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The emergence of learning objects: The reference librarian’s role John D. Shank Penn State Berks-Lehigh Valley College, Reading, PA 19610, USA Available online 17 February 2005
Abstract Learning objects are beginning to draw much interest in higher education. They can be powerful teaching and learning tools that the instructor can use both in and outside the classroom. This article focuses on how reference and instruction librarians can play a critical role in locating appropriate learning objects to enhance their library instruction courses in addition to assisting faculty in locating learning objects for augmenting their courses. D 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Learning objects have increasingly generated a great deal of interest and enthusiasm in the online learning community and more recently have engendered similar interest and enthusiasm in various other instructional technology groups. To confirm this, merely travel to a conference that has a track focused on online or Web-based learning, or peruse a recent technology and learning trade magazine. Learning objects have generated excitement because they can be powerful assets in augmenting, enhancing, and streamlining the teaching and learning process, not only in distance education, but in the traditional classroom as well. The OCLC E-Learning Task Force (2003) emphasized that learning objects are bat the heart of the learning/technology nexus.Q This task force also declared that it is critical to assess what role libraries can play in the process of defining learning objects and their repositories. Unfortunately, learning objects have not generated as much E-mail address: jds30@psu.edu. 0734-3310/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.resstr.2005.01.002
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excitement in the library community, perhaps because librarians have not been exposed to the emerging discussions and debates among instructional designers and technologists about learning objects. This article aims to raise awareness of the role that reference and instruction librarians can play in utilizing and locating appropriate learning objects both to enhance their own library instruction classes and to assist college and university faculty in augmenting their courses. In so doing, librarians will be playing a vital role in the use and adoption of learning objects by faculty. 1. Defining learning objects Confusion is expected any time existing vocabulary is applied to a new technological concept. The OCLC E-Learning Task Force (2003) notes that the term blearning objectQ is currently bnot yet definable in any specific sense, so it is accepted that a degree of semantic confusion is inevitable.Q It is not surprising that the instructional systems design and technology literature (Wiley, 2000; Friesen, 2003; Polsani, 2003) emphasizes the fact that the definition of a learning object is debatable and contentious. One widely cited general definition, from the Learning Object Metadata Working Group of the IEEE Learning Technology Standards Committee (2001), is bany entity, digital or nondigital, which can be used, re-used or referenced during technology supported learningQ (2002, Section 1.1, 1). This definition is extremely vague and much of the literature (Friesen, 2003; Polsani, 2003; Shepherd, 2000) asserts that it is too broad a definition to be meaningful. David Merrill (2002) explains that, bas usually defined learning objects are of little use to anyone.Q Consequently, many of the stakeholders have taken different directions in their attempt to define a learning object, which has led to the creation of various definitions that are tied to the primary interests and concerns of their proponents (Rehak & Mason, 2003). David Wiley (2000) states that, bthe proliferation of definitions for the term dlearning objectT makes communication confusing and difficult.Q This semantic confusion coupled with the debate and disagreement over an agreed upon, concise, and authoritative definition of a learning object makes it challenging to formulate a working definition that librarians can use. Recognizing that it may be quite some time until a single authoritative definition emerges, it is necessary to choose a working definition of a learning object so that existing learning objects can be located and utilized. Weller, Pegler, and Mason (2003), in their paper Putting the Pieces Together: What Working with Learning Objects Means for the Educator, attempt to break free of the debate by adopting a definition that is broad enough to encompass most interpretations without rendering such a definition meaningless. The definition of a learning object they propose in their paper is the definition that this article adopts. The working definition of a learning object this paper will use is ba digital piece of learning material that addresses a clearly identifiable topic or learning outcome and has the potential to be reused in different contextsQ (Weller et al., 2003).
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2. Synopsis of a learning object and its benefits In the current environment of semantic confusion, it is useful to examine a library learning object to clarify the term and concept. It is also possible to gain a deeper understanding of some of the benefits of using learning objects through an examination of how a reference and instruction librarian could make use of a learning object. The Boolean Tutorial design by Beau Morley and Katie Reifman (Morley & Reifman, 2003) (http://library.nyu.edu/research/ tutorials/boolean/boolean.html) from NYU’s Bobst Library is a good example of a library learning object. This tutorial instructs students how to correctly use Boolean operators when executing a search. What makes this tutorial a good example of a learning object is that it accurately fits the aforementioned definition. 1. It is a reusable digital resource. 2. It includes a specific learning outcome (how to properly use Boolean operators) and associated learning activities. 3. It is sharable across various instructional contexts both within and between educational institutions. The instructional systems design and technology literature (Metros & Bennett, 2002; Polsani, 2003; Rehak & Mason, 2003) mentions that one of the primary reasons why learning objects have generated excitement within the online learning community is the reusability of learning objects, or the ability to be able to share them and use them in various instructional contexts. Ideally, a learning object can be simultaneously shared, reused and placed into multiple courses, disciplines, and course management systems exactly when and where the instructor desires. David Wiley explains that bdigital resources available on a computer network are dnonrival resources’ because they can be utilized simultaneously by many peopleQ (Wiley, 2002). A reference librarian could capitalize both on the ability to reuse and share the preexisting Bobst Boolean Tutorial when teaching instructional sessions by having the professor assign the learning object (which takes approximately 5–10 minutes to complete) before the class meets. The students in the class would then have some prior exposure to the topic the librarian would be covering, thus allowing the students to come more prepared for their library instruction session. This also has the advantage of freeing up some of the introduction time that the librarian would normally take in the classroom session. Pre-exposure to ideas outside the classroom could be a great advantage to librarians who are only given one or two class sessions to teach library instruction to an individual class. A librarian would need to have the professor agree to assign the learning object before the instruction session. However, the Bobst Boolean Tutorial only takes a few minutes to complete; therefore, it is unlikely the professor would object because of an increased demand on student time outside of the classroom. Additionally, if the classroom that has Internet access, a projector, and screen, the librarian can use the learning object in the classroom to further demonstrate the concepts behind Boolean searching. Moreover, the learning objects would still be available after the class session for students to practice with as often as they desire at their own pace, providing
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reinforcement for the learning that took place during the class session. Reference librarians both within and outside the university can utilize the Bobst Boolean Tutorial regardless of the different instruction sessions they teach because the tutorial is in a digital format accessible from the Web. Librarians are thus enabled to deliver, simultaneously or independently, a consistent learning object about Boolean searching to a large group of students. Utilized in this manner learning objects can be powerful tools to augment face-to-face classroom library instruction as long as it is available and the instructional content is relevant and accurate. The OCLC E-Learning Task Force (2003) notes that the instructional context of a learning object is integral to any meaningful interpretation. James L’Allier (1997) further defines the instructional components of a learning object as containing ban objective, a learning activity and an assessmentQ and thereby includes them as integral attributes of a learning object. Thus, one of the basic components of a learning object, the instructional context and components (i.e., the educational framework—which includes learning outcomes, activities, and assessments) is important. Currently, there is no agreed upon pedagogy for constructing the educational framework of a learning object, and there is very little existing literature about using learning objects to enhance the traditional classroom and student learning. It is beyond the scope of this paper to delve too deeply into a discussion about what pedagogical paradigms should be used in creating learning objects. Nonetheless, it is useful to look at the Bobst Boolean Tutorial to view how learning outcomes, activities, and assessments may be integrated into a learning object to gain deeper appreciation of the benefits of a learning object. The Bobst Boolean Tutorial contains instructional components which include an objective (student will be able to execute a Boolean search) and various learning activities. These learning activities constitute a series of questions related to Boolean searching, with the
Fig. 1. Question from the Bobst Boolean Tutorial.
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purpose of allowing the student to practice the concepts associated with using Boolean operators. The tutorial then provides immediate feedback to each of the answers the student chooses demonstrating an understanding, or lack thereof, of how to apply the searching concepts (see Fig. 1). Most learning objects also incorporate a combination of some or all of the following: audio, video, animations, graphics, text, and some type of user interaction (which might include text entry, drag and drop, multiple select, and/or button pushing). The Bobst Boolean Tutorial is no different; it contains activities such as multiple select questions and answers and animations which depict the concepts of the Boolean operators. Given that most learning objects include some type of kinesthetic interaction and contain activities that require students to interact with and receive feedback from the learning object in order to progress, students are permitted to practice using the concepts. Notasha Boskic (2003) points out that Leegan, Moore, and Hillman regard interaction as b. . .the key to effective learning.Q To conclude this synopsis, it may also be useful to relate learning objects to traditional educational materials. For example, an introductory textbook about library science is made up of many component chapters, one of which might be a chapter on database searching. This chapter would also consist of component subtopics, one of which might be Boolean searching. A learning object similar to the Bobst Boolean Tutorial would be created if the content from the topic about Boolean searching were removed from the textbook and converted to a digital electronic format. To be complete, this learning object must include both an instructional component that allows the student to practice and demonstrate specific learning outcomes, as well as some variety of feedback or assessment. 3. Locating learning objects The OCLC E-Learning Task Force (2003) remarks that learning objects are currently difficult to locate and asserts that bin order for learning objects to have any kind of value, they first require the use of semantically consistent, easily created metadata that allows for the objects themselves to be easily found and transported between institutions and repositories.Q Catalogers and systems librarians can play an important role in working to create systems where learning objects can be cataloged, housed, and effectively retrieved; however, such roles are beyond the scope of this article. Rather, this article focuses on what role reference and instruction librarians can play in helping faculty locate learning objects in the current environment. Reference and instruction librarians can and should play a role in identifying learning objects through repositories, breferitoriesQ (the term referitory, coined by Carl Berger, is used to mean a digital library that only links or points to the learning object), and other online libraries or databases in order to augment their own instruction and to assist instructors in locating appropriate learning objects. These librarians should also seek to partner with instructional developers, designers, and technologists at their local institutions when seeking to appropriately integrate an existing learning object or to develop their own for an instruction program or session.
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Because of the aforementioned issues regarding the lack of agreement on the authoritative definition of a learning object, it is not surprising that locating them is, to some extent, a complex and difficult task as well. There are two important criteria that must be considered when locating appropriate and relevant learning objects. First, what—identify the subject and/ or discipline the learning object could be classified under and second; where—determine the best starting point to target the search (see Fig. 2). When attempting to identify the subject or discipline the learning object could be classified under, it is useful to use the existing schema of the various repositories and referitories. To find a learning object on information literacy using a repository or referitory, one possible classification to look under could be blibrary and information studies.Q It is then possible to further narrow the search to a specific subset of the type of learning object by browsing under the subject or classification scheme (most repositories and referitories have this option). Most repositories and referitories do not use Library of Congress Subject Headings, however, and consequently there is little consistency from one to the other. It is often necessary to identify some key words or phrases that describe the learning object sought given that it is not always possible to be able to make use of the subject or discipline classification of a particular learning object. It is also crucial to identify the type of learning object as this can help determine the level of interactivity and instructional components. This refers to the medium of the resource, such as complex animations, simulations, Web-based tutorials, or multimedia presentations. In conjunction with the type of learning object desired, it is important to identify the format, that is, the digital manifestation of or the technology utilized by the resource, such as Flash, Authorware, Java, or QuickTime. The format can tell what software will be needed in order to view and use the learning object. To expose students to a particular aspect of information literacy such as evaluating Internet sources, a librarian may want to locate a learning object that is a type of tutorial, with a specific technical format such as a Flash file format, that lets the students progress through the content as they successfully demonstrate the important components in evaluating Internet
Fig. 2. Learning object search criteria tree.
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resources. The modules of Texas Information Literacy Tutorial (TILT), available at http:// tilt.lib.utsystem.edu, are a good example of this. Finally, it is essential to determine the appropriateness of the learning object for the audience. Most repositories and referitories will allow librarians to narrow and focus their search for a specified level or audience, while other resources (e.g., search engines) will not. There are a multitude of places to search to find learning objects. Accordingly, it is not always a simple task to determine the best starting point to target the search (see Fig. 2). However, the best place to start is often with a repository or referitory, as they are more focused on collecting, housing, or referring to learning objects. As mentioned previously, Web-based repositories house the learning objects, while Web-based referitories simply link or point to the resources. The advantage repositories have is that the resource is under their control and can be archived while the referitories can have broken and obsolete links. Most repositories and referitories have a browse and search function. These resources often include both a simple keyword search tool along with more advanced searching features. There are general repositories and referitories (e.g., Wisconsin Online and MERLOT) and discipline specific (e.g., ILumina). To meet with success faster, it is important to determine which type of repository or referitory will most likely include the desired learning object. One of the oldest and best-known general referitories is MERLOT. MERLOT describes itself as ba free and open resource designed primarily for faculty and students of higher educationQ (MERLOT Website, 2003). MERLOT includes links to online learning materials along with annotations, which include peer reviews and assignments. Because MERLOT collects learning materials, not everything in MERLOT is a learning object. Nevertheless, it does contain quite a few. MERLOT includes both a simple key word search, as well as advanced searching tools. One can also browse the referitory through MERLOT’s own subject indexing terms. There are several other well-known referitories; refer to the table (see Fig. 3) for a more complete listing. One of the newer and higher quality repositories is Wisconsin Online. The Wisconsin Online Resource Center is a project of the Wisconsin Technical College System. This repository allows faculty within this system to create and store their learning objects, but anyone can view and make use of these learning objects. Because Wisconsin Online has criteria which must be met in order for a learning object to be stored in its repository, the quality of learning objects is fairly high. Like MERLOT, it includes both a simple keyword search, as well as advanced searching tools. It is also possible to browse the repository through its own subject indexing terms. See the table (Fig. 3) below for a listing of other repositories. Besides repositories and referitories there are several other locations to search on the Internet to locate learning objects. One possibility is educational entertainment sites. These sites include, but are not limited to, Public Broadcasting Services, The Learning Channel, The History Channel, and National Geographic. These media broadcasters are in the business of producing educational print and media resources. Recently, they have begun creating interactive Web-based multimedia resources in concert with their
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Fig. 3. A sample of learning object resources.
traditional media programs. Some of these multimedia resources qualify as learning objects. Many of the learning objects that these sites create are geared for K-12, although this does not preclude someone in higher education from using K-12 learning objects when appropriate. Consequently, when searching for learning objects it is important to attend to the intended audience as well as the content in making selections. All of the aforementioned broadcasters have Web sites from which one can access the learning objects they create. Most provide a key word search. Since most of these broadcasters do not refer to the multimedia resources they create as learning objects, the term should not be used in the key word search. There are two primary methods for searching for learning objects on these sites. First, since these Web sites gear their resources for K-12 education, they usually have a section for teachers. When going to this section, it is often possible to select teaching materials, supplements, or resources that will take one to various learning objects based on the broadcaster’s programming. Alternatively, one can also search by topic within current or archived programming. Once an appropriate program is found, one will often be directed to additional resources or teaching materials, which in turn may point to useful learning objects. Other locations that can be searched to locate learning objects are government and museum Web sites. Similar to the educational entertainment Web sites, these sites have
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begun producing educational, interactive, Web-based, multimedia resources. NASA produces numerous resources for K-12 teachers, and some of the materials they produce meet the criteria for learning objects and would be appropriate for undergraduate freshmen and sophomores learning about physics and astronomy. Likewise, the Museum of Modern Art has created a number of resources to educate the public about art and art history, and again, some of these resources would be considered quality learning objects for those studying art. Like the aforementioned broadcaster sites, government and museum sites can be searched in the same manner, both by using the basic and advanced key word search tools and by going to the section for teachers, when it is an option. The key here is to use subject-relevant government and museum sites. Finally, Internet search engines can be used to locate learning objects. Internet search engines should be viewed as the last option when searching for learning objects because they offer the lowest ratio of reward to time invested. Search engines should not be ignored, because it is possible to locate very useful and appropriate learning objects through a search engine that would not have been found through any other means. However, be prepared to spend more time and effort when using search engines. Today’s search engines (i.e., Google, AlltheWeb, Altavista, etc.) offer both simple and complex keyword search tools. It is recommended to only use the advanced search tools when attempting to locate learning objects. Search engines have various advanced search tools and are different sizes. In general, it is most desirable to search the largest search engines that offer the best advanced search tools in order to be able to locate learning objects as quickly and efficiently as possible. Search engines like Google, AlltheWeb, and Altavista are good starting places. When using these search engines, apply the aforementioned identified keywords relating to the subject or name of the learning object and also apply such words as tutorials, simulations, learning modules, and presentations as these words often refer to types of learning objects. In
Fig. 4. Using search engines.
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some search engines, such as Altavista and Alltheweb, it is possible to identify the format of the learning object sought. This can be especially helpful in identifying the variety of activities the learning object may contain. It is also important to identify the source of the learning object, whether it comes from an institute of higher education, a professional organization, a commercial site, or a government site. Finally, it may be desirable to search for learning objects that have been developed within the last few months in order to locate the most up-to-date content (see Fig. 4).
4. The future of learning objects Learning objects offer numerous benefits and in future years, as they become more mature, standardized, searchable, and commonplace, they will become even more important. Reference and instruction librarians, as information gatherers and disseminators and as educators, should play a vital role in utilizing learning objects to enhance their library and information literacy instruction sessions, in addition to assisting instructors in searching and locating useful existing learning objects. The library field has seen tremendous change and librarians must not lose sight of their primary roles, which have changed little over the centuries: to locate, collect, organize, analyze, and distribute information. Learning objects present yet another opportunity to assist both faculty and students in the teaching and learning process by allowing librarians to be an intermediary and facilitator for locating, sharing, and using these resources. In so doing, librarians can only strengthen the ties they have with faculty and increase the profession’s visibility and relevance to the academic community. References Boskic, N. (2003, July). Learning objects design: What do educators think about the quality and reusability of learning objects? Proceeding of the 3rd IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies. Greece: Athens Available: http://csdl.computer.org/comp/proceedings/icalt/2003/1967/00/19670306.pdf. Accessed December 14, 2003. Friesen, N. (2003). Three objections to learning objects. Learning objects and metadata. London7 Kogan. Available: http://phenom.educ.ualberta.ca/~nfriesen/. Accessed July 1, 2003. L’Allier, James J. (1997, April). Frame of reference: NETg’s map to the products, their structure and core beliefs. NetG. Available: http://www.netg.com/research/whitepapers/frameref.asp. Accessed July 9, 2003. Learning Technology Standards Committee. (2001, April 18). Draft Standard for Learning Object Metadata, Version 6.1. IEEE. Available: http://ltsc.ieee.org/doc/wg12/LOM_WD6-1_1.pdf. Accessed May 19, 2003. OCLC E-Learning Task Force (2003, October). Libraries and the enhancement of e-learning. Online Computer Library Center, Inc. Available: http://www.oclc.org/index/elearning/default.htm. Accessed December 19, 2003. MERLOT. (2003). MERLOT: Multimedia educational resource for learning and online teaching. Available: http://www.merlot.org/. Accessed July 8, 2003. Merrill, D. (2002, April). Position statement and questions on learning objects research and practice. American Educational Research Association (Annual Meeting) New Orleans, LO. Available: http://www.learndev.org/ LearningObjectsAERA2002.html. Accessed July 22, 2003.
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Metros, S. E., & Bennett, K. (2002, October 1). Learning objects in higher education. Research Bulletin, 19. ECAR. Available: http://www.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ecar_so/login.asp?reason=denied_empty&script_ name=/ir/library/pdf/ecar_so/erb/ERB0219.pdf. Accessed September 15, 2002. Morley, B., & Reifman, K. (2003). Interactive Boolean search tutorial. Bobst Library at NYU. Available: http:// www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/info/instruct/tutorials/boolean/boolean.html. Accessed May 18, 2003. Polsani, P. R. (2003, February 19). Use and abuse of reusable learning objects. Journal of Digital Information, 3(4). Rehak, D., & Mason, R. (2003). Keeping the learning in learning objects. In A. Littlejohn (Ed.), Reusing online resources: A sustainable approach to eLearning. London7 Kogan. Shepherd, C. (2000, December). Objects of interest. TACTIX. Available: http://www.fastrak-consulting.co.uk/ tactix/features/objects/objects.htm. Accessed July 9, 2003. Weller, M. J., Pegler, C. A., & Mason, R. D. (2003, February). Putting the pieces together: What working with learning objects means for the educator. Elearn International. Scotland: Edinburgh. Available: http:// iet.open.ac.uk/pp/m.j.weller/pub/. Accessed December 14, 2003. Wiley, D. A. (2000). Connecting learning objects to instructional design theory: A definition, a metaphor, and a taxonomy. The instructional use of learning objects: Online version. Available: http://reusability.org/read/ chapters/wiley.doc. Accessed May 18, 2003. Wiley, D. A. (2002). Learning objects—A definition. In A. Kovalchick, & K. Dawson (Eds.), Educational technology: An encyclopedia. Santa Barbara7 ABC-CLIO. Available: http://wiley.ed.usu.edu/docs/encyc.pdf. Accessed May 18, 2003.