The Sea Education Association (SEA), based in Woods Hole, MA, USA, offers ocean studies programs for undergraduate, gap year, and high school students.
There are no strangers here; Only friends you haven't yet met.
– William Butler Yeats
This SEA Semester, class S'321, studied for five weeks in Woods Hole, MA, then sailed for six weeks aboard the SSV Robert C. Seamans from Lyttleton, Aotearoa New Zealand to Tahiti, French Polynesia, then worked on their research, traveled, and learned still more in Mo‘orea. The undergraduates took classes in 'Oceanography,' 'Nautical Science,' ‘Ocean Science and Public Policy,’ and lastly ‘Environmental Communication,’ for which this magazine is the final project.
When we are kids, we are told: “don’t talk to strangers ” While I agree with the safety of this precaution, I take nuance with its connotation of “strangers.” The phrase has a tendency to antagonize new people, instilling fear for the unknown. As we get older, however, it becomes clear that growth often begins with unfamiliar conversations. For how will we learn anything new if we don’t talk to strangers?
When the seventeen authors of this magazine met on a sunny February afternoon in Woods Hole, MA, USA, we were strangers to each other Little did we know, our lives would become inextricably intertwined from the experience of a lifetime. That day, we became the Sea Education Association’s class of S-321.
S-321 is a class of thinkers, dreamers, and doers Drawn from all over North America, we decided to expand our educational horizons, sailing and conducting oceanographic research for a semester abroad. As part of SEA’s Marine Biodiversity and Conservation (MBC) program, we began our studies in Woods Hole, MA, USA, where we got our footing for the foreground of our research, sail theory, and each other A month later, we found ourselves on a dock in Lyttelton, Aoetearoa New Zealand, where we joined the crew of the SSV Robert C Seamans For the next six weeks, we would live and work aboard the Seamans, traversing the vast South Pacific Ocean For five of those weeks,
we would go without seeing land or anyone else outside of the thirtyfour-person crew Just us and the open ocean.
For some MBC cruise tracks, this time away from civilization could be longer. Fortunately and unfortunately for us, our nautical journey was sped up as a result of considerably intense weather. Twenty-foot seas and forty-five knot winds propelled us northward to French Polynesia, where we were rewarded with a week of island-hopping. From Tahiti to Bora Bora to Raiatea and eventually, Mo‘orea, we revelled in the calm waters and creature comforts of land for the first time in what seemed like forever.
The last leg of our program consisted of what SEA considers to be finals week: two weeks ashore at
UC Berkeley’s Gump Station in Mo‘orea. As relaxing as it might sound, we were kept busy– writing manuscripts, visiting local organizations, practicing presentations, preparing our goodbyes –it was definitely not a vacation In fact, vacation is the last term I would use to describe a semester with SEA. And that’s not necessarily a bad thing.
During the lowest of the lows, we would sometimes say: “Some people just go to Italy.” And this is not to discredit the rigor of any semester abroad, but some people do in fact just go to Italy. They can wake up and go to sleep at reasonable times, shop and go out, explore land at will. We all could have chosen to go to Italy for a semester, and yet, we all chose SEA. We sought a challenge.
Often ashore and at sea, MBC was accredited to being one of the most difficult cruise tracks; mentally, physically, and emotionally. For that very reason, in the words of our Captain Rick Miller, it is “one of the best cruise tracks.” This may only have been my first trip with SEA, but I couldn’t agree more. We had the unique opportunity of going where not many people can fathom of going: a truly remote corner of the world. The amount of perspective that this gives you about the planet, community, yourself, is simply incredible.
The amount of perspective that this gives you about the planet, community, yourself, is simply incredible.”
In the world of science, perspective is critical. Acknowledging our own biases and reservations is especially important in the context of the open ocean. Beyond national jurisdiction of any sort, the high seas are an oft under researched and under-appreciated resource that cover the majority of the Earth’s surface. Naturally, the scientific instinct is to sample and study at will. But like the rest of the planet, the open ocean holds immense environmental, social, and cultural value that must be considered. As students with SEA, we are no stranger to looking at the broader picture In Woods Hole, a variety of classes conditioned us to
think beyond our research niches. Such courses included: Advanced Topics in Biological Oceanography, Ocean Science and Public Policy, and Environmental Communication Both independently and together, these courses framed the titular focus of our program: Marine Biodiversity and Conservation. It is under this focus that we wrote this magazine. Here, we present a compilation of science journalism, policy briefs, blog entries, poetry, partner profiles, and artistic expression to share our experience with friends, strangers, the world. It is our intent that you, dear reader, take at least one new piece of knowledge to heart. And if that knowledge comes from a stranger, then even better. For listening and talking to strangers isn’t just how stories start, it’s how we grow.
Georgia Akins
Cover Art: Brigitte Walla Original Canva Template: Zuzanna Witek
Editors: Elle Lansing, Olivia Hines, Patricia Diaz-Bian, and Richard King
"Introduction” essay by Georgia Akins p. 4-6
“Oceanography Overview” by Sarah Kingston p. 11-13
“The First Day in the Lab” blog entry by Henry Penfold p. 14-15
“A Path for Strengthening Marine Protections in Aotearoa New Zealand”
“A Precautionary Approach”
“Oil Spilling or Oil Drilling?”
“UNCLOS and Artificial Islands and Land Grabs, Oh My!”
“Stopping the Hunt”
“Swim-with-Whale Tourism”
“Management in the Midwater”
ocean policy brief by Gabi Carttar, Zach Flagler, Jaimie Lin, Andrew Patterson p. 19-23
ocean policy brief by Charlotte Subak, Henry Penfold, and Britney Durward p. 24-27
ocean policy brief by Aimee Bousquet, Patricia Diaz-Bian, and Elle Lansing p. 28-30
ocean policy graphic brief by Olivia Hines p 31-32
ocean policy brief by Georgia Akins and Robin Muse p. 33-35
ocean policy brief by Brigitte Walla and Ella Skonieczny p. 36-39
ocean policy brief by Ana Hoffman Sole and Resh Mukherjee p. 42-45
“We’re Sailing!” blog entry by Henry Penfold p. 48-49
“Ancient Art and Nighttime Musings”
blog entry by Andrew Patterson p. 50-53
“A Journey of Wisdom"
“Reclamation in a Changing World”
graphic story by Brigitte Walla p. 55-57
social science journalism by Zachary Flagler p. 58-61
“Never Lost” poem by Zachary Flagler p. 62
“The Whale Poop Loop”
“Changing Tides”
“Diversity in the Deep” and “Seeing the Invisible with eDNA”
“Climate Change Affects Marine Biodiversity and Spatial Patterns”
science journalism by Patricia Diaz-Bian p 63-67
graphic ‘zine by Georgia Akins p. 68-74
science journalism and graphic by Ana Hoffman Sole p. 75-78
science journalism by Elle Lansing p. 79-83
“Treading Softly” and “Rising in the Spirit of the Earth” poems by Ella Skonieczny p. 84-85
“Moving Oases Attract Fish in the Open Ocean”
science journalism by Andrew Patterson p. 86-89
“The Last Migration” poem by Britney Durward p. 90
“Technology of the Future”
“Mesobot”
science journalism by Resh Mukherjee p. 91-94
journalism by Jaimie Lin p. 95-98
“Collection of Poems” by Robin Muse p. 99-102
“New Study on Gelatinous Ocean Creatures Reveals Their Role in Slowing Climate Change”
“Digging Deeper into the Truth of Deep Sea Mining”
science journalism by Aimee Bousquet p 103-107
science journalism and crossword by Charlotte Subak p 108-113
“Ship, Shipmate, Self... and the Sea” blog entry by Robin Muse p. 116-118
“The L-World (Land)” blog entry by Gabi Carttar p 119-123
“Zooming In and Zooming Out” blog entry by Olivia Hines p 124-129
“Jennifer Walton,” “Tommy Tucker,” “Satya Advani,” and “Herehia Sanford” Partner Profiles by Brigitte Walla, Olivia Hines, and Robin Muse p. 131-134
“Interview with Heather Goldstone, Woodwell Climate Research Center” by Elle Lansing
“Memory Foam, Not Sponge”
“Gabi on the Importance of the Ocean and ‘Getting Into It’ ”
“MBC Oceanography Research Abstracts” All
“What We Can Do”
Cruise track and oceanographic sampling stations during the voyage of the Robert C. Seamans, April 6 to May 16, 2025, from Lyttelton, Aotearoa New Zealand to Mo‘orea, French Polynesia, with anchorages at Bora Bora and Raiaetea (map by Sarah Kingston)
Twenty-three days without seeing land, big swell courtesy of the Southern Ocean, the occasional gale. . . a big, blue-water ocean voyage comes with challenges It is also an amazing research and educational opportunity. Our Marine Biodiversity and Conservation (MBC) cruise track voyaging from Lyttelton, Aotearoa New Zealand to Mo‘orea, French Polynesia cuts across fascinating oceanographic gradients and biogeographic regions. We traversed across much of the South Pacific Subtropical Gyre: spin a globe to that region of the world and observe a massive expanse of deep ocean dotted with occasional volcanic island chains.
Fronts, strong currents, prevailing wind patterns, and water column stratification can all present barriers to ocean-dwelling organisms, often unseen by standard human perception Our unique program combines measuring physical and chemical parameters in the open ocean with morphological and next-generation molecular tools
by Sarah Kingston
used to observe patterns of biodiversity among the critters living in a pelagic environment. As we return each year to this remote location, our students add to the body of scientific knowledge with which we can inform global ocean policy, in particular on the ‘High Seas’ areas not governed under a specific national jurisdiction
The S’321 MBC cohort focused their research on topics within two large ecosystem umbrellas: the mesopelagic and the neuston layer. The midwater, or mesopelagic, is the section of water just below the penetration of sunlight (about 200m –1,000m in depth). Often called the Ocean Twilight Zone (OTZ) because
of the lack of sunlight, many zooplankton reside in this region, some participating daily in the largest migration on earth returning to surface waters under the dark cover of night. Bioluminescence is common among the animals that live in the Ocean Twilight Zone. The neuston are an assemblage of zooplankton that reside in the surface layer of the ocean water column. On the high seas, a unique and understudied set of organisms spend their lives in that surface layer.
Our science plan encompassed daytime and nighttime net tows to sample the biota (both at the surface and into the depths) in conjunction with deep-water carousel casts to sample a cross-section of the physical and chemical characteristics in the water column We
employed molecular tools like whole genome sequencing (to detect differences among populations and species groups) and DNA metabarcoding (to determine what species are present in a goopy, squishy net tow sample).
On the high seas, a unique and understudied set of organisms spend their lives in that surface layer.
With these tools at their disposal, our student research groups chose to zoom in on five taxonomic or functional groups of interest: Portuguese man-of-war (jellyfish with a renowned sting), copepods (a class of crustaceans that is an important food source for many ocean organisms), marine calcifiers (critters that build shells or external skeletons with calcium carbonate), siphonophores (unique gelatinous colonial beasts), and myctophids (an ecologically important family of fish that migrate between the deep and surface layers)
To learn about the scientific research process from idea inception and hypothesis forming to funding proposals to data collection to effectively communicating results, MBC students spent the time in Woods Hole developing a collaborative research proposal and then executed (and sometimes revised!) that project data collection
by Sarah Kingston
on board the SSV Robert C Seamans. Our Mo‘orea shore component included bioinformatic and statistical analysis bootcamp and culminated in the Final Symposium where students presented the results of their work to a local and online audience of stakeholders. Although intense and demanding, the scientific research is one facet of our interdisciplinary approach. Research informs policy, and policy can impact the need or direction for research. Humans are not outside observers, but part of the ecosystems we aim to study; immersion is our tool to demonstrate how inextricably linked we all are to our ocean planet home. Under this cover, our MBC student voices will describe the impacts of this unique, immersive, experience across all the facets.
Dr Sarah Kingston Chief Scientist, Marine Biodiversity and Conservation, and Asst. Professor of Oceanography
by Sarah Kingston
Date: Thursday, March 6 , 2025 th
Time: 1730
Location: SEA Campus, Falmouth, MA
Weather: 49°F, Foggy
Hello from Woods Hole! My name is Henry Penfold, and I’m a junior from Bowdoin College studying ecology and marine biology.
As we near the end of our first full week here, we have settled into a busy schedule of classes and extracurricular activities. Each day has brought a rich variety of new
experiences and lessons, and it is hard to believe that we will fly to Aotearoa New Zealand in just over three weeks!
A key goal of our time on shore is to prepare for the oceanographic research we will conduct while underway from New Zealand to Tahiti aboard the Robert C. Seamans. We made good progress towards this goal yesterday, with an afternoon spent collecting plankton
by Henry Penfold
from the sea and peering at it through microscopes in the lab. Our first foray into the lab made for a particularly memorable afternoon and an enticing preview of our work in the coming months.
After a morning class focused on developing effective science journalism skills, we piled into two vans and made the short drive into Woods Hole. We were joined by Remi, a delightfully playful and wellmannered poodle who accompanies Dr. Kayla Gardner, our assistant instructor for oceanography. After stopping for lunch at the edge of Eel Pond, we made our way to Dyer’s Dock, a pier where the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) often docks its research vessels.
An air of excitement spread through the lab as our plankton samples came into focus, with groups crowding around microscopes.”
Dyer’s Dock is at the heart of Woods Hole, nestled between WHOI buildings and the Martha’s Vineyard ferry terminal. With a brisk breeze buffeting us from across the harbor, we took turns pulling a fine-meshed “neuston” net back and forth along the pier’s edge This net, which we will use regularly aboard the Robert C. Seamans, skims plankton from the surface of the ocean and funnels them into a collection container. Back at the lab, we pipetted
samples of plankton-rich seawater onto petri dishes and powered on our microscopes. Looking through our scopes, we were greeted by an incredible tangle of life: diatoms of all shapes, countless copepods swimming about, intricately structured barnacle nauplii, elegant medusas with chain-like tentacles, and more!
An air of excitement spread through the lab as our plankton samples came into focus, with groups crowding around microscopes with particularly captivating specimens. It was humbling to see the amount of life that can be skimmed from the ocean’s surface in our backyard, and two hours spent drawing, photographing, and identifying plankton flew by. With the knowledge that we will soon employ these methods to study biodiversity on the open ocean, our days in the classroom are fueled by anticipation of what is to come.
by Henry Penfold
New Zealand has established itself as a global leader in marine conservation, with nearly half of its waters designated as protected areas (Wilkinson & Briggs, 2024). However, there are persistent gaps in Indigenous inclusion and enforcement of marine protections. This proposal recommends strategies to address these shortcomings and ensure sustainable, equitable marine conservation efforts.
Issues
Indigenous Representation in Marine Governance: The failure of the proposed Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary in 2024 revealed flaws in New Zealand’s approach to Indigenous consultation The government failed to negotiate with Māori groups who hold legal, commercial, and customary rights in the area–-resulting in the initiative’s collapse (WWF, 2024). This underscores the need for meaningful engagement with Indigenous communities in
marine policy decisions and a reevaluation of existing legislation on indigenous consultation (Te Ao Māori News, 2023)
Enforcement Challenges: While New Zealand has ambitious conservation goals, current enforcement mechanisms are severely lacking Despite nearly half of the country’s waters being designated marine protected areas (MPAs), only 2% are assessed as being effectively protected (Marine Protection Atlas) The country relies on citizen-led monitoring, legal action, and voluntary compliance, but lacks adequate maritime patrol resources used to address larger
by Gabi Carttar, Zach Flagler, Jaimie Lin, Andrew Patterson
security issues (MacDonald, 2022). This exposes MPAs to illegal fishing, particularly as global fish stocks decline and new fishing grounds are sought out (Agnew et al., 2009; Pauly & Zeller, 2016; Quimbayo et al., 2022; Ritchie & Roser, 2024).
Quota Management System (QMS): New Zealand’s fisheries management relies on the QMS, which sets annual catch limits through Total Allowable Catch allocations. Quota owners receive Annual Catch Entitlement, regulating how much they can fish. The QMS promises sustainability but must be enforced to prevent illegal exploitation (Ministry for Primary Industries, 2024).
Māori Customary Fishing Rights: Māori have legally protected customary fishing rights under the Treaty of Waitangi (Fisheries Claims) Settlement Act 1992. Tangata kaitiaki (guardians) manage fisheries within customary areas, ensuring sustainable practices and conservation within marine areas. However, inadequate consultation when developing conservation policies, as seen in the Kermadec proposal, threatens these rights (Ministry for Primary Industries, 2021).
Marine Protected Areas: As areas of water that restrict human activities to conserve biodiversity, MPAs contribute significantly to global conservation efforts and are a major tool for maintaining bio-
diversity. Over 49% of New Zealand’s EEZ and territorial waters are designated as MPAs by the government. However, enforcement issues hinder their effectiveness and expose them to current and future threats (Wilkinson & Briggs, 2024).
Tangata kaitiaki (guardians) manage fisheries within customary areas, ensuring sustainable practices and conservation within marine areas.”
Enforcement Limitations: Marine protection enforcement falls under multiple agencies. The Department of Conservation (DOC) oversees marine reserves but has limited rangers and patrol resources (Macdonald, 2022). Fisheries New Zealand sets and monitors fishing regulations but relies on voluntary compliance and minimal surveillance (Ministry for Primary Industries). New Zealand Customs, Police, and the Defence Force assist in enforcement, but naval patrols are understaffed, limiting coverage in offshore areas (NZ Defence Force). As a result, the nation is heavily reliant on citizen-led enforcement. Due to gaps in official capabilities, concerned citizens often intervene, sometimes leading to conflicts with illegal fishers (1News, 2025).
1. Enhance Indigenous Inclusion: A fairer marine protection framework requires formal co-governance
by Gabi Carttar, Zach Flagler, Jaimie Lin, Andrew Patterson
agreements that ensure Māori participation. The Kaikōura (Te Tai ō Marokura) Marine Management Act, which legally formalized the status of the iwi (tribe) local to Kaikōura as an advisory body for marine conservation, shows how Māori-led conservation can be integrated into national policy (Department of Conservation). Expanding similar legal structures across New Zealand could prevent conservation decisions that exclude Indigenous communities.
Beyond consultation, increased funding for Māori-led conservation could boost biodiversity and Indigenous leadership. The Jobs for Nature program funds local and Māori-led initiatives for land conservation but lacks investment in marine protection (Jobs for Nature). Expanding it to support Māori-led marine initiatives would recognize iwi stewardship and integrate traditional practices like rāhui (temporary bans) and mātaitai reserves (areas which allow traditional fishing through local management).
Mechanisms: Expanding patrol coverage and increasing enforcement capacity are essential for protecting marine ecosystems. Additional funding for the Department of Conservation (DOC) and Fisheries New Zealand could support hiring more full-time marine rangers and fishery officers, as well as equipping them with the
necessary vessels and resources (Ministry for Primary Industries). Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) also play a key role in conservation Increased funding for groups like WWF New Zealand could strengthen efforts to monitor endangered species and reduce bycatch (WWF New Zealand).
Investing in technology could further improve enforcement. Satellite and drone surveillance would expand monitoring of marine protected areas (MPAs), while integrating unmanned and aerial systems into patrol missions could maximize the abilities of the New Zealand Defence Force (Gordon, 2024). High attrition rates in enforcement agencies, particularly the Navy, remain a challenge. While retention efforts have shown success, further improvements such as higher salaries and better career development could enhance job satisfaction and long-term commitment (Gordon, 2024)
By implementing these recommendations, New Zealand can:
Strengthen marine protection enforcement to curb illegal activities.
Foster Indigenous participation in marine governance, ensuring equitable conservation. Reaffirm its leadership role in global marine conservation by integrating ecological and cultural sustainability
by Gabi Carttar, Zach Flagler, Jaimie Lin, Andrew Patterson
New Zealand has a strong foundation for marine protection, but refining its approach will ensure long-term success in conserving its marine ecosystems while respecting Indigenous rights. By bridging governance gaps and enhancing enforcement, New Zealand can continue to be a global model for sustainable marine conservation.
Tom Kitchin and Bonnie Harrison “Where to next for a Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary?” RNZ (June 19, 2023): www rnz co nz
Nikki Macdonald, “Flourishing Fishlife, Frustration and Worrying Decline 30 Years of the Kāpiti Marine Reserve ” Stuff (May 12, 2022) www.stuff.co.nz.
“The Treaty of Waitangi, Treaty Settlements, and Māori Interests.” The Legislation Design and Advisory Committee (January 15, 2025): www ldac org nz
Emma Wilkinson and Jenny Briggs, “Just 2.8% of the World’s Ocean Is Protected ‘Effectively ’” Bloomberg Philanthropies (blog) (October 17, 2024): www.bloomberg.org.
Please contact SEA Writer for full list of works cited
by Gabi Carttar, Zach Flagler, Jaimie Lin, Andrew Patterson
In recent years, there has been rapidly growing interest in extracting minerals present on the seafloor surrounding Aotearoa New Zealand The Chatham Rise is an area of seafloor stretching 1,000 kilometers between the Banks Peninsula (ANZ) and the Chatham Islands with an abundance of phosphate nodules that have been identified as targets for deep-sea mining.
Phosphate has a variety of uses, including the production of fertilizer, which is in high demand in Aotearoa New Zealand. Seafloor mineral extraction has been shown to have detrimental impacts on both benthic and midwater ocean ecosystems In 2013, the Chatham Rock Phosphate (CRP) mining company was granted a permit to begin prospecting on the Chatham Rise, in an area designated as a benthic protected area Though mining operations were delayed indefinitely in 2014 when the New Zealand Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) denied CRP’s marine consent application, the company could gain approval to begin mining as soon as 2025.
The environmental impacts of deepsea mining are understudied, but present research indicates the potential for significant damage to benthic and mesopelagic ecosystems Dredging apparatuses destroy benthic habitats when harvesting nodules, and create large sediment plumes in the process.
by Charlotte Subak, Henry Penfold, Britney Durward
These plumes travel through the water column and can clog the feeding structures of filter feeders, destabilizing entire food webs and decreasing the ocean’s capacity for carbon sequestration. Deep sea mining also generates noise pollution which harms cetaceans that rely on sound for communication, navigation, and finding prey.
Given the current lack of research, we recommend a complete moratorium on seabed mining within New Zealand’s exclusive economic zone until adequate baseline ecological research and environmental impact assessments have been conducted along with the following policies:
Comprehensive environmental impact assessments prior to and during any mining operations. These assessments are critical to understanding the impacts of seafloor mining on benthic and midwater ocean ecosystems, local fisheries, and the people of New Zealand.
Mining-industry funded independent scientific research. Mining companies should be responsible for all research costs associated with their proposed projects, including baseline ecological research and environmental impact assessments.
Set a maximum sediment discharge distance from the seafloor. Mining companies should be required to
discharge excess sediment as close to the seabed as technically feasible to minimize the size of sediment plumes.
Polluters pay policy. Mining companies should fund any environmental remediation necessary in the event of unforeseen environmental impacts or violations of regulations.
Permanent seafloor mining moratorium in the mid-Chatham Rise Benthic Protected Area. Absolutely no mining should occur within the mid-Chatham Rise Benthic Protected Area. This area was closed to bottom trawling and dredging to preserve the region’s overall biodiversity and role as a breeding ground for commercially valuable species, and this closure should be violated under no circumstances.
Our desired outcomes in enacting these policies are to preserve ocean biodiversity, carbon sequestration capacity, and fisheries. Preserving biodiversity is key to maintaining ecosystems that are resilient in the face of climate change and other anthropogenic pressures.
Deep-sea mining physically destroys the habitat for a variety of benthic species and harms the midwater species that facilitate carbon sequestration, reducing biodiversity and the ocean's capacity for carbon sequestration Deep sea mining also
by Charlotte Subak, Henry Penfold, Britney Durward
negatively impacts commercial fisheries by destroying breeding grounds and undermining food chains based on filter-feeders.
Given the serious implications of seafloor mining for the Chatham Rise’s ecosystems, the precautionary approach we recommend is a sensible regulatory framework for the Chatham Rise. A precautionary approach does not rule out the possibility of future mineral extraction, but ensures that mining companies do not destroy untold resources before we have a scientific understanding of what is at stake.
Once it is understood what life exists on the seafloor, as well as how benthic and mesopelagic marine communities will be impacted by mining operations, the government of New Zealand will be equipped with the knowledge necessary to responsibly weigh the advantages and disadvantages of seafloor mineral extraction. At this point, the government of New Zealand might decide to lift the Chatham Rise mining moratorium, allowing Chatham Rock Phosphate to proceed with dredging operations.
Until then, prioritizing scientific research over short-term economic gains will ensure that future decisions concerning seafloor mining on the Chatham Rise are informed, sustainable, and in the best interest of both marine ecosystems and the people of Aotearoa New Zealand.
It is essential to stay informed about current deep sea mining research and policies. It is also important to raise awareness of the environmental issues associated with deepsea mining. The value of talking to your local political representatives as well as family and friends to advocate for sensible deep-sea mining policies and research cannot be underestimated. People in a variety of positions can make a difference in the fight for a precautionary approach to deep sea mining Local community organizing and political and legal actions are all important aspects of this effort.
J C Drazen, et al , “Midwater Ecosystems Must Be Considered when Evaluating Environmental Risks of Deep-sea Mining.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117, no 30 (2020): 17455–17460 doi org/10 1073/pnas 2011914117
M.R. Clark, D.A. Bowden, A. A. Rowden, and R. Stewart, “Little Evidence of Benthic Community Resilience to Bottom Trawling on Seamounts After 15 Years.” Frontiers in Marine Science 6, no. 63 (2019): doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00063
by Charlotte Subak, Henry Penfold, Britney Durward
New Zealand policymakers are currently debating whether to overturn a ban on new petroleum drilling and exploration that was passed in 2018 This ban, an amendment to the Crown Minerals Act of 1991, was passed with the intention of protecting vulnerable marine life by mitigating the negative environmental impacts of oil drilling and reducing NZ’s carbon footprint. Recently, in 2024, new concerns about New Zealand’s depleting natural gas supply have policymakers fighting to reinstate petroleum as a major energy source to prevent a future national energy crisis. To balance conservation efforts with New Zealand’s energy needs, politicians require a complete picture of the benefits and downsides of this 2024 amendment.
The Crown Minerals Act of 1991 gave ownership of petroleum, gold, silver, and uranium, as well as any minerals found in its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and its Extended Continental Shelf, to New Zealand’s government. The Act set a broad legislative framework within New Zealand for the permits to prospect, explore, and mine Crown-owned
minerals According to Punzo et al (2017), waste generated during gas and oil drilling is released into the sea, which contains hydrocarbons and toxic heavy metals.
Australia is expected to have a shortage of natural gas by 2027. To address this imbalance, Australia plans to implement a “Future Gas Strategy” that aims to reach net-zero emissions while mitigating natural gas use. The plan's goals are to decarbonize Australia, promote energy security, and assist trade partners.
by Aimee Bousquet, Patricia Diaz-Bian, and Elle Lansing
The plan specifically aims to prevent gas shortfalls, reduce gas-related emissions, and promote the storage of CO₂, to name a few tenets. Australia plans to reach net-zero emissions by 2025. This type of plan is mutually beneficial for Australia’s economy and the natural environment and could be used for New Zealand.
Option 1) Reversing the 2018 Amendment
The central part of the 2024 Act includes the reversal of the 2018 ban on new petroleum exploration outside onshore Taranaki The concern for natural gas supply is a core factor of this ban reversal. New Zealand depends on natural gas for 20% of its national energy needs, but reserves are rapidly declining.
The amount of natural gas in New Zealand’s reserve has decreased by twenty percent in one year from overuse from January 2023 to January 2024. This extreme reduction has led to an energy crisis and a serious reconsideration of oil as a major energy source.
Furthermore, Simon Court, Parliamentary Undersecretary to the Minister for Infrastructure of New Zealand, argues that the reversal will benefit the productivity market and boost economic growth, saying, “Increasing the availability of natural gas means that manufacturing and high-pay jobs are more secure ”
capacity of renewable sources is not yet advanced enough to support the energy grid.
Option 2) Preserving the 2018 Amendment
Though drilling has been occurring for over fifty years, increasing the drilling in this basin could have disastrous consequences on the marine life in the area. The Taranaki Basin is home to many marine organisms. These include the New Zealand fur seal (Arctocephalus forsteri), multiple species of whales, and the Māui dolphin (Cephalorhynchus hectori maui), an endangered species endemic to New Zealand.
Historic and forecast natural gas deliverability in New Zealand Chart from and based on reserves data from Ministry of Business, Innovation & Employment (Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment)
Modelling completed by the MBIE suggests that reversing the 2018 ban could result in an additional fourteen million tons of carbon dioxide entering the atmosphere by 2035. Lastly, from March 2023 to March 2024, the total contribution of tourism to New Zealand's GDP was seventeen billion dollars, or about
The technology and energy cont'd >
by Aimee Bousquet, Patricia Diaz-Bian, and Elle Lansing
4.4%, an increase of 16% from the previous year. Ocean-related tourism comprises a substantial portion of this income. As the 2018 Amendment protects the Māui dolphin and other organisms, this preserves both the environment as well as income from oceanic ecotourism.
Conclusion
The goal of this brief was not to persuade a particular action but rather to broker options and explain the advantages and disadvantages of passing the 2024 Crown Minerals Act Amendment Bill. The ban reversal will promote oil exploration and help sustain energy resources. Amending the Crown Minerals Act will benefit New Zealand’s oil industry and help mitigate the energy crisis, but it could negatively impact the environment. If the ban remains in place, there will be limited ecological impact on the Taranaki Basin, and a vital ecotourism industry will be preserved,
but economic growth will be hindered. Policymakers should decide what they feel would benefit New Zealand the most at present.
Further Reading
“Crown Minerals Act Regime | Ministry of Business, Innovation & Employment ” n d (accessed March 21, 2025): www.mbie.govt.nz.
E Punzo, et al “Environmental Impact of Offshore Gas Activities on the Benthic Environment: A Case Study.” Environmental Management 60, no 2 (2017): 340–56 doi org/10 1007/s00267-017-0886-4
by Aimee Bousquet, Patricia Diaz-Bian, and Elle Lansing
Olivia Kay Hines 29 May 2025
Kay Hines 29 May 2025
Ratified in 1982, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea establishes the concept of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) as “not extending beyond 200 nautical miles from the [geologic] baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured”
UNCLOS establishes that artificial islands do not extend a nation’ s EEZ, but China is currently claiming expanded EEZ in the South China Sea through this method...
Nations can extend their EEZ through geological claims of extended continental shelf - the U.S. is attempting this but is still in violation...
U.S. has not ratifie UNCLOS!
Nations like China and the U.S. can follow these protocol to establish entities like the Pacific Island Security Forum to enhance current EEZ function mit nece Z expan
er assess and efficient, sustainable management of exclusively controlled abiotic and biotic resources
France has the largest territory:overseas EEZ ratio in the world and is managing their EEZs without any expansion attempts!
Pacific Island Security Forum: Intergovernmental organization whose members are territorial governments Align resource goals and expand regional diplomatic efforts
Maintain current territorial integrity without expanding French EEZ
Continue to build your knowledge about this component of international marine policy
Petition lawmakers to reject proposals for U.S. EEZ expansion
Promote sustainability in coastal communities that you feel or are connected to ⟶ their waters are part of the U.S. EEZ!
Antoine Bondaz “Reconceptualizing French foreign and security policy in the Indo-Pacific,” FRS Note 16/2023 [https://www.frstrategie.org/publications/notes/reconceptualiser-politique-etrangere-securite-francaise-indo-pacifique-2023]
Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative, “China Island Tracker” [https://amti.csis.org/island-tracker/china/]
Bering Sea Elders Group, “Trump’ s order silences Alaskan Native voices,” Native American Rights Fund (April 28, 2017) [https://narf org/trump order bering sea/]
UNCLOS, “Part V Exclusive Economic Zone” (10 December 1982) [https://www un org/depts/los/convention agreements/texts/unclos/part5 htm]
U.S. Department of State, “U.S. Extended Continental Shelf Project,” (2023) [https://www.state.gov/wp- content/uploads/2025/02/ECS Executive Summary.pdf]
by Olivia Hines
The International Whaling Commission (IWC) placed a moratorium on whaling in 1986 that banned all commercial whaling. This was put into effect in an effort to stabilize and increase whale populations that had severely declined due to commercial whaling. Three countries still participate in commercial whaling: Norway, Iceland, and Japan.
The Norwegian government argues that whaling is a traditional practice in Norway and that it is done sustainably. Due to declining
interest in whale meat in Norway and the devastating marine ecosystem impacts of whaling, we propose that Norway follows the path of New Zealand and enact a ban on commercial whaling with exceptions for Indigenous, subsistence whaling.
Although Norway remains a member of the IWC, it formally objected to the IWC moratorium on whaling, and minke whales are still commercially hunted in Norway today According to the Norwegian government, there are more than
by Georgia Akins and Robin Muse
100,000 minke whales in Norway’s waters and whaling happens both in Norway’s Exclusive Economic Zone and international waters. Norway has also increased the whaling quota to 1,406 whales in 2025, while only 415 whales were caught in 2024.
Despite the Norwegian government’s claims that whaling is culturally significant, only 2% of Norwegians eat whale meat and much of the remainder is sold to Japan. In general, minke whales are not well studied and their migration and abundance estimates are relatively unknown, although they are classified of “Least Concern” by the IUCN. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species bans the commercial sale of any minke whale products. Since minke whale population distribution and migration is widely unknown, it is necessary to do more research on minke whales to fully understand the impacts that humans have on them. More broadly, whaling practices have historically had devastating effects on whale populations, with many whale species struggling to
recover from centuries of commercial whaling. The decline of whale populations has enormous effects on biodiversity and marine ecosystem functions Their roles as predators ensures the regulation of lower trophic levels, and without them, the ecosystem and food chain could completely collapse. Although Norway claims their whaling practices are sustainable, the business of commercial whaling is unsustainable.
Ideally, whaling policy in Norway would follow guidelines similar to that of New Zealand’s whaling policy. In order to achieve this goal, the proposed Norwegian policy should have three main objectives: protect whale species populations and their wider ecosystems, take into account local and Indigenous values and needs, and take the economics of the whaling industry into account
To follow a path reminiscent of New Zealand, we advise that the governing body implement a fourfold path: (1) gradually reduce national quotas for commercial whaling businesses, (2) redirect investment into the ecotourism industry, (3) establish reasonable limitations for subsistence whaling, and (4) completely ban all commercial-scale whaling within the country’s exclusive economic zone (EEZ) and aboard Norwegian vessels.
by Georgia Akins and Robin Muse
Environmental: An outright ban on commercial whaling in Norway would lead to significant conservation benefits, mainly by allowing minke whale populations to recover and thrive. By eliminating commercial whaling altogether, Norway would contribute to global marine conservation efforts and align itself with international policies aimed at protecting vulnerable species. As climate change continues to worsen, it is critical that Norway joins the global effort to conserve all aspects of marine life now and in the future.
Economic: Phasing out commercial whaling presents a unique opportunity for economic diversification, specifically within the country’s ecotourism industry. In many instances, whale-watching tourism generates more revenue than whaling ever did, while also creating more sustainable, longterm employment opportunities for coastal communities.
Social: Contrary to some belief, ending commercial whaling does not mean erasing Norway’s cultural connection to the sea Instead, this policy provides an opportunity for a shift towards more conservationcentric thinking within both political and social spheres. Historically, subsistence whaling practices have been part of Indigenous culture for the Sámi people of Norway. With exceptions and limits made for this sort of practice, room can be made to respect the native practices of the
Sámi people, while still prioritizing conservation.
In this space and time, Norway has the power to create a more sustainable future for the country as a whole and the marine ecosystems that support it. By following the lead of New Zealand and the IWC, a full ban on commercial-scale whaling would dedicate the country to a future of conservation and sustainability. As climate change continues to worsen, thus threatening the inherent stability and health of marine ecosystems, it is crucial that steps be taken now to implement this policy. Although the commercial whaling industry may appear to be a small part of Norway’s identity, its presence contributes to an international issue that must be eliminated to preserve our global oceans. By taking decisive action today, Norway can preserve its natural health for a greater tomorrow.
E C Alberts, “Minke Whales for Dinner’: Norway’s Controversial Whale Hunt Is Still On.” Mongabay Environmental News (March 10, 2021): news mongabay com
A A Jøn, “The Whale Road: Transitioning from Spiritual Links, to Whaling, to Whale Watching in Aotearoa New Zealand,” Australian Folklore 29 (2014): journals kvasirpublishing co
M Ris, “Conflicting Cultural Values: Whale Tourism in Northern Norway.” Arctic 46, no. 2 (1993): 156–63
Please contact SEA Writer for a full citation list
by Georgia Akins and Robin Muse
Wh hale tourism has changed global public opinion on many species of whales around the world (Strager 2023; CNN Travel 2023). Presently, whale watching is recognized as the most prominent form of marine tourism, with worldwide yearly revenue estimated at about two billion dollars (IWC). One of the world’s biggest ‘whale destinations’ is French Polynesia, partly because of its unique allowance of swimwith-whale operations, as well as the island’s lush natural environment.
This practice is illegal in many places including the United States and Aotearoa New Zealand due to regulations like the United States’ Marine Mammal Protection Act (1972) and New Zealand’s Marine Mammals Protection Act (1978).
Certified whale tourism operator numbers in French Polynesia rose from 60 to 90 boats between 2023 and 2024, indicating an increased interest in marine tourism for the local economy (The Guardian). With a growing industry, though, comes a
heightened responsibility to exercise sustainable tourism. Swimwith-whale tourism is a rapidly expanding sector around the world, however, it is unclear how new regulations will affect the health and well-being of whales. Specifically in French Polynesia, lack of literature regarding swim-with operations creates a knowledge gap between research, industry, and new policies in this area.
There are measures in place across Polynesian nations to protect whales, with one of the most recent being He Whakaputanga Moana, or
by Brigitte Walla & Ella Skonieczny
the Declaration for the Ocean (2024), which was signed by Indigenous leaders across Polynesia and grants whales legal personhood, meaning whales would have a right to freedom of movement, cultural expression, and a clean ocean. Although the Declaration for the Ocean is not a binding international treaty, it could be treated as customary law and has the possibility to initiate conversations between members from the Hinemoana Halo Initiative the group spearheading legal personhood for whales and domestic governments to ensure further protection for whales (Earth Law Center 2024).
In addition to He Whakaputanga Moana, whales in French Polynesia have protections under the French legal framework of cetaceans protection. This decree prevents intentional disturbance of cetaceans in waters under French jurisdiction (Sanctuaire pour les mammifères marines Agoa 2019). A number of marine protected areas have additionally been established off the French Polynesian islands such as around Mo’orea through the Plan de Gestion de l’Espace Maritime (2004).
As a result of the increased interest in whale-related tourism in recent years, the French Polynesian Office of the President released new
regulations that are set to go into effect for this year’s (2025) humpback season. These are based on recommendations from the Commission for Tourism, Ecology, Culture, Regional Planning, and Air Transport under the Assembly of French Polynesia (APF) as well as the Department of the Environment (DIREN) (Minutes of the CM 24-42024). These regulations include a new quota of three boats per whale, one boat per company including six persons aboard, and an additional restriction that private boats must stay 300 meters away from a whale.
In addition to the increased restriction rigor of these new regulations, though, there is an additional statement that allows divers to approach whales up to fifteen meters, whereas previous limitations stated divers had to stay thirty meters away.
To implement further policy enactment, it is essential that more resources be allocated to research and sustaining tourism-based industries. Stakeholders representing whales and humans alike should be involved, namely by implementing tour boats as research vessels to combine conservation and education with industry.
Changes to French Polynesia’s whale watching regulations do carry challenges. Limits on tourist group sizes may increase costs for operators. Additionally, consistent enforcement of these regulations
by Brigitte Walla & Ella Skonieczny
across all of French Polynesia including remote islands such as Rurutu and Tubuai is challenging. Uniform presence of these regulations is essential to ensuring whale health, and maintaining fairness and industry confidence (One with Whales 2024).
Whale tourism is an important emerging industry in Mo‘orea and the ocean community. This new industry brings local economic success to the islands of French Polynesia and increases awareness for whale conservation, and opportunities for research. However, there is room for improvement in both the effectiveness of regulations and the communal knowledge surrounding the sustainability of the industry. Protecting our oceans is an imperative step for a sustainable future, and successful tourism management is a key part of this. As many countries and territories move away from more extractive practices and into the tourism industry, the need for ‘model systems’ is more apparent than ever. Through pioneering research and responsible regulatory efforts, French Polynesia could become the global model for whale tourism – but only with conscious effort.
by Brigitte Walla & Ella Skonieczny
On our 6-week cruise track, we were fortunate enough to encounter a lone finback whale in the subtropical open ocean. (See following pages ) While this whale followed us for over thirty minutes, all thirty-seven members of our crew were captivated by its presence. Our firsthand encounter with the wonder that whales can foster highlights the value that these animals can have as ambassadors for ocean conservation.
Ella Flavel, “Whale Personhood in Polynesia.” Earth Law Center (July 2, 2024): www earthlawcenter org/blog-entries
“French Polynesia Tightens Whale Swimming Rules for 2025.” One with Whales (December 4, 2024): www onewithwhales com
Tiare Tuuhia, “Whales ‘Relentlessly Pestered’: Tourism Boom Sparks New Regulations in French Polynesia ” The Guardian (October 28, 2024): www theguardian com
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The fin whale observed by the crew of the Robert C Seamans when in the subtropics Estimated position 37°38 5' S 152°32 0' W
After nearly a decade of talks, in 1982 the United Nations adopted the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea or UNCLOS. UNCLOS provided a legal framework for ocean governance in addition to a pathway for establishing new laws and regulations. It also established the high seas, areas beyond 200 nautical miles from any sovereign nation’s shore. As coastal fish populations begin to falter, countries are increasingly looking to the high seas as a new resource However, the ecosystems present in these natural waters provide a variety of services.
The middle ocean layer (mesopelagic) is not only a source of fish but a source of genetic material for pharmaceutical research and an important part of the ocean’s mechanism to export carbon from the atmosphere into the deep. For these reasons, it is important to preserve the ecosystems and by extension the biodiversity of the high seas mesopelagic. Activities such as overfishing and deep sea mining are a threat to this biodiversity (Groeneveld et al. 2024, Levin et al 2016) These industries should maintain sustainable practices to minimize impacts on mesopelagic ecosystems.
Areas in the high seas with both tuna fisheries and exploration contracts for mining (simplified from Grient and Drazen 2022)
by Ana Hoffman Sole & Resh Mukherjee
While there are few developed industrial mesopelagic fisheries, and even less in the high seas, one relevant example is the orange roughy. Management was initially based on recovery rates of shallow water fish with no research on the actual species. A major population crash in the 1990s motivated research that showed the roughy have 100-year lifespans and reach reproductive maturity at thirty (Mace 1990), making them slow to recover. Following research, the total allowable catch decreased from 25,000 to 8,700 and the species started to recover.
The case of the orange roughy in New Zealand demonstrates both the dangers of starting an industry prior to scientific investigation and the opportunities that arise when
policies are informed by scientific research.
New species are not commercially fished until research determines the maximum sustainable yield.
Deep-sea mining should be restricted until the requesting party can provide sufficient evidence of its long-term impacts and sustainability.
Before approval for fishery creation or deep-sea mining, the requesting party should show proof of infrastructure for punitive action should the above policies be violated.
(See Table 1 for relevant actors and acronyms):
The technical advising body of the CBD, the SBSTTA, should collaborate with NGOs to
by Ana Hoffman Sole & Resh Mukherjee
perform environmental impact assessments and create fishery research regulations.
CBD should pass an amendment that calls for member states to have established punitive measures prior to issuing permissions for mesopelagic fishing.
ISA should work with NGOs to set standards. A lack of research should result in a rejection of permission to utilize deep-sea resources in the high seas. The ISA should require each state applying to mine in the high seas to have infrastructure for punitive action.
Advocate
Be aware of local policies that may impact fisheries and mining. If able, get involved with NGOs or other organizations to advocate for the oceans. Source your fish
Be mindful of the sustainability of your fish sources. Choose MSC/ASC certified options.
A good place to start: Seafoodwatch.org. Use your vote
Ask your politicians their stances on ocean advocacy. Choose representatives whose goals align with ocean health.
The recommendations in this brief focus on enforcement, which is
often missing in international treaties. This can create inequitable circumstances for developing nations, making it harder for them to use resources they have equal rights to.
Mandating countries to have enforcement and research infrastructure requires access to educated manpower and funds. To mitigate this problem, we recommend leaving wording within policies that makes exceptions for a lack of resources to complete the requirements. It is difficult, though, to write such policies without loopholes. Ultimately, environmental consequences will impact all of humanity, so careful policy construction is needed to address both sustainability and equity.
Chris Pickens, “Deep-sea Mining Regulations Remain Far From Complete,” Pew Charitable Trusts (January 30, 2024): www pew org
Holly Ryan, “Return of the Roughy,” The New Zealand Herald (June 1, 2017): www nzherald co nz
by Ana Hoffman Sole & Resh Mukherjee
Date:April 10, 2025
Time:1700
Location:42˚ 15.8’ S x 176˚ 45.5’ W
Weather:Wind from SxW, Force 5, seas 10ft.
This is Henry Penfold, writing in after a lovely afternoon watch! Since shutting off our engine at 1900 on April 8, we have been moving under sail power only. We spent the first two days of our voyage motorsailing north from Lyttelton to avoid a low-pressure system, turning east as we passed Castlepoint to sail along the upper edge of the southbound system.
For the past several days, our journey has been characterized by rolling seas that have accompanied the weather system we are skirting. Sustained winds between Beaufort Force 3 and 8 have built the seas to 10-15’, with occasional 20’ waves. Our anemometer clocked one gust at 63 kns on the night of the 8th, just shy of hurricane force.
For reference, a knot (kn or kt) represents one nautical mile per hour, with one nautical mile equaling 1.15 statute miles. Since the prevailing winds have been considerably lower than that errant 63 kn gust, the wave size has not grown past 10-15’.
by Henry Penfold
TheRobert C. Seamans is an excellent place to be in these conditions, making even the largest waves look small as they pass beneath us Our barometer’s needle has been rising steadily for the past two days, a sign of fair weather to come.
Under these wind conditions, we have a fairly minimal sail plan Of the nine sails we carry (mains’l, main stays’l, fore stays’l, jib, jib tops’l, tops’l, fisherman’s stays’l, raffee, and storm trysail) we have set just three: the main stays’l, fore stays’l, and
storm trysail. These sails are all relatively small, and their modest sail area ensures that the gusting wind does not overpower us. Setting them helps us maintain a degree of stability and keeps us moving in the right direction without running our diesel-guzzling engine!
It’s worth briefly considering the physics by which our sails harness the wind. Contrary to common belief, the the wind does not propel us forward by simply pushing on our sails unless we are sailing directly downwind. Rather, our sails generate forward lift by redirecting air around their edges and creating a pressure differential, with an area of low pressure in front of our sails
It feels magical to move forward using only the power of the wind.”
This pressure differential is achieved via the foil-like profile of an inflated sail, with a longer and shorter side. In accordance with Bernoulli’s Principle, air moving around the longer side of the sail moves faster than air moving around the shorter side. Since air pressure decreases as air velocity increases, a pressure differential is created The resulting force is lift, which propels us forward into the area of lower pressure.
Considerations of physics aside, heavy weather has made for an
by Henry Penfold
Bernoulli’s principle illustrated with a sail cross section Air moves faster along the longer (downwind) edge of the sail, creating a pressure differential
exhilarating departure from Aotearoa New Zealand.
Clattering dishes, bouts of sea sickness, and frequent moments of awe at our surroundings have created a lively atmosphere on board. Against this background of excitement, we have been treated to sightings of rare Hector’s dolphins (an endangered species endemic to New Zealand’s coastal waters) and albatrosses skimming low between waves. Though I look forward to smoother sailing, it has been fun to experience these conditions!
Date: April 14, 2025
Time: 0931
Location: 44° 08 74’ S, 168° 37 99’ W the High Seas, just east of the International Date Line Weather: Wind WNW, Beaufort Force 4, 13 ft seas, WSW
At 1920 last night, I stood lookout just aft of the bowsprit: the farthest forward solid point on the ship. The sun had set an hour before, and the nearly full moon made it even harder to see the few stars that dared to peak out from the clouded sky, its dark gray barely distinguishable
from the rolling sea below.
To keep my footing, I braced against the forestay—the long cable that runs from the deck up to the top of the foremast and helps keep it in place and strained to pick out detail in the great watery expanse around me. At watch turnover thirty minutes earlier, Chief Mate Rocky had mentioned that Satya one of
by Andrew Patterson
our labhands had successfully gotten a star fix.
Star fixes rely on measuring the heights above the horizon of certain particularly bright stars This can only be done at dawn or dusk, when it’s light enough to clearly see the horizon but still dark enough to see the brightest stars. After some math, we can derive a line connecting each star (or other celestial object) to us. The intersection of three or more of those lines marks our exact position.
During the day when we can’t see the stars, we can still apply the same principles. Instead of using multiple celestial objects, we use one object (the sun) at two different times, known as a running fix. We begin by measuring the height of the sun in the morning and then again at high noon. Using our known speed and heading in the intervening time between those two measurements, we can advance the morning sun line forward to the time that the noon measurement was taken and mark our position at the intersection of those lines.
But when the clouds steal the stars from our sight, or the pitching sea robs us of our stable platform for sextant work, we can still get a good sense of where we are. Using our known speed and direction, we can track our path from the last known position: dead reckoning
But star fixes and sun lines require sextants and clocks and calendars. And dead reckoning requires a speedometer and a compass And keeping track of it all
requires pencils and paper charts and dividers and protractor triangles. Looking out on the water, it struck me how hard it would be to know our position, to not get lost, without our instruments. It felt like without them, this thousands-ofmiles-long voyage would be impossible.
And yet, nearly a millennium ago, the first people to arrive on Aotearoa New Zealand the Māori made almost the reverse of our own journey. And they did it without instruments of any kind. Their techniques were but one entry in a long and storied tradition of oceangoing Polynesian navigation
The Polynesian Triangle stretches from Hawai’i in the north, down to Aotearoa New Zealand in the southwest, and to Rapa Nui (Easter Island) in the east an area
by Andrew Patterson
spanning six million square miles, twice the size of the contiguous United States. For centuries, the many island peoples of the Pacific plied the ocean waves in va’a outrigger sailing canoes navigating thousands of miles of open sea with nothing but their senses and the knowledge in their minds. Polynesian navigation relies on memorizing patterns in the world around us and how those patterns present themselves at our departure point, destination, and in between.
One of the hallmark techniques of Polynesian navigation is the memorization of the rising and setting points of stars on the horizon. By remembering where stars rise and set their houses and where islands are in relation to those houses, you can plot a course
But that only works if you can see the stars, and clear skies are far from a given out here in the middle of the South Pacific. So, Polynesian navigators also make use of other tools. The sun rises in the east and sets in the west, but the exact location depends on the season and is only reliable at sunrise and sunset. Distinctive clouds form over islands and the reflections of lagoons can sometimes be seen, meaning that you can tell where an island is well before you see the island itself.
Knowing the behavior and ranges of specific bird species can point you towards land. For example, frigatebirds are known to venture up to sixty miles from shore, while white terns will fly at most thirty miles, allowing a navigator to narrow in on land by the birds in the sky.
Last night, with a clouded sky and only the flickering shadows of the occasional albatross darting across my field of view, only one Polynesian navigational technique would have been usable.”
But last night, with a clouded sky and only the flickering shadows of the occasional albatross darting across my field of view, only one Polynesian navigational technique would have been usable. It’s one that I find the most daunting and impressive: the art of reading ocean waves and swells.
Waves are the undulations in the
by Andrew Patterson
sea’s surface caused by the local wind conditions, which can shift frequently day to day, hour to hour.
Swells have deeper origins, rooted in the great underlying patterns that traverse whole oceans. Here in the South Pacific, ocean swells propagate through the water from the west, carried by the westerlies–-prevailing winds that blow all the way from Aotearoa New Zealand to South America. But multiple swells can be present at once and differentiating them from each other and from waves can be challenging, as crests converge and peak and rolls undulate in various directions. On a cloudy, moonless
by Andrew Patterson
night, it must be done by feel–sensing how the boat beneath you rolls and sways and twists.
I am no Polynesian master navigator I still need my sextant and calendar and clock and compass and speedometer and pencil and paper to tell me where I’ve come from, where I’m going, and how to get there. So, as I stood out there scanning the horizon from the bowsprit, I just braced for the next rolling wave.
This graphic story teaches from and was inspired by Sebstian Steibl, et al., “Atolls are Globally Important Sites for Tropical Seabirds,” Nature Ecology and Evolution 8 (2024): pp 1907–1915: doi.org/10.1038/s41559-024-02496-4.
by Brigitte Walla
by Brigitte Walla
by Brigitte Walla
Across the vast blue expanse of the Pacific, island nations are more than scattered landmasses. For millennia, Indigenous Pacific communities have lived in intimate relationship with the sea, drawing not only food and resources but also identity, belonging, and wisdom from its depths. Yet today, these same communities are on the frontlines of a climate crisis they did little to cause. Rising seas, eroding .
coastlines, dying reefs, and vanishing fish stocks threaten both their ecosystems and their ways of life.
Conventional conservation models, rooted in colonial governance and Western science, often fail to meet these challenges, overlooking Indigenous knowledge and dismissing culturally rooted practices as obsolete. But a powerful alternative is emerging from within the Pacific itself The concept of Oceanian Sovereignty, inspired by
by Zachary Flagler
Tongan anthropologist Epeli
Hau‘ofa’s visionary work, reimagines governance in the global era, shifting conservation from a model of control to one of connection, centering reciprocal responsibility between people, place, and the sea.
The Pacific Islands have long grappled with the effects of colonialism. Marginalizing Indigenous knowledge and imposing western ideology, colonization has left lasting effects on the nations of Oceania. This enforcement is evident in ecological management, where historical Indigenous practices have been sidelined if not outright removed. Traditional conservation efforts framed within the Westphalian model of state governance have struggled to meet environmental challenges while silencing the rights and aspirations of local communities
In his book Our Sea of Islands, the late Hau'ofa challenged these paradigms by envisioning Oceania as a "sea of islands" connected by shared cultural heritage and a deep spiritual and historical relationship with the ocean. Along with revitalizing smothered cultural practices and pride, Hau’ofa’s work emphasizes connection, urging for conservation approaches that recognize and respect the agency of Indigenous communities This framework formally named Oceanian Sovereignty would contribute to a more effective and equitable conservation paradigm in the face of intensifying environ-
mental challenges and an oppressive present day standard.
Bambridge, et al. build on Epeli Hau‘ofa’s transformative work, analyzing his writings and their implications for conservation in Oceania. Through a critical examination of Hau‘ofa’s concept of sovereignty, they outline an Oceanian Sovereignty that challenges Western conservation models. This sovereignty is rooted in
by Zachary Flagler
reciprocal relationships, cultural diversity, and fluid geographic connectivity, emphasizing individuals and everyday practices.
Hau‘ofa’s vision extends beyond conventional political structures, asserting that the Ocean itself holds inherent rights, independent of state or institutional recognition. This perspective places responsibilities on individuals to respect Ocean agency in everyday practices, on communities to oversee this relationship and enforce when necessary, and on governments to lend credence to the practices of Indigenous knowledge.
This relational responsibility aligns with many Polynesian traditions found throughout the nations of the Pacific, where rights and duties emerge from reciprocal engagement between humans, nonhuman entities, and ecological spaces. Oceanian Sovereignty also redefines identity as an inclusive, dynamic framework rather than a rigid state-imposed classification. Hau‘ofa highlights how Pacific Islanders are not passive subjects of political processes but active partners with the Ocean, shaping their ecological and social futures. This perspective acknowledges the environmental traumas caused by colonialism and industrialization, such as nuclear testing, pollution, and resource exploitation, reinforcing the need for local communities to reclaim agency over their environment.
Conservation scientists can
support this movement by recognizing generational guardianship as an ongoing process that shifts governance from a rightsbased model to one centered around responsibility. Oceanian Sovereignty employs a "hybrid commons" approach, recognizing the Ocean as a political partner. Unlike outdated
highlights how Pacific Islanders are not passive subjects of political processes but active partners with the Ocean, shaping their ecological and social futures.”
views of ungoverned commons, this model emphasizes stewardship, custodianship, and collective responsibility. Hau‘ofa’s framework suggests that sustainable conservation must emerge from culturally embedded localized practices rather than external policies The Ocean is not merely a resource to be managed but an active participant in governance, shaping conservation through its inherent rights and relationships with human and nonhuman entities
The implications of this research extend beyond the Pacific Islands, offering valuable insights for conservation efforts in other regions facing similar challenges By embracing a relational and inclusive understanding of sovereignty, conservationists can foster more effective and equitable outcomes, ensuring the wellbeing of both
by Zachary Flagler
human and ecological communities. Emphasizing the importance of reciprocal relationships between humans, nonhuman entities, and the environment, this perspective underscores the need for conservation practices grounded in local cultural values and knowledge. Ultimately, Hau‘ofa’s epistemological revolution redefines sovereignty through relationality rather than political or legal constructs. Oceanian Sovereignty does not emerge from top-down state policies but from the lived, everyday enactment of reciprocal relationships between communities and their environments. By recognizing Oceania as a shared heritage rooted in Indigenous agency and ethical stewardship, conservation efforts can better align with local knowledge systems and cultural values. This approach fosters a more ethical and inclusive model of sustainability, one that begins with Indigenous perspectives on responsibility, obligation, and ecological interconnectedness.
T Bambridge, P D’Arcy, and A Mawyer, ‘Oceanian Sovereignty: Rethinking Conservation in a Sea of Islands,” Pacific Conservation Biology 27, no 4 (2021): 345–353 doi:10 1071/pc20026
Epeli Hau’ofa, Our Sea of Islands (University of Hawai’i Press Center for Pacific Islands Studies: 2009)
A. Mawyer, and J.K. Jacka, “Sovereignty, Conservation and Island Ecological Futures,” Environmental Conservation 45, no 3 (2018): 238–251 doi:10 1017/s037689291800019x
F. McCormack, and A. Mawyer, “Epilogue: Immanence, Relationality, Connectivity,” Ambio 51, no 12 (2022): 2459–2461 doi:10 1007/s13280022-01796-y.
G McGuire and A Mawyer, “Cultivating the unseen: Paʻakai and the Role of Practice in Coastal Care,” Ethnobiology Letters 14, no. 2 (2023) doi:10.14237/ebl.14.2.2023.1825.
V C Tilot, et al ‘The Concept of Oceanian Sovereignty in the Context of Deep Sea Mining in the Pacific Region,” Frontiers in Marine Science 8 (2021): doi:10 3389/fmars 2021 756072
by Zachary Flagler
Water stretches beyond sight, a shifting body of deep and restless blue. The wind etches lines upon its skin, waves rising, folding, breaking, a rhythm older than time itself.
The ship moves heavy and sure, masts like towering trees, rigging singing in the wind’s grip. Wood and steel grown in tandem, a vessel born of hand and history, built for the unknown.
Beneath the glow of radar, beneath the cold pulse of satellites, a compass still spins, a sextant lowers the sun to the sea, the old was stitched into the new I’m a traveler aboard history crossing waters that have never been lost, only named and renamed.
My feet are unsteady, the deck sways beneath me, rails clutched like a lifeline. And there, far off, a small shadow moves fast and light, skimming the surface, triangle sail taut above a slender frame.
A man at its heart, a navigator. No maps, no charts, only the language of stars and currents His sextant, his eyes on the horizon, his compass, his mind. Comfort and precision, intellect and prowess.
I tread on unfamiliar ground, he is home.
by Zachary Flagler
Imagine you are an Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba). You spend your days with your krillish brethren, swaying and scrambling against the turbulent waves of the Southern Ocean Your numbers are large and mighty, swarming together as protection against predators such as seals, penguins, and whales. Yet you hear whispers in the water Your ancestors are telling you of a time when your swarm was even larger than now. Yet the curious stories also tell you that there were also many, many more whales in the waters then.
Significant efforts by humans towards whale hunting in the Southern Hemisphere were carried out in the 20th century. These activities resulted in a loss of more than 95% of the two largest species of whales in the world: fin (Balaenoptera physalus) and blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus). With the numbers of a major predator reduced so drastically, the krill population had initially swelled to historic size. Soon, however, their
by Patricia Diaz-Bian
numbers began to drop. In the next century, more than eighty percent of krill biomass was lost
Scientists initially pointed towards a “krill surplus hypothesis,” where they theorized that the removal of whales had resulted in an increase in krill population, which had allowed other krill-eating predators to grow and reproduce faster. Yet no evidence was found in
support of this. Later, a new hypothesis emerged. It was called the “Whale Pump,” or the “Poop Loop.”
Why stay in the loop about whale poop?
The “Poop Loop” theory involves the complex exchange of nutrients and movement of carbon within the ocean, driven by whale poop. Even though whale excrement has been the interest of many marine scientists throughout the years, this area of research is limited due to the difficulty of locating and obtaining whale fecal samples.
Recently, however, a group of researchers from various renowned marine research institutions including but not limited to the University of Washington, University of Oregon, and University of California Santa Cruz, set out to
resolve the plausibility of the whale pump.
The study, titled “Organic Ligands in Whale Excrement Support Iron Availability and Reduce Copper Toxicity to the Surface Ocean,” focused on the Southern Ocean and baleen whales, which are characterized by the bristly plates that they use to filter feed in place of teeth. The baleen whale classification includes blue, minke, gray, and humpback whales. Using two whale feces samples from humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) from the Southern Ocean and three samples from blue whales from the California Current (which were used to provide additional insight and data despite not being from the Southern Ocean), the scientists found that the whales contained large ranges of trace metal and ligand concentrations.
by Patricia Diaz-Bian
Trace metals in the ocean are important micronutrients that are required for primary production, the process where marine organisms, mostly phytoplankton, use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide into organic matter, thus forming the base of the ocean’s food web. In particular, primary production relies on the presence of copper (Cu) and iron (Fe) dissolved in the ocean. While iron is used in primary production, copper is required for the phytoplankton to absorb the iron in the first place. The areas in the ocean that are poor in iron are referred to as “high-nutrient lowchlorophyll” (HNLC) areas, as the lack of iron results in little primary production despite an abundance of other nutrients.
Most of the Southern Ocean is one such HNLC area, and Antarctic krill are one of the few significant reservoirs of iron there. After a whale eats and digests the krill, the iron from the krill’s body is released back into the ocean waters within the whale’s excrement. This way, the iron can be reutilized by the primary producers, thus sustaining the bottom layer of the marine food pyramid.
What about whale poop makes it so special compared to other species’ poop?
This answer lies within the ligands that they contain. Ligands are organic (carbon-based) compounds that can bind to metals. They are responsible for the
by Patricia Diaz-Bian
availability of dissolved trace metals in seawater. In fact, ligands bind over 99% of all dissolved iron and copper in the ocean and thus are used to characterize the degree that iron and copper in the waters are available to be used by microorganisms. Depending on the strength of the bond a ligand makes with the micronutrient, the micronutrient can be more or less available for use.
“It’s like tying knots,” Patrick Monreal, a graduate student of oceanography at the University of Washington and the first author of the study, explained to me. “If you have a really strong ligand, that’s a really difficult knot for the microbe to undo. If you have weak ligands, it’s a loose knot that microbes can easily access.”
Essentially, a “tight knot” relates to a more strongly bound ligandmetal complex while a “loose knot” refers to a weaker bound ligandmetal complex
While iron and copper are both important to be released back into the ocean to be used by phytoplankton, copper is actually highly toxic for marine life Monreal’s team found that the ligands in whale excrement that bind iron tended to be weak or moderate in strength, and that the ligands that bind to copper tended to be extremely strong.
Metallophores are common highstrength ligands that carry metal ions, an atom or group of atoms that carry a positive or negative electrical
charge through the loss or gain of their electrons. During the study, Monreal’s team was actually able to identify fifty new types of chalkophores metallophores that specifically bind copper. Compared to the less than twenty chalkophores identified prior, this was a significant discovery!
The researchers believe that this data suggests that these specific chalkophores were formed by the whale’s gut organism during digestion. A whale can consume a large amount of copper from both the ocean and prey such as krill, which suggests that they have a need for strong copper processing metabolites. The multi-chambered stomach of baleen whales may house a larger number of gut bacteria and result in a longer digestion time. These may result in a more thorough digestion of the krill than other predators such as seals and penguins. Essentially, whales have an ability to convert prey into usable micronutrients more efficiently.
Since primary producers require large amounts of iron and a delicate balance between too much and too little copper, the ligands function to control the proportions of each micronutrient in the water. The weaker bound iron-ligand complexes readily release the iron while the stronger bound copperligand complexes only release a small amount of copper. Therefore, the poop can release the right proportions of these well digested
by Patricia Diaz-Bian
micronutrients directly back into the places where there are high rates of primary production and where they might be most useful to sustain phytoplankton blooms, which krill then feed on to continue the food chain.
Why is this research important?
It is often difficult for people to make the jump from over-whaling to ocean chemistry and primary productivity, but this research underscores how deeply interconnected marine ecosystems are. One species can have cascading effects on ocean chemistry and possibly global carbon cycles.
Understanding the role of whales in iron cycling isn’t just about saving an iconic species: it’s about preserving the delicate balance that sustains marine food webs among other crucial effects.
Understanding the role of whales in iron cycling isn’t just about saving an iconic species: it’s about preserving the delicate balance that sustains marine food webs.”
Further research will need to bridge the gap between whaledriven nutrient cycling and largescale biogeochemical models to determine just how much whales contribute to carbon cycling, the exchange of carbon between the ocean and other sources, and carbon sequestration the process
which carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere and stored in oceans.
This study reveals a connection between whale excrement and micronutrients for phytoplankton, who play an important role of removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and introducing that carbon into the marine ecosystem. However, it does not establish a relationship between whales and the carbon uptake in the Southern Ocean, which is an area of further study for marine scientists. If whales truly contribute to the ocean’s ability to absorb carbon, then restoring their populations could have important implications for mitigating climate change.
While the primary focus of the study was about the ligand pool in whale excrement, from whales to phytoplankton to little bitty Antarctic krill like you, Monreal expressed that he wants everyone to understand the significance of each component of an ecosystem.
“I think it's important for people to understand, even biogeochemists, that animals can exert a large influence on ocean chemistry and, therefore, ocean health. Our Earth systems are very connected and so, while conservation efforts may seem unrelated to something like iron cycling, studies like this show they are not that far apart.”
by Patricia Diaz-Bian
Patrick Monreal et al , “Organic Ligands in Whale Excrement Support Iron Availability and Reduce Copper Toxicity to the Surface Ocean,” Communications Earth & Environment 6, no 20 (2025): www.nature.com.
“The Whale Pump: Why is Poop so Important for the Planet?” SeaLegacy (14 Dec 2023): sealegacy.org.
Kaitlin Yehle, “Just Another Day Collecting Whale Poo.” Ocean Wise (4 Aug 2020): ocean.org.
After extensive analysis, Dedden and Rogers found that feeding patterns for both humpbacks and southern rights are linked with shifts in climate cycles. However, these relationships differ greatly between feeding locations.
For whales feeding in the Indian Ocean, decreased carbon and nitrogen signatures suggest improved feeding opportunities during +SAM phases.
On the other hand, whales feeding in the Pacific Ocean displayed higher isotope values, suggesting reduced feeding during +SAM and La Niña phases.
The results from Dedden and Rogers’ study suggest that whale feeding patterns are affected by variation in climate cycles. In the context of a changing climate, this variation is becoming more and more unpredictable. Subsequently, resource availability is losing its reliability. As apex predators, whales play critical roles in regulating prey populations and maintaining ecosystem stability. So, their access to food not only affects the survival of whales, but also the survival of all marine organisms.
So much! Even if it doesn’t feel like it’s not doing anything! The stability of our marine ecosystems depends on the domino feel effect of our everyday actions. Sustainability can daunting at times, so here’s some advice: Start small. Make small changes to your everyday life to be more eco-conscious. Don’t compete. Nobody is better at sustainability than you. We’re all on this planet together. Stay hopeful. Yes, we need to be honest about the state of our world, but nothing will change unless we believe it matters.
E A W R I T E R
Adelaide V Dedden & Tracey L Rogers, “Stable Isotope Oscillations in Whale Baleen Are Linked to Climate Cycles, Which May Reflect Changes in Feeding for Humpback and Southern Right Whales in the Southern Hemisphere,” Frontiers in Marine Science, Vol 9, (20 March 2022) [https://doi org/10 3389/fmars 2022 832075]
“Baleen: From Whales to People” Smithsonian Ocean, [https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/marine-mammals/baleen-whales-people].
Bethan Davies, “Southern Annular Mode,” Antarctic Glaciers, (15 June 2023) [https://www antarcticglaciers org/glaciers-and-climate/southern-annularmode/]
“Southern Annular Mode,” New Zealand National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, [https://niwa co nz/climate-and-weather/southernannular-mode]
“What is the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in a nutshell?” NOAA Climate, (5 May 2014) [https://www.climate.gov/news-features/blogs/enso/what-el ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93southern-oscillation-enso-nutshell]
The deep sea is unimaginably vast. And dark. And poorly mapped. Deeper than 100 meters, there isn’t enough sunlight to support photosynthesis. This marks the start of the mesopelagic, or the ocean twilight zone. In this underwater world we find all kinds of animals, from fish to jellyfish to highly adapted mid-water snails. Humanity is still working on understanding the diversity that exists in this largest ecosystem on earth, while at the same time deciding how we will exploit and change this ecosystem through deep sea mining and fishing. The inaccessibility of the deep means that scientists interested in biodiversity have to get creative with their sampling methods.
Environmental DNA sampling, commonly referred to as eDNA sampling, is one of those creative measures. Any vial of water taken from the ocean has DNA from “cells that are sloughed off, or fecal pellets or little bits of tissue,” says Dr Annette Govindarajan, a researcher at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution who works on eDNA in the deep.
By filtering and sequencing this
by Ana Hoffman Sole
DNA, researchers can get a picture of the community of animals living in the area.
In 2022, Dr Govindarajan and other researchers from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute and around the US published a paper detailing a new eDNA sampler that has expanded our ability to sample in the deep. Previously, the standard for collecting water was with Niskin bottles; one to five liter (.26 to 1.3 gallon) bottles that are lowered to depth while open and then closed at the desired depth.
The new system can process ten to fifty times as much water as previous methods by letting water flow through filters for longer periods at depth. Sampling more water gives us more opportunities to find the proverbial needle in the haystack, the signature of an animal in a huge volume of water. This sampler also can be mounted to all kinds of apparatuses, from remotely operated submarines to autonomous submarines to Conductivity Temperature Depth profilers, which are lowered off ships on lines and hauled back up the same way.
“You get one impression when you sample with a small volume, right? With Niskin bottles. And that's
by Ana Hoffman Sole
overwhelmingly, even now, what people typically sample with. But if we sample differently, we might have a different view of that composition,” says Govindarajan.
That is exactly what the maiden voyage of the high-volume sampler produced. It rode on Mesobot, an underwater robot, in the Gulf of Mexico and collected a total of thirty-six samples over three deployments. These were compared to the same number of samples from traditional Niskin bottles The highvolume sampler found 66% more types of animals. Both samplers found animals that the other did not, but the high-volume system found four times as many unique animals
Importantly, the number of animals found decreases as you go deeper, so processing more water becomes more important as depth increases.
eDNA, on the other hand, can and has detected whales, as well as every other kind of life in the deep.”
There are other tools used to investigate deep sea biodiversity: primarily video taken by underwater robots and nets towed by boats. Each has strengths and weaknesses. Video is unparalleled in showing the beauty of the deep, but turning video into useful data takes hours and hours of processing. Both methods can show diversity down to the species level, but they also miss certain kinds of animals.
Govindarajan tells me, “Because with net tows we're missing gelatinous animals that can break apart because they're fragile. We're missing fish that can avoid getting caught. Of course, you're not going to get a whale in a net That's silly ”
eDNA, on the other hand, can and has detected whales, as well as every other kind of life in the deep, all from water samples that are relatively simple to collect and process. With the new high-volume sampler, eDNA has been adapted to the deep. Govindarajan says, “Think of it as another tool in our
oceanographic toolkit, right? Together [with other tools], you can get a much greater view of what's out there, a more complete picture of the diversity that's out there ”
by Ana Hoffman Sole
A F Govindarajan, et al “Improved Biodiversity Detection Using a Large-volume Environmental DNA Sampler with In Situ Filtration and Implications for Marine eDNA Sampling Strategies ” Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers 189 (2022): 103871. doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2022.103871
A F Govindarajan, et al , “Advances in Environmental DNA Sampling for Observing Ocean Twilight Zone Animal Diversity.” Oceanography 36 (2023): doi org/10 5670/oceanog 2023 s1 27
Sponges
Rotifers
Hemichordates
Nematodes
Platyhelminthes
Unidentified
Animal taxa detected in one Mesobot eDNA
The mesopelagic, or the ocean twilight zone, is home to a wide variety of animals that are often not densely populated, very small, hard to bring into the lab, and hard to video. One of the tools used to study biodiversity in the deep is environmental DNA, or eDNA Animals leave pieces of their DNA in the water which can be collected and sequenced to find what left it A new purpose-built deep sea eDNA sampler is producing a better picture of deep-sea biodiversity. Here are the animals found in one expedition over 3 deployments in the Gulf of Mexico in 2019
by Ana Hoffman Sole
Climate change is causing marine species to change habitats and migrate to more suitable locations. Marine species are sensitive to temperature changes, and it is more difficult for them to relocate compared to terrestrial animals. A recent study by Andreas Schwarz Meyer from the University of Cape Town, and his team, measured species in the epipelagic layer (top layer) of the ocean. For example, marine ectotherms (cold-blooded organisms) normally reside in any range vertically. Marine ectotherms are forced to relocate or adapt to changing temperatures.
Meyer and his team used 21,696 species, breaking down into chordates (44%), molluscs (22%), arthropods (16%), cnidarians (6%) and echinoderms (4%). The researchers measured thermal variability (change in a structure, in this case environmental) in these species globally.
“Thermal exposure” and “thermal opportunity” are two phrases that are important to understand the thrust of their study. Thermal exposure is when a species is vulnerable to a temperature outside their range for five years or more Thermal opportunity is when the thermal exposure becomes suitable for five years in a row. In other
by Elle Lansing
words, thermal exposure is reversed. Biodiversity is very complex and measuring biodiversity can be done using different methods. Marine biodiversity is a reflection of the overall health of the given ecosystem The aim of the study by Meyer and his team is not to understand the mechanics of biodiversity, but to predict the changes in temperature that will affect biodiversity using modeling techniques.
The aim of the study by Meyer and his team is not to understand the mechanics of biodiversity, but to predict the changes in temperature that will affect biodiversity.”
Scientists often use computer models or simulations to estimate the impact of certain events. They can estimate how temperature changes impact species migration. In this study they used an application called AquaMaps to track species distribution and temperature projections. This tool allowed for the scientists to view the geographical distribution and the diversity of each marine species examined.
The researchers considered species’ depth preferences and temperatures they prefer Meyer’s team conducted their study in very broad terms. To understand it more clearly, think about one of the
animal families. For example, chordates were the most affected group according to the study. A dolphin is a marine chordate in the Pacific Other marine chordates include whales, sharks, seals, and other fish. Meyer’s team found that these species are migrating to higher latitudes to avoid the harsh hotter temperatures.
The seven researchers found that as the latitude is increased and one moves closer to the poles, the abundance of species increases. In the study they focused on thermal opportunity and exposure.
Chordates were found to be the highest in exposure and opportunities followed by molluscs and arthropods. The exposure is concentrated in the tropics but opportunities are at higher latitudes. Regions that have high exposure will most likely lead to a decline in species richness Regions with lower exposure will most likely have higher opportunities. This can lead to an increase in species richness, but does not necessarily mean they are not at risk because of altered migration patterns.
According to Meyer and his team, “Thermal exposure and opportunity together are projected to affect more than 10% of current species richness for 26% (SSP1-2.6), 34% (SSP2-4.5) and 61% (SSP5-8.5) of assemblages across the world’s oceans” (Fig. 1ac).” These scenarios represent different levels of greenhouse gas
by Elle Lansing
Thermal exposure and opportunity affect species richness This figure is showing different levels of warm and cold exposure in different locations across the globe The figure is the collection of maps showing the distribution of the median number of warm and cold-exposed opportunities for three emission scenarios. Transient opportunities closed (warm) are concentrated in the tropics and in the North Atlantic Ocean Transient opportunities closed (cold) are concentrated in temperate and polar regions SSP signifies greenhouse gas emission scenarios (low, intermediate, and high) up to 2100
by Elle Lansing
emissions from low-high with climate modeling techniques. The highest scenario (SSP5-8.5) is projected to affect the majority of assemblages across the world’s oceans. The higher the greenhouse gas emissions, the more it affects marine biodiversity.
Near the poles there is a higher rate of thermal opportunities which is generated by climate change. The marine species' experience range is constrained as a result The scientists examined the abruptness of thermal exposure which is increased by greenhouse gas emissions. The tropics experience more abrupt changes in thermal exposure and opportunity compared to the northern hemisphere. If greenhouse gas emissions are reduced, fewer species will suffer from thermal exposure. If emissions continue to increase, exposure will be higher and populations of marine species will experience thermal exposure long-term. According to the study, this will affect around 80% of species, specifically in the Indian and Pacific Oceans.
Currently thermal opportunities will continue to at least 2100. If human activity and the use of fossil fuels worsens, ocean temperatures will affect biodiversity. The geographical distribution of most marine species is changing because of warming temperatures. It is expected to worsen in the near future. Other studies show that marine species are shifting towards the poles more so than towards the
equator. Faster range shifts near the equator shows that climate change is already affecting marine habitat distribution. Additionally there is also a decrease in species richness along the equator. This study fails to represent species that are affected by temperature changes in less than five years.
A similar study examined how temporal variability because of climate change affects marine macrophytes (aquatic plants). This study researched six macroalgae species in the Iberian Peninsula. They found that the disappearance of populations of macrophytes were because of warming and temporal variability. They also found that the range of these species were affected by temperature increases This goes to show that the distribution of marine plants reflects marine ectotherms.
Finally, they also concluded that surface warming slows down upwelling which can completely
by Elle Lansing
eliminate macroalgae species. Certain algae are better adapted to changing climate conditions compared to others. The study found a strong correlation between changes in sea surface temperature (SST) and complete absence of saltwater algae species. Algae and other photosynthetic organisms are the basis of any food chain and essential for the survival of other organisms. Although it is understudied, the potential of disappearance from a location is concerning for marine species like ectotherms and isotherms.
Aiming to reduce greenhouse gas emissions can lower thermal exposure in the ocean. This can prevent spatial movement and relocation. Reducing future greenhouse gas emissions has a greater impact on reducing thermal exposure than opportunities in the epipelagic (upper layer of the ocean) Thermal exposure and opportunity affect more than 10% of species richness.
With this much of an impact it is essential that temperature changes are limited and hopefully reversed. It’s not exactly like a few ice cubes will help regulate temperature. A shift in culture and personal lifestyle is required to help solve climate change. It is also important to take into account that temperature is not the only factor that influences biodiversity. Other factors including oxygen or pH could potentially have
by Elle Lansing
an impact on species richness. According to Meyer and his colleagues, “Determining the number of years a region must remain thermally suitable for successful colonization is challenging, as species responses are highly individualistic and can be influenced by factors other than climate (e.g. dispersal ability, competition, and diet).”
Concluding with this point, many species are behind the effects of climate change. A year of suitable temperatures could be appropriate for range expansion.
“Briefing: How Climate Change Impacts Marine Life” European Environment Agency (2024): doi: 10 2800/06827
Rosa M. Chefaoui, Brezo D.-C. Martínez & Rosa M Viejo “Temporal Variability of Sea Surface Temperature Affects Marine Macrophytes Range Retractions As Well As Gradual Warming,” Nature Scientific Reports 14 (2024): www nature com
A S Meyer, et al , “Temporal Dynamics of Climate Change Exposure and Opportunities for Global Marine Biodiversity ” Nature Communications 15, no 1 (2024): 5836 doi org/10 1038/s41467-024-49736-6
Allie Wilkinson, “Bull Sharks and Bottlenose Dolphins are Moving North as the Ocean Warms,” ScienceNews (May 2, 2018): www.sciencenews.org.
We are born to this Earth, small beings composed of the richness of the soil, the softness of the wind, and the strong character of the sea. We inhabit this Earth to live, to love, and to grow, We are just passing through
Our time here, is of short, yet infinite importance, Our time here is defining. As we pass through our time on Earth, we must tread softly, For we must care for the animals, we must care for the people.
As we depart from this Earth, having lived, and loved, and grown, our spirit and purpose is embedded into the Earth, into the animals, and into to the people, Our footsteps will fade, such as waves do, smoothing out the sandy shores
We must tread softly, for we are just passing through.
by Ella Skonieczny
Can’t you see the Earth is dying?
You, yes you, all of you, can’t you see that the Earth is calling for us?
Gather your strength, and your people too, because the Earth needs us, just as we need her.
The waves that lap our shores are consumed by plastic, the trees are burning with fiery flames, and the air is suffocating our lungs.
The flowers die too early, and the animals are vanishing too.
Do you see what I am seeing? Aren’t you enraged like I am?
As tears stream down my face, and my voice shakes, I cry out for you to do something, for the sake of the Earth.
I stand here, observing this destruction and ask you, how can you not care?
The forests have been whispering our names,
The oceans are raging at our shores, And the stars are twinkling in the sky, “help us they cry ”
And we must listen.
There is a young girl on the other side of the world who walks miles to gather water in an unclean stream, There is a baby who grasps his mother’s back as she struggles to walk through the rising waters,
There is a fisherman who comes home empty handed, for there are no more fish.
The people are hurting, the people are dying, the Earth is crying out for you!
And we must listen.
So, gather your strength, your voice, and your people, and cry back to the Earth.
For we have been listening, We have been observing We must now start acting.
Out of injustice, strife, and sacrifice, we rise.
Uplifting one another and our mother, the Earth.
These are my hopes, as the tears stream down my face, and my voice shakes, These actions are the culminations of all of our lives, Our sole, real purpose of inhabitants and stewards of this Earth.
We as a people, have been listening, We as a people, have been grieving, We as a people, have been acting, We as a people will continue to rise in the spirit of the Earth
by Ella Skonieczny
PACIFIC OCEAN - Bracing against wind and waves in the humid air on this tropical night, five deckhands work to pull in a seemingly unending string of monofilament fishing line. Clad in bright orange rain gear, they struggle to maintain their footing on the slick deck as the seas toss around their fluorescently illuminated boat. One of the 130 or so members of the Hawai’i longline fleet, their 100-foot boat has been at sea for a week. This longline over twenty-five miles long and carrying thousands of mackerel-baited hooks went in at dawn and has been sitting 1,300 feet below the surface. Now at midnight, the crew still has several hours of work before their catch is secure. Their target is bigeye tuna, prized by the international sushi market. Drawing one such prize alongside the boat, they get to work hauling in the ninetypound predator with long hooks. Once on board, the fish is immediately bled, gutted, and thrown on ice in the hold to keep it fresh for the market back in Honolulu. On a good day and today
by Andrew Patterson
is a good day this boat will pull in over 2,000 pounds of fish. Scenes like this played out hundreds of thousands of times over decades form the backdrop for a recent study conducted by a team of researchers from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, University of Washington, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Published in Nature in 2022, their study gives an insight into the habits and movements of the many species of wide-ranging and predatory open ocean fish. By combining over twenty years of commercial fishing logbook data
with satellite imagery, the team was able to build a picture of how marine predators such as tuna, swordfish, marlin, and sharks form distinct clusters in the seemingly featureless open ocean. The study found that these commercially valuable fish which play a vital role in the food security and economic vitality of nations in the Pacific and globally congregate in the cores of warm ocean eddies.
These warm eddies are slowly spinning rings of water–-on average about 100 miles across–-that break off the larger ocean-spanning circular currents, much like oxbow lakes on a meandering river. Persisting for weeks to years before breaking up, their cores feature unusually high abundances of deepsea prey, making them “mobile oases in the desert,” says Dr. Martin Arostegui, post-doctoral scholar at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute and lead author of the paper
Arostegui told SEA Writer that these eddy cores serve as important “connections between the surface and deep ocean,” bringing higher concentrations of small fish These prey fish are hunted both at depth during the day by diving species like the bigeye tuna but also near the surface during their nightly vertical migrations by other predators–-such as the shortbill spearfish.
Arostegui stresses the importance of this connection between different regions of the
by Andrew Patterson
ocean and the animals that live within them, saying that it “must be considered in impact assessments of future deep-sea industries.” Such deep-sea industrial applications have in recent years included exploration into the possibilities of deep-sea mining or harvesting the many smaller fish species that make the “Ocean Twilight Zone” where sunlight no longer brightens the waters their home.
This study and others like it hope to provide a closer look into this severely understudied region of the ocean and the interactions between the animals that live in it. Of particular concern is how deep-sea fisheries might impact the overall abundance of smaller prey fish species. If prey stocks dip too low, the valuable tuna and swordfish populations that hunt these smaller fish may be at risk. Threats to these fish could also lower the ocean’s ability to sequester carbon, a vital piece in climate regulation
The major issue with protecting and managing these open ocean
“biological hotspots” is their large, temporary, and mobile nature.
In the more classical approach to conservation, geographic areas— usually ones with higher abundance and diversity of rare or important species are marked off with regulations placed to help protect the plants and animals living there. Ocean eddies provide the unique challenge to conservationists and policymakers of an ecosystem that can pop up almost anywhere in the wide blue expanse of the ocean, span over 100 miles, and move only to break up and disappear after a few weeks. And that doesn’t account for the fact that eddies often form in areas of ocean well outside national jurisdictions, known officially as the high seas.
The solution may be dynamic ocean management, a “data-driven approach” that aims to predict where certain species are most likely to be found and how likely different fishing methods are to catch them, both currently and in future.
“The idea here is that where fish are most likely to occur changes with the prevailing ocean conditions, such as the locations of eddies,” says Arostegui.
By mapping and tracking these changing conditions, researchers hope to be able to better protect and manage these “highly migratory fish communities” as they travel across the ocean in search of prey
also of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, are working to determine why some eddies seem to attract greater numbers of prey and the predators that follow them.
Using satellite tracking of sharks in the Northwest Atlantic, they’ve found that “these predators selectively target long-lived and retentive” warm ocean eddies, where they may stay for “weeks at a time.”
To bolster these efforts, Arostegui and collaborator Dr. Camrin Braun,
by Andrew Patterson
By examining the “underlying mechanisms driving patterns of predator occurrence in the open ocean,” they aim to better understand, and thus preserve, the stocks of these nomadic predators of the sea–stocks whose exploitation employs and feeds so many.
Back on the tuna boat, the fishermen pull in the end of their longline as the first rays of the rising sun crest the distant horizon. The last of their hooks brings with it a wahoo, an unintended but still profitable addition to the haul.
With a hold full of ice-packed tuna, the captain makes the decision to head for home Their work done, some of the crew head into the cabin to catch up on sorely missed sleep. But a few linger on the stern, eyes trained on the eastern sky. As the dawn light ushers in the morning, they smile and laugh, minds turned to what waits for them in Hawai’i: friends, family, home, a paycheck. For these men and their families, the bounty of the sea provides.
Martin C. Arostegui, Peter Gaube, Phoebe A. Woodworth-Jefcoats, Donald R. Kobayashi, and Camrin D Braun “Anticyclonic Eddies Aggregate Pelagic Predators in a Subtropical Gyre ” Nature 609, no. 7927 (September 2022): 535–40. doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05162-6.
Adam L Ayers, Justin Hospital, and Christofer Boggs. “Bigeye Tuna Catch Limits Lead to Differential Impacts for Hawai`i Longliners.” Marine Policy 94 (August 1, 2018): 93–105 doi org/10 1016/j marpol 2018 04 032
caleb788. “Life On A Hawaii Longline Fishing Vessel ” hi-fresh-seafood (November 30, 2016): www hawaiianfreshseafood com/singlepost/2016/11/30/life-on-a-hawaii-longlinefishing-vessel.
Fisheries, NOAA “Fishing Gear: Pelagic Longlines NOAA Fisheries.” NOAA (May 9, 2019): www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/bycatch/fishi ng-gear-pelagic-longlines
Dennis Hollier, “How Fish Get From the Sea to Your Plate.” Hawaii Business Magazine (blog), February 1, 2014: www hawaiibusiness com/howfish-get-from-the-sea-to-your-plate
by Andrew Patterson
“LGF 160: The Life Of A Longliner!- YouTube.” Accessed March 12, 2025 www youtube com/watch?v=RtNvFtwOex4
As the largest predators deep in the ocean, we have lots of teeth so why must we open?
We still live as mysteries for humans to see, but what they believe is not up to me
Our fins and are teeth are what they were hoping, defenseless and broken but what about the oceans?
From predators to prey the fish of the sea, would not know how to be if left to be free
From Indo-Pacific to Northern Atlantic, these sharks are individuals that don’t interbreed.
But one individual was brave enough to see, what’s across that ocean that I can now see?
To swim and to swim, and what might there be? Someone like me in this part of the Ocean!
An offspring to come would of course never believe, and thus must I show them so that they believe.
I came from across the depths of ocean. But things aren’t quite as they seem!
The waters grew higher, and she did not believe, that where I had come from was far across that ocean.
As years had flown by, I couldn’t believe that where I had originated from now couldn’t be seen.
The rising of the oceans had added some commotion.
No longer grouped in three, as one we became till the future could tree.
Advances, advances and what can they see?
The terrible trophies of what they had believed, will soon come to pass in parts of the sea. From loss of our food sources and trapped now are we.
So, I speak up now, about the scary stories of what we have become.
So long shall I live deep in the ocean, till death do us part from under the Sea.
Author’s Note
This poem is inspired by a 2024 article by Wagner et al. discussing the genome analysis revealing three distinct lineages of the cosmopolitan white shark. Genome wide sequencing was used to determine distinct lineages in the North Pacific, IndoPacific, and Atlantic/Mediterranean. Conservation efforts need to be refocused on managing these discrete groups. See I. Wagner, et al. “Genomic Analysis Reveals Three Distinct Lineages of Cosmopolitan White Shark,” Current Biology 34, no. 15 (2024): www.sciencedirect.com
by Britney Durward
For years now, scientists have been sounding the alarm about greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which trap sunlight and lead to dangerously increasing temperatures on Earth. The primary culprit is carbon dioxide (CO₂) which is released when humans burn fossil fuels for energy Despite the massive amounts of CO₂ released by the post-industrial revolution society, the Earth has a few natural buffers that assist in slowing the progress-ion of climate change. Perhaps the most important of these buffers is the ocean.
The surface of the ocean is able to absorb much of the released CO₂ and export it to the deep ocean where it will remain for thousands of years. Exploring the mechanisms and capacity of the oceans' ability to export carbon is key to understanding how climate change will progress, its effects on human life, and Earth’s ecosystems. Due to the inherent difficulty of exploring the ocean and all its species as well as the long time-scale nature of climate change, many researchers have
by Resh Mukherjee
turned to modeling for answers. Biological models are an emerging technology with many limitations but have the potential to allow for quicker research with more complex questions than full fledged field studies. A recent biological model used species specific information gathered in the field to quantify how much carbon fish in the midwater (mesopelagic) Gulf of Mexico typically sequester. The hope for this model, as told to me by Matthew Woodstock, NOAA affiliate and creator of the model, is to show the public that “generally carbon export is an important thing, and what we try to do as biologists is we try to relate the animals in the ecosystem to how they’re going to
Carbon export refers to how the ocean sequesters carbon by exporting it from the surface into the deep. There are many processes involved, one of which is the biological carbon pump.
The biological carbon pump is when living organisms take up carbon from the surface ocean layer and then move it into the deep ocean. This can happen in many different ways depending on the organism. For mesopelagic fish, export generally happens when the fish migrate vertically upwards, consume carbon filled prey, and then migrate back down to breathe out the carbon or defecate. Carbon is also sequestered if the individual dies and then sinks to the sea floor.
More widely speaking, most organic carbon that sinks is known as particulate organic carbon (POC)
The rate of carbon export is controlled by factors including size, frequency of migration, and more. The model seeks to further understand this process by quantifying carbon export at the individual and species level.
The field study, and thereby the model, focused on smaller species between two and twenty centimeters. At the base level, the model is run on an individual fish. The fish is randomly assigned traits like species and length using probabilities that matched field observations. Author Matthew Woodstock specified the importance of this approach, because other models tend to assume all fish within a functional group are the same. After assigning individual traits, the fish’s location was simulated day and night for a year and the amount of carbon it exported was calculated. This was done 100,000 times to
capture the general makeup of the fish sampled and carbon export was totaled. Then that number was further multiplied to represent the entire population The depth at which carbon is considered “exported,” also known as the carbon flux boundary, is variable by location. Therefore, the model was run for three different scenarios with the boundary at 100, 150, and 200 meters deep.
It’s kind of the Wild West when it comes to modeling these things.”
After the 100,000 individual iterations, the diversity in the model reflected the diversity of the species sampled during the field work fairly accurately. Ideally, this implies that the model results accurately reflect the relative contribution of each species to carbon export. The model had a few key findings that help clarify the effect of mesopelagic organisms on carbon export in the Gulf.
Generally, it was found that larger organisms export more carbon than their smaller counterparts in the same species Around 61 7% of modeled species displayed this trend and those that did not typically had little size variation within the species or large uncertainty in their
by Resh Mukherjee
calculations. Based on field sampling, 81% of the time, asynchronous vertically migrating fish (fish that do not migrate every day) rested for one day before migrating again This was found to be the same across asynchronously migrating species.
The biodiversity of the samples and, by extension, the model, illuminate which families contribute the most to carbon export. The eight most abundant families accounted for 90.8% of the total species and 82.7% of the total weight.
Interestingly, two families, myctophids and stomiidae accounted for 53% and 12% respectively of the carbon export for the modeled population despite accounting for 10.9% and 1.7% of the assemblage. For the entire population, roughly 61% of the
ingested carbon was exported . Overall, the model calculated that the studied population contributes between 11.4% and 23.9% of the POC in the Gulf of Mexico
Modeling is still an emerging field and has its limits. As described by Woodstock, “it’s kind of the Wild West when it comes to modeling these things.” This model, for example, was based on field samples that only looked at fish between two and twenty centimeters and ignored larger species. Given the finding that larger individuals sequester more carbon, Woodstock postulates that “If we were to expand on this with those bigger size classes… those numbers would go up quite a bit.”
It is important that as the model is used and interpreted, its limits are kept in mind. That said, the model is a good tool that can be used to explore exactly how much mesopelagic fish in the Gulf contribute to exporting carbon from the surface ocean to the deep. Understanding which families, such as the myctophids and stomiidae, sequester proportionally more carbon helps scientists further understand the mechanisms of carbon export. This information can also help inform conservation efforts of mesopelagic fish As countries start to explore the economic viability of fisheries in the mesopelagic, it is important that scientists, policymakers and the public be aware of the ecological
by Resh Mukherjee
importance of the local organisms.
To quote Woodstock, “One thing that has been kind of overlooked is the role that animals play in the global carbon cycle ”
This model and those like it are vital tools for exploring the mechanics and magnitude of carbon export by both individual species and larger populations.
Stephanie Hensen, “A Seasonal Transition in Biological Carbon Pump eEficiency in the Northern Scotia Sea, Southern Ocean,” Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography volume 208 (2023): 1-2 www.sciencedirect.com.
Helena McMonagle, et al , “Quantifying Uncertainty in the Contribution of Mesopelagic Fishes to the Biological Carbon Pump in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean ” ICES Journal of Marine Science 81, no 10 (2024): 2037–51 doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsae149.
Grace K Saba, et al "Toward a Better Understanding of Fish-based Contribution to Ocean Carbon Flux," Limnology and Oceanography 66, no. 5 (2021): doi org/10 1002/lno 11709
Matthew Woodstock, “A Trait-based Carbon Export Model for Mesopelagic Fishes in the Gulf of Mexico with Two Consideration of Asynchronous Vertical migration, Flux Boundaries, and Feeding Guilds,” Limnology and Oceanography 67 (2022): aslopubs onlinelibrary wiley com
In the dimly lit depths of the ocean’s mesopelagic zone often called the “twilight zone” a new robotic explorer is revolutionizing how scientists study marine life The Mesobot, an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) designed to track and observe midwater creatures with minimal disturbance, is providing researchers with an unprecedented look at some of the ocean’s most mysterious inhabitants.
The mesopelagic zone, located between 200 and 1,000 meters
below the ocean’s surface, is one of the least explored regions of the ocean despite its critical role in global carbon cycling and marine food webs. Many of its inhabitants, such as gelatinous zooplankton and lanternfish, participate in diel vertical migration, where marine life ascends to surface waters at night and descends to the depths by day. This migration is the largest daily movement of biomass on Earth (Freer & Hobbs, 2020) These movements are vital for carbon sequestration, the process of capturing and storing carbon in the deep ocean, which helps regulate atmospheric CO₂ levels Despite its
by Jaimie Lin
importance, scientists have struggled to observe the animals that live there and understand how these mechanisms work.
Mesobot is a groundbreaking technology that enables long-term studies previously impossible, than to its ability to operate autonomously for extended periods. Developed through a collaboration between the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) and the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI), Mesobo is designed to explore the ocean's midwater region. Unlike conventional remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) or traditional submersibles, Mesobot can operate independently for over twenty-fou hours, using advanced tracking technology to follow slow-moving marine organisms. With a target speed of about 10 cm/s comparable to a high migration speed for typical zooplankton Mesobot is optimized for studying delicate deep-sea life for extended periods without disruption.
characterize the environment while tracking. This includes units to measure conductivity, temperature, depth, and dissolved oxygen. There is also additional capacity for specialty sensors and samplers to be
maintaining neutral buoyancy, Mesobot minimizes disturbances to its surroundings, ensuring unobtrusive imaging and observation. Its design carefully mitigates hydrodynamic, acoustic, and optical disruptions critical factors for studying delicate organisms that current observation methods often disturb.
Mesobot is equipped with stereo cameras, red and white LED lights, and an onboard vision-processing system that allows it to detect and follow individual marine organisms. Its adaptive tracking algorithms enable it to lock onto targets such as siphonophores or jellyfish and adjust its movement in response to their motion. The vehicle carries a full suite of oceanographic sensors to
by Jaimie Lin
Unlike traditional ROVs, which are tethered to research vessels and require constant oversight from surface crews, Mesobot can operate untethered and autonomously. This reduces the demands on the support vessel and allows data collection for longer periods.
In a typical mission, Mesobot is deployed while tethered to MBARI’s SmartClump, which allows a human pilot to control the vehicle and
provides situational awareness through various sensors. Once the human pilot finds a suitable target and initiates tracking, SmartClump releases Mesobot, which can then operate independently to gather high-resolution imagery and data.
During initial field tests in Monterey Bay, California, Mesobot successfully tracked several midwater organisms, including a larvacean a tiny gelatinous filter feeder that plays a key role in sequestering carbon to the deep ocean. The robot followed the larvacean for forty minutes, capturing video of its feeding behavior and the intricate mucous “houses” it constructs to filter plankton. The delicate outer house,
which can reach up to one meter in size, acts as a pre-filter, while the sturdier inner house, typically around twenty centimeters, facilitates water pumping for feeding.
Mesobot’s demonstrated ability to track delicate organisms with minimal disruption over a long duration is a game-changer.”
During this test dive, Mesobot carefully approached the larvacean, and automatic tracking was successfully initiated. The fragile outer house then began breaking down due to hydrodynamic disturbances from Mesobot, and the vehicle struggled to maintain tracking. However, once the outer house was gone, the system successfully tracked the inner house and the larvacean for the remainder of the observation period The tracking algorithm performed reliably, even as other marine life entered the frame and crossed between the camera and the target.
This tracking exercise verified Mesobot’s ability to monitor delicate midwater organisms with minimal disturbance. Despite the loss of the outer house, Mesobot did not disturb the more robust (but still relatively delicate) inner house or the larvacean. The total mission time was limited due to the support vessel’s need to return to port, but the Mesobot’s low energy
by Jaimie Lin
consumption suggests the potential for over forty-eight hours of continuous operation.
While Mesobot already has demonstrated value in midwater research, scientists are working to enhance its capabilities. Future improvements will focus on refining its automated tracking systems, such as improving its ability to recover from losing a target.
Mesobot’s demonstrated ability to track delicate organisms with minimal disruption over a long duration is a game-changer for mesopelagic research. Traditional methods of observation often alter animal behaviors or fail to capture long-term patterns. Researchers hope Mesobot can “reveal previously unknown swimming behaviors, species interactions, morphological structures, and use of bioluminescence.” As technology continues to evolve, Mesobot is paving the way for more advanced autonomous exploration, bringing us closer to unlocking the secrets of the deep.
Dana R. Yoerger, et al , “A Hybrid Underwater Robot for Multidisciplinary Investigation of the Ocean Twilight Zone ” Science Robotics 6, no 54 (2021). www.science.org.
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution "Mesobot " Twilight Zone twilightzone whoi edu
J J Freer and L Hobbs "DVM: The World’s Biggest Game of Hide-and-Seek " Frontiers in Young Minds 8, no 44 (2020): doi.org/10.3389/frym.2020.00044.
by Jaimie Lin
by Robin Muse
The following poems were inspired by the article: Eliza Fragkopoulou, et al , “Marine Biodiversity Exposed to Prolonged and Intense Subsurface Heatwaves.”
Nature Climate Change 13 (2023): 1114-1121. doi.org/10.1038/s41558023-01790-6 For more scientific information on marine heatwaves and their impacts, I would highly recommend reading this article.
For more information on copepods and why they’re cool!
Creature Feature Copepod (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution). twilightzone.whoi.edu.
The poem that inspired my first poem about speaking for invertebrates: Camille Dungy, “Characteristics of Life (2017) www.poetryfoundation.org.
“Copepod Thoughts” by Robin Muse
“Humans and Changes” by Robin
“Fate of the Copepods” by Robin Muse
The interactions between animals can be mysterious. One of these fascinating unknowns is the diet of salps, gelatinous animals that inhabit the Ocean Twilight Zone. That is, until now.
During the summers of 2018 and 2019, a team of scientists from the University of Connecticut, the University of Alaska Fairbanks, and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution used DNA and amino acids to analyze the prey items present in the guts of salps. The study yielded unexpected results about the prey that salps were thought to consume. The information gained can help researchers understand the possible effects of climate change.
Salps are a group of gelatinous zooplankton that reside in the mesopelagic zone of the ocean, in depths from 200 to 1,000 meters. They form chains that can be longer than 100 individuals and move up and down through ocean waters using a shared nervous system.
Salps feed by filtering water through their bodies and taking the
by Aimee Bousquet
tiny organisms (plankton) that float in that water with it. Previous studies found that salps may consume a variety of prey items: bacteria, dinoflagellates, and ciliates. Previous studies also showed salps don’t eat diatoms, tiny zooplankton organisms that are surrounded by hard shells of silicon called frustules
“As they’re moving through the water column, they’re filtering water," says Dr. Paola G. BattaLona, an Assistant Research Professor of Marine Sciences at the University of Connecticut, who led the project. “And it’s not like they just eat whatever they encounter. It
seems like they do have a little bit of selection. They’re little picky eaters, more than we thought.”
Salps also have a special role in keeping carbon out of the atmosphere: their fecal pellets are packed with carbon from the food they eat. When these pellets are released, the waste sinks to the bottom of the ocean, keeping that carbon sequestered. According to a research team led by Dr Deborah K Steinberg out of the Virginia Institute of Marine Science in 2022, salp pellets comprised up to 48% of total sinking organic carbon particles
“That poop sinks out of the surface water and then it gets stored for hundreds of thousands of years, which is really awesome for our environment,” says Dr Kayla Gardner, a post-doctoral scholar and the second author on the paper, who led one analysis of the salps.
To conduct the study, Dr. BattaLona, Dr Gardner, and colleagues
by Aimee Bousquet
ventured out into the NW Atlantic Ocean on the hunt for three species of salps: Soestia zonaria, Salpa aspera, and Salpa fusiformis. To catch the salps the researchers used two kinds of special nets. The first is called the Multiple Opening and Closing Net and Environmental Sensing System (MOCNESS), and the second is the Marinovich midwater trawl.
To get the full picture of what salps eat, Batta-Lona and her team then completed two analyses. The first is DNA metabarcoding. DNA metabarcoding uses a specific genetic marker to identify multiple species in a sample at once. In this case, that genetic marker is two regions of the 18S rRNA gene: V4 and V9. The 18S rRNA gene is present in all animals, even in you and me, but changes slightly in each one. So, the different sections can be used to identify a specific organism. In this case, the prey of the salps. The genetic marker was used to
determine the presences of five groups that could have been present in the salp’s gut: dinoflagellates, syndiniales, diatoms, rhizaria, and copepods DNA metabarcoding gives a snapshot of what is in the salp’s stomach at the time they were caught.
Knowing about salp diet adds to the knowledge of how carbon moves through the ocean.”
It turns out that dinoflagellates and syndiniales were the main prey groups in 2018 and 2019. Multiple diatom species were also present in all three salp species during both years and copepods were one of the most copious (pun intended) groups detected in 2019.
The second analysis is called Compound Specific Stable Isotope Analysis (CSIA), led by Dr. Gardner. CSIA is a way to view what the salps ate on a longer term scale, up to three months.
The CSIA in this project used a special carbon chemical signature to detect the amino acids in the salp’s muscles.
Researchers collected muscle tissue samples from thirty-three salp specimens. Amino acids are made at the base of the food chain by organisms that get their energy from the sun. These amino acids are incorporated into an organism’s tissues, then move up the food chain as one organism eats another By
observing the amino acids present in the salp’s muscles, Gardner and her team can get an image of the prey that was consumed months before they obtained the tissue
CSIA revealed that all three salp species’ diets were dominated by diatoms, or things that feed mainly on diatoms. Because CSIA makes it possible to view what the salps were eating up to three months prior, it is possible that there could have been a diatom bloom at that time. Before this study, scientists had thought that salps were unable to digest diatoms because of their hard frustules. The presence of diatom material in the muscle tissue of the
by Aimee Bousquet
by Aimee Bousquet
Knowing about salp diet adds to the knowledge of how carbon moves through the ocean. This information is important when thinking about climate change. As stated before, salps play a big role in sequestering carbon at the bottom of the ocean and stopping it from joining the other carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, trapping heat from the sun and adding to global warming stomach at the time they were caught.
When speaking to Dr. Batta-Lona, she expressed to me one of the misconceptions people have about salps. “They think that salps are just waste. They’re just like these blob things that are in the water and they’re annoying because they get on your nets and then you can’t catch what you want.”
These assumptions couldn’t be more wrong. If there are fewer salps in the ocean, less carbon is sequestered, and more carbon enters the atmosphere, leading to higher ocean temperatures. The abundance of S. fusiformis, one of the salp species sampled in this study, has been shown to decrease when water temperatures are higher, implying that ocean warming may lead to the decrease of salp populations. This is a dangerous cycle and could have disastrous impacts on ocean life.
Batta-Lona and colleagues agree that further investigations, as they conclude in the paper, “will provide essential information to design
successful responses to numerous challenges, understand impacts of environmental variation and climate change, and ensure the protection and preservation of mesopelagic communities and ecosystem services of the deep-sea.”
by Aimee Bousquet
Paola G. Batta-Lona et al., “Salps in the NW Atlantic Slope Water: Metabarcoding and Compound‐specific Stable Isotope Analysis of Diet Diversity and Trophic Interactions,” Marine Biology 171, no. 233 (2024): doi.org/10.1007/s00227-024- 04535-x.
“Creature Feature: Salp ” Twilight Zone (accessed March 11, 2025) https://twilightzone whoi edu/explore-theotz/creature-features/creature-feature-salp
Deborah K. Steinberg et al., “The Outsized Role of Salps in Carbon Export in the Subarctic Northeast Pacific Ocean,” Global Biogeochemical Cycles 37, no 1 (2023): doi.org/10.1029/2022GB007523.
“Twilight Zone ” Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (February 6, 2019): https://www.whoi.edu...
In 2021, Jeffery Drazen joined a diverse team of scientists and mining company personnel and set out from Hawai’i into the expanse of the Pacific Ocean with a seemingly impossible task: to understand the baseline functioning of this ocean. Drazen described the monumental task as understanding everything from “microbes to fish from the surface to the sea floor.”
The first of two major cruise tracks to collect the necessary data was a mixing pot of backgrounds, cultures, and motivations. In one
camp were scientists who had devoted their careers to studying these complex ecosystems, and in the other were mining company personnel interested in extracting precious metals from the sea floor.
In response to a large push by the scientific community to heighten awareness and concern around the impacts of deep sea mining, the company had decided to undertake conducting baseline surveys of the areas they want to mine, primarily in the Clarion Clipperton Zone. This push was heavily influenced by Drazen’s 2020 opinion piece
by Charlotte Subak
“Midwater Ecosystems Must be Considered When Evaluating the Risks of Deep Sea Mining.”
Aboard the vessel, the mining company personnel were in charge and were funding the research, but not without carefully laid conditions set by the scientists. The scientists had absolute freedom to analyze and publish the data collected as they saw fit. Over the course of several years, the team collected massive amounts of data, and made significant progress in understanding this chronically understudied area. However, Drazen says there are still major research gaps yet to be broached.
One conflict came when the mining company made the decision to outsource the data collection on biological factors, and only work with Drazen and the team to collect chemical and physical variables.
Drazen’s 2020 paper was taken up by the International Seabed Authority (ISA), and it shifted the conversation surrounding this mining. Prior to this publication, the research was largely focused on sea floor, or benthic, impacts.
Impact baselines and evaluations were only being conducted at the exact locations on the seafloor where mining was taking place These studies have concluded that deep sea mining can decimate seafloor ecosystems, but this is only the beginning of the impacts.
Drazen’s work opened people's eyes
by Charlotte Subak
to the interconnectedness of these ecosystems, and the way the potential scale of the impacts of deep sea mining. (See the graphic on p 25) Midwater ecosystems make up 90% of biosphere and fish biomass, and connect shallow and deep sea ecosystems. Benthic ecosystems do not exist in a vacuum; they are vertically and horizontally connected to a variety of ecosystems, including midwater ecosystems, meaning environmental impacts are not isolated
The deep sea collector vehicle scrapes up the sea floor in order to collect the minerals, and then sends them rattling through pipes in the water column back up to the ship
The loud noises at the sea floor and throughout the water column create sound pollution and have adverse effects to wildlife.
The physical digging also creates
large sediment plumes that can enter the water column and disperse tens to hundreds of kilometers from the mining site. The expanse of these plumes is dependent on a variety of factors ranging from the technology used to the area's currents. Clay particles disturbed by mining can stay in suspension for up to thirty years.
These suspended particles can have detrimental effects on organisms' ability to feed and breathe. Suspension feeders are among the most highly impacted as their filters are clogged by sediment. However, the work of mining does not end with the extraction of metals. Once the sediment is brought back to the boat, the minerals are extracted and the waste is dumped back into the ocean. This dumping can occur at a variety of depths based on the technology that the mining company is using. This process of dumping creates secondary dewatering plumes directly in the water column, in addition to the initial plumes created by the collection vehicles on the sea floor.
Another possible yet understudied consequence is the impact of this sediment on organisms that migrate vertically from the seafloor to the surface. Marine organisms are not static; they often travel far distances across a three-dimensional space. This means that even a small area could have numerous organisms and species passing through it at any
by Charlotte Subak
given time and being impacted by the conditions there. It also means that these organisms could spread the negative environmental impacts as they travel over distance
Destroying
even a small section of the sea floor can have a notable impact on diversity as each section and habitat
is so unique.”
Organisms are also connected through the food web, so as the small suspension feeders are clogged with sediment, the larger organisms that prey on them will be impacted as well. This can create a dangerous domino effect that can quickly snowball out of control. This makes it difficult to truly understand the scope of marine environmental impacts, and provides all the more reason that we need to continue studying them.
These impacts on marine life can have broader implications on the state of the global climate. Marine organisms such as zooplankton and fish play a crucial role in sequestering carbon and keeping it out of the atmosphere, and as the biomass and biodiversity of these organisms are threatened by deep sea mining, we lose that carbon sequestration capacity. There is a common misconception that the seafloor is fairly uniform, and any given area serves a similar ecological function
This leads to the belief that impacting one area of sea floor will not be excessively significant as the sea floor covers such a massive area. The issue here is that the sea floor is not uniform at all, but home to a variety of incredibly diverse and niche habitats that harbor amazing levels of diversity. This means that destroying even a small section of the sea floor can have a notable impact on diversity as each section and habitat is so unique.
effort to understand how they are impacted by deep sea mining.
“It is easy to think of the seafloor as all one place as we have so little information on it,” says Drazen.
Lumping the seafloor into one singular category removes the nuance from this issue, and can lead to us misunderstanding the significance of benthic environments Further research is needed to expand our understanding of this foreign environment.
The work of Drazen and the mining company focused specifically on a specific habitat type known as sea floor nodules due to their high concentrations of valuable metals. This is a crucial environment to understand, but it is only a small piece of the picture There are so many more seafloor habitats that require the same level of time and
by Charlotte Subak
Another issue that often comes up with evaluating human impacts is the issue of shifting baselines, and deep sea mining is no exception. We evaluate human impacts by how the environment changes from before a human impact occurs to after. We can only effectively do this if we sufficiently research the environment before we start
impacting it. Otherwise, we could misunderstand an impacted ecosystem as a healthily functioning one, and the severity of environmental impacts can be negated. For example, we won't be able to tell if deep sea mining decreases biodiversity if we don't know what typical biodiversity levels look like. This lack of knowledge and data can be used by mining companies to justify their actions, as there is not sufficient proof that what they are doing is harmful.
Deep sea mining is a relatively young practice, and the policies surrounding it are changing rapidly One significant gap in policy is a lack of regulation around the depth companies are required to dump their dewatering plumes. The depth at which the plumes are released significantly influences the way they impact the environment, as the higher in the water column they are dumped, the more the sediment remains suspended.
Using policy informed by sound science is key to protecting these precious and relatively understudied ecosystems. While emphasizing the importance of the connection between science and policy, Drazen said “Scientists gather information to understand environmental risks… so policy makers can understand the risk and make policy choices.”
by Charlotte Subak
J C Drazen, “Midwater Ecosystems Must Be Considered When Evaluating Environmental Risks of Deep-sea Mining.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117, no 30 (2020): 17455–17460 doi org/10 1073/pnas 2011914117
M R Clark, D A Bowden, A A Rowden, and R Stewart, “Little Evidence of Benthic Community Resilience to Bottom Trawling on Seamounts After 15 Years ” Frontiers in Marine Science 6 (2019): doi org/10 3389/fmars 2019 00063
Date: May 6, 2025
Time: 2014
Location: Inter-Island French Polynesia
Weather: 26˚ C, East Wind, Beaufort Force 2, lightning in the distance
Hello! It’s Robin again and I got married today?!?! (in a fake, boat way, don’t worry Mum and Dad) Time is weird on the ship and the days tend to blend together due to our rigid schedule, so we like to take any opportunity for a celebration.
After weeks on the ship, the best idea we could come up with was a fake wedding! The celebration involved the whole crew and included ridiculously emotional family members, an objector, and even a wedding crasher climbing out of the aft head emergency exit. Our stewards, Seb and Rachel, and our Stu-stew, Olivia, even made us a cake! It was delicious, like most of the food they make. After the wedding, we had another swim call! This one was much warmer than the last, since we are now in the tropics. It was so surreal to look up at the sails from the water and realize how far our home in the water has taken us.
It’s hard to put into words what it’s like to sail on the high seas. Life
by Robin Muse
on the Bobby C. quickly seemed like all we knew; life on land was almost fictitious, or like something from a past life. All that was on our minds was ourselves, our shipmates, and our ship. And the ocean.
On shore in Woods Hole, we talked a lot about Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). MPAs are marine areas that have regulations surrounding the human activities that can occur there.
For example, you may only be allowed to fish certain species, or not fish at all MPAs are important for conserving biodiversity and
marine life in the ocean. Open ocean MPAs are located away from the coast and focus on conserving marine life that lives in the open ocean or in deep water My view on
Now, more than ever, I recognize how important it is to conserve open-ocean environments.”
Open Ocean MPAs has both stayed the same and shifted after living on the open ocean for four weeks. At the beginning of our trip, I did not like standing as lookout. I was
bored, and cold, and there was nothing to see. At least that’s what it seemed like at the time. But after standing on the bow of our ship for many hours staring out at the great expanse of sea surrounding us, I learned how to find the life and wonder in the open ocean. The water, the clouds, even the stars are constantly moving and shifting, and I soon found comfort in this vast environment.
As the poem posted in the midships head says, my job “is mostly standing still and learning to be/Astonished” (Mary Oliver). My job, of course, also included looking out for danger around us, but so
by Robin Muse
much of the value I got from being lookout was just from standing still and observing the beauty around us.
Now, more than ever, I recognize how important it is to conserve open-ocean environments and the fragile life they hold. Our voyage has also emphasized how difficult it would be to enforce open-ocean MPAs. Since we left the Chatham Islands, we didn’t see another boat until after we had already spotted Tahiti. That was 24 days without seeing even evidence of other humans on the open ocean. It would take a lot of resources to make an open-ocean MPA function and serve its purpose, as well as international cooperation
I don’t have the answers for how to effectively enforce an open-ocean MPA, but I do know that it is so important.
It is also hard to describe how it feels to no longer be on the open ocean. When I learned we were no longer beyond national jurisdiction, the same strange sense of panic I felt before we left, filled me again. The slosh of the water against the hull of the ship that once scared me, now lulled me to sleep at night. Navigating the steep ladders and narrow passageways on board while the ship rolls, while still annoying, had become commonplace. I had become so comfortable on the ship and at sea that I had almost forgotten how to live life on land. Now, after having actually reached land and interacting with other people, I mostly feel excited. But I know that I will miss the open ocean and think about our time at sea for a long, long time. While this blog post is sort of my love letter to the sea, it is also a love letter to my shipmates and our ship. Thank you for delivering us safely across the Pacific I have learned so much from all of you.
by Robin Muse
Date: May 5, 2025
Time: 0830
Location: 17˚38’ S x 148˚55’ W
Weather: Wind force 1 out of the SE, calm seas, 23˚ C
HH i, Gabi here!
It’s now been a full month since we set sail from Lyttelton Harbor It’s amazing how quickly we’ve formed our own little world on board our own rituals and routines, our own sense of humor (nonsensical), our own sense of time (hazy), and even our own holidays (local apparent!). In this world, land faded quickly from reality to concept. But as they (the Yogi teabag tags) say, ‘change is the only constant ’ Long before our arrival to the final page of the program calendar, the signs of nearing land presented themselves in the water, detected through scientific sampling!
instrumentation and automatically firing sample bottles, which gives us a vertical profile of parameters like salinity, temperature, chlorophyll content, and pH.
Weather permitting (which it certainly doesn’t always do) we’ve been able to take samples all along our cruise track, starting in the territorial waters of New Zealand, then on the high seas, and now in the territorial waters of French Polynesia. After weeks of open ocean sailing, we came to be familiar with what organisms we expected to find, what depth profiles we expected to see. Through the open-
Scientific deployments happen mornings and evenings on the Bobby C., an undertaking that students are now practiced enough to lead ourselves. Twice daily, we tow nets made of a fine mesh that collects any solid matter in the water animal, plant, or otherwise and once daily, we deploy the carousel, a frame equipped with scientific cont'd >
by Gabi Carttar
ocean net tows of weeks past, we got to know a diverse group of organisms ranging from copepods and chaetognaths to siphonophores and snails The recent appearances of crabs, bugs, and sticks (read: land!!) in the nets inspired shock. Turns out, sailing works! We really were nearing Tahiti.
Then came the frigate birds circling overhead, sightings of plastic debris, the honeybee on the course yard, and on Saturday afternoon, our fishing line caught its very first fish a skipjack tuna. It was beautiful, with skin that flashed iridescent on painted blues and a body evolved for incredible swimming power, down to the smallest fins of its tail. It might be hard to imagine having any conflicted feelings about these omens of our arrival to paradise, but the past month has made the open ocean our home, and the thought of leaving it behind is bittersweet. A little scary, even Sunday morning, I was on dawn watch, 0100-0700. Bets were out on what time we would catch sight of land (which could either mean seeing lights or the land itself) and all signs pointed to it happening sometime in the window of watch. It was a clear and dark night, with stars so bright and numerous that our first mate Rocky turned off the compass light and we steered using the sky. Shooting stars rained down, just one after another some quick flashes like lightning, some that lingered, trailing smudges as they
fell.
The Milky Way was a bright streak that spanned the whole sky above us, and where it met the water, there was a faint haze the light bloom of Papeete (not technically sighting land, yet!). I took forward lookout on the bow at 0200 and watched the horizon intently, knowing that we could encounter other vessels for the first time in weeks at any moment.
The past month has made the open ocean our home, and the thought of leaving it behind is bittersweet. A little scary, even.”
Then, at 0249, the faintest blink of light in the bloom. Could it just be wishful thinking? I stared down the haze, my heart pounding, and when the glimmer stayed, I walked with the utmost alacrity to tell Rocky. The message I delivered to him: “I think I might be going crazy.” The message he told me to deliver to my watchmates: “Land ho!”
Over the following hours, the lights grew brighter, more numerous, and higher above the horizon until a whole glittering cluster was in view. And in the final hour of darkness before dawn, Henry rushed back from lookout a pod of dolphins was playing in our wake, their shapes and movements illuminated only by the shimmering blue bioluminescence they stirred up in the water We watched
by Gabi Carttar
delightedly from the bow, the sight of it so magical it was almost too much.
As the first pink glow of sunrise lit up the sky, what had seemed to be a strip of clouds along the horizon revealed itself to be a volcanic ridge, and we very suddenly became aware that we were no longer far away from land at all. We were right on the coast of Tahiti, its silhouette like a face in profile, framed by Moorea and Tahiti Iti.
With the sun rising behind the islands, C Watch began to speculate how different members of the ship’s company might react when they came up on deck, and not one person disappointed. It was an amazing and jarring sight, and crew streamed up to look as word and wake-ups spread. A gathering formed on the quarterdeck of quiet awe and appreciation some people bringing their watercolors, some people taking photos, and others taking photos of the people taking photos.
We even got to see our first passing vessel! A red-footed booby riding a log somehow evaded detection on the ship’s radar and AIS and sailed right up next to us. And just before C watch was relieved for breakfast, we hit another milestone our 4,000th nautical mile traveled! A joyous egg dance ensued
The whole night was so improbably magical, it was hard to believe any of it had really happened. And yet, Tahiti was right there! Land had become so
unfamiliar to our bodies that we could smell it on the air, just faintly. Dirt. Like tangible proof that this experience has changed us.
In those first days on board, I remember feeling so in awe of the pro crew we were joining (as I still do). Every person here was so open and appreciative and present. This place undoubtedly attracts a special kind of person. But I think it also changes you, your way of relating with your surroundings. When your home is so small and remote and fragile, little things become miracles. Like looking under the microscope at the contents of a net tow and finding a science fiction novel. Sunsets off the stern. A guitar, a mandolin, people to sing with. A crossword. A cinnamon roll! And as scary as it seemed before it came, land.
by Gabi Carttar
Date: May 9, 2025
Time: 1535
Location: Leaving Bora Bora, Raiatea here we come!
Weather: Wind NE, Beaufort Force 2, cumulus and altocumulus clouds
Hello from beautiful Bora Bora! This final student blog for S'321 comes to you from Olivia Hines with both bravery and ease from the charthouse housetop as we find ourselves anchored in paradise.
Bravery because this is the first time the entire trip I’ve dared to bring my laptop onto deck, and ease because writing this post is akin to writing a journal entry familiar and stemming from immense contentment and gratitude.
As I currently watch my shipmates enthralled by “Squid TV” (light over the deck that attracts fish and squid) and occasionally steal a glance at the not-so-distant silhouette of Bora Bora just beyond the bow, I am tempted to continue typing about the here and now. However, I am going to briefly diverge and spend some words on a topic that I chose back in the early days of our program’s time in Woods
by Olivia Hines
Hole. Microplastics. Or more specifically, how and when do we measure microplastics, and why should anyone care?
Microplastics are the silent killers of the plastic pollution world. The miniscule Mr. Hyde to the blatant Dr. Jekyll of plastic bags and straws that enrapture the masses
Nonetheless, “microplastic” is a word that strikes fear in the hearts of those who are familiar with the devilish polymers. From microplastics contained within the snow that falls on Everest to those buried
at the bottom of the Mariana Trench, no corner of our planet is microplastic-free. A collection of scientists across multiple disciplines is even calling for plastics to infiltrate the official naming scheme of the geological time scale. The proposed “Plasticine Epoch” has a nice but somewhat sinister ring to it, don’t you think?
And while I’m at it, what are microplastics? These microscopic menaces are anthropogenic particles smaller than 5mm in size Generated during the production of commercial plastics and the decomposition of bigger plastics once commercial goods are introduced to the environment, microplastics pose major risks to marine organisms.
Standing alone, microplastics are cause for major concern within marine food webs as microplastic ingestion starts at the zooplankton
by Olivia Hines
level and effectively works its way up marine food chains, ultimately resulting in bioaccumulation of microplastics that just might end up in your next ahi tuna poke bowl or seared swordfish steak. In contexts other than direct ingestion, microplastics floating through the water column can clog planktonic organisms’ respiratory, circulatory, and propellant systems.
As the name of our SEA program is Marine Biodiversity and Conservation, microplastics are an important constituent in the realm of conducting science to assess the current threats to the pelagic ecosystems that we have been sailing through and over the last five weeks Sitting right up there with the heavyweight champions of open ocean anthropogenic issues (rising sea surface temperatures and ocean acidification), S'321 has included microplastic detection in our
everyday scientific operations. After neuston and meter net tows, plastic pieces larger than 2mm are separated from the sample and preserved That leaves the microplastics. While data regarding microplastic presence is neither directly quantified nor directly utilized by any of the current student projects, all students have their eyes peeled for plastics when conducting zooplankton 100-count processing.
Here, plastics have been recorded piercing through clumps of forams, hanging off the tail end of copepods, and wrapped around the delicate gelatin that is a microscopic salp. For SEA cruises that do have a unique microplastic focus, data gained proudly contribute to the SEA microplastic database, which is one of the largest in the world and has the most thorough picture of macro and microplastic distribution in the South Pacific.
Leveling up in the plastic world are macroplastics, which are plastic particles large enough to see with the naked eye While we saw remarkably few adrift pieces of plastic trash in coastal New Zealand, the prevalence of floating plastic trash as we neared French Polynesia last week was our true first indicator that we were indeed coming back to civilization, save the few tropical birds that ventured out to meet us. Harrowing rescues of plastic bottles were made following science
deployments once we had visuals on Tahiti and Mo‘orea Coca-Cola was found to be the main offender.
now….
At the beginning of the S'321 cruise component, I automatically fell subject to an age-old personal habit of mentally compartmentalizing future events so that I might always have something to look forward to and/or know what to expect. This consisted of thinking: “Okay, the first two weeks will be getting to know the lay of the land, the second two weeks will be that awkward middle ‘teenager’ phase of existing in a new environment, and the last two weeks will be a memorable piece of cake.”
However, as you probably know from reading other blog posts up until now, I am ecstatic to report that the final two weeks of our trip are contrary to what any of us (even my overthinking mind) could have expected. From surprisingly complex JLO and JWO watches to a wonderful time in Bora Bora to the promise of our arrival in Raiatea on May 11th, our final two weeks are putting the pedal to the metal.
With my aforementioned habit of temporally organizing, I was under the self-misconstrued impression that these final two precious weeks would be full of endings. Thoughts such as “Oh, this is our second to last Saturday on the boat”, or “Aww our last watch meeting or watch will be at this time” filled my mind
by Olivia Hines
However, as the universe and the Bobby C. would have it, myself and other students have spent some time in Bora Bora discussing how, as we come to a close in this phase of SEA, we have noticed ourselves perceiving more firsts than lasts; more notable beginnings than the feared grand finales.
My most notable first occurred on lookout on afternoon watch of May 5th. The sight I beheld was so beautiful I almost went back to the quarterdeck to report my joy to Jackie, but decided not to as my point of interest did not quite warrant abandoning my post. The object in question? LEAVES floating in the water! I had never been so excited to see those beautiful, chlorophyll-y products of plants that I take so for granted within the confines of my terrestrial life.
Holding onto that joy of that first until I was no longer actively on lookout started the hamster wheels in my brain for how to approach this conclusion of my blog post….
Other notable firsts that have been expressed by many aboard the Robert C Seamans both students and crew include, but are not limited to:
Viewing our first sunset and sunrise over land/French Polynesia
Firing up the DNA sequencer to analyze our hard-earned DNA goop!
Touching land! This first was slightly ironic we disembarked onto the asphalt dockside road
by Olivia Hines
only to climb right back aboard after clearing customs out the iiiiiiback of a Papeete police van B Watch’s first (and only) meter net deployment during evening watch, which yielded some characteristic twists and turns Various bittersweet firsts on phones maniacally checking summer housing and internship statuses, checking in on friends, and making brief calls to hear a family member’s voice for the first time
As I close out this blog post as we actively motor away from the Bora Bora lagoon that we have been privileged enough to call our anchor spot for the last forty-eight hours, I reflect on the past five weeks and am comforted by the firsts that are to come. First steps on Mo‘orea. First waves and hello hugs to none other than Elle Lansing. First runthroughs of final project presentations.
And, last but not least, first opportunities for all of us to step away from SEA and bring all that we’ve experienced and learned back to our families, friends, and home institutions.
During our first week on campus, we headed to the Marine Biological Laboratory-Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Library, where we had a tour led by Jennifer Walton, the co-director of the library, MBL archivist, rare books librarian, and director of library services at MBL. She led us through the stacks which were filled with endless rows of scientific literature and MBL’s rare book collection. This collection included old books by Ernst Haeckel, Charles Darwin (a signed copy of Origin of Species!), Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, and so many more. Her comprehensive understanding of MBL’s book collection helped us build a basis of knowledge for our program going forward, and spending time in the library was an extremely valuable resource. Brigitte Walla
Learn more about Jennifer Walton and the library at: www.mbl.edu/about/leadership/ jennifer-walton.
With an official title of “Marine Fisheries Research Assistant,”
Tommy Tucker likes to think outside the box at the Center for Coastal Studies in Provincetown, MA
Beyond her fisheries work, she is passionate about marine mammal conservation through an integration of science, policy, and their amazing artistic ability This includes spreading the word about the critically-endangered and often overlooked Rice’s whale, which calls the Gulf of Mexico home. In spending part of their Saturday giving us a tour of Provincetown's unique periphery dunes and then the Center for Coastal Studies itself, Tommy shared their insight into how they navigate the slippery slope of North Atlantic right whale conservation within a fishing community and how their passion for raising awareness for Rice’s whales allows them to apply their love of art to marine science and conservation. Olivia Hines
Learn more about Tommy’s work at the Center for Coastal Studies here: coastalstudies.org
Satya Advani just can’t get enough of Sea Education Association. An SEA alum, he was back for more as the Blue Ocean Alliance scientist for our cruise track. Satya’s primary role on board was to conduct the primary zooplankton tow bucket processing for all neuston and meter net deployments, which consisted of identifying and preserving organisms larger than two centimeters in size and biovoluming the bucket’s zooplankton contents. As such, Satya was featured in almost every night order entry in the official ship’s log, most often as, “Please wake Satya 20 minutes before net recovery.” When not elbows deep in beloved “zoop goop,” Satya was most likely to be found helping out with morning chores or galley cleanup, at the aft deck boxes anxiously awaiting a bite on our trailing fishing lines, or on the housetop reading or leading a musical jam session.
Olivia Hines
Herehia Sanford is a nature guide in Mo’orea, where she takes visitors out snorkeling and to learn about the region and its culture. Herehia is a diver, surfer, writer, and was crowned Miss Heiva, cultural ambassador for Tahiti, in 2024. We had the amazing opportunity to take a tour of Mo’orea with Herehia She brought us to many culturally significant places and offered insights into Polynesian culture. She taught us about how Polynesian culture has changed since the Society Islands were invaded by England, the US, and eventually France, and some of the modern day challenges that Polynesia faces. We had Herehia
over for dinner, where we were able to trade stories and learn even more about her life and French Polynesia. We were very honored to have Herehia as a guest at our final Symposium so we could share our research findings with her.
Robin Muse
Our group had the privilege of meeting with Heather Goldstone of the Woodwell Climate Research Center in Woods Hole, Massachusetts. We would like to thank Heather for her informational presentation and wonderful tour of the climate research center. Heather explained how science, particularly climate science, is incredibly difficult to convey with common misconceptions in the media. One of the things that stood out to me was how one mistake can lead to mistrust For example, Heather shared a case where a science journal made a slight mistake in their data. This error led the audience to believe that other science, or science as a whole was wrong. Of course, this isn’t realistic or true, but it gave the class perspective on how information can be perceived. Below is an abridged interview with Dr Goldstone
As Chief Communications Officer, what are your major responsibilities?
I have the honor of leading a team of about eight people. We are responsible for a range of different external-facing communications
by Elle Lansing
channels. We are running social media, we put out two magazines a year, and we have the website
What are the big scientific questions that you work on or you're trying to answer? And along with that, what are the hurdles to addressing those questions?
Woodwell Climate's work, historically, has been focused on forests More broadly, what the center is trying to do is really work at the intersection of climate, nature, or conservation, and people, human systems, and communities; and find evidence-based strategies
that both help us curb climate change and cope with the inevitable and increasing impacts of climate change. We're looking at that through the lens of the incredible amount of work that natural systems do Forests being one of the most powerful, but also looking at agricultural and working lands and the ability of those lands to absorb and store carbon, whether it's in the plants or in the soils in most cases
So a lot of our work involves being in partnership with agricultural landowners, with Indigenous communities, with working with government officials who might hold those lands, and
have this land managed in this particular way. The thing that we're hearing might work best is actually to pay farmers not to deforest their land.
Who are, or which group or which selection of groups, would you say are you most involved with?
Working in the Amazon in Brazil is some of our longest standing work because of the very early emphasis on forests and the fundamental importance of the Amazon as the largest intact rainforest, tropical rainforest in the world. Going on that same basis of looking at where
by Elle Lansing
second-largest intact tropical rainforest. And that's the Congo River Basin Rainforest. So to some extent, you know, our work is driven by our scientists saying these are the places where we see the greatest need or the greatest possibility for benefit and actively seeking to go work there.
Our
work is driven
by our
scientists
saying these are the places where we see the greatest need or the greatest possibility for benefit.”
We're working with small subsistence or small scale farmers. We're working with Indigenous communities. We've just in the past few years started to work more closely with large agricultural businesses. And at this point, we're also now working in partnership with both state and federal level officials in the Brazilian government and in the lead up to this year's UN climate negotiations that they'll be hosting in Brazil. So a range of different partnerships.
Other work outside the tropics, I would say the two major kinds of categories, I guess, of partnerships that we have that are really prominent is working with Indigenous communities, specifically, Alaska Native communities on Arctic change issues in particular. It's largely around climate risk and adaptation work in those cases We have a
by Elle Lansing
partnership with a very large asset manager, Wellington Management, where the goal of that work was to explore how climate risk and climate awareness could be better brought into financial decision making on a very large scale.
What are some of the most challenging aspects of communicating climate science?
As with any science, one of the main challenges is conveying what can often be very complex scientific concepts in language that is accessible to a broad range of people. But for the most part, [in the case of solving the ozone hole problem] the narrative and the thrust was like, ‘You manufacturers need to give us different options. We're not the problem. You are.’ It was actually BP and a very successful marketing campaign that popularized the idea of an individual carbon footprint What we've done in the case of climate change is that the script got flipped and everybody's walking around with a lot of individual guilt that each of us individually needs to solve
How does Woodwell Climate Center remain consistent and connected to science research during federal or state policy changes?
For a very long time, federal grants were considered a more steady, consistent way to fund science. And philanthropic support, asking for
donations, was considered a little bit higher risk. The first Trump administration fundamentally changed that equation.
And we as an organization made a decision to try to diversify our funding model. So at this point, 10 to 15% of our budget comes from federal grants. We have the partnership with Wellington Management, that corporate contract that provides some revenue. And then the majority of our funding comes from either private foundations or individual donors. We’re obviously very affected by political shifts, whether that's the US, whether that's a change in the mayor of a city that we're working with, right?
In the last few administrations in Brazil there was a real switch between an administration that was really committed to reducing deforestation in the Amazon and saw a pretty dramatic drop [in deforestation] And then an administration that was not on board with enforcing those laws and regulations and was really much more pro-development and now has switched back again
But one thing that we're really committed to is the idea that while climate change has, in the US in particular, been tied to party politics, climate change is in and of itself, in reality, not a partisan issue, right? Red states, conservative communities still get hit by climate impacts. And in fact, our climate risk work can often open conversations
by Elle Lansing
with folks who might otherwise not identify themselves as interested in the climate issue.
What do you think the best form of communication is and what has been the most successful at Woodwell? And then going along with that, how do you think social media can either benefit or maybe hinder science communication?
I love radio and I think there are a lot of wonderful things about not just radio, but audio as a medium. People end to listen to audio when they're by themselves or just with a very small group of people who tend to be close friends or family, right? You're listening in your kitchen, you're listening in your car. And for that reason, audio tends to feel more intimate. And there's also a certain
level of hearing a person's voice that feels very personal and intimate, but you don't have to see them and they're not being watched while they're speaking This gives a little bit of insulation from a sense of invasion of someone's privacy, which allows people to often speak more freely and for people to listen to harder conversations.
When that comes to climate change, there's an added level of challenge because the issue has become so, not just politicized, but polarized, and I would say even weaponized by some political groups. So the language that we need to use to reach different groups can be really different when we're talking about climate change. And I think that's a particular challenge because scientists want to use the right word and the accurate word. Having a conversation with our staff around saying, ‘OK, instead of saying greenhouse gas emissions, which all the climate scientists know exactly what that means but does every American know what that means? Probably not.’ But I would say it's definitely a bigger piece of the puzzle with climate change than with a lot of other science because it is so polarized that thinking about the words that we use, how we describe concepts to audiences is a really important consideration
That said, I truly do not think there is one best medium because the best medium is the one that is [preferred by] the person you're trying to reach actually So all of this
comes back to the first [principle] in all communications: know your audience. Who are you trying to reach? And for a long time in journalism, there was this idea that there could be one source that could reach everybody, The New York Times, NBC, whatever it is.
I believe that it is possible to tell most stories well in most media, but certain stories and certain types of information just lend themselves to certain media better.
So we do a lot of research that involves spatial data, looking at the extent of a forest or the amount of deforestation, where that deforestation happened, that sort of thing. I will say that the maps are just incredible storytelling tools, that they're visually really compelling. They grab people. One of our lead cartographers is fond of saying that maps are stories overlaid on places. Authentic interaction is really important for building the trust necessary to get to what are inherently difficult conversations, whether it's difficult because somebody maybe doesn't think that they agree with the science or it's difficult because a community is facing a really existential threat. All of those conversations take trust.
by Elle Lansing
The old cliché saying of ‘memories to last a lifetime’ doesn’t apply to me. And believe me, it’s not out of defiance against clichés (I love a good cliché) but more out of a lack of choice in the matter. I, along with many people I know, and many that I don’t, often complain of having a terrible memory. Things that I wish could paint a picture of in my brain, memories that I wish would never change or fade often slip away with time, sometimes reviving with a
conversation that forms a strange neural pathway from the current moment to the past. And sometimes it slips away into a strange abyss that memories go when they’re not collected or remembered.
Experiences morph into memories and then where do they go from there? Maybe they travel far into our subconsciousness, turning into something that we then begin to call ‘ourselves’ Most of the experiences and adventures that I’ve been fortunate enough to enjoy and to be challenged by, end up
by Grace Stein
becoming less about the specific moments and memories that I hold so dear in the moment and they become more about the broadly sweeping feelings and emotions that come up when I think about that time of my life.
I often get frustrated with my poor memory, blaming it for my mediocre vocabulary and my inability to tell a story without stuttering for the first full minute.
But I learned recently that as humans, our memory is typically not structured to have perfect recall of defining details and exact events. It instead exists broadly for the purpose of learning and forming inter-species connections. Throughout our short history as a species we have been using memories to figure out where to collect food and form bonds with other human beings. And while I am excellent at remembering how to get to my local grocery store and remembering the general layout, I also have enough recall to share stories (no matter how inaccurate they may be) and experiences with friends and maintain strong relationships While this makes me feel better about my poor skills of remembrance, it also helps me find more peace in forgetting the details of an experience that I once, not long before, felt tied to remembering every minute of.
A lot of students voiced a fear of forgetting while we were onboard the Robert C Seamans. During our last night aboard we had a
conversation surrounding the concept of transitions change, if you will and something that I continued to hear throughout our conversation was this idea of wanting to remember everything that happened here, everything that they learned, and every minute of this challenging, beautiful, messy, and dual-faceted otherworldly and deeply human experience
And while I wish that they would, I am certain that this will not be the case. The experience will fade into bits and pieces, leaving pockets of time onboard that makes one forget what we were even doing for a whole six weeks. Pictures and journals can help fill in the gaps but they won’t include the small conversations and the little moments that all in all make the experiences and the relationships what they are. There will be bigger pieces that come out of the wash, sticking forever and embed in memory.
A lot of students voiced a fear of forgetting while we were onboard the Robert C Seamans.”
I also learned recently that the more you share a memory, the more you tell the story of it, the more distorted it becomes. It becomes stretched to fit the seamless storyline that would make sense to other people; to make them laugh or feel something or go on the journey
by Grace Stein
with you even if they didn’t have the full context for it. You leave out details, add others, make the wave height sixty feet instead of twenty in order to make a better story.
I shared with the students that sometimes it can be really important to not share the story. Sometimes there are moments that won’t work for telling, and those are ones that we can keep for ourselves, a special moment in time that you alone get to exist with. There are also the memories that you subconsciously keep to yourself, the ones that don’t rise to the top when prompted The quiet memories of what it feels like to exist at sea, the closest humans to you (with the exception of your shipmates who at their furthest, can only be ninety feet away) being those in the ISS. I don’t think that these pieces, even if we forget the exactness of them, ever leave entirely, they enter into that embedded subconscious that
by Grace Stein
becomes a new version of ourselves. I would dare to say that everything we experience in our short little lives, changes what we understand to be ourselves. Life sometimes feels like one big puzzle and the result is just who we end up being. Small things like going to the grocery store, getting your oil changed, going for a quick swim or walk, and how we interact with these daily experiences can all create little alterations in how we understand and connect with the world. If all of these little things add up into memories that fade into bits and pieces but stick with us in ways that we don’t recognize, imagine what sailing through the South Pacific Gyre for six weeks can do.
These six weeks onboard come with in depth learning about specific processes and operations that happen day-to-day on an oceangoing sailing and scientific vessel. But mostly, you learn about living in
community, experiencing and muckling through challenging circumstances, it teaches about weather and how to work with it and sometimes avoid it It teaches about mindfulness, observation, and a sense of presence that can only come with viewing nothing but the ocean and clouds and skies for weeks at a time. Whether the details are in their memories or not, the people onboard the Robert C Seamans for the MBC semester now know that they can sail across the Southern South Pacific Gyre, into the Central South Pacific Gyre, and come out the other side.
I think, in essence, one of the reasons that experiences and trips like this one can feel so hard to describe and so hard to return home from is that there are so many small moments that add up into making the whole thing exactly what it is, and there is no quick and easy way to remember or accurately share what it feels like until you experience it yourself. I think the students can attest that even Sarah and Rick, two people who have been on numerous SEA programs, cannot fully describe what it feels like to be a part of a crew, sailing across oceans together.
We tried! While we were in Woods Hole we sure tried to share what it would be like but god, did we do a sh*t job. There was no way. And eventually it just turns into the ‘you’ll see’ answer once you explain as much as you can. The truth is, every trip is so different and variable
for so many reasons, weather, cruise track, students, crew, the state of the ship (Rest in Peace, Mid-head), the general state of your own self, and the ever-changing ocean and sea state.
These variables are in fact what turns experiences like ones aboard the Robert C Seamans into adventures. Adventure doesn’t exist without uncertainty and risk and it is becoming less and less common as we increase the desire to have our lives and experiences planned out, mapped out, and safe. The students that come onboard with SEA tend to be a self-selecting bunch and, boy oh boy, does this certainly ring true for the group we had for S'321. When the students arrived on campus in February (boy, does that feel like forever ago) I recognized almost immediately that these students were meant to be here in a big way.
by Grace Stein
We’re about two weeks out from leaving the program in Mo’orea and although many of my memories have already become a little hazy or not quite whole, what does exist in a vivid and clear way is the sense of pride and awe that I have for each and every student that was a part of our experience. Each of them has a little-more-than-standard chutzpah and can-do-attitude that is so vital to a successful program, successful community, and successful world. They showed incredible tenacity and endurance through some very difficult circumstances and made the time we had crossing the Pacific one that will exist in my body and mind as a joyful and beautiful experience as long as I live. You don’t fully know someone until you are with them as they experience challenges, and I am so honored to have been alongside these students who have the highest of character. I cannot wait to see where their journeys and adventures take them next.
by Grace Stein
Hi! My name is Britney Durward I go to Brock University in Ontario I decided at the beginning of the program I would start a vlog, a video blog, to capture our real-life experiences along the way. I’ve included a link for you to share with you some of the fun and heart-warming times we had on our adventure during the MBC program.
by Britney Durward
Date: May 31, 2025
Time: 2100
Location: Gump Marine Station, Mo‘orea
Weather: 74˚ F, 10 kts southeasterly
Below is an excerpt from an interview with Gabi Carttar, Barnard College. Each student was interviewed in Mo’orea, filmed by Aimee Bousquet, with excerpts posted on the sea.edu blog.
What happened at the Marine Biodiversity and Conservation Student Symposium earlier today?
We’ve all been preparing these presentations over the last just two days which is kind of crazy. After finishing our papers, we got to spend this time putting the presentations together, workshopping them, getting feedback from our peers and [professor] Sarah and [postdoc] Kayla. Today, we all gathered in the Gump Marine Station classroom, and we got to share with each other the final polished versions of our findings, and share with our friends and family [over Zoom] and with those awesome people who came to watch us in person
It was something I was so nervous for, for such a long time leading up to this ever since the first day we
featuring Gabi Carttar
talked about this symposium as our final end goal back in Woods Hole. Itseemed like it was going to be such a scary thing, but it was just such a supportive environment, knowing that all of our friends and family was watching from afar. And then getting to see some of our shipmates come back to watch us [the professional crew, who took a ferry on their day off to get here!]. I just felt so supported and so happy! We got to present about the research we completed, and I felt so lucky. And well prepared It went much differently than I had built it up in my head to be.
Could you share a moment from your time at sea when you thought, I’m really learning right now?
About a week in, when things were really crazy and we were just getting totally tossed around by the first gale, everything seemed so far out of our comfort zones. So hard. So much information that it seemed impossible that we’d be able to grasp it all enough, that we’d be running the ship in just a couple weeks. Jackie (third mate) was talking to us, and she said something along the lines of “We’re going to encounter a lot of difficult moments here. We can’t get out of it, so we might as well get into it.”
That was just something that I felt that all of us took so, so to heart. It’s something that we’ve been reflecting on a lot, too. There was no bad thing that could possibly happen to us, because even the bad things, were really just actually good things. Like having a hard day would turn into a story you talk about, and you laugh about two days later. It all just turns into something amusing, y’know? The bad things were good things, featuring Gabi Carttar
and the good things were good things. Having that mindset that the challenges we were facing were just moments to embrace, not things to be scared of or to dread This made everything so joyful.
World Oceans Day is coming up next week. Over the course of the semester, what has changed in terms of your thinking about the importance of the ocean?
I feel like in the way that 1 is infinitely larger than 0. It all feels impossible to quantify how much the way I think about the ocean has changed over the course of this semester. Not that it wasn’t something that I didn’t care or hadn’t thought about, but just for the path my life has taken so far the ocean was kind of a distant concept. As a place, as a system, it was something I knew conceptually was important, but now it just feels like the ocean is maybe at the center of everything There isn’t like a single important process ecologically or socially that you couldn’t draw back to the ocean in some way. And on top of all that intellectual care for the ocean, it was really just so special to be able to spend that time at sea. The ocean really became our home.
“Men” o’ war: an analysis of Physalia spp. genetic lineage distribution in the South Pacific Gyre
Aimee Bousquet, Ana Hoffman Sole, Gabriela Carttar, Robin Muse 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5
Sea Education Association, University of New Hampshire, Cornell University, Barnard College, Boston University 1 2 3 4 5
The Portuguese Man-O’-War (Physalia) was previously believed to be one panmictic species, nonselectively breeding across all ocean basins. However, recent findings show that there are at least four separate species of Physalia. Further research has revealed similar findings for other open-ocean dwelling species, however, it is still unknown what drives speciation in the open-ocean and what barriers to genetic mixing exist This study examines Physalia in the South Pacific Gyre, an understudied but vast part of the world, and aims to determine whether wind patterns may be driving genetic differentiation in Physalia. We sampled Physalia along a cruise track between Aotearoa New Zealand and French Polynesia and performed low-coverage whole genome sequencing as well as ‘in-
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silico’ PCR for the cytochrome oxidase I (COI) barcoding gene on specimens on specimens collected Prevailing wind direction is correlated with genetic patterns of divergence, suggesting that Physalia species distributions may be influenced by wind patterns. Our study sheds light on physical factors that may impact or maintain speciation in the open ocean, a habitat with an enigmatic set of barriers to genetic exchange. Advancing our understanding of open-ocean speciation enhances our ability to assess pelagic biodiversity, a critical component of effective marine ecosystem monitoring.
Barcoding the groovy goop: analyzing siphonophore diversity in the South Pacific with DNA metabarcoding
Georgia Akins, Britney Durward, Olivia Hines 1,2 1,3 1,4
Sea Education Association, Macalester College, 1 2 Brock University, University of San Diego 3 4
Siphonophores are an ecologically important but understudied taxonomic group within pelagic ecosystems Few studies have investigated siphonophore
abundance and biodiversity within the South Pacific with relation to oceanographic physical factors, and even fewer have employed the technique of DNA metabarcoding Here, we sampled siphonophore abundance, molecular proxies of biodiversity, sea surface temperature, salinity, and subsurface current velocity along a cruise track from Lyttelton, Aotearoa New Zealand to Mo’orea, French Polynesia. A total of 32 species of siphonophores were identified using metabarcoding techniques. Temperature, salinity and subsurface velocity showed no significant relationship to the abundance and biodiversity of siphonophores There was a clear separation in species composition in the four different locales. The different locales also differ across the three abiotic factors, prompting
us to hypothesize some relationship between species abundance and diversity As southern Pacific circulation patterns and sea surface temperature and salinity are expected to change in the near future, it is imperative to establish and monitor a current baseline for siphonophore abundance and diversity in this region
Calcification craze: a story of the abundance and diversity of South Pacific mesopelagic calcifiers in response to aragonite saturation state
Patricia Diaz-Bian, R. Reshmi Mukherjee, Brigitte Walla 1,2 1,3 1,4
Sea Education Association, Cornell University, Claremont McKenna College, Smith College 1 2 3 4
Marine calcifiers organisms that form calcium carbonate (CaCO ) shells or skeletons are a diverse group of organisms that occupy many ecological niches These organisms are disproportionately affected by ocean acidification because of their need for carbonate ions to form their shells/skeletons, which are less available when the saturation state is lower. While reef calcifiers in the Pacific have been fairly well-studied, the effect of ocean acidification on pelagic calcifiers especially in the mesopelagic—have not been thoroughly explored. In this study, we investigate the relationship between saturation state difference
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(between the surface and deep ocean) and mesopelagic calcifying organisms. We found no relationship between saturation difference and either abundance (within broad taxonomic groups) and taxonomic richness. However, there is a relationship between saturation state difference and community composition. It is possible that some species of mesopelagic calcifiers may be more resilient to decreasing carbonate ion availability than others.
Effects of decreasing dissolved oxygen on myctophid communities in the South Pacific
Zachary Flagler, Elle Lansing, Jaimie Lin, Andrew Patterson
Sea Education Association, University of Washington, Lafayette College, Washington University in St. Louis, Hamilton College
Dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations across the world's oceans are declining due to anthropogenic climate change, leading to the expansion of Oxygen Minimum Zones (OMZs) and raising concerns about their impact on pelagic biodiversity. This study investigates how these changes affect mesopelagic myctophid (lanternfish) communities across the South Pacific Gyre (SPG). Using net tows and hydrocasts from two Sea Education Association research cruises (S314 in 2024 and S321 in 2025), we collected 221 individuals representing 24 species. We
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assessed relationships between myctophid biodiversity and OMZ characteristics, and conducted population genomic analyses on three abundant groups: Gonichthys barnesi, Lampanyctus spp., and Diogenichthys atlanticus. Our results indicate that although myctophid communities appear tolerant to observed DO variability; genetic data suggests population differentiation that may become more pronounced under future climate scenarios. This study highlights the need for integrative ecological and genomic approaches to assess the vulnerability of key mesopelagic taxa in a changing ocean.
Investigating relationships between copepod diel vertical migration and chlorophyll-a concentrations in a changing climate
Henry Penfold, Ella Skonieczny, Charlotte Subak 1, 2 1, 3 1, 4
Sea Education Association , Bowdoin College , Eckerd College , Mount Holyoke College 1 2 3 4
The South Pacific, an understudied region of the ocean, includes a vast
array of complex ecosystems and bioregions that can help us understand today’s issues of climate change and biodiversity loss in the context of a changing ocean. Copepods, small zooplankton that make up the foundation of the marine food web, participate in daily diel vertical migration (DVM) within the water column. DVM, which represents the largest daily movement of biomass on Earth, sequesters carbon and transports nutrients through the water column. Further understanding this migration of copepods as it relates to the available biomass of phytoplankton can help scientists understand how these foundational organisms are changing in the face of climate change. In this study, a neuston net deployed during the day and night was used to collect copepods. A flow-through thermosalinograph system and a Conductivity-Temperature-Depth sensor and hydrocast was used to sample chlorophyll-a concentrations at different water depths - including the deep chlorophyll maximum - as a proxy for phytoplankton biomass. We found no relationship between copepod species diversity, richness, or relative abundance and chlorophyll-a concentration. Our results do not necessarily mean that these variables are not connected, however, we do provide evidence that copepod DVM patterns are tolerant of phytoplankton biomass perturbations. It is possible that we did not observe a relationship
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The full research papers are included in the cruise report, edited by Sarah Kingston (skingston@sea.edu).
Please contact her for a copy!
between chlorophyll-a and copepod diversity due to the predation of copepods by other diel vertical migrators similarly attracted by higher chlorophyll-a concentrations. The observed pattern can also be explained by predation of copepods at the surface by other vertical migrators, competition for resources by other organisms, and other confounding environmental variables. Our investigation, while preliminary, suggests that copepod DVM patterns are not driven by chlorophyll-a concentrations alone. This finding has significant implications in the context of our changing climate, as chlorophyll-a concentrations are expected to fluctuate with changing oceanic conditions. Watch
As sailors, and scientists immersed in the natural beauty and culture of the South Pacific Ocean and interactions with its people, the students and crew of S-321 were inspired to create the following list to lend a voice to the following concerns. It is the hope of the class of S-321 that this list serves as a guide to ensure the future health and well-being of the South Pacific Ocean and its people Students and crew would like to lift the voices of those Indigenous to the South Pacific and those whose work, community, and stewardship is central to life in the South Pacific. The following list is by no means finished, nor does it contribute to all issues that face our world today. It serves the purpose to encourage action of all people. It is our aim to inspire others to help preserve and protect the people and environments with whom we have learned and grown and have felt at home.
As students, the following are ideas that we believe in.
We want our local governments to invest in the renewable energy transition at the state and city levels, including the creation of sustainable infrastructure and planning. Ensuring access and implementation of these new technologies for community members to create sustainable initiatives is imperative to community success. We would also like local stakeholders and indigenous perspectives at the state and city levels to be included in conversations and initiatives to ensure an equitable, fair, and healthy future
We want companies to outsource scientific efforts related to inner-company environmental monitoring and make environmental impact assessment information public We also would like companies to take responsibility for environmental and social remediation projects and fund reparation efforts (especially in the context of global corporations) - we want the “Polluter’s Pay Principle” to be continued.
As individuals we cannot give up hope and must remain curious and attentive! We must lobby and use our voices to enact change and speak up against injustices. We must vote and remain active citizens at the local, state, and national levels. We must listen and learn from local and indigenous knowledge and practices.
If we had money to donate, we could give to local community NGOs such as the Coral Gardeners, Woodwell Climate Research Center, the Center for Coastal Studies, Rāhui centers, and local museums. Additional donations would be donated to educational organizations such as the Tetiaroa Society, Te mana o te moana, and the Manta Trust.
We want to support further research in renewable energy and minimizing human impacts on the environment. Additionally, we support research to ensure the future resilience and health of the South Pacific open ocean ecosystem against climate change, including ocean acidification, ocean warming, and pollution.
For a journey that once felt endless, it sure came to an end quickly. This program has had so many distinct transitions, each with their own challenges and rewards, that little details feel easy to miss The difference between the sound of the waves at sea compared to the sound of them crashing against the dock at Gump station. The difference between practicing navigational skills on shore compared to using them in the bustling chart house on board. Constructing our project proposals versus presenting them in front of our family and shipmates in Mo‘orea. Experiences that were so important in one stage feel distant just a short time later.
It is my sincere hope and belief that, through this issue of SEA Writer, we have managed to weave our story into a larger picture.The beauty of SEA Writer is that it is full of stories, art, and projects made for other purposes throughout the semester. Our life on board the Robert C. Seamans felt so far at times from the long nights spent perfecting our policy briefs in Woods Hole, but here they are both integral to our learning and growth. These once separate pieces have been assembled to create a wonderful collage of our time together and all that we have learned and experienced.
During our time in Woods Hole, the staff had the momentous task of describing and preparing us for a practically indescribable experience. Now, in Mo‘orea, that challenge is passed to us, the students, as we search for a way to summarize our semester.
This project is a synthesis of what we have lived and learned in this program.”
In that vein, SEA Writer is both a reminder to ourselves of moments we don’t want to forget and an excellent tool to answer the daunting question of what we did this semester The answer to that question is similar to the one we hear often in science, “it’s complicated.” No matter how complicated a matter is though, we forge ahead to synthesize what we do know and explain it as best we can.
In the end, I think that is what this issue of SEA Writer is. Though in some ways our personal experiences this semester are too complicated to describe, this project is a synthesis of what we have lived and learned in this program. It is a representation of what we understand, what we have felt and in some ways who we have become.
It is my absolute pleasure to be a part of this community and to look back on all the work we have done together. But I also want to look forward! I look forward to hearing about more adventures To keeping in contact and continuing to learn from each other. Though this semester has ended, some new challenge is always on the horizon. I have confidence that each of us can weather it and come out the other side.
Fair winds and following seas, my friends!
Reshmi Mukherjee
Georgia Akins, Macalester College
Aimee Bousquet, U. New Hampshire
Gabi Carttar, Barnard College
Patricia Diaz-Bian, Cornell University
Britney Durward, Brock University
Zachary Flagler, U. of Washington
Olivia Hines, U. San Diego
Ana Hoffman Sole, Cornell University
Elle Lansing, Lafayette College
Jaimie Lin, Washington U in St Louis
Resh Mukherjee, Claremont McKenna
Robin Muse, Boston University
Andrew Patterson, Hamilton College
Henry Penfold, Bowdoin College
Ella Skonieczny, Eckerd College
Charlotte Subak, Mount Holyoke College
Brigitte Walla, Smith College
Richard King, Enviro Comm professor
Erin Bryant, Marine Policy professor
Rick Miller, Captain
Sarah Kingston, Chief Scientist
Rocky Bonner, 1st Mate
Heather Stone, 2nd Mate
Jackie O'Malley, 3rd Mate
Matt Bihrle, 1st Marine Technician
Katherine Rigney, 2nd Marine Technician
Izzy Lardner, 3rd Marine Technician
JC Parker, Chief Engineer
Giacomo McDowell, Assistant Engineer
Raechel Zeller, Steward
Sebastian Murray-Brown, Asst. Steward
Grace Stein, Program Assistant
Kayla Gardner, Postdoc and Labhand
Ali Fox, Molecular Labhand
Satya Advani, BNA Guest Scientist
Gus McGuire, Deckhand
Aiden Houlihan, Deckhand
Aimee Bousquet is a sophomore at the University of New Hampshire studying Marine, Estuarine, and Freshwater Biology and minoring in dance Aimee was voted Best-WakerUpper by her shipmates. Her favorite spot aboard the RCS is the quarterdeck sole, stargazing or singing along to whoever is playing the guitar.
Zach Flagler is a senior at the University of Washington majoring in Environmental Studies. While at sea, the one snack he craved the most was a large carrot.
Ana Hoffman Sole is a junior at Cornell University majoring in Biological Sciences and Earth and Atmospheric Sciences. Her favorite spot on the RCS is the bowsprit.
Patricia Diaz-Bian, known by her rapper name Patty D, is a junior at Cornell University studying biochemistry on a pre-medical track. They have a fear of deep water and sometimes wonder how they ended up here, but are glad that they did. Her favorite place to nap aboard the RCS is the main saloon
Ella (Sketch) Skonieczny is a sophomore at Eckerd College majoring in Marine Science and Environmental Studies Ella is known for her caring spirit and laughter while onboard. Her favorite spot on the RCS is the housetop at sunset.
Georgia Akins is a junior at Macalester College majoring in Environmental Studies and minoring in Biology and Statistics. She loves the water and hopes to pursue environmental research Her favorite spot aboard the RCS is the science deck.
Robin Muse is a junior at Boston University studying Marine Science. Her favorite activity onboard is saying outrageous things to make people laugh. Her favorite spot on the Bobby C. is the headrig
Andrew Patterson is a junior at Hamilton College majoring in biology and minoring in classics. His favorite spot on the ship is at the helm sailing down the crest of a wave.
Elle Lansing is a junior at Lafayette College and is pursuing a degree in environmental science Her favorite place aboard the RCS to soak up the sun is the quarter deck.
Reshmi Mukherjee is a junior at Claremont McKenna College studying Environment, Economics and Politics (EEP). Her favorite place to be on the Bobby C. is aloft *
Charlotte (Char) Subak is a junior at Mount Holyoke College majoring in Biology and Environmental Studies. Her favorite spot aboard the RCS is the sailbag “couch” on the house top.
Olivia (Liv) Hines is a junior at the University of San Diego and plans to pursue geological oceanography. Her favorite place aboard the RCS to journal and read (especially at night post-afternoon watch) is the starboard aft deck box!
Jaimie Lin is a senior at Washington University in St. Louis majoring in mechanical engineering and minoring in biology Her favorite place aboard the RCS is the house deck boxes!
Brigitte Walla is a junior at Smith College majoring in Biology on the Biodiversity, Ecology, and Conservation track Her favorite place aboard the RCS is the deck boxes near the stern (the best place to watch birds).
Henry Penfold is a junior at Bowdoin College studying marine biology and ecology. His favorite spot aboard the RCS is a perch high up on the course yard brace
Gabriela Carttar is a junior at Barnard College studying Environmental Biology and is a pro at cleaning the aft shower. Her favorite spot on the Bobby C is wherever the jam sesh (or the crossword party) is!
Britney Durward is studying neuroscience at Brock University. She is known for her daily class announcement (whatever it may be). Her favourite spot aboard was in the lab.
