introverts prefer to meet people on a friendly basis, while extroverts prefer to meet people on the basis of competition.

Introverts have superior concentration but are easily overwhelmed by stimulating environments, and extroverts have less concentration but enjoy and seek out stimulating environments. One might ask, “Why should personality matter when they do not affect my life?” Wrong. Ever since the dawn of time, humanity has sought guidance under leadership.

Throughout history, there have been uncountable instances of leadership, some well known, some less known, some on the large scale of running a country, and some on the small scale of a school club. Although noticeably different, all of these leadership styles share a simple fact: many of them succeeded and many of them failed. Some factors cause this success or failure such as the state of the workplace, the group members, and the available resources. Sometimes the results of leadership can be traced to one primary factor: the leader. Leaders can determine if an organization will blossom or whither through their policies, interactions with workers, and actions. So what determines how a leader will go about achieving success? Yes, leaders often rely on experience, but the majority of their actions are often determined by their personality. An introverted leader will not typically conduct business like an extroverted leader or vice versa.

Today, researchers seek to determine if either introversion or extraversion is the superior personality for leaders, particularly in business. To determine this, however, one must understand what causes a person to be introverted or extroverted in order to determine where successful business leaders should arise and what primarily influences them: country, family, or genetics? In addition, one must know how these personalities are different and how these differences can affect leadership. Scientists and psychologists have studied introversion and extraversion and will continue to do so. Of course, this research had to start somewhere.

Background Pioneers One of the first people to research the subconscious was Sigmund Freud who believed malicious feelings lurked in the subconscious, and there was untold malice in people in the form of the id kept in check by the moral compass of the superego (Boeree, 2006). He believed man had to make sense of his subconscious to truly understand himself. Today, many of his beliefs are highly disputed, but nonetheless, his work became the basis of psychology, which future researchers would expand upon including a younger colleague of his, Carl Jung. After studying medicine at the University of Basel and deciding to pursue psychiatry, Carl Jung identified and named schizophrenia as a brain disorder where people interpret reality abnormally and invented word association (Schizophrenia, n.d.).

Although Freud saw Jung as the heir to his work, Jung did not completely

267 agree with Freud’s work and took a different approach to analyzing the subconscious and personality (Boeree, 2006). He labeled the parts of the collective unconscious as archetypes and divided those archetypes into groups such as the mother archetype, manna, shadow, and so on. Jung is most well known, however, for identifying the distinction between introverts and extroverts. In fact, most people today primarily know Jung for distinguishing these personalities and do not realize he researched other topics. Nonetheless, Jung established introverts as individuals who prefer introspection and extroverts as individuals who prefer the outer world, and he established the idea of one having a strong preference for a personality but is not a “pure introvert” or “pure extrovert”. In 1940, two scientists who were inspired by Jung’s research, Katherine Cook Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers, developed the now famous Myers Brigg Test (Richard, 1993) that could successfully identify an individual as highly introverted or highly extraverted (“The Story”, 2013). Today, millions of businesses around the world use this test to identify the personality of an applicant and determine the applicant’s suitability for a certain occupation (“The Story”, 2013). For the sake of time, this Researcher will focus on the concepts of introversion and extraversion, the causes of these personalities, and the suitability of these personalities for leadership.

Introverted Personality Jung’s research defines an introvert as an individual who draws strength from the inner world (“Philosophy 302,” 2006). On the other hand, Merriam-Webster dictionary defines an introvert as a shy, quiet person who has difficulty talking to others, but introverts are better defined as individuals who need time alone to relax because of the structure of their brains, particularly the structure of their ascending reticular activating system or ARAS, a part of the brain that controls sensory stimulation (Cain, 2012). It is completely inaccurate to call introverted people shy; introverts prefer to spend time alone to relax, but shy people spend time alone because they fear social disapproval, and shyness is not an introverted personality; extroverts can also be shy (Cain, 2012; Moore, 2013).

Introverted Response to Dopamine Introverts also differ from extroverts in work ethic (Cain, 2012). Introverts have very good focus when they need to complete a task (“Philosophy 302”, 2003). Generally, their attention is directed toward the task instead of the reward (Cain, 2012). An explanation for this focus comes from the chemical dopamine, a chemical released in response to anticipated pleasures (“The Scientific Evidence”, n.d.). While dopamine can give people energy to accomplish tasks, it can also make people neglect the big picture and focus on the reward itself (Cain, 2012). For an introvert, smaller dopamine passageways make introverts less sensitive to rewards and the end goal of a task; consequently, introverts are less prone in neglecting the big picture and are more careful avoiding risks (Cain, 2012).

Rather than experiencing large amounts of dopamine, introverts feel a sensation called “flow”, a state of mind when a person is totally engaged in his or her activity, not bored, not anxious, and not questioning his or her own adequacy (Cain, 2012).

Introverts and Conversation Furthermore, introverts treat conversations differently than extroverts (Cain, 2012). Introverts dislike small talk (Cain, 2012). They simply are not interested in trivial topics that lack profundity and can unintentionally create barriers between people and would much rather discuss a personal topic that interests them (Cain, 2012; Helgoe, 2010). In fact, when introverts discuss something that interests them, they become very excited and eager to talk (King, 2013). Introverts also tend to act as counselors to other introverts in conversation, by trying to talk to each other about their problems and offer advise; introverts think about what they are going to

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say carefully before they say it (Cain, 2012). Introverts also crave a certain degree of authenticity in their conversations that does not come from text messages or Internet interactions (Gregoire, 2013). Some introverts, however, do spend time on social media interacting other people because it eliminates anxiety from in-person interactions and allows them to simply leave a conversation when they have nothing left to say (Collier, n.d.). Researchers, however, have found evidence social people tend to benefit more from social media because they become even more involved in community while introverts did not foster social contacts (Bower, 2002). In any case, it is clear introverts desire to personally connect to other people, and as leaders, they may be more inclined to establish such connections with subordinates.

Morality of Introverts Introverts also have a certain set of surprisingly strong morals and can often inspire morality in others (Cain, 2012). When they grow up in a nurturing environment like any other child, introverts develop a strong sensitivity to immoral activities and tend to recognize the feelings of others much more (Cain, 2012). They try to avoid conflict, preferring to meet people on a friendly, non-aggressive basis (Cain, 2012). As a leader, an introvert might prefer to avoid arguing with employees and try to establish friendship.

Introverts Skilled at Writing While not excellent at tasks involving pressure and generally not athletic participants, introverts tend to excel in activities involving thought such as writing and listening, as writing is a solitary profession, which perfectly suits introverts who gain strength from being alone (Cain, 2012; Blake, 2013). Furthermore, introverts have a deep need to process information, a key quality of successful writers as giving context and meaning to a set of facts and emotions is necessary for storytelling (Blake, 2013). Introverts also prefer listening instead of talking in social situations (Blake, 2013).

Thus, an introverted leader may be more willing to listen to employees and customers than an extroverted leader to achieve success and introverts may be more fitted for any solitary aspects of leadership.

Introverts as Friends Although they need solitude to relax, introverts also crave intimacy (Cain, 2012). They have a few friends, whom they hold to be very dear (Cain, 2012). An introvert is fiercely loyal to those friends; an introverted friend is quite often a friend for life (King, 2013). Introverts want to make very personal connections to other people on the basis of friendship and understand people on a personal level (Cain, 2012). Although introverts can often see extroverts as false and insincere, introverts are often drawn to extroverts in business, friendship, and marriage (Cain, 2012; “Philosophy 302”, 2006). When talking with extroverts, many introverts will often report discussing happier topics and making conversation more easily (Cain, 2012). So clearly, introverts and extroverts are compatible and can collaborate to accomplish difficult tasks in business; an introvert could lead extroverts (Cain, 2012).

Introverts are not perfect (Cain, 2012). They can lack confidence and do have tendencies to be unsocial, shy, or hesitant (“Personality 302”, 2006).

They do not however, have nearly as many weaknesses as the extroverted world would like to believe, so the popular perceptions of introverts as weak and socially inept must be reevaluated. Otherwise, the business world could miss out on a personality, which could bring unique leadership strengths.

To say the media has not always had a positive perspective of introverts is an understatement (King, 2013). Today, the media tends to perceive introverts as aloof nerds who hate people and do not know how to have fun or as cold and distant (“Philosophy 302”, 2003; King, 2013). The

268 media also believes introverts can and should fix their personalities to become extroverts (King, 2013). Overall, the media believes introverts are generally not suited for leadership positions because they do not inspire confidence (King, 2013).

Extroverted Personality On the opposite side of the spectrum of personality, Jung’s research defines an extrovert (or an extravert) as a person who prefers the outside world of people and activities (Boeree, 2006). Webster-Merriam Dictionary defines an extrovert as an outgoing person who gets along easily with others, but an extrovert is better defined as an individual with a need for social time with other people to unwind after a long day (Bainbridge, 2013).

Extroverted Reaction to Dopamine While they can focus on long, difficult tasks when necessary, extroverts do not typically have the level of focus as introverts and can have difficulty working alone for long periods of time (Blake, 2013). Furthermore, extroverts have wide dopamine passageways and are more responsive and motivated by rewards (Cain, 2012). Unfortunately, the anticipation of dopamine can make extroverts blind to the bigger picture and lead their followers astray (Cain, 2012). When they are focused on the reward, they neglect potential dangers and ignore warning signs to pursue the reward, and this negligence can lead to disasters like refusal to sell stocks in a company even when shares are decreasing or is involved in political or business scandals (Cain, 2012). Sometimes, however, risks can pay off; if a company conducts a risky business practice, such as doing something other companies do not, and achieve success, then other companies may often follow suit, knowing such practice may bring success. In essence, many extroverted leaders are prone to making bold, occasionally reckless, risky actions.

Extroverts and Conversation In addition, extroverts tend to enjoy small talk much more than introverts (Cain, 2012). When talking with other extroverts, they often enjoy being the center of attention and offer casual information – such as pets, hobbies, or families – to establish similarities between themselves (Cain, 2012).

Extroverts dislike solitary thinking but enjoy small talk; in fact, they can actually think as they speak to respond quickly in conversations, so they can, and often will, respond to a sudden crisis or problem very quickly compared to introverts who prefer to carefully consider the best course of action (“Philosophy 302”, 2003; Blake, 2013). As leaders, this makes extroverts more comfortable with a large group of followers and allows them to completely engage in any company conversation.

Compared to introverts, extroverts can be more callous to the feelings of others and are much more confrontational (Cain, 2012). Most extroverts are never afraid to express their opinion or argue especially since their lower blood pressure invites higher stimulation (Hozawa, et al., 2006).

In fact, extroverts are often drawn to people on the basis of competition, which is why extroverts are much more likely to participate in sports where they can compete with other people (Cain, 2012; “Philosophy 302”, 2006). This does not mean extroverts are arrogant, rude individuals; rather introverts are the more sensitive of the two. If extroverts are eager to compete, then as leaders they may run business like competition and try to outperform competitors.

An extrovert is less fastidious about authenticity, or connecting to the actual person in conversation, than an introvert (Gregoire, 2013). Considering they want to converse with other people, they do not really mind what form of technology they use to communicate be it texting or Facebook (Gregoire, 2013). This love of communication can be seen particularly in the rise of popularity of I-phone based activities. Extroverts do not mind

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unauthentic relationships in communications or in businesses. As leaders, they do not feel a need to personally connect to employees and customers and might not listen to them as an introverted leader would.

grow up introverted.

Like introverts, extroverts also crave intimacy, but they crave it in a different way (Cain, 2012). Extroverts generally have a wide network of friends from which they receive this intimacy, and extroverts are generally admired by many of their friends and other people (Cain, 2012). They prefer to interact with people on the basis of competition (Cain, 2012).

Often extroverts can see introverts as selfish and boring, but oddly enough, extroverts are also drawn to introverts in business, friendship, and marriage (“Personality 302”, 2006; Cain, 2012). When extroverts communicate with introverts, extroverts report a feeling of relaxation with their introvert partners (unlike when communicating with other extroverts), a feeling they can honestly share problems, and a feeling they do not need to be falsely upbeat, meaning not only can introverts lead extroverts, but extroverts too, can lead a team of introverts.

What caused America to value extraversion over introversion? The answer actually comes from the Industrial Revolution beginning around 1760 (Cain, 2012). People originally lived on farms isolated from each other, but the rise of technology caused people to move away from these farms to crowded cities where there was more available interaction (Cain, 2012).

Furthermore, people began to believe a successful business required a certain personality (Cain, 2012). America became a verbal culture where the choice to remain silent was a poor choice (Helgoe, 2010). The new ideal self was magnetic, energetic, and dominant; people had to do more than sell a product, they had to sell themselves in order to succeed in business.

The media has almost always had a positive perspective of extroverts, often seeing extroverts as strong, wealthy, intelligent individuals who work as business owners or company bosses (Cain, 2012). Some tropes commonly associated with extroverts include Mr. Nice Guy, a friendly, morally average person everyone wants for a friend; big man on campus, the friendly, popular, straight A student, and even life of the party (Extraversion Tropes). Overall, the media portrays extroverts as the individuals most qualified for leadership and the common mentality is they are the only qualified personality for leadership positions (Bono & Judge, 2004).

Indeed, extroverts can make successful leaders but such successes can make society neglect selecting introverts as leaders, which would diminish introverted leadership styles.

So far, the basic knowledge of introversion and extraversion has been established. There are two basic personalities: introversion, which entails a preference of the inner world of thought and a desire to seek solitude in order to relax, and extraversion, which entails a preference of the outer world of people and activities and a desire to seek social activities and stimulating environments to relax (Cain, 2012; “Philosophy 302”, 2006).

Introverts can be further characterized by their concentration, listening abilities, desire to connect personally, tendency to think before speaking, and their tendency to consider and plan their courses of action. Extroverts, on the other hand, can be further characterized by their competitive nature, risk-taking actions, upbeat demeanor, tendency to speak while thinking, and their tendency to react quickly to sudden events. Although a person can have a strong preference for one personality, they cannot be completely introverted or completely extroverted. Finally, media tends to favor extroverts over introverts and consequently, society values extraversion more and typically sees extroverts as the primary candidates for leadership roles. With all this in mind, one must ask the question: is introversion or extraversion a product of culture, genetics, or both? In the case of personality, which personality contributes more to a successful business? In the case study of Douglas Conant and Harry Gordon Selfridge, how do the two compare in terms of generosity, risk-taking actions, listening skills, and transformational leadership qualities?

Review of Related Literature Nurture Often, the culture of a nation and family interactions can influence the nature of a person; a nation’s culture can determine what a person believes while the way a person interacts with their family can influence how they will interact with others in the future. These factors can also influence if a child will grow up and become introverted or extroverted; Americans are surrounded by a verbal culture and often grow up extroverted, while Asian children are surrounded by an introspective, studious culture and often

American Culture Trends Towards Extraversion

At the turn of the 20th century, there was a new perception of introversion in America; it was a disease to be cured. Introverts were labeled with an inferiority complex and the common belief was that introversion would lead to tragedies such as alcoholism and even suicide. People began to suspect quiet males of being homosexuals and saw introversion as a major hindrance to public speaking. There was also a new perception of a true leader as someone who acted confidently, could make decisions despite incomplete information, and could discuss easily. America soon became a naturally extroverted country (Helgoe, 2010). Extraversion is a product of American values such as sociability, easy, cheerful association, and high self-esteem (belief in oneself and putting individual needs before group needs (Twenge, 2006)). These cultural beliefs influenced other aspects of American society which further reinforced the tendency to value extraversion.

American Parenting Effects on Personality These cultural beliefs can influence the perspectives of American parents and how they treat their children. With these perspectives of introversion in mind, many American parents praise talkative children but frown upon silent children; some parents try to force introverted children to behave like extroverts, which can hurt the children mentally (Cain, 2012).

American Academics Effects on Personality The American educational curriculum is evidence of the influence of extraversion as it does not typically emphasize introverted interests such as reading, writing, or solitary thought. Most projects involve cooperating with other students and many classes utilize oratory exercises and demand participation. In some business colleges, the students are taught the ability to gather information and write a paper is useless if one lacks the confidence to present the information (Cain, 2012).

American Religion Effects on Personality Religion has also been affected by these beliefs. Take Christianity, for example. Normally, Christians today would separate themselves from the world to talk to God, but today worship tends to feature loud, joyous singing and celebration and neglect introspection. Indeed, extraversion has become the majority and introversion the minority in America, but in Asian countries, however, introversion is not the minority.

Asian Culture Trends Towards Introversion While countries like the USA, England, and France welcomed extraversion, countries like China and Japan have embraced introversion. To understand why, one must examine the history of these regions. Typically, the Eastern world has been an isolated culture, which has tried to avoid influence (Cain, 2012). Before Europeans had begun overseas exploration, the Han Dynasty of China had already established Indian Ocean trade networks

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with Africa and the Middle East. The Chinese utilized massive boats called “junk” which far exceeded any boat the Europeans would later build (“Junk”, n.d.). The Chinese could have crossed the Atlantic and explored the New World in these boats; however, they never did. Why? Many Chinese citizens were concerned their religion and culture would be infected by foreign contact. Indeed, when the great Chinese explorer Zheng He converted to Islam after his travels to the Middle East, the Chinese were outraged and fearful, and thus, they decided to shut down overseas exploration and remain isolated. Japan also adopted such policies and refused to allow outside influences, and due to Japan’s geography, the country remained isolated for many years, keeping the population homogenous. Unlike American pioneers, the Eastern world did not explore the great unknown and became comfortable with being isolated.

Asian Parenting Effects on Personality As for Asian countries today, parents find introversion both acceptable and praise worthy (Cain, 2012). Parents encourage children to focus on academic pursuits, work diligently, and believe there is wisdom in silence (Paul, 2011). In fact, many people of Asian roots will often express dislike for a person who speaks too much; they often believe people who talk too much tyrannize everyone else by imposing their will onto others, and by doing so, are acting arrogant (Cain, 2012).

Asian Academics Effects on Personality The curriculum for students in Asian countries is vastly different from that of America or Europe; Asian countries often adopt a curriculum that actually encourages introversion by focusing on introvert interests including the following: listening, writing, reading, and memorization (Blake, 2013; Cain, 2012). Unlike the American curriculum focusing on oratory exercises, conversation is flat out discouraged; conversation is simply not a focus of the Asian curriculum (Cain, 2012).

Asian Religion Effects on Introversion Furthermore, Asian country values are vastly different from American or European values and in some ways encourage introversion as they tend to focus on moral virtues, deeper values, and putting group needs before individual needs (Cain, 2012). While Americans tend to see prioritizing the needs of the group as conformity, Asians see such prioritizing as expressing concern for others (Cain, 2012).

Tiger Moms Effects on Personality Another possible cause of introversion is Tiger moms, mothers who aggressively push their children to work hard in school and in life (Paul, 2011). While Tiger moms can be present in many cultures, they tend to be very prevalent in the Eastern world (Paul, 2011). As harsh as it sounds, this parenting method achieves remarkable results, as recent tests show Chinese students, particularly from Shanghai, are effectively and embarrassingly outclassing American students in reading, science, and math. Like the event of Sputnik, Americans are falling behind another country once again (Paul, 2011).

Different Parenting Causes Different Personality Some research actually suggests the way parents treat a child affects the personality of child (Siegelman, 1966). Research shows if a child finds interaction with parents enjoyable, the child is likely to seek out similar enjoyment from interactions with others and thus takes on an extroverted personality (Siegelman, 1966). Conversely, should a child experience unpleasant interactions with parents, then the child may feel the desire to avoid other interpersonal relationships, and thus takes on an introverted personality (Siegelman, 1966). Normally, a loving parent is much more

270 likely to reward children when they demonstrate extroverted behavior compared to an introverted behavior, so perhaps the love American parents show their children makes their children take on extroverted personalities while the strictness Asian parents show their children makes their children take on introverted personalities (Paul, 2011). Interestingly, many introverted children tend to report having parents who often rejected them, while many extroverted children tend to report having parents who often showed love to them (Siegelman, 1966). On the other hand, many scientists and individuals believe introversion and extraversion are not a result of culture or family upbringing but a result of genetics and nature.

Nature Genetics and Predictability of Personality Many psychologists have wondered if introversion or extroversion is something people are simply born with, and recent evidence suggests that very well could be the case (Cain, 2012). Experiments have shown it is possible to predict whether a child will grow up to be introverted or extroverted at infancy through environment sensitivity. When an infant was placed in an unfamiliar environment and cried, a scientist could predict the infant would grow up to be introverted because they were environmentally sensitive. On the other hand, when an infant was placed in an unfamiliar environment and did not cry, a scientist could predict the infant would grow up to be extroverted because they were not environmentally sensitive. These reactions suggest people are fated genetically even at infancy to be either introverted or extroverted (Cain, 2012).

Free Trait Theory Furthermore, people can only stretch their personalities so far according to the Free Trait Theory (Cain, 2012). The Free Trait Theory states people may act out of their natural personality but still need time to be true to themselves; the body and mind both need time to be true to the inherent personality of the individual. If people deny themselves this time, they risk their mental health and experience stress or burnout, long-term exhaustion or diminished interest in work (Merriam Webster Dictionary).

People who deny themselves time to be true to their nature also risk their physical health and could experience cardiovascular disease or an increase in autonomic nervous system activities, which includes involuntary actions such as heartbeat, digestion, and eye dilation, all of which can result in compromising the immune function (Cain, 2012; “Autonomic Nervous System,” 2013). This is not the only evidence of personality being related to genetics.

Different Dopamine Structure In the body, there are noticeable differences between introverts and extroverts. As previously discussed, there are structural differences between dopamine passageways of introverts and extroverts (“The Scientific Evidence,” n.d.). For introverts these passageways are much less open, making introverts less reward sensitive than extroverts, but for extroverts these passageways are much more open, making extroverts incredibly reward sensitive (Cain, 2012). When working hard on a task, introverts are not usually energized by dopamine like extroverts but experience a sensation called “flow,” where they are completely absorbed by their task, do not fret about their adequacy, or their time (Cain, 2012).

Introverts and extroverts also differ genetically in the regions of activity in their brains.

Different Regions of Brain Activity In the 1960’s, Hans Eysenck, a German psychologist living in Great Britian,

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proposed the difference between introverts and extroverts was their different levels of arousal, or the extent to which their bodies and minds are alert and responsive to stimulation (Cooper, 2013). Hans’ theory stated extroverts have a lower level of arousal, meaning to reach the same level of arousal introverts might reach easily, extroverts have to work harder; in addition, Hans theory also stated introverts have a higher level of arousal, which can make them easily overwhelmed by stimulating environments and people and prefer time alone, one-on-one conversations, and predictable situations. Today, researchers believe the ascending reticular activating system, or ARAS, the part of the brain leading up to the cerebral cortex and to other parts of the brain, that controls sensory stimulation flowing into the brain confirms Eysenck’s theory (Cain, 2012). For an introvert, the ARAS channel is wide open, making introverts susceptible to over-arousal (“The Scientific Evidence,” n.d.; Cain, 2012). Consequently, introverts prefer less stimulating environments where there are fewer distractions (“The Scientific Evidence,” n.d.). Extroverts also have an ARAS structure in their brains; however, the ARAS channels of an extrovert are far less open, making extroverts prone to under-arousal (Cain, 2012). In response, extroverts seek stimulating environments and stimulation from talking with other people (Cain, 2012).

leadership in his 1978 book, “Leadership”, and since then transformational leadership has become one of the most extensively researched academic topics (“About James”, n.d.). When it comes to running any sort of business or even a team, people are always looking to hire a transformational leader, or a charismatic leader who transforms an organization from its current status to the desired status (Townes, 2012). Often, research will indicate extroverts are the best candidates for transformational leadership; they are charismatic, upbeat, and easy to get along with, but new information suggests introverts can be just as effective in leadership, which could overturn previous assumptions and convince researchers introverts can bring unique strengths to the leadership role (Townes, 2012).

One particular region of brain activity for an extrovert is found in the region known as the anterior cingulate cortex (Forney, n.d.). While scientists have debated the exact functions of this region, most scientist agree it deals with cognitive functions, such as thinking, understanding, learning, and remembering, along with temporary mood changes, depression and anxiety disorders, and the perception of pain (Luu & Posner, 2003). Other regions of activity include the temporal lobes, which deal with memory, emotions, hearing, and language and the posterior thalamus, which decodes emotional tones and contains mechanisms of recent memory (Forney, n.d.; “The brain”, n.d.). Generally, the extroverted brain displays activity in regions involved with discussion and is designed to focus on the external world (Cain, 2012; Kaier, 2015). The brain of an introvert, however, has different regions of activity.

Emotional Intelligence

A large area of activity in the brain of an introvert is the thalamus, a midline paired symmetrical structure within the brains of any vertebrate and the frontal lobes (Thalamus, 2010; Forney, n.d.; “The Scientific Evidence”, n.d.). The thalamus relays activities to the cerebral cortex and midbrain such as sensations, special senses, motor signals, and regulates certain activities, namely, consciousness, sleep, and alertness (Thalamus, 2010).

These areas of the brain involve sensory processes such as remembering, problem solving, and planning (“The Scientific Evidence”, n.d.). In general, the introverted brain demonstrates activity in regions associated with thought and contemplation and is designed to focus on the internal world (Cain, 2012; Kaier, 2015). Since extroverts and introverts are noticeably different in terms of genetics, this could likely affect the leadership skills in business they each demonstrate respectively.

Role of Personality in Business Basic Leadership Despite many cultures writing their ideas on leadership and theories behind it, there is not any single true definition of leadership (Townes, 2012). Definitional leadership is generally accepted as “…an influence relationship between leaders and followers who intend changes or objectives that reflect shared (reciprocal) meanings, strategies, and purposes” (Mills, 2007). Literature and research has often identified transformational leadership as the most powerful leadership when it comes to motivating employees to work to the best of their abilities (Townes, 2012).

Transformational Leadership James MacGregor Burns, a political scientist, first coined transformational

According to American business consultant, author, and lecturer, Jim Collins and his study of great organizations in 2001, the transformational leaders in charge of many organizations do not completely fit the general model of a transformational leader; they were not charismatic or overly extroverted. In fact, the leaders Collins researched tend to be full of humility and full of willpower (Collins, 2001; Townes, 2012). There is another concept necessary to understand when describing elements of effective leadership: emotional intelligence (Townes, 2012).

Emotional intelligence is widely regarded as an essential trait for a transformational leader and can be defined as the “ability to recognize the meanings of emotions and their relationships and to reason and problemsolve on the basis of them” (Mayer et al., 1999). Unfortunately, society tends to limit the candidates for transformational leadership by automatically selecting the most outspoken individuals for the role, leaving introverts for supporting roles preventing introverts from lending their unique strengths to the leadership position and could prove crippling (Townes, 2012).

Personality Correlated In their study of the connection between personality and transformational leadership, researchers Joyce E. Bono, from the Department of Psychology at the University of Minnesota, and Timothy A. Judge, from the Department of Management at the University of Florida, (2004) found their results showing the connections between personality and transformational leadership were weak (Bono & Judge, 2004). In any case, the researchers still concluded extraversion was an important personality trait connected to transformational leadership; they believed when followers were extroverted, the followers would then be “more likely to perceive transformational leadership” and more readily accept this form of leadership (Felfe & Schyns, 2006; Townes, 2012). Further studies conducted by other groups, in particular, researchers Robert S. Rubin of DePaul University, David C. Munz of Saint Louis University, and William H. Bommer of Cleveland State University, demonstrated results consistent with those of researchers Judge and Bono’s (2004) results; agreeableness – but not extraversion – is the best predictor of transformational leadership (Rubin et al.’s, 2005).

Introverts at Leadership The common perception has always been talkative people are the most intelligent people, but introverts actually have several strengths when it comes to transformational leadership (Cain, 2012). Rather than rely on charisma to motivate employees, introverts rely on inspired standards and are more than willing to listen to the ideas of others (Cain, 2012). In addition, researchers from the University of Macau including Professor Raymond Chi Ho Loi, Associate Professor in Management and Faculty of Business Administration, Dr. Jenifer Lai Yuen Man, Assistant Professor in Management and Faculty of Business Administration, Professor Lam Long Wai, Professor in Management, Head of Department of Management and Marketing, and Faculty of Business Administration, found supervisors

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who demonstrated their commitment to an organization often positively led subordinates on organizational values, which as a result would enhance the commitment of employees (Loi et al., 2012; Prof. Lam, n.d.; Prof. Loi, n.d.; Dr. Lai, n.d.). Introverts are the individuals who demonstrate this loyalty and long-term commitment; they tend to build great trust in the work place, and on any team, people must be able to trust each other, showing loyalty to their work; introverts are the people who will stay late to work on a project with all of their strength after work (“The Secret”, n.d.; Todd, 2010).

Introverts can have tremendous success as leaders. Generally, introverts tend to have the best success as leaders when they lead a group of proactive employees because they prefer listening (Townes, 2012). Leaders who are less extroverted tend to be more open to the ideas, suggestions, and empowerment of proactive employees, but highly extroverted leaders can often see such suggestions as undermining their authority (Townes, 2012). In essence, introverts are good at leading proactive, initiative-taking employees because introverts have a tendency to listen to others and lack interest in dominating social situations, which makes introverts more likely “to hear and implement suggestions” (Cain, 2012). Often, they can further encourage their followers to be even more proactive and create a “virtuous circle of proactivity” (Cain, 2012) While most people do believe extroverts make better leaders than introverts, experiments have shown this opinion can quickly change (Adams, 2013).

One such experiment conducted by researchers Corinne Bendersky, an associate professor at UCLA’s Anderson School of Management and Neha Parikh Shah, an assistant professor at Rutgers Business School, required students to rank how successful they believed individuals would be as leaders, and they initially ranked the most extroverted student as the most successful student and the neurotic or introverted student as the least successful student (Adams, 2013). Within ten weeks, however, extroverted leaders had lost status with their peers and were judged more harshly, but introverts had surpassed expectations and had grown in status (Todd, 2010). Generally, people believe introverts will not contribute anything to a group, so followers are often impressed when they do contribute (Todd, 2010). There are plenty of introverted leaders who succeeded not in spite of their personality but because of their personality.

Leaders Gandhi In the business of running a country, Mahatma Gandhi of India is a prime of example of the power of introverts in leadership (“16 Outrageously”, 2013). Rather than sway a crowd through anger and resentment, he encouraged them to protest through nonviolence. Although he never wanted to express his thoughts at any meeting and could never work up the courage, his introversion gave him a unique strength – restraint present throughout his life. As a young man he decided to travel to England to study law even though the leaders in his social group, the Modhi Bania subcaste, disapproved and tried to dissuade him. As a result, he was excommunicated, and although any other man would argue for readmission; Gandhi respected the wishes of the Sheth, the head of the community, and kept at a distance. As a result of his compliance, the subcaste stopped harassing him and its members – even those who excommunicated him – assisted him in his political work without expecting to receive anything in return (Cain, 2012). Essentially, these people came to follow Gandhi because he was agreeable, and would listen to others rather than assert his own will. His agreeableness made him not only an effective political leader, but also an effective transformational leader by transforming India into a long-desired nation independent from Britain. Gandhi’s personality inspired people to challenge the status quote in a gentle way (“16 Outrageously”, 2013).

272 Business Leaders As for business leaders, two introverted leaders stand out from the rest: Bill Gates and Mark Zuckerburg (“16 Outrageously”, 2013). Although competitive as a child, Gates enjoyed reading and spending time alone (“Bill Gates,” 2014). He became fascinated with computers and spent time tinkering with software, and eventually he and his friend, Paul Allen, built Microsoft (“Bill Gates”, 2014). Naturally, he could be very exclusive regarding the people in his work group, surrounding himself with a small group of familiar individuals. Bill Gates prefers to keep to himself, but he is not shy; shyness would imply he fears social judgment, which he himself does not; therefore, he is more accurately described as an introvert (“16 Outrageously”, 2013). Being an introvert does not hamper his abilities; he knows how to be competitive and run his company effectively and is not afraid of how others will perceive him even if his corporate methods seem unorthodox or even unfair; he is more concerned with results than popularity (Cain, 2012; “Bill Gates,” 2014). An industry executive for Microsoft once stated it can be difficult to reach Bill Gates by phone because he enjoys time alone to relax, and another executive reported showing Gates a game where the executive won 35 of 37 times, but a month later Gates won or tied every match by studying the game to compete more effectively (“Bill Gates”, 2014). As any introvert would, he persistently worked to overcome his adversary by improving his skills; perseverance is indeed a common characteristic of introverts (Cain, 2012). Some business majors believe being an introvert could hinder leadership because they believe introverts lack confidence and may not be willing to discipline employees or compete effectively in the market. Bill Gates, however, can disprove this belief and show being an introvert does not hamper his abilities or keep him from disciplinary actions. Another introverted business leader is the co-founder of Facebook, Mark Zuckerburg (Vargas, 2010). After co-founding Facebook, Zuckerburg became the youngest billionaire, but preferred to stay out of the spot light. In one such instance, he kept his wedding on a small scale, no lavishly expensive ring for his wife or food, just a modest ring and Mexican food; he did not want excessive attention (McManus, 2012). He has been described as brusque but energetic when engaged in a task he enjoys, particularly thinking alone. He and Gates are the individuals who prefer to develop technology without others surrounding them (Vargas, 2010). They both needed a space alone to work like any introvert; when they had it, they could achieve breakthroughs.

As leaders of technological development, Gates and Zuckerburg perform most effectively with time alone, which could indicate introverts can find solitude in aspects of leadership where they can perform at their best.

These three introverts show introverts can be successful and even surpass extroverted leaders. Does this mean extroverts should never be qualified for leadership positions? Not at all, both personalities can contribute to leadership in different and unique ways. This is clearly illustrated when comparing an introverted leader, such as Douglas Conant, with an extroverted leader, Harry Gordon Selfridge.

Case Study Douglas Conant is a prime example of an introverted leader who transformed an organization to the desired status by serving as CEO of Campbell Soup from 2001 to 2011 and reforming the workplace (Cain, 2011). On the other hand, Harry Gordon Selfridge is an extroverted leader whose practices also changed an industry, specifically when he formed a department store in London and challenged the status quo by running his store differently from competitors (“H. Gordon Selfridge”, 2014). With this in mind, the Researcher decided to compare Conant and Selfridge by finding instances, practices, and situations where they demonstrated generosity, risk-taking actions, listening, and transformational leadership qualities. The Researcher chose generosity, or if they treated people well because the research collected in the Review of Related Literature suggested both extroverts and introverts are equally capable of treating

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people well, risk-taking actions, or actions entailing great risk, because the research stated extroverts are more likely to take risks, listening because the research stated introverted leaders are more likely to listen to employees, and transformational leadership qualities because the research stated introverts could be successful transformational leaders.

When examining generosity, the Researcher examined if Conant and Selfridge treated people well. The Researcher noted Conant wrote 10 to 20 handwritten thank you letters to employees at various levels each day, eventually adding up to 300,000 letters. He tried to communicate with employees to gain insight to their problems; in his blog, Conant recalled an incident where a new employee told him about his own problems with his workload and Conant helped him work around such problems (Conant, 2011; Gerdeman, 2013). Conant allowed employees to “call him out” if he ever seemed aloof, and encouraged the company to adopt environmentally friendly policies such as using solar energy (Conant, 2011; Gerdeman, 2013). He was also responsible for Campbell’s services to the city of Cadmen, New Jersey, one of the most dangerous and poor cities in the US where Campbell was originally formed, despite receiving no real benefit in return (Kleiner, 2012). Furthermore, Conant started a ten-year program to help children in public schools receive proper nourishment from a well-balanced diet, “revitalize the city, starting with nutritional training in the schools [and] attract quality supermarkets and other food sources to the center of the city” (Kleiner, 2012). Conant was interested in treating employees well, while Selfridge was most interested in treating customers well, which was not a common practice among department stores in the early 20th century in London; customers in his store were allowed to browse without forcing them to buy anything (Labov, 2014; Metz, 2013).

He never allowed floorwalkers, employees who forced customers to either spend money or leave, in his store so customers would enjoy shopping, and he used exhibits and performances to keep customers entertained, and let women shop without a chaperone and tried to inspire his employees instead of intimidating them (Duncan, n.d.; “H. Gordon”, 2014; Metz, 2013; “Who was”, 2014). Both Conant and Selfridge were interested in treating people well.

In terms of risk-taking actions, the Researcher found Conant took few; he appeared to think through most of his actions before executing with a goal of long-term impact in mind (“Douglas Conant”, Linkedin, n.d.). He did take risks coming to Campbell; the company was losing consumers due to certain practices, suffered from one of the worst employee interaction rates reported by Fortune 500, and it was unclear if it could recover (Gerdeman, 2013; “About Doug Conant”, 2014). Conant, however, had “25 years of experience from three of the world’s leading food companies: General Mills, Kraft, and Nabisco”; he understood how to run such a company. While in charge, he did make what he confesses to be two risky decisions; first in 2007, he “invested $135 million in an enterprise resource planning system (ERP) … [and] second, in 2008, [he] opened offices in Russia and China” (Kleiner, 2012; “Douglas Conant”, Kellogg School of Management, n.d.). He thought out these actions before hand with longterm goals for the company in mind; he believed the first risk “would allow [Campbell] to manage [its] cost structure as effectively as other large food and beverage companies” and that the second risk was wise because neither country had access to a “major commercial soup manufacturer … [and] that their growing number of middle-class consumers would soon want convenience foods” (Kleiner, 2012). He only needed the investments in one of the countries to work, and when he left office, Campbell reduced its efforts in China and “pulled back” on Russia (Kleiner, 2012). Overall, Conant left little to chance and seldom took risks; he appeared to think most of his actions out and had the experience to know when to take risks. Selfridge, by comparison, often took great risks, particularly when he started his store, Selfridges in London, which had never been tested for such an American concept. He conducted many risky practices such as giving customers the utmost respect, not forcing customers to buy

273 anything, and eliminating the role of the floorwalker (Harry Gordon Selfridge, Spartacus Educational, n.d.; Packham, 2014). There were even personal risks; Selfridge did not have much formal education and many rival department stores to compete against in London (Manning, 2013; Packham, 2014). In the end, he challenged the status quo, and ultimately redefined store practices (Labov, 2014). Of these two, Selfridge was the greater risk-taker by far.

As for listening, the researcher found Conant was listening the moment he came to Campbell. He learned about the company’s very low employee engagement and satisfaction rates through Jim Clifton from Gallup (Kleiner, 2012). Conant stated he preferred to listen at meetings, allowed employees to point out when he seemed aloof, and communicated with employees to discover any problems they might have (Conant, 2011).

Conant believed when he allowed employees to tell him when they felt he was acting distant, they were more comfortable talking to him; one employee came to talk about his difficult circumstances and Conant managed to help him instead of turning him away (Conant, 2011). Conant also reported he tried to listen to the customers and collect “global views of customers” to improve Campbell’s “ability to compete” (Kleiner, 2012). For instance, when he learned customers were having difficulty finding some items, he convinced Campbell to develop an “innovative shelving system”; when he learned customers “were concerned about the amount of sodium in their diets”, he convinced Campbell to create “word-class reduction salt reduction capabilities in soup” and then apply those capabilities to other company products (Kleiner, 2012). Selfridge often listened to customers and tried to treat them well. In fact, most scholars believe he developed the philosophy “the customer is always right” and the idea “people will sit up and take notice of you if you will sit up and notice what makes them sit up and take notice” applying both of these philosophies into his business model (Metz, 2013; Labov, 2014). Selfridge believed in good manners and tried to give customers respect by paying attention to their desires (Metz, 2013). When he realized most shoppers had problems finding what they wanted, he organized his store to facilitate shopping; when he realized other shops forced people to purchase items and threw out browsers, he encouraged customers to browse (Metz, 2013; “H. Gordon”, 2014).

Selfridge used shows and exhibits in his store to satisfy customers and inspired employees to give customers “the highest level of service” (Metz, 2013; Labov, 2014). Both individuals tried to listen to both customers and employees alike.

As the Researcher previously stated, a transformational leader is one who transforms an organization from the current status to the desired status.

For Campbell soup, Douglas Conant fits this description perfectly and completely. Campbell was losing customers, laying off employees, had the worst employee interaction according to Fortune 500, and a rapidly decreasing market value (Gerdeman, 2013; “About Doug Conant”, 2014).

He visibly improved the workplace by increasing employee interaction and improved current leaders his company, creating a school to keep improving this leadership, developing a unique way of thinking for Campbell leaders, improving company income (Kleiner, 2012; Gerdeman, 2013, “About Doug Conant”, 2014). Conant helped Campbell achieve a strong cash flow, improved its position in the market, and increase “marketing spending to competitive levels” (Kleiner, 2012). He also showed Campbell ways to maintain customers by giving them what they wanted, such as a shelving system to find products more easily or reducing the amount of sodium in its products without ruining the taste (Kleiner, 2012). The Gallup Organization awarded Campbell with its ‘Great Workplace Award’ for four years straight and the 2010 Catalyst award for “helping women advance their careers” (“Douglas Conant”, Linkedin, n.d.). Due to his leadership, Campbell turned to environmentally friendly means of energy and assisted the town of Cadmen by ensuring public school children receive a nutritious diet (Kleiner, 2012; Gerdeman, 2013). From the start, Conant focused on reforming workplace and building trust; therefore,

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the Researcher concluded Douglas Conant fitted the description of a transformational leader (Gerdeman, 2013). For department stores, the Researcher investigated if Selfridge could be considered a transformational leader in his field. Selfridge changed working conditions by employing new methods in his own store; in essence, Selfridge focused on challenging the status quo and pleasing customers (Labov, 2014). Selfridge focused on treating customers with respect, using exhibitions to keep customers interested, and inspired employees instead of intimidating them (“H. Gordon Selfridge, Sr., retail entrepreneur”, 2014; Labov, 2014). Selfridge’s “innovations of discounts and bi-annual sale are taken for granted now”, but he is remembered for “launching [the] first-ever bargain basement”, boldly displaying cosmetics in the front floor entrance instead of hiding them, and his store was “incredibly the first store in Britain to provide women’s toilets” (Metz, 2013; “Secrets”, 2013). The way he organized his store so customers could easily find what they wanted still influences stores across the world today, as does the way he tried to make shopping an enjoyable experience (“H. Gordon”, 2014). “He gave [women] the freedom to shop un-chaperoned”, “broke down entrenched British class barriers”, and “revolutionized the way Brits spend money” (“H. Gordon”, 2014; Metz, 2013; “Secrets”, 2013; “Who was”, 2014). It is unclear whether he meant for any of his radical ideas to have a long-term impact in the department store industry; in some ways, he was trying to attract more customers (“H. Gordon”, 2014). Nevertheless, Selfridge clearly changed many practices of department stores from undesirable options to more desirable options, so the Researcher concluded Selfridge fit the description of a transformational leader. With all this in mind, the Researcher decided to conduct certain research.

Methodology Purpose After reading research about the bias against introverts particularly as leaders, this Researcher decided to investigate employee perceptions of their employer’s personalities as it relates to the employer’s competence as a leader. Next the Researcher wanted to research in the unique contributions of an introverted and an extroverted business leader. As a result, this Researcher developed both a null hypothesis and case study.

Null Hypothesis There is no preference between introverted or extraverted CEO’s among Americans.

Case Study How did Douglas Conant function as an introverted CEO and how did Harry Gordon Selfridge function as an extraverted CEO? In short, this Researcher studied employees’ perceptions of the personality of their leaders, and the effectiveness of leaders of both personalities.

Participants & Sampling Procedures This Researcher was interested in the opinions of employed Americans.

Thus, the researcher studied a sample whose members were employed, above the age of 18 or below the age of 60, with a College or Associate Degree, Bachelor Degree, or Graduate Degree, and located in America.

The Researcher sent the same survey to the Houston Christian parent population as they satisfied the employment and American citizenship conditions.

These conditions were chosen to obtain information from a group of people in America who were most likely employed. This population was not limited by gender as both provided different perspectives of merit.

Employment guaranteed the population would be working under an employer; this was crucial to the population as the purpose of the survey

274 was to study how employees perceived their employers’ personality.

Therefore, the other factors; age range and education were specified to obtain information from an employed population. The age range excluded those under the age of 18 or above the age of 60 because these individuals were less likely to be employed, while the education requirements further specified a population more likely to be employed.

For the case study, the Researcher met with his mentor to examine introverted and extraverted CEO’s and eventually decided to examine Douglas Conant and Harry Gordon Selfridge because Conant and Selfridge are influential leaders with different personalities that affected their business practices.

Research Design The Researcher performed a descriptive study with a quantitative research design, specifically a structured interview for his null hypothesis. The Researcher conducted the survey electronically first by using a survey made through Survey Monkey, which was then replicated for Google Forms, and reach the desired population quickly and efficiently.

For the qualitative study, the Researcher conducted a case study by collecting artifacts and texts with a qualitative research design, allowing the Researcher to investigate and compare Douglas Conant and Harry Gordon Selfridge in terms of generosity, risk-taking actions, listening skills, and transformational leadership qualities most efficiently.

Experimental Manipulation For the quantitative study, the Researcher collected data using two self-created electronic surveys from a specific population of employed Americans, both in identical form, to receive more feedback. The Researcher included four questions each with two options either pertaining to the introvert personality or extrovert personality but left the first three of the four questions as descriptions of the personality instead of the personality itself. The first question dealt with how the participants perceived the personality of their employer according to the personality type description of introversion and extraversion (i.e. quiet, prefer solitude; talkative, prefer social time) without specifying which option pertained to introversion and which option pertained to extraversion. The qualitative variable of interest was the perception of employers. The second question dealt with which leader personality descriptions participants preferred and had the qualitative variable of personality preference, and the third question dealt with how their employer typically motivates employees and had the qualitative variable of methods of motivation. The fourth question then asked whether they perceived their boss’s personality as introverted or extroverted and had the qualitative variable of personality perception.

The data was reliable because the survey was concise and gave two options that were either associated with introversion or extraversion. The purpose of the survey was to determine if there is an American preference within the corporate setting of extraversion over introversion and to see if Americans would prefer characteristics associated with introversion when those characteristics were not identified with introversion.

For the case study, the Researcher reviewed online research, taking notes and categorizing information. Overall, the Internet provided an easier method to quickly and effectively gather information. In the past, researchers have investigated and compared introverted leaders and extroverted leaders, making this Researcher curious about the accuracy of these comparisons. Such researchers have stated that both are capable of kindness, and of being transformational leaders. Extroverted leaders tend to take more risks: therefore, qualitative variables of interest included the following: generosity, risk taking qualities, listening skills, and transformational leadership qualities. The reliability was established through the use of multiple resources found on the Internet, from reputable resources including Conant himself, confirming the information, while

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the validity confirmed or refined what past researchers have investigated.

Data Collections The Researcher distributed the survey electronically. The Survey Monkey survey was created on September 10, 2014 while a Facebook post made on September 30, 2014; the Facebook post received two responses. The Researcher created a new-targeted audience survey on October 1, 2014, which received 97 responses on October 8th, 2014 and 7 responses on October 9th, 2014. The Researcher then copied the Survey Monkey survey to a Google doc survey on November 6, 2014 after maxing out on 100 responses. As for the case study observations, the Researcher made observations through Internet research of previously stated variables on November 26, 2014.

Data Analysis Plan The Researcher conducted analysis of the data collected to test the null hypothesis through descriptive statistics by examining the frequency of certain answers, namely whether introversion or extraversion received a majority on each survey question. The Researcher then determined if the null hypothesis could be refuted.

The Researcher also conducted analysis of the data collected for the case study through descriptive statistics by measuring and comparing the occurrences of acts (or evidences) of generosity, risk-taking, good listening skills, and transformational leadership.

Ethical Consideration (Human Subject Protection) In consideration of the human subjects, all surveys were anonymous and subjects were not required to give their name, religion, race, or marital status. Participation in this survey was completely voluntary and subjects had the choice to answer or not answer the following: gender, age, household income, education, and location. In his case study, the Researcher tried to present information collected in such a way to give both Conant and Selfridge respect and refrained from belittling either person. Although the Researcher, tried to be respectful and objective of both case study subjects but unintentional personal preferences might have biased the identification of various behaviors being recorded and compared.

Bias The population excluded in the Survey Monkey survey were those without computers, as the survey was electronic; those unemployed or under the age of 18, as they lacked the experience to properly answer the questions; those who could not read English, as the survey was written only in English, and the blind, as they could not read the survey. The same population was excluded for the Houston Christian survey except teachers of the school were not sent the survey, as the Researcher feared receiving multiple, responses based on the same leader. Adults who did not read the Houston Christian newsletter and respond to the survey were also excluded in from the survey.

Assumptions With the quantitative study, there were many factors this Researcher had to take for granted; first, people had understanding and could identify the personality of their employer, introverted or extroverted but had little to no previous knowledge of introversion/extraversion in leadership or the strengths introverts bring. The Researcher also had to assume subjects were raised with American values that emphasized extroversion, and they gave honest responses and had more or less a reliable perspective of their boss. The Researcher also had to make assumptions for his case study,

275 namely, all Internet resources were reliable and information for the case study would be available and accessible.

Limitations Due to limitations on time, resources, and money this Researcher did not deliberately study fictional introverted/extroverted leaders, other than Superman in a previous draft, ambiverted leaders, religious preferences of different personalities, introverted/extroverted followers, or which personality makes a better follower, or if either Douglas Conant or Harry Gordon Selfridge was the better director, as this is purely a comparative study, and there is no real way to gauge this. Naturally, the Researcher could have improved several factors of the research process such as obtaining multiple (and possibly) different perspectives from employees about the same boss to compare perceptions, personally interviewing various businesses for a comparative case study, wording survey differently to make better comparisons, adding more questions to survey to obtain more values to work with, and specifying exactly what this Researcher meant by “accomplishments” in his case study. The Researcher decided not to use book resources for this case study because such resources might take more time than available as the Researcher would have to locate such resources. If the Researcher had access to unlimited resources, he would have conducted more comparative research for Conant and Selfridge, constructed better survey questions, and collected even more responses.

Findings Sample The Researcher collected 100 responses from Survey Monkey and 31 responses from the Houston Christian survey; in total, the Researcher collected 131 responses. This sample shared the following characteristics: living in America, above the age of 18 but below the age of 60, employed, and having at least some college education.

The Researcher found that Douglas Conant is an introvert who served as the CEO of Campbell Soup from 2001 and 2011, and reformed the workplace, improving employee interaction, leadership skills, and company income by increasing morale, training leaders, and listening to employees and customers. Harry Gordon Selfridge was an extrovert who started his own department store in London, which encouraged respect for the customer and other then risky marketing tactics.

Survey Findings/Interviews/Observations To collect information for his null hypothesis, the Researcher created a four question survey and distributed it to his previously mention sample.

In this survey, the first question asked how participants perceived their boss according to descriptions of personalities, the second question asked what personalities they believed would be best for their boss, the third question asked how their boss typically makes employees work effectively, and the fourth question outright asks them to identify boss as introvert or extrovert.

According to previous research, an introverted leader is typically characterized as quiet, thoughtful, and humble and prefer listening and thinking over talking, while an extroverted leader is typically characterized as charismatic, charming, and social and prefer talking and motivating to listening. With this in mind, the first question asked participants, “How would you describe your boss’s personality?” The response options were (a) they are quiet, thoughtful, and humble and prefer listening and thinking over talking, or (b) they are charismatic, charming, and social and prefer talking and motivating to listening.

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276 The third question of the survey asked, “Which does your employer typically rely on to make people work effectively?” and gave response options of (a) inspired motives and (b) motivation through speeches.

Option A: “ Quiet, thoughtful, and humble and prefer listening and thinking over talking” Option B: “ Charismatic, charming, and social and prefer talking and motivating to listening”

Figure 1

Option A: “Inspired Motives”

As seen in Figure 1, roughly 59% of the participants chose “they are charismatic, charming, and social and prefer talking and motivating to listening”; therefore, the Researcher had to conclude that most employees see their boss’s personality according to extroverted descriptions.

Option B: “Motivation through speeches”

The second question asked participants, “What personalities do you believe would benefit your boss?” The response options were (a) openmindedness, agreeability, or (b) charisma, lively and magnetic personality.

Figure 3 As seen in Figure 3, roughly 70% of participants chose “inspired motives”, thus, the majority of bosses represented rely on inspired which is consistent with an introverted personality.

The fourth question asked, “What personality type do you believe your boss or CEO is?” and gave the options (a) introvert and (b) extrovert.

Option A: “ Open-mindedness, agreeability” Option B: “Charisma, lively and magnetic personality” Option A: “Introvert”

Figure2 As seen in Figure 2, roughly 72% of participants chose “open-mindedness, agreeability”; therefore, the Researcher had to conclude that many employees saw open-mindedness and agreeability as beneficial to their boss.

Option B: “Extrovert”

Figure 4 As seen in Figure 4, roughly 60% of participants chose “extrovert”, so the

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Researcher concluded that the majority of employees surveyed perceive their boss as an extrovert.

In the Researcher’s case study observations, the Researcher compared Douglas Conant and Harry Gordon Selfridge in terms of generosity, risk-taking actions, listening, and transformational leadership qualities.

The Researcher observed instances and practices, both general and specific where Conant and Selfridge demonstrated each of these qualities and constructed bar graphs to reflect the difference or similarity. The Researcher based the scoring system on a simple tally mark; each instance, practice, and result equally counted as one point, so they would be easier to count; the researcher also set fourth some rules. The Researcher allowed instances of generosity and listening to coincide as he felt some of the instances qualified as both and did not neglect general observations of either man’s practices, but tried to focus on specific instances as much as possible; the Researcher did count general observations about Conant and Selfridge but tried to focus on specific observations. When examining risktaking actions, the Researcher also investigated risks due to circumstances that either Conant or Selfridge faced, personal or from outside forces.

When examining transformational leadership qualities, the Researcher examined different factors that he felt would be most applicable for such qualities and settled on the following six factors: economic improvements, which could be monetary or in terms of marketing positions, new (and if possible superior) business policies, which could be related to company leadership or company standards, new practices, any new, beneficial ways the company would operate, for example, a new method to distribute goods, employee effectiveness, or whether the leader had a visible change in employee behavior, work ethic, etc., long-lasting impacts, or changes that stayed within the company long after the leader had left it, and societal changes, or any improvements that reached a wider scope than the realm of business in terms of areas effected, such as change in business policy that affects or comes to affect an entire city or even world.

When examining generosity, the Researcher examined if Conant and Selfridge treated people well. The Researcher noted Conant tried to connect to employees and understand any problems in their lives, and make Campbell assist the city of Cadmen (Conant, 2011; Gerdeman, 2013; Kleiner, 2012). The Researcher also noted Selfridge ensured his customers were treated well and with respect they did not receive in other stores, and organized entertainment for said customers (Duncan, n.d.; “H. Gordon”, 2014; Labov, 2014; Metz, 2013; “Who was”, 2014). With this in mind, the researcher constructed the following graph.

Figure 5 As shown in Figure 5, the Researcher found two instances, two general practices, and one specific practice demonstrating Douglas Conant’s generosity and three general practices and two specific practices demonstrating Harry Gordon Selfridge’s generosity. In total, the Conant

277 and Selfridge are tied with five points each.

When examining risk-taking actions, the Researcher found Conant took few and tried to consider the best courses of action and plan ahead, though he did take risks coming to Campbell when it was in such a poor state (“About Doug Conant”, 2014; Gerdeman, 2013; Kleiner, 2012). In contrast, Selfridge took many risks when starting his store by using an untested American concept in London and when running his store by encouraging customer to browse and giving them freedoms other stores would not (Labov 2014; Packham, 2014). With this in mind, the Researcher constructed the following graph.

Figure 6 As shown in Figure 6, the Researcher found two specific practices and three circumstances where Douglas Conant’s action entailed risk and found one instance, two general practices, four specific practices, and two circumstances where Harry Gordon Selfridge’s actions entailed risk. In total, Douglas Conant has five points for risk-taking actions while Harry Gordon Selfridge has nine.

When examining listening, the Researcher found Conant constantly tried to listen to employees to encourage proactivity and customers to satisfy their desires (Conant, 2011; Kleiner, 2012). Selfridge also tried to listen to customers by treating them with respect so he could gain insight to their desires and adapt his store to satisfy their wants (“H. Gordon”, 2014; Labov, 2014; Metz, 2013). Conant and Selfridge both demonstrated the ability to listen. With this in mind, the Researcher constructed the following graph.

Figure 7 As shown in Figure 7, the Researcher found three instances, four general practices, and two specific practices demonstrating Douglas Conant’s listening, and four general practices and two specific practices demonstrating

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Harry Gordon Selfridge’s listening. In terms of listening, Selfridge has six points total while Douglas Conant leads with nine points total.

When examining transformational leadership qualities, the Researcher found Conant reformed Campbell by improving employee interaction, company leadership, company products, economic status, and encouraging community service (“About Doug Conant”, 2014; “Douglas Conant”, Linkedin, n.d.; Gerdeman, 2013; Kleiner, 2012). The Researcher found Selfridge reformed department stores by showing respect to customers, satisfying customer desires, turning shopping into a pleasure instead of a chore, and by constantly challenging the status quo (“H. Gordon”, 2014; Labov, 2014; Metz, 2013; “Secrets”, 2013; “Who was”, 2014). Both Conant and Selfridge fit the descriptor of a transformational leader. With this in mind, the researcher constructed the following graph.

Figure 8 As shown in Figure 8, the Researcher found five economic improvements, four new business policies, four new practices, three indicators of employee effectiveness, two long-lasting impacts, and two societal changes demonstrating Douglas Conant’s transformational leadership qualities and one new business policy, six new practices, one indicator of employee effectiveness, and four societal changes indicating Harry Gordon Selfridge’s transformational leadership qualities. In total, Douglas Conant has 20 points in terms of transformational leadership, while Harry Gordon Selfridge has 12.

Analysis The Researcher conducted a hypothesis test using a one-population z test with information from his second question, p equaling the proportion of respondents who chose “open-mindedness and agreeability”. The Researcher obtained a p-value of 0,which led the researcher to reject his null hypothesis. There was a preference among Americans of introverted employers over extroverted employers based on the personality description deemed to be the most beneficial to a boss. Based on findings, Americans prefer an introverted leader when presented with certain descriptors of introversion and extraversion.

The Researcher conducted a comparative case study using information collected in the Review of Related Literature. The Researcher found Conant and Selfridge were equally generous, meaning introverted and extroverted leaders are both capable of kindness. The Researcher found Selfridge took more risks, as an extrovert is reported to, while Conant listened more, as an introvert is prone to, and found these results consistent with his Review of Related Literature. For transformational leadership qualities, the Researcher found Conant had more overall but Selfridge achieved more societal change, meaning introverts and extroverts can both be successful transformational leaders.

Discussion

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The Researcher’s null hypothesis stated there is no preference between introverted or extroverted CEO’s among Americans. With this null hypothesis, the Researcher expected to find a large preference for introverted personality based on description. The results of the information gathered agreed with this assumption to an extent, and the Researcher did find results generally consistent with his expectations.

In response to the second question of the survey, which asked participants which personality descriptors they would prefer in their employer, the researcher received roughly a 72% majority for introverted personality descriptors. The Researcher did agree with the findings and expected these results from this question preferring the introverted personality descriptors, open-mindedness, agreeability, to the extroverted personality descriptors, charisma, lively and magnetic personality. The Researcher also suspected if participants were not told which option described which personality, they would be even more likely to select introvert descriptors because they would not consider which personality they preferred but which descriptor they preferred; essentially, participants would pick introverted descriptors if they did not know the descriptors pertained to introverts. Although most Americans have been taught an extroversion preference to introversion, they can value the personality descriptors if the actual name of the personality is not mentioned.

With the case study, the Researcher compared Douglas Conant and Harry Gordon Selfridge as an introverted and an extroverted leader expecting results consistent with information collected in the Review Of Related Literature and found such results consistent with studies of introverts and extroverts. The information collected for the Review of Related Literature stated introverts seldom take risks, prefer to plan most courses of actions and are full of humility and create circles of proactivity (Cain, 2012). Conant was reported to prepare ahead of meetings by visiting where the meeting would take place and practicing for the meeting; he took few risks, considered the long-term impact of his decisions, and tried to be humble by letting employees call him out if he seemed too aloof; he improved employee interaction by encouraging and motivating employees (“About Doug Conant”, 2014; Conant, 2011; Kleiner, 2012).

Conversely, the information on extroverts stated they often take risks due to large quantities of dopamine (Cain, 2012). Selfridge conducted many risky practices such as using an untested, American marketing idea on a London Market, and challenging the status quo, which inevitably led to his success because he gave the citizens of London what they had been looking for (Packham, 2014; Labov, 2014; “Secrets”, 2013).

The Researcher also had to determine whether Conant or Selfridge could qualify as transformational leaders, or people who can be deemed a transformational leader if they change an organization from the current status to the desired status. Conant came to Campbell Company when it was falling apart; the company was losing consumers to less expensive soup brands and decided to cut costs by reducing advertising and laying off employees, which resulted in even lower sales. The company’s share price had dropped from a high of $60 in 1998 to $30” when Conant was recruited (Gerdeman, 2013). The company also suffered from a rapidly decreasing market value, poor leadership decisions, and the worst employee interaction and satisfaction according to Fortune 500 (“About Doug Conant”, 2014). Conant came to Campbell Company in 2001 with a goal to increase morale and by the time he left in 2011 the company was visibly improved with increased income and strong cash flow, superior leadership, schools to train potential leaders, a record-breaking ratio of engaged employees to disengaged employees of 17:1, an engagement ratio for the top 350 leaders of 77:1 (Gerdeman, 2013), methods of obtaining customers by listening to their wants (Kleiner, 2012), using alternative sources of power such as solar energy, and engaging in community work, specifically assisting the town of Cadmen (Gerdeman, 2013; “Douglas

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Conant”, Linkedin, n.d.; Kleiner, 2012). Based on these numerous, beneficial changes, the Researcher believes Douglas Conant fulfills the description of a transformational leader.

Before Harry Gordon Selfridge started his department store in London, most department stores in London would force customers to buy merchandise or prohibit browsing, used floorwalkers to pressure customers to spend money, were generally cluttered and disorganized, viewed shopping as a necessity rather than a pleasure, and most store owners would intimidate employees (Metz, 2013; “H. Gordon”, 2014; Labov, 2014). In his store, Selfridge promoted radical ideas that many stores came to adopt such as treating the customer with respect, structuring the store to facilitate shopping, making shopping an enjoyable experience, inspiring employees to provide the greatest level of customer service, and using educational and scientific exhibits to attract customers (“H. Gordon”, 2014; Labov, 2014; Metz, 2013). All of these actions were risks that ultimately changed the status quo. Although it is unclear if he meant any of his practices to affect other stores, the Researcher believes Harry Gordon Selfridge fulfills the description of a transformational leader.

Based on findings, the Researcher believes Douglas Conant demonstrated more transformational leadership qualities within Campbell, but Harry Gordon Selfridge demonstrated more risk-taking actions and was able to achieve more long-lasting societal change. In some ways, their personalities allowed them both to succeed in different ways. Conant’s introverted personality allowed him to listen to employees, making them feel valued, humble himself so employees could feel comfortable around him, listen to the desires of customers to increase Campbell’s marketing efficiency, and see the internal issues of Campbell Company rather than consider the best ways to beat out the competition (Kleiner, 2012; Gerdeman, 2013).

He could plan out his actions, so he could determine the best coarse of action and long-term impact of his decisions, and inspire confidence and trust by making an effort to personally connect to employees (Kleiner, 2012; Gerdeman, 2013). On the other hand, Selfridge’s extroverted personality made him take many risks despite the circumstances and challenges, like treating customers with respect despite the common practices of competing stores, popularizing an untested American concept in London, restructuring the department stores, and improving the shopping experience (Metz, 2013; “H. Gordon”, 2014; Packham, 2014). He could focus on the outer world and issues affecting others, such as how he recognized the issues of other department stores in London and sought to run his store differently by giving shoppers what they needed (“Secrets”, 2013; “Harry Gordon Selfridge”, n.d.). In the end, the Researcher agreed that both could qualify as transformational leaders. Conant transformed Campbell Company from its initial status, where income had drastically decreased, the company was losing customers to cheaper brands, employee involvement was at the lowest any company had seen, and leadership was poor, to its desired status, where the company had better income and a better marketing position, methods to make company products healthier and more accessible, employee involvement reached record breaking highs, and leaders, both current and potential, were trained and properly prepared for their positions (Kleiner, 2012; Gerdeman, 2013; “About Doug Conant”, 2014; “Douglas Conant”, Linkedin, n.d). Selfridge changed department stores in London and influenced department stores in London and across the world in terms of superior treatment of customers, store organization, and overall experience (Metz, 2013; “H. Gordon”, 2014).

Implications When conducting this investigation, the Researcher primarily sought to confirm strengths of introverted leaders established in previous investigation. In short, the Researcher wishes to inform companies of the benefits of an introverted leader. Companies should encourage the hiring of introverted leaders as these leaders can contribute unique strengths of listening and humility and generate proactivity and productivity in

279 employees, and the research of his findings indicates Americans have demonstrated a desire for introverted leaders based on their descriptors. If a company allowed an introverted individual a leadership opportunity and fellow employees were unaware of the individual’s personality, employees could come to value the individual for what they bring to the position that an extroverted leader might not; then, employees could come to believe introverts are equally qualified for leadership roles as extroverts, and would more readily accept introverted individuals as leaders.

Although introverts bring unique strengths to the leadership position, the role of an extroverted individual as a leader should in no way be diminished; extroverts are more prone to making risky decisions or using different practices than competitors which can turn out for the best and extroverts are generally more comfortable in social settings (Cain, 2012). Companies might consider an introverted and extroverted coleadership to obtain the unique strengths of both personalities. As the Researcher stated in his background, introverts and extroverts may not always see eye-to-eye, but often they come to value each other and meet together in partnerships, businesses, and even marriage because they feel completed by each other (Cain, 2012). If companies can train introverted and extroverted leaders, both current and potential, to collaborate respectfully as equals and friends, they may achieve an effective leadership characterized by generosity for employees and customers, reasonable risk-taking actions that could improve the company or even society, and listening to the specific problems of employees and customers.

Of course, this Researcher understands co-leadership is challenging with clashing perspectives and ideals. Should a co-leadership prove impossible or companies are hesitant to try such a leadership, there could be an alternative, which future researchers could investigate: ambiverted leaders. An ambivert is an individual who enjoys social interaction and time alone equally; on a Myers Brigg Test, they would fall near the 50% mark of personality preference (“The story”, 2013). This Myers Brigg Test would be an interesting topic for future research. Future scholars could research the effectiveness of ambiverted leaders to see if they can offer a compromise between introverted and extroverted leadership. Scholars should consider, however, the difficulty would be determining which individuals could be considered ambiverted. The Researcher found no description of ambiversion beyond enjoying social interaction and time alone equally and believes the personality may be far less common than introversion or extraversion. The only way to identify individuals with the personality may be through a Myers Brigg Test, which could not only prove difficult and tedious but inconclusive; the personality may be very rare and difficult to find. In addition, there may be an issue for such a case study comparing ambiverted leaders to introverted and extroverted leaders.

When searching for examples of introverted and extroverted business leaders, the Researcher could find examples of both, but when searching for ambiverted business leaders, the Researcher found no specific results.

There may be only a handful of a well-known ambiverted leader whose leadership skills can be compared to introverted and extroverted leaders.

Should scholars decide to investigate such a topic despite the difficulties and manage to find examples of ambiverted leadership, the research could indicate if companies could compromise and employ ambiverted leaders or would be better choosing between introverts or extroverts.

Researchers may believe companies need a different comparative case study to evaluate introverts and extroverts as leaders. If so, researchers might consider a case study considering individuals bearing more similarities, namely introverted/extroverted leaders who both started their own companies or reformed a workplace, so that companies can decide if one personality is better suited for a specific leadership position. Perhaps extroverts are better leaders for starting a business that conducts risky but ultimately beneficial practices, while introverts are better leaders for reforming a workplace encouraging improvements in employee interaction, company leadership, income, and customer satisfaction by listening to

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employees and customers, making both feel valued. Different comparisons could yield different results, but this Researcher believes the overall trends should be similar and consistent with the Researcher’s own results.

In the Review of Related Literature, the Researcher examined how America came to value extraversion over introversion through the Industrial Revolution (Cain, 2012). Americans had to adopt new confident personalities to successfully market their wares; thus, they discouraged introverted personalities and became an incredibly extroverted country.

In the western world today, extroverts outnumber introverts 3 to 1 (Sword, 2002). What would this mean for America? As the Researcher noted, extroverts prefer the outer world to the inner world of thought and tend to take risks, which would mean such extroverted thought would be the majority among Americans. On the other hand, this generation, despite its numerous faults, is noted to be more tolerant of different people, particularly of different races, than any other previous generation (Twenge, 2006). This tolerance may come to extend to introverted personalities and Americans may come to value the strengths of introverts and shake off the perspectives enforced during the Industrial Revolution, but in the mean time, introverts in America must persevere in an extroverted country. Can they do more than persevere; can they thrive?

Conclusion In conclusion, the Researcher studied introversion and extraversion and the roles they play in leadership and found introverts prefer the inner world of thought and solitude while extroverts prefer the outer world of people and activities (“Philosophy 302”, 2003). The Scholar found extroverts tend to be common in America because the Industrial Revolution forced workers to take on extroverted personalities, and introversion is common in Asian countries because the curriculum of the Asian world focuses on introverted interests and religious beliefs stress the community before the individual (Cain, 20012). Children may grow up to be extroverted if they experience enjoyable interactions with their families or introverted if they experience unpleasant interaction with their families (Siegelman, 1966). The Researcher showed it is possible to predict if an infant will become introverted or extroverted through environment sensitivity, and the Researcher found Free Trait Theory states when people do not set aside time for their natural personality, they experience mental stress and burnout (Cain, 2012). The Scholar showed introverts have smaller dopamine passageways than extroverts, making them less reward motivated, along with wider ARAS channels, making them prone to overstimulation; extroverts have wider dopamine passageways, making them more reward motivated, along with smaller ARAS channels, making them seek out stimulation (Cain, 2012). The Scholar discussed the different regions of activity in both introverted and extroverted brains (Cain, 2012; Kaier, 2015). The scholar explained the leadership style of introverts typically characterized by patience, perseverance, openmindedness, and humility and can be effective transformational leaders (Townes, 2012). After performing research, the Scholar found many Americans prefer an introverted leader based on descriptions. For the case study, the Researcher compared Douglas Conant to Harry Gordon Selfridge in terms of generosity, risk-taking actions, listening, along with transformational leadership qualities and found both equal in terms of generosity, Selfridge as the greater risk-taker, Conant as the more listening, and both as capable transformational leaders. The Researcher concluded people can be comfortable with introverted leaders if they do not know the personality of their leader, and although introverts bring unique strengths to the leadership position such as listening and generosity, the role of extroverted leaders should in no way be diminished. An interesting area of future study is the effectiveness of ambiverted leaders to see if they can provide a mix between introverted and extroverted leadership.

Remaining Questions

280

The Researcher further questioned if personality could play a large part in certain professions. As stated in the Review of Related Literature, introverts fair well in solitary professions such as writing, but are they limited to solitary professions (Blake, 2013)? If an introvert does not set aside time to be who they truly are, they can experience mental stress and burnout. Some careers involve being in the center of attention and demand interaction with others, such as acting. As a result of researching introversion and extraversion, the Researcher was interested in the following remaining questions: how can personality affect acting skills and abilities and can introverts be successful in acting?

Acting involves being the center of attention, which is not particularly attractive for introverts (Angela, 2012). It also involves confidence, charisma, along with establishing a large network of friends, in order to be discovered by a producer, and indeed, many successful actors are extroverts (Angela, 2012). Based on appearances, acting is an extroverted career, and yet there are many famous actors and performers, who have described themselves as introverted or shy such as Johnny Depp, Clint Eastwood, Tom Hanks, Harrison Ford, Steve Martins, and Lady Gaga to name a few (Jahnke, 2007; “Introverted celebrities”, n.d.; Sol, n.d.).

Attraction to Acting In many ways, introverted actors are similar to superheroes; both pose as larger than life figures and have secret identities that are far more subdued.

While extroverts tend to act the same privately or publically, introverts tend to have two different identities; one in public and one in private (Sword, 2002). These different behaviors could explain why many introverts are attracted to acting. For example, in his memoir, Born Standing Up: A Comic’s Life, Steve Martin reports he is a very different person off stage and “’[i]n a public situation, [he] was expected to be the figure [he] was onstage, which [he] stubbornly resisted. People were waiting for a show, but [his] show was only that, a show” (Sokrates, 2013).

His biography states that “Even though during his stand up days he said he was a ‘wild and crazy guy’, in real life he is actually quite shy and quiet” despite being well known for his stand up comedy (“Steve Martin”, n.d.).

Martin enjoys being the center of attention on screen with a wall between him and the audience, so introverts may see acting as a way to be heard without interacting with an audience.

Clint Eastwood is well known for his gritty, violent characters, but off stage he is a surprisingly soft-spoken fellow. He is associated with his violent roles such as “Unforgiven” (1992), “Million Dollar Baby” (2004), and “Gran Torino” (2008), but personally detests violence and is not as confrontational as seen in his movies (“Clint Eastwood”, n.d.). Similarly, Harrison Ford is known for playing Han Solo and Indiana Jones, “quickwitted heroes who think on their feet” (“Harrison Ford”, n.d.) but in his biography, he is described as possessing a “quiet but charming personality” (“Harrison Ford”, n.d.). On screen, Eastwood and Ford can become a larger-than-life hero, suggesting introverts could be attracted to acting because it allows them to change their identity.

Johnny Depp often portrays unusual, eccentric characters and misunderstood outcasts; off stage and screen, but he is not boisterous or talkative (“Johnny Depp”, n.d.). In one interview, he states, “if [he] can be accused of anything at all, it’s not being the most outgoing or boisterous of people; [he] is pretty shy” (Flaa, 2014). This does not keep him from acting; Depp explains, “it’s more comfortable for [him] to become wrapped up in a character’s skin [and] for [him] to hide in a character” (Flaa, 2014). In a way, Johnny Depp finds acting a means of escape, which could show how introverts may turn to acting to hide themselves. Furthermore, introverts can follow the many advanced processes involved in acting.

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Introverts Suitability for Advanced Acting Processes Any professional actor would agree acting involves deep, mental processes and firm commitment to character. Some of these processes are well suited for introverts and give introverts unique strengths in acting such as focus, commitment, and continuous hard work.

Acting requires focus; should something go wrong on stage, actors must be so engrossed with their characters, they cover the mistake without breaking character; actors also have to create a “circle of attention” where they are aware of the events and people within their scenes, and not of the audience or those reactions (Wilcox, 2011). Introverts have great focus and can ignore the outside world; they can put all their concentration into a scene and ignore the audience. Introverted actor Keanu Reeves states he enjoys acting for its “intensity and concentration” and when acting he can normally focus solely on his actions (Sol, n.d.; Sword, 2002).

Actors have to be firmly committed to their characters to the point where they abandon their own personalities; they must see the world their character inhabits and have internal monologues where they actually think like their characters, which makes their lines flow from their character instead of a script. As seen with Johnny Depp, many introverts turn to acting as a means of escape, so introverts may be more willing than extroverts to become an entirely different person. In addition, introverts experience a sensation known as “flow”, as discussed previously, where they are completely absorbed in their task and forget the outside world and even themselves (Cain, 2012). Introverts can be more willing to imagine the environment of their characters and lose themselves, as can be seen in the extreme case of the late Heath Ledger. In his last role as the Joker in “The Dark Knight” (2008), many directors believed he became so invested, in his character he lost himself forever. Before his death, Ledger stated his role had affected his ability to sleep because his mind was always active, and he could not stop thinking. He died accidentally due to anxiety, pain, and common cold medication, drug overdose, and received multiple posthumous awards.

Many directors believe his personality, life, and death are a reflection of his introverted personality (“Introverted celebrities”, n.d.).

After receiving a role, professional actors need to thoroughly research their character and understand not only the character’s motivations, but also connections to other characters, internal thoughts, mannerisms, and their significance in the story. They must understand circumstances of the show, such as location, the time period, the author’s reasons for writing the show, and the themes. When information is not available, the actors have to create their background and actors are called to read the script and annotate with their characters internal thoughts and motivations not once, but everyday (Wilcox, 2011). It is a never-ending task requiring continuous effort. Fortunately, introverts are very focused and determined workers and are often characterized by perseverance and focus (Cain, 2011). Heath Ledger’s last role as the Joker gives credence to this. When trying to understand his character, Ledger reported locking himself in his room and developing speech patterns and ways of walking unique to his character (Wallace, 2011). This hard work and deep examination of characters are effective because they give introverts the ability to portray

281 complex and unusual characters in ways extroverts might not. In addition, introverts prefer their inner world of thought so thinking like their character can come naturally and make their dialogue flow naturally. Some directors prefer introverted actors and believe extroverted actors perform with little depth or sincerity in all of their roles, while introverted actors can give more depth to their roles and perform many different roles; the directors admire how introverts can become absorbed in their roles and consistently work hard. In short, they feel introverted actors can master the finest characteristics and nuances of the roles they play (“Introverted celebrities”, n.d.).

In conclusion, on the surface, acting appears to be an extroverted career but there are many introverted actors and celebrities who can reveal why introverts are attracted to such a career (“Introverted Celebrities”, n.d.).

Steve Martin shows how introverts may see acting as a way to be heard without directly interacting with an audience, Clint Eastwood and Harrison Ford show how introverts could be attracted to acting because it allows them to change their identity, and Johnny Depp shows how introverts see acting as a way to hide the true selves (“Clint Eastwood”, n.d.; “Harrison Ford”, n.d.; “Johnny Depp”, n.d.; “Steve Martin”, n.d.). Introverts have many qualities making them suited for the deeper processes of acting such as concentration, imagination, determination, and focus (“Introverted Celebrities”, n.d.). When examined theologically, the Bible has interesting thoughts on leadership.

Biblical What exactly does the Bible say about leadership? John 13:13-27 states, “You call me Teacher and Lord, and you are right, for so I am. If I then, your Lord and Teacher, have washed your feet, you also ought to wash one another’s feet. For I have given you an example that you also should do just as I have done to you. Truly, truly, I say to you, a servant is not greater than his master, nor is a messenger greater than the one who sent him. If you know these things, blessed are you if you do them.”

According to the Bible, a leader should lead by example and practice what they preach. By doing so, they can encourage others to follow in their footsteps. A leader is servant to his followers and must do what is best for them even if the followers do not agree. Furthermore, a follower must understand his part; he is not above the leader and must also understand humility. When a leader and his followers understand their roles, a group can function effectively.

The Bible also holds leaders to high standards. Proverbs 16:12 states, “It is an abomination for kings to commit wicked acts, For a throne is established on righteousness.”

According to the Bible, leaders must rule with a just heart because all leadership is built on the concept of righteousness, or being morally correct or justifiable. A leader’s behavior affects his organization because a morally correct leadership can create a morally correct organization, while an immoral leader can create an immoral organization.

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Introversion/Extraversion

Appendix I: Survey Questions

1. How would you describe your bossâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s personality?

2. What personalities do you believe would benefit your boss?

3. Which does your employer typically rely on to make people work effectively?

4. What personality type do you believe your boss or CEO is?

Appendix II: Survey Data

285

Introversion/Extraversion

286

Introversion/Extraversion

287

Introversion/Extraversion

Total Responses:

288

Introversion/Extraversion

289

Appendix III: Case Study Instances

General Practices

Specific Practices

Douglas Conant

2

2

1

Harry Gordon Selfridge

0

3

2

Generosity

Instances

General Practices

Specific Practices

Circumstances

Douglas Conant

0

0

2

3

Harry Gordon Selfridge

1

2

4

2

Risk-Taking Actions

Instances

General Practices

Specific Practices

Douglas Conant

3

4

2

Harry Gordon Selfridge

0

4

2

Listening

Transformational Leadership

Economic Improvements

New Business Policies

New Practices

Employee Efficiency

Long-lasting Impacts

Societal Changes

Douglas Conant

5

4

4

3

2

2

Harry Gordon Selfridge

0

1

6

1

0

4

Parenting Styles of America and Their Effects on Motivation, Self-Esteem and School Performance Cassandra E. Porter

Parenting Styles Of America

293

Table of Contents

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Colonial Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Industrial Revolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Turn of the Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 The Great Depression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 World War II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Baby Boomers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Generation X. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Parenting Styles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Indulgent-Uninvolved Parenting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Indulgent-Involved Parenting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Authoritarian Parenting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Authoritative Parenting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Generational Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Colonial Era. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 Great Depression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 Post-War. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 Psychological Influences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 Motivation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 Self-Esteem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 School Performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 French Parenting Case Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Methodology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Purpose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Participants and Sampling Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Research Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Experimental Instrumentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Data Collection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Data Analysis Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Ethical Consideration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

Table of Contents (continued)

Findings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Sample. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Survey Findings/Interviews/Observation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Null Hypothesis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Remaining Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Teen Rebellion in Nazi Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Edelweiss Pirates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Swing Kids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 White Rose Movement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Response of the Nazis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 Biblical Connection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 Appendix I: Survey Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 Appendix II: Survey Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 Appendix III: Case Study Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Appendix IV: Case Study Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

Parenting Styles Of America

295

Abstract

The Researcher examined the various styles of parenting in America, their effects on motivation, self-esteem, and school performance, and also completed a case study of French parenting. The various styles of parenting have evident implications in reference to these factors. The Researcher composed one null hypothesis concerning parental involvement and its correlation to National Honor Society membership. The Researcher sent out an anonymous electronic survey and ultimately upheld the hypothesis. The Researcher also completed a case study determining the association between academic success and parental involvement from the teacher point of view.

The case study consisted of a qualitative survey distributed by a second party and was deemed inconclusive. After researching the parenting styles of America, the Researcher connected Nazi Germany to Authoritarian parenting and reviewed the various methods of teen rebellion seen.

Finding three main groups of rebellion impacting the culture of society in Nazi Germany.

Parenting Styles Of America

Family life is vital to the existence of human beings; the basic unit of all parts of society. Family units are the simplest form of social organization, teaching children the ways of the world (Wilson, 2010). One can see this simply by looking back on thousands of years of family life. Monogamous man-woman relationships are the most beneficial in terms of stability and happiness in comparison to alternative options (“What is a family”, 2009).

With this in mind, as society is developing, the definition of the word family is being altered. An ideal modern family is any group of people who live together, share with one another, work together, care and support each other, keep each other safe, and love each other (“What is a family”, 2009).

A family begins with two people living in a close personal relationship together. Within the past 50 years, new laws have discouraged marriage between a man and a woman (Wilson, 2010). Support of gay marriage has become prevalent in America and no matter ones personal opinion on the issue; it has led to an acceptance of a new family dynamic. These laws have become a part of the fabric of America, affecting the beliefs and styles of many parents. The parenting style implemented in a family unit is the product of both the parents’ past and environment, including the laws implemented during their time. The approach one may take to parenting is caused by many different variables (“Understanding the Reasons,” 2009). Each spouse’s parents, personality, and the impacts of the social environments influence parenting style. What one learns from the people around them, and personal stresses to them play vital parts in the type of parent someone will become. Along with personal variables, the specific child’s personality and behavior affect the most beneficial type for parenting as well (“Understanding The Reasons”, 2009). These characteristics are found worldwide, but for the purpose of this paper, this Scholar will focus on American families and parenting styles before reviewing a case study of French parenting.

Background Before delving into parenting styles of America, it is important to understand the culture of the country and from which the nation has evolved. The social, economic, and political events faced by each generation have drastic impacts on the type of parenting style the people of said generation apply in raising children.

Colonial Era Understanding familial culture during the founding of America is vital in understanding the parenting style of today’s parents (Branson, 1997).

America was founded in 1776 by a set of bold leaders. During this revolutionary era, many events occurred. The First Continental Congress met, the American Revolution began, Common Sense was published, and The Declaration of Independence was signed all within the first two years of the countries conception leading people to be very patriotic, strongwilled, and motivated (“Cycles in U.S. history”, n.d.). As all of these changes were shaping America, Native Americans, slaved African Americans, and European colonists lived in America together. Tension was high because of political, social, and cultural differences. One such difference is the varying style of parenting between races (Mintz). Parenting took different forms in the various cultures mainly due to the various regional and religious backgrounds. The differences colonists saw between their own parenting style and the child rearing customs of Native Americans shocked them.

Native Americans main belief in child rearing was the importance of coddling the youth. The technique the Native Americans used in which the children were genuinely cared for was very bizarre to the colonists (Mintz). The colonists were more familiar with a less emotional form of child rearing. The colonists’ purpose for having children was to have a larger workforce whereas the Native Americans focused on developing an emotional and spiritual connection with their children. This is one of the many reasons the two cultures struggled to fully understand each other (Mintz).

297 Colonial fathers had the right to control their children because the children assisted in providing for familial needs. The fathers were expected to feed, clothe, educate, provide shelter for, and raise their children in a Christian environment (Mintz). In return for all of the fathers support, the children were expected to do anything he asked of them and assist in providing for the family through means of labor (Branson, 1997). Children would begin to work in the fields as early as age three and the only interaction between the mother and the child was to nourish them as newborns and to teach girls how to properly keep a household. In fact, the women did not even legally exist because they were considered one with their husbands (Branson, 1997).

In the mid-1800’s, 3 main factors began to affect society: The Civil War, industrialization, and a large increase in immigrants. Fathers started leaving home to fight in the war or work in the factories, leading to a shift in parenting roles. The father was in charge of the family’s societal and financial affairs, while the mother became the head of domestic affairs including teaching the children and cooking. As the economy began to shift, a familial shift occurred as well (Branson, 1997).

Industrial Revolution Along with the revolutionary changes of the country came a great change monetarily. The Industrial Revolution brought with it an economic change that would greatly impact family life and morals. In 1800, America’s independence was still in its infancy, and the country was experiencing many geographical and political changes. The majority of working citizens of this time period lived in rural areas and on farms, leaving only 20% of the population housed in cities (Sutton & Goodwin, 2010). The drastic increase of immigrants also had a large impact on parenting styles as these immigrants brought different styles with them from their countries of origin. By the 1820’s, America experienced a decade of political and economic growth. Political parties were formed and Americans started to live a faster paced life. Coffee became popular, reflecting how people were working longer requiring caffeine, and social gatherings became more public events (Allen, 2013). During this time period, an exponential change occurred through the banning of slavery. By the end of the 19th century, railroads were in place and thriving, carrying products and people around the country. Immigrants were flowing into New York City, and thousands of children were working in factories. American citizens were moving away from farm life to live in urban areas, creating a sense of disconnect and confusion for many parents because they had worked on farms as children and the working conditions of the cities were unfamiliar to them. The majority of the country was engulfed in work and focused on cash flow. The transition from farms into a busy working life in the city left many people stressed out, and spending less time as family units (Sutton & Goodwin, 2010). These changes greatly impacted parenting techniques as even more focus was averted away from the children.

As cities became more prevalent and bustling, progressives started fighting for social change, including women and children’s rights. After The Civil War ended, the reformers were fighting full force (Branson, 1997). By the late 1800’s, children were no longer considered merchandise of their parents, and parents were expected to nurture their children in a way that had never been considered beneficial before. As America continued to develop after The Civil War, social reform and the concern of child welfare grew even more. Society put more focus on transitioning children completely out of factories and into schools. Child psychology developed and many psychologists reported children required playtime to learn and develop properly, leading states to implement mandatory schooling and child labor laws by the late 1800’s. The parental preference changed not only due to these laws, but also as women gained societal control of the homestead (Mintz). The belief of children being property of the family had mostly dissipated, but many people began to believe the children were government property instead because their purpose as adults was to work

Parenting Styles Of America

and benefit the country. It was in the country’s interest for children to become educated and grow to become responsible and productive citizens, rather than just chattel (Branson, 1997).

Turn of the Century In the late 1800’s and early 1900’s, the idea of children being highly malleable and needing to be shaped properly was extremely relevant.

Childhood was seen as a life stage, intimately connected to nature and purity (Branson, 1997). Parents were expected to teach proper moral characteristics to help avoid corrupting of the child’s soul (Mintz).

Parenting during the 20th century was much more scientific. Greater awareness of childhood stages along with an increased sensitivity to children’s fears, insecurities, and anxieties grew. During the 20’s and 30’s, new insight into styles of parenting evolved (Allen, 2013). Parenting styles became more focused on the stages of childhood, developmental milestones, and particular ages. The prosperity of the 20’s made the earlier emphasis on regularity and rigid self-control seem ridiculous and outdated. During the early part of the century, a well-adjusted adult was regarded as an easygoing figure capable of relaxing, and emphasized a more relaxed parenting style related to the time (Mintz).

By the 30’s more urban families were emerging, as was the idea of much more emotional intensity within families. The families were much larger and were established in the earlier years of marriage. As fathers left for work, home life was focused more on the mother, as she was almost exclusively responsible for raising the children. Children also stayed in their parents’ home further into adulthood (Mintz). The critical importance of mothering was stressed more than ever before. Mothers nurtured their children and created a capacity for inner discipline and self-control through maternal influence (Branson, 1997). As the economy crashed after the Roaring Twenties, parental involvement experienced a crash of its own.

The Great Depression The Great Depression put severe strains on the nation’s parents as it led to a drastic loss of jobs nationwide. Families were forced to share living quarters and having children was no longer a priority. Many fathers began to feel guilty because of their lack of ability to support their families. Because fathers no longer had jobs, men’s familial status was lowered (Branson, 1997). The father’s diminished stature was mirrored by a large increase in the mothers money saving and earning roles (Mintz). Families who could no longer afford to house and accommodate children began leaving them on the streets, leading to a drastic increase of orphans across the nation.

More children lived in orphanages during The Great Depression than with biological families (Allen. 2013). Not only were the living quarters of orphanages often subpar, there were also too many children for the spaces. The daily life of those living during the Great Depression was full of sadness and loss. Parents were placed in a situation that hindered them from taking care of their children in the way they hoped. America was faced with yet another calamity due to involvement in World War II. World War II World War II caused extreme upheavals in American society, having a profound impact on parenting, as marriage and birth rates suddenly dropped and families began splitting up for safety from wartime danger.

Millions of mothers were thrown into the workforce, solidifying the harsh reality of war (Branson, 1997). Oddly enough, the war accelerated a trend toward more affectionate child rearing. Mothers started to believe it was normal and healthy to show more affection toward their children as they comforted them during a time of fear and sadness. Although mothers were more caring towards their children, America was in need of more workers

298 as the majority of men were off fighting in the war. This led to a temporary reduction in the opposition to child labor, both paid and volunteer to aid in the success of the war (Mintz). Parental control during World War II was loosened as adults focused on aiding the country, leading to more relaxed environments at home, focusing on emotional support for the children.

After the war, major issues arose in the readjustment of family life.

Returning soldiers found it difficult to communicate with their families, and the women and children found the men to be extremely strict and intolerant. Problems with estrangement and alcohol grew, tearing many families apart. Coming back home was often a hard and complicated shift for the father to only be in charge of the social side of the family, but the father’s distance from the family disabled them from being the head of home affairs. Although there was often a struggle to reform as the previous familial unit, most families were able to avoid the problems and had very happy family lives. Suburban single-family homes became the standard, and a housing shortage occurred postwar. Suburbs became the answer to this shortage, and filled up quickly. War-weary parents who completely rejected the child-rearing beliefs of their parents and grandparents which included much discipline and lack of emotion, embraced the idea that babies were supposed to be enjoyed This group of parents continued a very affectionate and caring method of parenting, which began earlier during the war (Mintz). Overall, postwar parenting was characterized by an underlying anxiety concerned with children’s physical and mental health.

Baby Boomers Baby boomers, born between 1946 and 1960, embraced a highly antiestablishment attitude. This generation was very perceptive to new technology and culture, and found interest in sharing it with the world and making it their own. Boomers found their identity in a new type of music, rock and roll. They were also the first generation to grow up with televisions, which allowed them to learn more about international topics, making them worldlier (Allen, 2013). Interestingly, Baby Boomers born earlier in the generation were more experimental, individualistic, freespirited, and focused on social issues. The Baby Boomers from the end of the generation tended to be less optimistic, cynical, and distrusting of the government thanks to political issues including the Watergate scandal.

This change in personality traits comes from the social and political issues that occurred at the beginning and end of the baby boomer generation (Allen, 2013).

During the 1960’s, many people became more aware of the reality something was going wrong with American parenting as permissive child rearing was very popular. Parents were failing their children by conveying mixed messages. Parents were stressing independence and accomplishment, but only gave their children a few avenues of achievement from which to choose. Many families witnessed rebellious children against their parents over dress, language, music, and politics (Branson, 1997). Leading the next generation of parents to responds to situations in a very different way.

Generation X Generation X, also known as the forgotten generation, faced many new issues during their youth. Not only was it extremely common for these children to be left in the car when parents were shopping, showing neglect, but the eldest sibling was expected to babysit even at the young age of 9 (Grimes, 2011). The Xers were the first generation of youth to encounter the current computer and the beginning of its endless possibilities. At the beginning of this generation, it seemed as if they were a part of a new golden age. As the adolescents began to mature and become sexually active, AIDs appeared, opening many eyes to a frightening reality. Leading to a newfound focus on health and awareness of the frightening reality of sexually transmitted diseases. In 1987, as these children transitioned into adulthood, the stock market crashed, swallowing the job market and

Parenting Styles Of America

creating a struggling environment for the young adults (Grimes, 2011). For the majority of Gen-Xers young adulthood, people lived in apartments, played video games, worked small jobs, and traveled the world. They were not expected to settle down and be serious because of the market crash.

These characteristics have led many to see the Gen-Xers as lazy. Gen-Xers began to mature and they morphed into a generation full of computer intelligent, independent thinkers (Grimes, 2011). Gen-Xers’ are the 30-something parents of the 21st century, and face even more interesting technological dilemmas in raising their children (Grimes, 2011). Many researchers are very interested to see how this next generation, children of late 1980’s to 2000’s known as Generation Y, will parent their children.

This information of the history of parenting in America leads the Scholar to ask: In America, what are the different styles of parenting today; what effects do different parenting styles have on motivation, self-esteem, and school performance? And in the case of French parenting, is one style held superior over the other?

Parenting Styles Parenting styles are a vital aspect of understanding why parents act the way they do. The different styles used by parents stem from generational differences. Those who grew up during The Depression have very different opinions on child rearing than those in the Baby Boomer generation. By reviewing the specific types of parenting, one can compare which cultural backgrounds favor which style of parenting. By defining the four different styles of parenting and connecting them to different generations of America, a greater understanding of the styles will develop for scholars and parents alike. Diana Baumrind, a clinical and developmental psychologist, defined the four main styles of parenting, which are described below.

Indulgent-Uninvolved Parenting The first type of parenting defined by Baumrind, which generally relates to the children raised during The Great Depression, is known as indulgentuninvolved parenting (Darling, 1999). These parents are characterized as rather indifferent to children and show very little emotion toward them (Canavan, 2005). Parents demand very little from their children and often show a lack of empathy and responsiveness towards their offspring (Darling, 1999). Indulgent-uninvolved parents treat their children almost as if they are not children, but little adults. According to a study by Oxford University, parents who are uninvolved are seriously depressed leaving them with little energy left for their children (Canavan, 2005). This style encompasses rejection and neglect due to the lack of care the parents show their children. Because of this neglect, children have free reign over their decisions, family role, responsibilities, manners, and social life, leaving them to fend for themselves and act as their own parents. Unfortunately this style creates the most issues for the child dealing with the world, as they were not raised to understand proper social and cultural etiquette (Darling, 1999). These children have little emotional control, and often have trouble forming emotional connections (Canavan, 2005). Due to the lack of attention given to children of uninvolved parents, the children are commonly left emotionally harmed, leading this style to frowned upon by society. Along with indulgent-uninvolved parenting, Baumrind describes the other side of the indulgent spectrum as involved.

Indulgent-Involved Parenting Indulgent parents allow their child to take complete control of any situation (Darling, 1999). The lack of parental demand leads to a relationship based on the parent’s leniency. Rather than taking control of situations, indulgent-involved parents tend to consult the child about decisions and rules (Baumrind, 1966). This style is very nontraditional, which is seen in their lack of expectations of the child. Parents usually show at least some control over their child, but because this style is based on a

299 lack of leadership, it is seen as very strange in society’s eyes. Along with the children being self-regulatory, no maturity is expected from them.

Children raised in this environment are never confronted, but confront their parents instead (Darling, 1999). When the parent attempts to have any control, it is through the use of false reasoning and manipulation, not overt power (Baumrind, 1966). When making an effort to discipline the child, the parent tries to blame the discipline on something uninvolved in order to keep a good reputation in the child’s eyes. This technique is an attempt for the parents to project the anger of the child on an outside source, leading the child to believe their parent is not to blame.

This specific parenting technique is not connected to any specific generation as it can be seen scattered throughout history. Rather, indulgentinvolved parenting often stems from past personal experiences the parent encountered or historical familial status patterns (Canavan, 2005). After reviewing the two most uninvolved style of parenting, the scholar must review the two more commonly accepted and used styles, authoritarian and authoritative parenting.

Authoritarian Parenting Authoritarian households are highly demanding, directive, and structured places where the parents of these families attempt to shape, control, and evaluate behavior in accordance with a set standard (Baumrind, 1966). This type of parenting is based on the expectation of order and includes actions that are nonresponsive and very intrusive (Darling, 1999). These children are expected to be completely obedient, and respectful of their parents’ status as a family leader. The child is held completely responsible for his or her actions and is expected to participate in the family through means of chores and rules (Baumrind, 1966). When told what to do, these children are expected to respond properly and promptly, with no questions or rebuke. Authoritarian parenting is very rigid and leads to a more businesslike relationship with the parents. The final style of parenting defined by Baumrind is Authoritative parenting.

Authoritative Parenting Authoritative parents attempt to direct the children’s activities, but in a rational issue-oriented manner. Reasoning behind policies are willingly given, but the child is expected to accept the policy after receiving an explanation (Darling, 1999). Authoritative parents are demanding like authoritarian parents with clear standards. These parents are more responsive and less intrusive than authoritarian parents, meaning they are willing to work with the child but will not completely baby them (Darling, 1999). The parents have clear standards and are assertive, but not restrictive.

The preservation of order and traditional structure are highly valued in this parenting style, and it is believed the child should accept this (Baumrind, 1966). The children are not given specific restrictions, but parental ruling is enforced differently depending on the situation. The authoritative parent is aware of the child’s present qualities but also sets standard for future conduct (Baumrind, 1966). The children in this relationship are assertive and self-regulated but still very cooperative (Darling, 1999). Overall, this style is seen as the most efficient and beneficial for both the child and the parent.

Generational Effects After reviewing the definitions and attributes related to each style of parenting, the scholar finds importance in connecting the generations found in the background to the four styles reviewed. The Colonial era, The Great Depression, and the Post-War era are all directly related to one of the four parenting styles. By reviewing said correlations, parenting trends in America will be revealed.

Parenting Styles Of America Colonial Era

Authoritarian parenting is most directly correlated with the colonial times from the late 1500’s to the late 1700’s (Mintz). Children followed father’s demands and constantly worked. They were to be “seen and not heard” in everything they did. Along with strict rules of respect, the children were expected to follow a rigid structure every day. Children generally spent the whole day on chores and work that benefitted the whole family. The purpose of a large family during this time period was merely for a lasting workforce on the family farm because disease was so rampant during Colonial times and children died often. Any disrespect to elders did not go without consequence in order to reiterate the fact that the children were not equals in their society (Branson, 1997). The rigid structure seen in the Colonial era perfectly mirrors that described as authoritative parenting.

Great Depression The Great Depression is commonly connected to uninvolved parenting because this generation of parents had so little and focused on survival rather than how to properly raise a child. The parents felt guilty for their lack of ability to support their children, but there was not much they could do to improve their situation. Children were left to fend for themselves and could no longer rely on their parents for support but were expected to help find food for the family to survive (Mintz). It is important to remember during the Great Depression, the children suffered immensely and were often left to survive completely alone and homeless (Mintz).

Although many children during The Great Depression were homeless, a large majority was put into shelters. In theory, orphanages were a great alternative to homelessness, but during a time when there was a lack of food and energy, they became homes full of sick, hungry, and dirty children (Branson, 1997). Parents’ incapability to take care of their children during the Great Depression makes them a perfect example of uninvolved parents.

Post-War Post-war parents are viewed as the most authoritative generation of parents. They were adamant they would not be as rigid as their parents and grandparents of the Depression but would still have some form of order in their own households (Allen, 2013). These parents were affectionate and loving towards their children because the parents were aware of life’s blessings, due to the experience of war. Unfortunately, the caring attitude parents showed toward their children often led to children being very spoiled. The hardships these parents faced in their youth made them appreciate family more as adults. Post-war parents wanted a stable but happy life for their families in which the children could thrive to the fullest extent possible (Mintz). Along with these generational variances, different styles of parenting also influence children in a psychological way.

Psychological Influences Motivation A child’s motivation is often greatly shaped by the type of parenting with which they are raised. According to a study by psychologists supported

by Harvard University comparing authoritarian, authoritative, and uninvolved parenting, there are three different motivational pathways. All three pathways also directly impact school performance, which will be reviewed later in the paper.

Authoritarian parenting tends to lead the child in the direction of extrinsic motivation in which children’s motivation is not natural and is forced on them (Leung & Kwan, 1998). Children of authoritarian parents are expected to perform exceedingly well in a number of activities without any complaints. Authoritative parents support a more natural and intrinsic form of motivation in their children, in which the child looks into oneself

300 to find his or her own motivating force. The workload of these children is not as rigorous as that of a child from an authoritarian household, but they thrive in what they do. The final type of motivation found in this study is known as amotivation stemming from the uninvolved parenting style, as these children lack any motivation to engage in activities. This lack of motivation is often caused by a lack of perceived competence and failure to see the value in themselves or their activity of choice because their parents did so little to show them the value in either (Leung & Kwan, 1998).

By reviewing this study and the types of motivation it has defined, it can be seen that parental style has a very direct and drastic impact on the type of motivation a child will have. Although it is not the only factor involved in a child’s motivation, the morals instilled in children by their parent’s style of choice do influence the amount of motivation a child will have. Along with a child’s motivation, a child’s self-esteem is also directly impacted by their parent’s self-esteem.

Self-Esteem Self-esteem is another trait drastically impacted by parenting style. A child’s self-esteem tends to directly reflect the parent’s self-esteem. Parents with high-self esteem often rear children with high self-esteem, and parents with low self-esteem tend to rear children with low self-esteem, showing self-esteem to be a very reflective attribute. The discipline method used by parents also makes a difference in a child’s self-esteem. Punishment, guilt, and shame from a parent tend to lead to low self-esteem in adulthood (Richardson, 1990). Praise, encouragement, and other positive discipline techniques lead to an increase in self-esteem. A child’s self-esteem peaks during their preschool and elementary years meaning the type of parenting used during this time will have the largest impact on their future self-esteem.

The parenting styles most beneficial for a child’s self-esteem are authoritative parenting and indulgent parenting (Leung & Kwan, 1998).

Both of these parenting styles include techniques creating awareness in the child of their importance and allow some leniency in favor of the child.

These environments allow children to be happy and comfortable in their own skin, which encourages a growth in self-esteem.

Authoritarian parents often have children with lower self-esteem because they are taught to be submissive and people pleasers. Interestingly enough, children raised by indulgent-uninvolved parents also have low self-esteem which it is caused by lack of praise and attention received during the developmental stage (Richardson, 1990). Although self-esteem is impacted by a variety of factors, the parenting style used in a household has the largest impact on a child by far. The final trait impacted by parenting style is the child’s performance in school.

School Performance The three types of parenting having the largest impact on a child’s education are authoritarian, involved-indulgent, and authoritative. Most often, authoritarian and uninvolved parenting styles are negatively associated with grades (Steinberg, Elmen & Mounts, 1989). The intense structure and success expected from authoritarian parents puts a very heavy burden on children causing their grades to drop. In some circumstances, children are able to handle the pressure and succeed in academics, but failure is seen more commonly than success. Children in these environments are also often expected to take on a multitude of activities and expected to do well in them causing stress which can also lead to a drop in grades (Richardson, 1990). On the other hand, authoritative parenting leads to more successful grades. The balance of extracurricular activities in this lifestyle is much easier for a child to handle, allowing them to thrive in all they do. The children have the ability to choose their own activities which leads to a much less stressful environment. Children raised by authoritative parents also have support and time from their parents in which they assist them

Parenting Styles Of America

in their schoolwork; this shows the children how capable they are of being successful in school (Steinberg, Elmen & Mounts, 1989). The amount of attention given to a child has an immediate affect on the type of scholar the child will become. After reviewing the parenting styles of America and the impact on motivation, self-esteem, and education, it is important to view the same issues from the viewpoint of a different country.

French Parenting Case Study France is a country with a very interesting parenting tactic. Recently, American expatriate and mother, Pamela Druckerman, garnered much attention with the publishing of her book, Bringing Up Bebe. In this book Druckerman catalogues her observations of French children and why they seem so much better behaved than American children. Determining the accuracy of this claim creates a very intriguing case study by finding the parenting style most strongly related to French parenting as a whole.

According to a survey of American mothers created by a popular online community, Buzzfeed, children commonly run American households.

The day of American families revolves around the child, focusing on their activities and needs. Mothers find themselves cutting phone conversations short because of a demanding child or suffering the consequences of ignoring them by the temper tantrum that generally follows, which is descriptive of both indulgent-involved and indulgent-uninvolved parenting (Druckerman, 2012). Druckerman noticed quite soon after she made the transition to France, that French children would never be caught throwing temper tantrums or running around a restaurant while their parents had dinner. Past research of French parenting shows both individualistic and collectivist characteristics in their parenting style, showing they apply many different techniques from a variety of styles.

French parents find much more importance in stimulating their children at a slower pace than American parents do, allowing their children to mentally develop in a more natural way (Suizzo, 2004). Americans grow up to believe time is used most productively when learning something new. This reflects in how children are raised, being overwhelmed with phonics and pre-pre-school at the young age of 18 months.

This cultural difference leads French families to see less developmental stress to their children than Americans do. French families also recognize their children as family members rather than family rulers, whereas Americans often allow their children to be the focus of the daily itinerary.

French parents would much rather allow their children to learn from their mistakes and developmental experiences rather than do everything for them (Suizzo, 2004). The difference of experience versus enablement is the cornerstone found between French and American parents. Both nations’ parents value long-term goals representing inner psychological attributes, but the French value concrete achievements more than abstract ones, such as love. The vast difference in the young children’s expectations and attitudes are impacted by the parenting style being used.

In today’s culture, many American parents are favoring the indulgent parenting styles while French parents are finding more success in Authoritative parenting (Suizzo, 2004). In two studies led by economists at Princeton, American women seemed twice as unhappy when dealing with their children than women in France. Many factors are involved in this difference including the parenting style used, the economy of the country, governmental differences, and societal pressures placed on American women. Although there is a difference in the parenting styles used in the two countries, there are also many similarities. Parents in both America and France are zealous about talking to their kids, showing them nature, reading them books, taking them to tennis and art classes, and visiting museums; however the main difference in the two countries parenting styles is French parents have managed to be involved but not obsessive (Willsher, 2011). Many, including Druckerman’s fellow expatriate mothers, believe it is completely due to the government’s socialist involvement in the

301 education and medical needs of the children. French parents also benefit from a multitude of public services. They do not have to pay for preschool, health insurance, or college (Druckerman, 2012). Unfortunately, these government aids do lead to higher taxes. French parents understand adults should not be at the constant service of the child, and expect their children to give them alone time for themselves. This often comes in the evenings, as the children play quietly by themselves while the parents get their own time to talk with each other. Although many assume this to be a natural instinct of the French child, it is actually the product of a long process in which French parents instill the idea of private playtime in their children.

This is a long and tedious process starting at a very young age in which parents make the child play alone starting with small increments of time and slowly increasing the amount of time until they are comfortable alone for up to four hours (Willsher, 2011).

Another main difference between American and French parenting is rather than allowing some misbehaviors to go undisciplined, French parents make sure to punish their children whenever they misbehave.

The process by which a certain family punishes their children begins at a very young age (Druckerman, 2012). The tone parents’ use when teaching their children patience is polite yet firm, which shows the children the scolding is still out of love. Unlike American children, French children do not do whatever they want, nor do they expect to get everything they want, the children are aware that no means no and whining will do no good. The polite and patient attitude they seem to come by naturally is due to their parents ability to support them, yet expect them to be patient and respectful in everything they do (Druckerman, 2012).

Overall, the style of parenting French families use seems as beneficial to the parent as it is the child. Their Authoritative lifestyle teaches children the importance of respect while still allowing them to develop into their own person. Children learn from an early age how to treat people, and they do not feel the same sense of entitlement as American children. As the children mature and go out into the workforce, French children tend to have a much steadier and lasting work ethic and tend to follow their bosses rules more efficiently but are not as enterprising as Americans are known to be (Druckerman, 2012). This factor is also largely impacted by their socialist economy. French parenting is considered superior by many because of its ability to teach children such valuable and impactful lessons in a calm, loving, and patient way, also seen in the authoritative parenting, which was defined and referred to earlier. With all of this in mind, it is important to remember the existence of exceptions to parenting in both countries. Not all American parents are indulgent and not all French parents are authoritative, but the purpose of this case study was to uncover the reality of the recent fad in parenting dully referred to as “French parenting”

Conclusion By looking back into American parenting’s history, one can develop a clear understanding of the parenting techniques connections to America’s history. The four main parenting styles discussed in this paper are indulgent-involved, indulgent-uninvolved, authoritative, and authoritarian. Each style is defined and connected to one of three generational groups mentioned in the Background of this paper. The groups used for this research are Colonial times, Great Depression, and Post-war. After connecting each parenting style to a generation the psychological influences are studied. The connection between the styles and motivation, self-esteem, and school performance are covered. After connecting parenting styles to the three topics, a case study of French parenting was investigated. In the case study, the Scholar determined a strong correlation between French parenting and authoritative parenting.

After compiling a Review of Related Literature concerning the problem, the Researcher conducted a null hypothesis and case study determining the association between parental involvement and academic success.

Parenting Styles Of America

Methodology

Purpose The purpose of this research was to delve into the connection between parenting and academic success. The researcher used two surveys to determine an association between parental involvement and academic success. The researcher gathered data in the form of one null hypothesis and one case study. Data was gathered both online and in person. The study of the null hypothesis and case study were meant to show a significant relationship between the two topics.

Null Hypothesis Parents whose students are involved in National Honors Society do not report more parental involvement in academics than parents whose students are not in National Honor Society Case Study Study of teachers from St. Francis Episcopal Day School determining the association between academic success and parental involvement from the teacher’s point of view. Study of two teachers from Primary School, Lower School, and Middle School Participants and Sampling Procedures Within the quantitative study and the case study the researcher studied parents and children in private schools. The quantitative study focused on parents of children in their junior and senior years at Houston Christian High School. The case study was focused on parental involvement from the teacher’s point of view in which two teachers were selected from each department of St. Francis Episcopal Day School. A convenience sample of parents of juniors and seniors from Houston Christian High School was used for the case study.

Generally, the parent’s age range was low 40’s to mid 60’s. The sample population was compromised of parents of Houston Christian juniors and seniors. The case study was a random sample of two teachers from each division of St. Francis Episcopal Day School: Primary, Lower, and Middle school. The participants were all teachers at St. Francis, not further details describing the participant can be determined because identification was withheld.

Research Design To test the null hypothesis, the researcher used a quantitative, casualcomparative study examining whether a students National Honor Society membership or lack thereof was related to the number of hours of academic involvement reported by the parent. The method of questioning used was a structured survey. The structured survey was an explanatory study attempting to determine an association between academic success and parental involvement. The pool of participants used for the research were parents of juniors and seniors at Houston Christian High School and the survey was sent to them through the Houston Christian Newsletter.

The case study was a qualitative interview of teachers from St. Francis Episcopal Day School in which teachers were randomly selected and had to accept their role in the research. Two teachers represented each division. The anonymous teachers answered the survey and returned it to the researcher through a second party, an administrator of St. Francis.

Experimental Instrumentation The survey of parents with juniors and seniors of Houston Christian High School was distributed as an electronic structured interview. The purpose of the survey was to determine the connection between parental involvement in academics, the independent variable, and academic success,

302 the dependent variable, from the unintentionally biased point of view of parents. The study used an instrument made by the scholar. The survey included questions about students’ academic standings and amount of time the parent works with his or her child on their academics. This method of research was reliable because it was answered anonymously which relieved the pressure on parents to feel the need to exaggerate involvement in their child’s academics. The research is held as valid because academic success is measured by National Honor Society membership and academic involvement is measured in time spent working with ones child weekly.

The case study was a structured written interview distributed to participants by a second party. The purpose of the case study was to determine the connection of parental involvement in academics and academic success as determined by an outside source. The survey was a personal instrument made by the scholar. Parental involvement in academics, the independent variable, and academic success, the dependent variable, were measured through a survey including questions determining students academic standing and the amount of time parents involve themselves in their child’s academics. In this research, parental involvement was seen as quantitative and academic success was seen as qualitative. The research was considered reliable because teachers see both variables from a professional point of view which, although is outside of the family unit, is still involved enough to have an accurate understandings. The research was valid because the teachers used their professional training and classroom experience to answer questions posed by the Scholar.

Data Collection The survey for the quantitative study was sent out primarily as a structured interview distributed electronically. The first survey was sent out on October 29, 2014 and was sent again in every Houston Christian Newsletter following. Dean of Houston Christian High School, Tong Utakrit, also sent an email to the parents of juniors and seniors with a link to the survey to inspire more involvement.

For the case study, data collection began with a structured written interview distributed by hand. Before distribution, the scholar met with the Middle School Dean of St. Francis Episcopal Day School on November 19, 2014 to receive approval for the research. The survey was delivered and collected by a second party, Mr. Lovejoy, Dean of Middle School for St. Francis Episcopal Day School. The surveys were handed out December 3, 2014 and collected throughout the rest of the week.

Data Analysis Plan Student membership in National Honor Society may or may not be associated with a higher amount of parental involvement in academics on average. To test this the researcher used two-sample t-test for means to test the null hypothesis with µ1 equivalent to the average hours of NHS parental involvement and µ2 equivalent to average hours of non-NHS parental involvement. The data collected in the quantitative study will be summarized with the mean amount of time both groups of parents spend assisting their children in academics. The research found in the case study was summarized and compared to the results found in the survey. The data for each research method was bivariate focusing on the relationship between academic success and parental involvement.

Ethical Consideration The research methods used for the casual-comparative study protected human research subjects by keeping the responses anonymous and through its voluntary state. The survey contained a disclosure statement stating; “Please answer only if you have a junior or senior currently enrolled at Houston Christian High School. If you have multiple children

Parenting Styles Of America

within these restraints, please answer according to your oldest child.

Participation in this survey is voluntary and all respondents will remain anonymous. Completing this survey indicated informed consent to participate in this study on parenting. Thank you for taking the time to participate. “

The case study was protective of human respondents because it was a voluntary response anonymous questionnaire. It also including an introductory statement reading; “You are a randomly selected teacher from a pool of all teachers in Lower, Primary, and Middle school (whichever applies to you) and all responses are completely voluntary. Any and all responses will remain anonymous as pat of this study. Thank you for your involvement in the survey.”

303 In reference to the scholar’s null hypothesis, 21 responses were obtained.

The sample group consisted of parents from Houston Christian High School with juniors and seniors who also had computers, read the HC Newsletter, and spoke English. The case study consisted of teachers from St. Francis Episcopal Day School. Two teachers were selected from each department; Primary, Lower, and Middle school. In the case study, the researcher found on average respondents had worked an average of 6.5 years at St. Francis Episcopal Day School. From the survey, the researcher collected percentages of parental personal opinions. 47.62% of respondents’ children were not involved in National Honor Society. The other 52.38% of parents’ children were involved in National Honor Society, as seen in Figure 1. All respondents required computers for the survey.

Bias Bias was formed in the casual-comparative study through the study design and the instrument. The study design of the casual-comparative study created bias by leaving out parents without computers, parent who did not speak English, and parents who did not read the newsletter. Bias was formed in the instrument through unintentional response bias and nonresponse bias. As parents answered questions about their involvement in their child’s life, they may have tended to over exaggerate without meaning to, which created unintentional bias.

As for the case study, bias was formed in the study design because of the availability of teachers. Some teachers were unavailable to assist in the study, creating a smaller pool of possible respondents, which may have impacted to responses. The instrument created another type of bias with the presence of a second party data collector during the completion of the questionnaire. It could have led teachers to feel pressured to answer the survey.

Assumptions Both the research conducted to test the null hypothesis and the case study share the same assumptions. Primarily, honest responses were assumed throughout the research process. The idea that the sample of the survey was a representative sample of the population was also assumed.

Figure 1: Comparison of responses based in childrens involvment in National Honor Society.

Survey Findings/Interviews/Observation As for parental involvement in academics, 23.81% of parents did consider themselves involved in their child’s academics while 57.14% only consider themselves involved in their child’s academics sometimes, leaving 19.05% of respondents whom considered themselves uninvolved in their child’s academics, as seen in Figure 2.

Limitations The causal-comparative study was limited by the possibility of parents not having computers or reading the Houston Christian Newsletter. An addition to the study could have been research of social interactions in school and its connection to academics. Three main improvements could have been made to the study if the researcher had more time. The study could have researched schools across the country, both public and private.

The researcher also could have attempted to maximize response rate.

The case study was limited by the availability of teachers and the interest teachers had in the research. Two large improvements could have been made to the study. The research could have incorporated teachers from each grade level rather than two per division, and it also could have been sent to public school teachers. One major improvement could have been seen in a response from all teachers working at St. Francis Episcopal Day School, had time permitted it. Another improvement could have been research collected from a public school for comparison to St. Francis Episcopal Day School.

Findings Sample

Figure 2: Parental responses of academic involvement.

On average, parents recorded 1.55 hours per week of academic involvement with no abnormal responses with the exception of the outlier of 9 hours of assistance per week. The mean of this survey was calculated and found to be .872 with a standard deviation of 1.22.

100% of teachers involved in the study saw an association between

Parenting Styles Of America

academic success and parental involvement. 50% of respondents attributed that success solely to parental involvement while the other 50% attributed academic success to parental involvement and other factors including personal drive, and an interest in grades. No oddities were found in the responses to the survey. The data collected from this survey concerning parental involvement created a mean of 2.23 with a standard deviation of 2.64 Analysis For the null hypothesis a two-sample t-test was used where µ1 equaled the average hours of involvement of parents with children in National Honor Society and µ2 equaled average hours of involvement of parents whose children were not in National Honor Society. The researcher found a result of t=1.57 with 12.4 degrees of freedom. There was also a P-value of .92, which is greater than .05, leading the scholar to retain the null hypothesis.

Upon further analysis, the scholar concluded that based on their findings in the case study, there was not a strong enough difference between percentages to determine if academic success can be attributed to parental involvement. There were also no definitive observations shown for the individuals considering their similarities. One piece of information the researcher observed was that student achievement cannot be predicted by parental involvement.

In summary, the scholar’s null hypothesis was not rejected. The case study conducted by the researcher was also found to be inconclusive because of the equality found in the responses. Therefore, the researcher can fairly state parents whose children are involved in National Honor Society do not report more parental involvement in academics that parents whose children are not involved in National Honor Society.

Discussion Null Hypothesis Research collected by the scholar concerning the null hypothesis corresponds with the findings in the review of related literature. The review or parental involvements impact on school performance can be held accurate due to this research. The fact school performance is impacted, but not fully reliant on parental involvement in academics is also seen in the survey used. Specifically, the researcher finds National Honor Society membership is based on much more than parental involvement.

The findings collected by the researcher develo two main topics of importance. The first of the two is parental involvement should not be viewed with standards that apply to all parents. Different children require different types and amounts of parental assistance. The research of Dr. Baumrind finds that various personality and thinking differences are involved in academic success and parental involvement, which should be kept in mind. The second impact of the research is that a child’s academic success cannot just be determined by parental involvement. It is extremely important to keep these two points in mind when conducting research concerning the topic of parental involvement and academic success in children.

Future research concerning the null hypothesis carries many possibilities.

The scholar finds interest in two specific possibilities. One interesting topic is in-home tutoring versus using a professional tutor and its implications on a child’s academic success. Another possibility for future research is an extension of the scholar’s research topic. Rather than surveying the parents whose children are in National Honor Society, one could survey the students themselves. Many remaining questions could be clarified, including the children’s reason for involvement in National Honor Society.

The researcher could also determine the amount of work required from the students to succeed in National Honor Society.

304 Case Study The research compiled from the scholar’s case study also agrees with the findings of the review of related literature. Both reflect there are multiple factors involved in academic success (Branson, 1997). Not only is academic success reliant on parental involvement, but it is also impacted by academic interest and a focus on good grades.

The researcher’s findings have two main impacts again. Primarily, the findings bring awareness to a teacher’s capability to understand the students and their families. The scholar also found importance in the idea that teaching a student for multiple years may be beneficial. This could be a successful alternative because teachers, parents, and children become familiar with one another, and are able to develop a relationship and understand for each other over a span of a few years rather than a short six months.

Possible future research based in this case study brought about three possibilities. A researcher can look into and compare the process to become a teacher in America versus Great Britain and China. Another possible topic for future research is the success of autistic children in academic settings and ways to improve their success. Both of these topics would be very interesting additions to the findings that resulted from the researchers case study.

Conclusion Through research compiled in the Review of Related Literature, the Researcher gained knowledge on the parenting styles of America and their effects on motivation, self-esteem, and school performance, along with a case study of French parenting and how it is successful. The four types of styles used in America as defined by Baumrind are indulgentinvolved, indulgent-uninvolved, authoritarian, and authoritative.

Indulgent-uninvolved parenting can be related to the Great Depression while indulgent-involved is seen throughout all of American history.

Authoritarian parenting is the style used during the Colonial Era while mostly Post-war parents used authoritative parenting. The Researcher also found each style impacts motivation, self-esteem, and school performance of children in both positive and negative ways. Finally when reviewing the case study, the Scholar found French parenting relates to authoritative parenting. During an examination of the case study the Scholar also found parenting in France and America cannot be fairly compared due to the fact France is a much more socialistic society than America, leaving them with less fiscal concerns.

Through the Scholar’s own study, research was conducted determining the impact of parental involvement on a child’s academic standing from the point of view of both the parent and the teacher. In the process of research, both null hypotheses were retained showing academic achievement cannot be predicted solely by parental involvement. After the Scholar completed both the Review of Related Literature and the personal research, a few remaining questions were left unanswered.

Remaining Questions After the researcher reviewed authoritarian parenting and its impact on children, it was very clear the style often leads to rebellion. Many children held under its harsh and heavy command are not willing to accept the oppression it creates. Authoritarian parenting in a family can be closely compared to the type of control used in Nazi Germany. The harsh environment created by the leaders of Germany leading up to and during World War II was bound to cause rebellion. The idea of Nazi Germany adopting an authoritarian style of ruling leads the researcher to ask, “Did German teens rebel from the Nazis?”, “In what ways did they go about doing so?”, and “Were they successful in their endeavors?”. Thus the researcher focused on the various movements of teen rebellion in Nazi

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Germany and the responses of the Nazi party to each.

Teen Rebellion in Nazi Germany Nazi Germany was a time and place of harsh dictatorship centered on oppression. From the outside, many believed the German youth were behind Hitler completely, due to the existence of Hitler Youth. Although the majority of teens did become members of the Youth, it was not always by choice (Kater, 2003). All other political youth movements were banned and punishment for not joining was a very real possibility. With this in mind, many young teens who were ideologically and morally against ideals of the Hitler Youth found ways to make a stand (Youth Opposition, 2011).

Three protest movements were created by teens to show their dismay: the Edelweiss Pirates, the Swing Kids, and the White Rose movement all of which were involved in what many perceived as non-Germanic activities.

Edelweiss Pirates One youth opposition regime known as the Edelweiss Pirates began in Rhineland, Western Germany in 1937. The majority of its members were male teens whose families were members of the working class and ages ranged from fourteen to seventeen (Youth Opposition, 2011). All of the members of this group left school at the age of fourteen, which was allowed, in order to avoid Hitler Youth. They were also young enough to avoid being forced into the military, which was mandatory for males beyond the age of seventeen (“The Edelweiss Pirates”). This movement was spurred by the Nazi regime as it began to control and decrease leisure activities young Germans were accustomed to. Hitler Youth groups held gender segregated get-togethers for party members while the Edelweiss Pirates promoted freedom of expression by hosting parties for males and females together (“The Edelweiss Pirates”).

Edelweiss groups across the nation were very close-knit but used badges as a method to be distinguished as separate units. These teens were very rowdy in an attempt to anger their local Nazi leaders. Pirates would also dress in bohemian garb rather than the semi-military uniform required of the Nazi Youth (“The Edelweiss Pirates”). Everything the teens did was an intentional act meant to upset the Nazi party. Along with their dress, these young men would sing and play jazz and blues music as the Nazis had banned it on the grounds of being considered “degenerate music”. City leaders across Germany believed local Edelweiss groups were responsible for anti-Hitler and anti-war graffiti in pedestrian subways; however, it was never confirmed (Youth Opposition, 2011). As the groups grew larger, the teens created areas within towns and cities where members of the Hitler Youth were not tolerated, which led the members of the Youth to steer clear of specific parts of towns for their safety.

The obvious rejections of Nazi authoritarianism were seen through the nonconformist actions the Edelweiss Pirates adopted and also through their support for the Allies. Many personal accounts have been recovered mentioning members of the Edelweiss Pirates assisting deserters from the German army and aiding injured soldiers from England and America.

Other members of the Edelweiss Pirates collected propaganda leaflets dropped by the Allies and pushed them through Nazi group members’ home letterboxes (“The Edelweiss Pirates”). Another similar group of rebels that were a greater cause for concern to the Nazi party was the Swing Kids.

Swing Kids The Swing Kids, or Swingjugend were from upper class backgrounds, composed of high school aged boys and girls and formed ‘swing groups’ mainly in Hamburg and Berlin (Kater, 2003). These teens admired the British and American way of life and expressed themselves through jazz and blues music. These teens focused more on the musical aspect of the

305 rebellion rather than anything else (Youth Opposition, 2011).

Hitler Youth leaders attempted to draw teens in with German-style dances, but the Swing kids hosted dances that played jazz music instead and it attracted large amounts of teens. The dances were so popular, the large crowds they drew were almost too large to host. The Swing groups used the get-togethers as an opportunity to recruit more people to their movement (Kater, 2003). Members of this group also expressed themselves through their clothes in a more subtle way than the Pirates did, by adding British flair to their outfits through the use of hats, Union Jack pins, shorter skirt length, and makeup.

At first, their rebellion was self-indulgent because they were no longer able to buy as many expensive products, including clothing and liquor, that were common in their everyday lives but when jazz was banned it became an opposition against the Nazi party (Kater, 2003). Interestingly enough, although Swing Kids seemed less threatening than Edelweiss Pirates, Nazi leaders dealt with Swing Kids in a much harsher manor. Many believed it was because they were members of more affluent families, allowing them to be in the social spotlight and more people looked up to them (Youth Opposition, 2011). In a letter to Adolf Hitler, one Nazi leader, Heinrich Himmler, wrote to the head of SS, a Nazi defense corps, that the proper way to deal with this rebellious movement was to send the teens to concentration camps for “2 to 3 years”. Many others believed the SS should have intervened brutally to abruptly stop the spread of Swing Kids (Youth Opposition, 2011). Although this is the most notable teen rebellion, there is one other movement that was extremely influential. The final movement in Nazi Germany was the White Rose Movement, which involved young adults rather than teens.

White Rose Movement Siblings Hans and Sophie Scholl, students of Munich University, created one of the most famous youth campaigns against Hitler and the Nazis during World War II. Members of the movement openly campaigned against Hitler and the war across the country, distributing anti-Nazi and anti-war leaflets (Trueman, 2011). The membership of the White Rose movement was kept very small to avoid attention from informants and to keep a sense of secrecy as every member knew the others personally and were convinced they were completely loyal to the cause. Although it was only active for about a year and a half, their message was heard loud and clear. Along with the production of leaflets, members of the White Rose movement engaged in ‘graffiti campaigning’ in Munich, where they spraypainted political statements on the buildings (Trueman, 2011).

This group was convinced Germany would lose the war as early as 1942 (Youth Opposition, 2011). Stating in a leaflet written by a founding member, “Why do German people behave so apathetically in face of all these dreadful and inhuman crimes? It is high time we uprooted the ‘Brown Horde’. We shall only do this by cooperation between many convinced and bold men who are agreed on how to achieve their aims.”

This quote alone shows how the leaders of the White Rose movement felt towards the government they were living under. Hans and Sophie also encouraged members of the opposition to engage in sabotage in order to show their beliefs.

The founders put themselves in a very dangerous position by publically stating such anti-Nazi beliefs, but they were adamant fellow Germans would hear their beliefs (Youth Opposition, 2011). One day the Scholl siblings decided to distribute the leaflets they had not completed distributing (Trueman, 2011). Hans and Sophie were seen throwing the leaflets around the university’s atrium by a caretaker who called the Gestapo and caught them red-handed. Hans and Sophie were at Munich University when the Gestapo arrested them. Both siblings admitted full responsibility hoping

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to end all interrogation (Trueman, 2011). Unfortunately, they were killed despite telling the Nazis everything they wanted know.

Response of the Nazis Although the Edelweiss Pirates were very active during the reign of the Nazis, not much attention was given to them. The leaders of the party saw them as no more than a nuisance. Adults wrote it off as teenagers going through a rebellious stage, when in reality they were fighting against a government that they knew to be inhumane (Youth Opposition, 2011).

This ongoing fight is due to the restrictive techniques of their authoritative government. Although they were not punished often, when they were it was harsh; if the Gestapo identified people as members of the Edelweiss Pirates, they would restrain them and shave their heads as a way to shame them (“The Edelweiss Pirates”). The exception to the general lack of interest in the group was on October 25, 1994 when Heinrich Himmler ordered a crackdown on the group. Thirteen members of the Pirates were publically hanged in Cologne including six active teen members and seven past members. Apart from the previously stated tragedy, the government failed to break the spirit of the group and it continued to fight the power until the end of the Nazi reign (“The Edelweiss Pirates”). The response of the Nazis to other groups, such as the Swing Kids was much more aggressive.

At first, the Nazi leaders did not do much to stop the Swing Kids, however as their numbers grew, the Nazi party looked for any reason to incriminate any member of the resistance. Non-Aryan and half Jewish members of the Swing group were specifically persecuted (Kater, 2003). Nazi leaders would create false incriminating information in order to persecute Swing Kids who were not full-blood Germans. The Swing Kids attempt to mock the Nazis did not go unnoticed as many of their swing clubs were raided and participants were taken to concentration camps (Kater, 2003). The final movement reviewed in the research was extinguished in the most aggressive way.

The White Rose Movement was the only rebellion created by teens that genuinely concerned the Nazi leaders. As previously mentioned, the Gestapo arrested and interrogated the founder with hopes to keep the other members of the movement anonymous; they admitted all responsibility (Trueman, 2011). Unfortunately the Gestapo did not believe them and subsequently gained the name of members. After their arrest, the Scholl siblings were tried and found guilt for treason before the ‘People’s Court’, which led to their execution (Youth Opposition, 2011). Before World War II ended, the final remaining pamphlet created by the Scholl siblings was smuggled out of Germany and given to the Allies. Upon receiving the leaflet, they printed millions of copies and dropped them all over Nazi Germany, two years after the founders had been killed (Trueman, 2011).

This act led to the Scholl siblings’ message to spread much wider than they had ever imagined and created a lasting memory of them.

During the reign of the Nazi party, three movements of youth rebellion emerged. The Edelweiss Pirates, the Swing Kids, and the White Rose Movement. Each movement consisted of different types of teenagers across Germany from twelve year-old boys to women enrolled in college.

All three groups found their identities in activities banned by the Nazi party including specific styles of clothing, Jazz music, and freedom of

306 speech. Although the Nazis kept a closer eye on some groups than others, all endured extreme hardships in order to spread their message. Just like a child may rebel under extreme authoritarian constraints; many German teens did the same in Nazi Germany. The power this political party held over the country of Germany and its citizens was too much control for many teenagers to handle.

After researching all three remaining question and the topic of youth rebellion in Nazi Germany, the Scholar has an answer to all of their remaining questions. Yes, German teens did rebel from Nazi Germany in the form of three teen movements: the Edelweiss Pirates, the Swing Kids, and the White Rose movement. Many teens voiced their rebellion through clothing and music while others shared their political opinions with the citizens of Germany by means of pamphlets. In some ways, the youth rebellions were extremely successful. As they spread an awareness of the unjust system the Germans were being forced to adhere with, but unfortunately, their efforts did not reap much more beyond opening their fellow countrymen’s eyes. Even with their newfound knowledge, German people were not willing create an anti-Nazi regime due to the fear of losing their lives. After reviewing the remaining questions of the research, the Scholar found importance in creating a biblical connection to the topic of parenting.

Biblical Connection Biblically, many verses connect to the topic of parenting. Although God’s relationship with His children alone is an obvious connection to this research, there are two verses that are very fitting as well. Both Proverbs 22:9 and Ephesians 6:4 develop and understanding of how to properly raise a child according to God’s word.

In Proverbs 22:6, Solomon reminds his reader to, “Train a child in the way he should go and when he is old he will not turn from it.” An example of this is seen in the French parenting technique written about by Pamela Druckerman. The French parents teach their children to be polite and respectful at a young age, and the children are respectful to their elder and peers for the rest of their lives. On the other hand, American children who are given too much entitlement from a young age grow up to push the borders of the respect they are supposed to have for their elders, which can be an issue in working environments. Overall, this verse seems very applicable to the research because it shows that whatever way the child is raised, they will follow what they were taught and reminds parents of this reality. The lesson to be taken from this verse is to stay aware of how one raises their children.

Ephesians 6:4 is a direct connection to authoritarian parenting and the youth rebellions of Nazi Germany. As Paul is reminding, “Fathers, do not provoke your children to anger, but bring them up in the discipline and instruction of the Lord.” This verse reminds parents to not provoke the children, but rather raise them in the ways of The Lord. The intense pressure and demands put on children and the German youth by their parents and Nazi Germany are a direct opposition to this verse. If a parent makes an effort to not provoke their child, they will be much more willing to accept their teachings and trust in them.

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References

Allen, J. (2011, December 12). The unique cultural identity of baby boomers. Del-Mar Carmel Valley Patch. Retrieved December 8, 2013 from http://delmar-carmelvalley.patch.com/groups/joshallens-blog/p/bp--the-unique-cultural-identity-of-baby-boomers Baumrind, D. (1967). Childcare practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 75(1), 43-88. Retrieved January 17, 2014 from http://psycnet.apa.org/ psycinfo/1967-05780-001 Branson, P. (1997). The Time Page. Retrieved December 12, 2013, from http://www.timepage.org/cyc/revo.html#revolution Canavan, M. (2005, May 3). Parenting styles can influence children.

University of Delaware Daily. Retrieved December 12, 2013 from http://www.udel.edu/PR/UDaily/2005/mar/style050305.html Darling, N. (1999, March). Parenting styles and its correlates. Eric Digest.

Retrieved November 11, 2013, from http://ecap.crc.illinois.edu/ eecearchive/digests/1999/darlin99.pdf Druckerman, P. (2012, February). Why French parents are superior. Wall Street Journal. Retrieved January 23, 2014 from http://online.wsj. com/news/articles/SB1000142405297020474090457719693145747 3816 Grimes, G. (2011, May 23) How generation x works. How Stuff Works.

Retrieved December 12, 2013 from http://people.howstuffworks. com/culture-traditions/generation-gaps/generation-x2.htm Kangas, S. (n.d.). Timeline of the great depression. Hyper History.

Retrieved December 12, 2013 from http://www.hyperhistory.com/ online_n2/connections_n2/great_depression.html Kater, M. H. (2003). Different drummers: Jazz in the culture of nazi germany. New York: Oxford University Press, USA. Leung, P. W. L., & Kwan, K. S. F. (1998). Parenting styles, motivational orientations, and self-perceived academic competence: A mediational model. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 44(1), 1-19. Retrieved December 12, 2014 from JStor Mintz, S. (n.d.). Parenting. Encyclopedia of Children and Childhood in History and Society. Retrieved January 24, 2014 from http://www. faqs.org/childhood/Me-Pa/Parenting.html Richardson, D. (1990). Self-Esteem. Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service. Retrieved January 26, 2014 from http://dasnr22.dasnr. okstate.edu/docushare/dsweb/Get/Version-6712/T-6108web.pdf

307 Steinberg, L., Elmen, J. D., & Mounts, N. S. (1989). Authoritative parenting, psychosocial maturity, and academic success among adolescents. Child Development, 60(6), 1424-1436. Retrieved from JStor Suizzo, M. (2004). French and American mothers’ childrearing beliefs stimulating, responding, and long-term goals. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 35(5), 606-626. doi: 10.1177/0022022104268391 Sutton, B., Goodwin, S., Bradley, B., Welling, S. & Whitley, P. (2010).

19th Century: 1890-1899. American Cultural History. Lone Star College-Kingwood Library, Kingwood, TX. Retrieved December 28, 2013 from http://wwwappskc.lonestar.edu/ popculture/19thcentury1890.htm Understanding the reason: Parenting styles. (2009). Strong Bonds.

Retrieved December 12, 2013 from <http://www.strongbonds.jss. org.au/reasons/parentingstyles.pdf>.

Trueman, C. (2011, December). The white rose movement. Retrieved January 25, 2015, from http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/white_ rose_movement.htm What is a family? (2009). Family Plus. Retrieved December 12, 2013, from http://familyplus.bgca.org/YourFamily/EffectiveParenting/ WhatisaFamily/Pages/default.aspx Willsher, K. (2011, December 31). The parenting gap: Why French mothers prefer to use the firm smack of authority. Retrieved January 25, 2015, from http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2012/ jan/01/parenting-france-britain Wilson, L. (2013, June). The family unit and its importance. Retrieved December 12, 2013 from http://www.drlwilson.com/ARTICLES/ FAMILIES.htm Youth opposition in nazi Germany. (2011, December). Retrieved January 25, 2015, from http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/youth_ opposition_nazi_germany.htm 1939-1945: The Edelweiss Pirates. (2006, September 3). Retrieved April 20, 2015, from https://libcom.org/history/1939-1945-the-edelweisspirates

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Appendix I: Survey Questions

Please answer only if you have a junior or senior currently enrolled at Houston Christian High School. If you have multiple children within these restraints, please answer according to your oldest child. Participation in this survey is voluntary and all respondents will remain anonymous. Completing this survey indicates informed consent to participate in this study on parenting. Thanks you for taking the time to participate.

1. Is you child a member of the national Honor Society?

a. Yes

b. No

2. Would you consider yourself involved in your child’s academics? Activities such as assisting child with work or staying informed of the class grades.

a. Yes

b. No

c. Sometimes

On average, how much time do you spend involved in your child’s academics per week?

Appendix II: Survey Results

1. Is you child a member of National Honor Society?

Yes: 10

No: 10

2. Would you consider yourself involved in your child’s academics? Activities such as assisting child with work or staying informed in class grades.

Yes: 4

No: 4

Sometimes: 12

3. On average, how much time do you spend involved in your child’s academics per week?

2 hours, 2 hours, 1 hour, 1 hour, 1 hour, 25 minutes, 0 hours, 3 hours, 30 minutes, 4 hours, 8 hours, 0 hours, 0 hours, 1 hour, 9 hours, 1.5 hours, 10 minutes, 0 hours, 1 hour, 0 hours

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Appendix III: Case Study Questions

You are a voluntary respondent from a pool of all teachers in Lower, Primary, and Middle school (whichever applies to you) meaning all responses are completely voluntary. Any and all responses will remain anonymous as a part of this study. Thank you for participating.

1. How long have you been teaching students at St. Francis?

2. Do you see more academic success in a student that has a more involved parent than a student whose parents are not very involved?

a. Yes

b. No

3. If so, do you believe their success can be attributed to said parental involvement?

a. Yes

b. No

c. Sometimes

4. If not, what do you attribute their academic success to?

Appendix IV: Case Study Results

1. How long have you been teaching at St. Francis?

6 years, 6 years, 7 years, 7 years, 16 years

2. Do you see more academic success in a student that has a more involved parent than a student whose parents are not very involved?

Yes: 5

No: 0

3. If so, do you believe their success can be attributed to said parental involvement?

Yes: 3

No: 0

Sometimes: 2

4. If not, what do you attribute their academic success to?

Hard work, internal drive, desire to learn, grades

309