Jamaican Journal of Science & Technology - Volume 27

Contents

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From the Editor

Main Articles

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A Contribution to the Biology of a Blind Cave Fish (Perciformes: Eleotridae) Discovered in Jackson’s Bay Great Cave, Vere District, Clarendon, Jamaica

Comparative nutritional analysis of Themeda arguens (Piano grass), Brachiaria decumbens (Signal grass) and Cynodon nlemfuensis (African star) from Central Jamaica, W.I.

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THE PADOVAN P-HURWITZ NUMBERS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

Herbal Monographs

32 42 47

Herbal Monograph I: Turmeric (Curcuma longa) Herbal Monograph II: Guinea Hen Weed (Petiveria alliacea L) Herbal Monograph III: Ginger Rhizome (Zingiber officinale Roscoe)

From the Editor

R

eaders: Our long-awaited Volume 27 is finally here, and includes five articles covering a broad spectrum of topics. We trust that whatever your specialization, you will find something of interest here.

The article on the Blind Cave Fish of the Jackson’s Bay Great Cave highlights the high endemicity of Jamaica, and reminds us how effectively life adapts to whatever environment it must eke out an existence in – whether by elaborating new anatomical and/or functional systems, or indeed, by jettisoning systems (such as eyes) that are ‘expensive’ to support, but do not yield commensurate value.

The Comparative Nutritional Analysis of Grasses documents valuable information in the area of livestock productivity – an area which in the era of Dr T. P. Lecky, brought Jamaica global attention, but which we have not sustained today by building on the seminal work of this giant in his field.

Finally, the three Herbal Monographs – I (on Turmeric), II (on Guinea Hen Weed) and III (on Ginger) – return us to the issue of local biodiversity and remind us of the sustained efforts which are being made to develop nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals from locally available plants. The information in these articles should provide a firm basis for anyone wishing to carry out further research on these plants or to develop new products from them.

Or could simply edify those interested in exploiting the nutritionally beneficial properties of these plants for general health or culinary purposes.

We hope that you will find these articles not only interesting, but stimulating and perhaps helpful in prompting you of submit work of your own for publication in the Journal.

Happy reading!

Sincerely,

The article on Padovan p-Hurwitz Numbers draws attention to the area of mathematical analysis. We encourage our readers to produce more papers in mathematics, focusing upon creative application of formal numerical/ logical analytical procedures to local, and indeed global problems. Locally, our performance in Mathematics has not been stellar, although we have, in fact, exported some outstanding mathematicians. We wish that we could channel more of the innate creativity of our agile young minds into this fundamental and broadly applicable discipline.

Ronald E. Young Editor-in-Chief, JJST Scientific Research Council

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A Contribution to the Biology of a Blind Cave Fish (Perciformes: Eleotridae) Discovered in Jackson’s Bay Great Cave, Vere District, Clarendon, Jamaica Thomas Turner Research Associate, Florida Museum of Natural History, Gainesville, FL

cwpublications17@gmail.com

ABSTRACT No blind cave fishes have yet been scientifically described from Jamaica although there is evidence of their existence. The collection of a specimen from Jackson’s Bay Great Cave, Clarendon Parish, Jamaica, and observations of feeding behaviors briefly studied while in captivity is documented. Mummified remains were sent to Cornell University and identified as being a member of the family Eleotridae. Possible species relationships are discussed pending collection of additional specimens.

KEY WORDS Cave fish, Jackson’s Bay, Jamaica, Eleotridae, Caribbean

Introduction No true cave fish have been properly described from Jamaica, but tSpecies of other fish have also been seen from Cuban caves including one species similar to Eleotris Bloch & Schneider (Eleotridae).

Garcia-Machado et al. in 20111 noted some of these species may have been accidentally introduced. In his detailed 1909 studies of the Cuban and other cave fish, Eigenmann2 stated, “Other blind fishes which may be related to them (Lucifuga) are said to occur in Jamaica.”

This statement probably stems from a reference to an undescribed cave fish seen in Wallingford River Cave, Balaclava, St. Elizabeth Parish, in west central Jamaica as allegedly reported in the The Daily Gleaner newspaper. The original article could not be traced and no Lucifuga are known from the island at present.

In 1952, the author observed unidentified fish pumped out in the initial testing of a well sunk into the aquifer to a depth of about 60 m beside the dry Bower’s Gully three miles north of Old Harbour Bay, far from any flowing river. There can be little doubt that there are unidentified fish in underground water systems in certain locations around the island.

Peck3,4 summarised the fauna from Jamaica caves, and records the introduced Gambusia afffinis (Baird & Girard) (as gracilis) in the flooded mouth of Wyslip Water Cave, Alligator Pond, St. Elizabeth Parish, and

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Eleotris pisonis (Gmelin) from Green Grotto Caves, Runaway Bay, and Dairy Bull Cave in nearby Discovery Bay, St. Ann Parish, as shown in Figure 1.

Peck3 also notes E. pisonis is in Jackson’s Bay Great Cave, mentioning that the “outer rooms are partly flooded with brackish water which fluctuates with the tides” and also noting that an Eleotris fish “occurs in the outer cave lakes.”

The village of Jackson’s Bay is located along a sandy beach on the southern coast of Portland Ridge, a peninsula forming the southernmost point of the island. Just inland of the beach is a shallow saline lagoon which dries out in dry weather but collects fresh water during rainy seasons, becoming brackish.

Inland of this lagoon is a flat rocky expanse of limestone with empty solution pockets beyond which is sloping limestone supporting interspersed plants growing in pockets with soil.

The first entrance to the Jackson's Bay Great Cave system is found here at an elevation of just 12 m above sea level. The section of cave where the blind fish was found is 0.85 km from the coast. The water within the inner cave pools is slightly brackish and there is no apparent direct connection between the outer pools and the salt water lagoon.

In a short article in the Bulletin of the Scientific Research Council in 1965 Ashcroft et al. 5 summarise the brief history of Jackson’s Bay Great Cave and the

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A Contribution to the Biology of a Blind Cave Fish Discovered in Jackson’s Bay Jamaica Caving Club’s relocation and exploration of this cave beginning on 13th September 1964 as shown in Figure 2. Additional exploration and mapping is described in 1997 by Fincham. 6 In a visit on 18th March 1965 a new extension to the then known extent of the cave was discovered near the entrance known as Water Cave. Water Cave is approximately 30 m wide, 64 m in length and 21 m in height. As the name implies it contains water, with a depth of approximately 0.6 m. A small hole found 2 m above the water on the northern side turned out to be the beginning of a tight 55 m crawl, but beyond this the cave widened and continued to the east northeast for some 3,300 m revealing many beautiful calcite formations, pools, and at least four new entrances to add to the five already known. As is customary in speleology, the different sections and individual spectacular features within this extension were given names, but in this account, those that are relevant are Water Cave, the entrance used to access the system; the Lead-On-Crawl, through which one must pass to reach the extension, and features known as the Little People and Shamrock Passage as shown in Figure 3.

The last two features are parts of the cave system that

experience total darkness.

The Little People is a feature found in a small chamber after the Lead-On-Crawl the floor of which is dotted with numerous short, often finger-thin stalagmites. A portion of this floor now slopes and has been flooded, with some of the stalagmites under 0.3 to 0.6 m of water. The submerged stalagmites rise from a thin layer of mixed calcite sand, broken fragments of stalactites, and muddy silt, although the water is clear when not disturbed. The roof of the chamber slopes downwards to the southwest, the water extending beneath this into inaccessible areas.

Not far beyond the Little People is the magnificent Shamrock Passage with high narrow walls covered in glistening calcite. This passage is also flooded, but the water is about 1 m in depth and crystal clear, with an off-white calcite sand bottom. The pools present in Water Cave, the Little People, and Shamrock Passage, are isolated from each other within the cave as a result of ceiling collapses and upward dislocations possibly resulting from earthquake activity. They may well be, however, connected through subterranean fissures but currently there is no water flowing through the cave.

The water level in Shamrock Passage does occasionally

Figure 1 Map of Jamaica showing locations mentioned in the text; map outline courtesy of Windsor Research Centre (WRC) Cockpit Country, Jamaica.

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Figure 2 Jackson’s Bay Great Cave, from a survey by Ashcroft et al. 19655, enhanced by Ann Haynes-Sutton fluctuate, presumably from incursion of ground water periodically filtered through the porous lime rock above. The cave is located within arid dry limestone forest habitat subject to periods of long drought conditions and short interludes of heavy seasonal rains.

As mentioned above, Peck3 describes tidal fluctuations in outer rooms and outer cave lakes. However, no tidal fluctuations were observed in the sections of Jackson’s Bay Great Cave discussed here.

Discovery of the fish During a visit to the cave on 25th April 1965, a small light-brown fish about four inches in length was seen in 0.6 m deep water as a small group of spelunkers, including the author, paused while passing through the pool at the Little People. The fish had frosty white eyes when illuminated from above, but black when illuminated from the side. It moved slowly using lateral flicks of the pectoral and anal fins. There were no recent records of true cave fish from Jamaica but no one had any equipment at that time to catch the fish.

On 1st May 1965 a team from the Zoology Department of the University of the West Indies (now part of the Life Sciences Department) consisting of Dr. John Strangways-Dixon, marine biologist George Warner, and the author, returned to the cave equipped with nets, buckets, thermometer and an insulated cooler.

Upon reaching the pool at the Little People no fish was seen. A shrimp found in an adjacent pool was caught, crushed and dropped into the water to act as bait, but after an hour there was still no sign of the fish. It was then decided to repeat the actions of the previous trip by wading into the water 0.75 m in depth and standing there. This initially stirred up some mud that subsequently settled again.

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A few shrimps appeared and nibbled at our boots and after waiting another fifteen minutes a fish appeared. However, it stayed near the bottom of the pool among the drowned stalagmites, out of reach of our nets, and after being disturbed by attempts to capture it, retreated to the inaccessible part of the chamber. After another half hour the fish reappeared and this time it was possible to get the net beneath it and capture it. Water samples were collected along with a few pieces of broken stalactite. The water temperature was measured at 26.5˚C. Temperatures for other pools within the cave have been measured at between 26˚C and 27.4˚C as noted by Peck.3 After returning from the cave the fish was placed in a 95 litre covered, darkened aquarium with filter, and during the following fourteen days observations were made of swimming and feeding behaviors, reaction to light and external movements, and reactions to vibrations in the water. The fish readily accepted mosquito larvae and pupae provided for food.

On 16th May 1965 another visit was made to Jackson’s Bay Great Cave and a large sample of calcite sand was collected from Shamrock Passage. After returning to Kingston this sand was placed in a large 190 litre aquarium equipped with a filter and aerator, and covered with glass and filled with rainwater, and turbulence was allowed to settle. One day later when the water was clear the fish was transferred to the new tank where additional observations and photography could be more easily made. A drawing was made, but the fish disappeared a day later before it could be photographed and described. The only possible way of escape was through the narrow gap where the glass cover stopped and the air filter began. The tank was positioned on top of a heavy book case against a wall and it was not until 17th September 1965 that the mummified remains were found behind the bookcase belying the earlier incorrect report from Ashcroft 5 that

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A Contribution to the Biology of a Blind Cave Fish Discovered in Jackson’s Bay it had been eaten by a cat. The remains were sent to Professor Edward Raney at Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, who identified this as being a member of the family Eleotridae Bonaparte.

On 21st November 1965, during a photographic expedition to the cave, David Black observed a second fish in clear water at the first pool of Shamrock Passage at Survey Marker number 25 from a distance of about 1.2 m. It was transparent, but with brown coloration dorsally behind the operculum. It swam slowly and disappeared under an overhang at the side of the pool.

It is not known if this fish is similar to the specimen captured earlier.

appearing almost transparent, attached directly above a pair of separate narrow pelvic fins; no evidence of a ventral sucker. Two pairs of dorsal fins, the first with approximately five spines, the second immediately posterior with approximately seven to eight rays; a smaller mid ventral anal fin positioned directly below the second dorsal fin with seven to eight rays; caudal fin well developed with approximately ten to twelve rays; most fin rays appearing distally bifid; scales, tiny, numerous, cycloid with fringe; most visible immediately behind the opercula; preopercular spines not observed. No recognisable pattern of spots or stripes, but with bands of light and darker spots on the fins.

General description

Mouth: Opens anterior-dorsally; kept partially open for long intervals; many small white teeth of even size with back-curved tips on both upper and lower jaws as observed after death; full dentition not visible without dissection.

Light brown with a slightly darker brown lateral line; slight color differentiation between dorsum and ventrum, but lateral line not well defined; approximately 100 mm in length; head, flattened dorsoventrally, larger than remainder of body, with cartilage surrounding the narrower bony skeleton, exhibiting a sensory network marked with darker color. The entire fish changeably either light brown or dark brown, the darker color possibly induced by changes in water condition or temperatures, sometimes also displaying pink color immediately anterior of the opercula; configuration of fins closely matching those of Eleotridae.

Arrangement of fins: Pectoral fins well developed,

Eyes: Globular, protruding rather than gradually raised; 3 mm in diameter; frost white when illuminated from above; dark brown to black when illuminated from the side; of one uniform dark brown color, lacking any division into iris and pupil; positioned near the top of the head approximately two thirds the distance from anterior end to opercula.

Sensory structures: On top of the head are two pairs of short tubules, the nares, the first positioned just behind

Figure 3 Jackson’s Bay Great Cave; section from Water Cave to Shamrock Passage (Detail from Ashcroft et al. 19655)

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Figure 4 Sketch of the blind cave fish collected from The Little People’s Pool by Thomas Turner (enhanced by Ann Haynes-Sutton)

the mouth pointing upwards and forwards, each approximately 3 mm in length, the second pair just in front of and between the eyes pointing upwards and backwards, each approximately 1 mm in length.

Between these two pairs of tubules are dark-brown lines forming a sensory network on each side of the head, with a pair of similar lines behind the eyes and a pair of lines on each operculum, all appearing to be part of the same sensory neuromast structure. The distribution of a visible cephalic network depicted in Figure 4 is incomplete and is only a representation.

Observed behaviours Locomotion: Short scuds are accomplished by strong backward strokes of the large pectoral fins which are then folded against the body as the fish moves forward with very little use of the caudal fin, then coming to rest on the bottom cushioned by the downward deflection of the narrow pelvic fins. In sustained swimming both the pectorals and lateral movement of the caudal fins are employed. If startled by stirring of the water the anterior body is given a sharp wriggling flick and the fish uses all fins as it swims rapidly away.

Reaction to light: There was no response to light when in the cave or in the aquarium. The fish did not respond to a strong light beam suddenly shone or give any other indication that it could see lights or shadows. There was also no reaction to sudden movements made outside the aquarium. The modified eyes, though present, are apparently non-functional for vision.

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Reaction to inanimate objects: Although remaining settled on the bottom much of the time, when actively swimming the fish repeatedly bumped into the glass sides of the aquarium and into short stalagmites placed on the bottom of the aquarium, and showed no ability to recognise or remember the placement of such objects even after two weeks in captivity. The sensory system is apparently not designed to detect inanimate objects.

Reaction to animate objects: The anterior sensory network and lateral line is extremely sensitive to any movements. Placing a finger, and keeping this as still as possible in one corner of the tank with the fish facing away in the opposite corner resulted in the fish rapidly turning around to face the finger after this had been in the water for only a few seconds. Then, using the caudal fin the fish slowly approached the finger, finally snapping at it when close enough. To eliminate the possibility of scent being a factor a glass rod was cleaned in alcohol and air dried and held in the tank.

Evidently vibrations were also detected through the hand-held glass rod which was stalked and attacked in the same way just described for the finger. The same response was elicited when a mosquito larva or pupa was placed in the corner of the tank with the fish initially in the far corner of the tank, as before, this time resulting in the intake of prey.

Additional feeding behaviours: The fish spent most of the time stationary on the bottom with the pectoral fins extended at right angles to the body, mouth open and with rhythmic pulsations of the operculum. The following observations were made when mosquito larvae were added to the aquarium:

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A Contribution to the Biology of a Blind Cave Fish Discovered in Jackson’s Bay When prey approached directly behind the caudal fin the fish would quickly turn around and face the prey before beginning to stalk it. When prey approached the fish laterally between the pectoral and caudal fins the fish increased forward sweeps of the pectorals sucking the prey towards the front. When the prey was positioned just behind the fin the pectoral was quickly flicked over propelling the prey to the corner of the mouth. Prey was then taken in through the corner of the mouth, captured with a quick sideways jerk of the head. When prey was detected directly in front of the head the fish either waited for the prey to approach or propelled itself slowly forward to within striking distance using only the caudal fin. Prey was then either sucked in with a sudden intake of water or grabbed using the teeth. When prey was detected in front of but to one side of the head in front of the pectorals, the fish would wait until the prey was in range, then quickly turn the head and either seize this with the teeth or suck the prey in through the corner of the mouth. Occasionally prey would be sucked in through the operculum aided by the reversed sweeping action of the pectoral fin as the fish simultaneously expelled water through the mouth. Prey approaching above the head and sensory tubules caused the fish to either wait for the prey to reach a lateral position or to move slowly backwards with a small forward flick of the pectorals before jerking the head upwards to catch the prey. Small prey, such as mosquito larvae were usually sucked in. Larger prey, such as small shrimp were grabbed with the teeth. Food items such as freshly crushed dead shrimp did not elicit a feeding response.

Only actively moving prey was of interest.

Existing food resources: Although relatively small numbers of bats occupy several sections of the cave no guano was observed in the sections of the cave under discussion, but the possible contribution of guano and occasionally dropped fruit seeds cannot be discounted.

The land crabs Cardiosoma guanhumi Latreille and Gecarcinus ruricola (Linnaeus) are occasionally seen, but any contributions made to the pools discussed are unknown. Samples of water from the Little People pool contained colourless microorganisms similar in shape and structure to Chlamydomonas and Euglena which presumably are close to the base of the food chain.

Bowman7 described a new Mysid, Antromysis peckorum, but Peck3 indicated this was collected from tidal pools within the cave. This species of crustacean is just 3 mm in length and could certainly be a food source for the fish, although none were seen in water samples from the Little People pool. Within the pool, however were amphipods, Metaniphargus jamaicae (Holsinger), and several unidentified shrimp, including one transparent species with pinkish-red haemolymph. A Mysid was

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collected from pools in Shamrock Passage and could certainly be a suitable food species although none were seen in the pool at the Little People site.

Discussion A comparative study of the external morphology of the cave fish indicates that overall shape and arrangement of fins is similar to Eleotris Bloch & Schneider (Eleotridae: Eleotrinae), fish found worldwide in tropical and subtropical estuaries and freshwater streams with some 34 genera and 180 described species, commonly known as Spiny Cheek Sleepers or Sleeper Gobies. The type species is Gobius pisonis Gmelin from southern Brazil, with distribution confined from southern Brazil to the Orinoco delta by Pezold & Cage.9 Two Eleotris occur in the western Atlantic. The first is E. amblyopsis Cope. This species is found in brackish water estuaries and coastal cave systems from the northwestern Brazil, around the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico, to North Carolina and also in the Bahamas, Turks and Caicos, and Greater Antilles. However, the fin configuration differs from that of the Jamaican cave fish suggesting that this species is not a close relative.

The second species of western Atlantic Eleotris is E. perniger Cope. This species is common around the Caribbean mainland and Caribbean islands south to Rio de Janeiro, and is also known from cave pools in Bermuda. In Costa Rica this fish is most abundant along the coast but also occurs up to 60 m above sea level in stagnant waters and slow flowing rivers and creeks as documented by Bussing10. Peck3 refers to this species as E. pisonis, but biometric studies by Pezold and Gage9 restrict E. pisonis to Brazil and Venezuela. Catherine McNeely (pers. comm.) reports that what may be E. perniger has been observed in the Little People’s Pool as recently as 2015.

The apparent absence of a preoperculate spine or spines is of significance, and together with the first dorsal fin possessing fewer spines than those usually found in Eleotris, are features more in common with Guavina guavina Cuvier & Valenciennes an Eleotrid fish originally described as Eleotris guavina. Although there are small differences in the configuration of the dorsal and the anal fins between the Jamaican cave fish and this species, the overall arrangement of fins and body shape and color is similar to Guavina which also lacks any obvious preoperculate spines. Guavina is found in mangrove habitats, brackish estuaries and freshwater habitats from Florida, the Gulf of Mexico, Central America and northern South America to São Paulo Brazil. In the Caribbean it is also recorded from Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Martinique.

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A Contribution to the Biology of a Blind Cave Fish Discovered in Jackson’s Bay Another possible relative is Gobiomorus dormitor Lacépède (Eleotridae) which has a similar circumCaribbean distribution and range of habitats to those of Guavina but until another cave specimen is caught and accurately described a true determination cannot be made.

The Jackson’s Bay cave fish clearly possesses adaptations for a troglobitic existence. Unique features include the well-developed sensory system that permits prey location in total darkness along with modified eyes that, although not responding to light or movement may still assist with determining other environmental parameters. These features are not evident on Guavina guavina or Gobiomorus dormitor supporting the notion that the Jamaican fish is an undescribed species.

Acknowlegements The author thanks Ann Haynes-Sutton and Susan Koenig for technical services and graciously acknowledges editorial suggestions from Stephen Walsh and Vaughan Turland. Discussions were also held with Catherine McNeely and representatives of the Jamaica Caving Organisation. Thanks also to Andrew Woods for his careful editing.

REFERENCES

National Speleological Society Bulletin, Journal of Caves and Karst Studies. 1993; 54 (2): 37-60 5. Ashcroft MT, Hendriks DWA, Herbert EJ, Hodgson DP, Lodge E, Perry JHE & Swindells R. Jackson’s Bay Great Cave. Bulletin of the Scientific Research Council of Jamaica. 1965; (6):13-19.

6. Fincham AG. Jamaica Underground: The Caves, Sinkholes and Underground Rivers of the Island. The Press University of the West Indies.

1997.

7. Bowman TE. A review of the genus Antromysis (Crustacea: Mysidaceae), including new species from Jamaica and Oaxaca, Mexico, and a redescription and new records for A. cenotensis. Association of Mexican Cave Studies Bulletin. 1975; (6):27-38.

8. Bowman TE. Stigiomysis major, a New Troglobitic Mysid from Jamaica, and Extension of the range of S. holthuisi to Puerto Rico (Crustacea: Mysidacea: Stygiomysidae). Int. J. Speleol. 1976; (8): 365-373.

9. Pezold F & Cage B. A review of the spinycheek sleepers, genus Eleotris (Teleostei: Eleotridae), of the western hemisphere, with comparisons to the West African species. Tulane Studies in Zoology and Botany. 2002; 31 (2): 19-63.

1. Garcia-Machado E, Hernandez D, GarciaDebras A, Chevalier-Monteagudo P, Metcalfe C, Bernatchez L & Casane D. Molecular phylogeny and phylogeography of the Cuban cave-fishes of the genus Lucifuga. Evidence for cryptic allopatric diversity. Molecular Phytogenetics and Evolution. 2011; (61): 470-483.

10. Bussing WA. Peces de las aguas Continentales de Costa Rica: Freshwater Fishes of Costa Rica. Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica, Revista de Biologia Tropical. Vol. (2): Suppl. 2.

1998.

2. Eigenmann CH. Cave vertebrates of America.

Carnegie Institute of Washington, Publ. 104.

1909.

3. Peck SB. The invertebrate Fauna of Tropical American Caves, Part III: Jamaica, An Introduction. Int. J. Speleol. 1975; (7): 303-326.

4. Peck SB. Flurkey AJ ed. Synopsis of the invertebrate cave fauna of Jamaica. The

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Comparative nutritional analysis of Themeda arguens (Piano grass), Brachiaria decumbens (Signal grass) and Cynodon nlemfuensis (African star) from Central Jamaica, W.I. Max A. Wellington*, Ted K. Rhoden and Lorenzo D. Ellis Department of Biology, Chemistry & Environmental Science, Northern Caribbean University, Mandeville, Jamaica W.I.

ABSTRACT In a survey of local livestock (beef cattle) farmers with holdings ranging from 7 – 1700 acres (Total = 5,059 acres), all cited Themeda arguens (Piano grass) that comprised an average of ca. 15.5% of their pastures (Range 1-40%) as a nuisance. The present study was conducted to compare the nutritional content of Themeda with two other popular pasture grasses – Brachiaria decumbens (Signal grass) and Cynodon nlemfuensis (African Star) which comprised 21% and 26% respectively, of the farms surveyed. Other major grasses encountered on the farms were Panicum maximum (Guinea grass- 13%) and Bothriochloa pertusa (Seymour grass -10%).

Analysis of the leaves revealed that Themeda had the lowest dry weight, crude protein, amino acids (essential and non-essential) and mineral content when compared to Bracharia and Cynodon. Total lipid content (ether extract) and pepsin/cellulase dry matter digestibility (DMD) of Themeda were comparable to the other grasses.

GC/MS analysis of the ether extract revealed little difference in the relative amounts of saturated, unsaturated and essential fatty acids. Based on these findings it can be concluded that Themeda as compared to Brachiaria and Cynodon would be least productive as livestock forage.

RUNNING TITLE Nutritional value of Themeda arguens, Brachiaria decumbens and Cynodon nlemfuensis.

KEY WORDS Themeda, Brachiaria, Cynodon, Protein, Fatty acids, Digestibility, amino acids, Minerals. *To whom correspondence should be addressed – max.wellington@ncu.edu.jm

Introduction Piano grass (Themeda arguens), reputed to have been introduced to Jamaica as packing material in an imported piano1, also known as Christmas grass, Easter grass, Kangaroo grass and Red grass in other jurisdictions (Africa. Asia, Papuasia, Australia, United States, Turkey and the Middle East) belongs to the genus Themeda 2-4. There are about 27 varieties of this

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highly invasive grass/weed worldwide1 and in Jamaica the species previously identified as Themeda arguens is of concern as it has progressively taken over lawns, pastures and roadsides1. The grass is of particular concern to livestock farmers due to its highly invasive and aggressive nature3 and the concomitant negative effect on livestock productivity, especially during its annual seeding period (November/December – April)2, when the palatability of the grass diminishes

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Nutritional Value of Themeda arguens, Brachiaria decumbens and Cynodon nlemfuensis in sufficient proportions in the approximate ratios (Cynodon,3: Brachiaria 2: Themeda 2).

Leaf samples of each grass were collected in May, July and October via randomized blocks. These were immediately transported to the laboratory in a cooler where they were weighed and dried where required, to be used for further analyses. All analyses were done in triplicate unless otherwise stated.

Dry Weight Determination Figure 1. Themeda arguens grass showing seed awn significantly and the seed awns can cause severe damage to the mouth when consumed, and feet of livestock2, sometimes requiring veterinary intervention (Wellington KE, personal communication, 2017).

During the period April November the grass presents morphologically as a normal pasture grass and is readily consumed by cattle, indicative of an increase in palatability.

No literature was found that addressed the nutritional value of Themeda, especially within the context of livestock production.

Due to the emerging dominance of this weed/grass in a fairly large and growing number of Jamaican pastures this research was undertaken to compare the nutritional value of Themeda with two of the more established and popular pasture grasses found locally – Cynodon nlemfuensis (African star) and Brachiaria decumbens (Signal grass) so as to more effectively understand its potential impact on livestock productivity.

Methods Survey

Questionnaires were issued to 10 randomly selected members of the Jamaica Red Poll Cattle

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Society all of whom either owned or operated livestock farms. The farms were not restricted to Central Jamaica but were distributed across the entire island. They were asked questions as to the location of their farm, the altitude and type of weather, types and percentage range of pasture grasses, and whether they considered Themeda good, neutral or a nuisance grass.

They were also questioned on whether the grass had negative impacts on the productivity and health of their animals as well as any practices that they currently employ to control Themeda on their respective farms (questionnaire appended).

Sample Collection

The experiment was conducted from May to October (6 months) in 2016 in Mandeville, located in central Jamaica. Mandeville is about 600 m above sea level and the air temperature and average precipitation for the period were Min 18°C/ Max 30°C and 900 mm (Annual 2000 mm) respectively (https:// www.worldweatheronline.com/ mandeville-weather-averages/ manchester/jm.aspx).

Samples were collected from a 0.4 hectare plot (Soil Type: Chudleigh Clay Loam; Typic: Euthorthox) where all three grasses were present

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50.0 g portions of each leaf type were weighed and placed in a thermostatically controlled oven at 55°C for 72 hours or until constant weight was attained. The dry weight was then determined based on the weight loss.

Ash Determination

The dried grass samples (ca. 2 g) were ashed in a muffle furnace at 600°C for 2 hours and the ash residue weighed.

Crude Fibre Determination

Crude fibre was determined by boiling the dried grass samples in H2SO4 (0.128 M) for 30 minutes followed by boiling in NaOH (0.313 M) for 30 minutes. The residue was dried overnight at 110°C, weighed and ashed at 550°C for 2 hours.

Crude fibre was calculated as the difference in mass between the dried residue and the ash.5

Crude Protein and Phosphorus Analysis

Crude protein and phosphorus were determined by spectrophotometry on the digest produced from the Kjeldahl method using ground samples (ca.

1 g) for the analyses; total nitrogen was multiplied by a factor of 6.25.6

Amino Acid Analysis

1) Protein Extraction 20 g of the dried grass was ground in a mortar and pestle in 20

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Nutritional Value of Themeda arguens, Brachiaria decumbens and Cynodon nlemfuensis mL extraction buffer (0.01M Phosphate Buffer (Fisher Scientific); 0.4M NaCl, pH 8). The extract was filtered using muslin cloth and centrifuged at 4000rpm for 20 minutes and the supernatant subjected to ammonium sulphate (ca. 40% w/v) precipitation overnight at 4°C. The precipitate was collected by centrifugation and dialysed (0.05 M Phosphate buffer, pH 7) to remove the ammonium sulfate. The residue which constituted the protein was dried and analyzed for amino acids.

2) Amino Acid Analysis Amino acids were determined using a Hitachi L8900 Amino Acid Analyser (Hitachi Global, Japan) according to the method outlined in Zhao et al.

(2012)5. 50 mg samples were weighed and placed in a test tube and 0.5% of acetic acid (0.2 mL) and 6 M HCl solution (39.8 mL) were added. The test tube was sealed and placed in a furnace heated to 110°C and hydrolysed for 24 hours. The tube was then cooled to room temperature before opening and filtering. 1 mL of the filtrate was removed and dried by vacuum evaporation. The dried sample was then dissolved in 0.02M HCl (2 mL) and 50 μL of the diluted sample injected into the amino acid analyser consisting of separation column 2.6 mm ID (internal diameter) x 150 mm with ion exchange resin2619. In addition to the ammonia column: 2.6 mm ID x 50 mm; column temperature: 57°C; column pressure for P1: 90-100 kg/ cm2 and for P2 10-15 kg/cm2; nitrogen pressure: 0.28 kg/cm2; flow rate of ninhydrin: 0.13 mLmin-1; buffer 0.1M citric acid, sodium citrate and sodium chloride, pH 3.4; flow rate of buffer: 0.3 mLmin-1; amino acid standard concentrations 10 mM; detection wavelength: 440 and 570 nm; analysis time: 70 min.

Mineral Analysis Minerals were determined according to AOAC (2000)7 Official Method 965.09. Minerals were extracted by dissolving the ash (ca. 250 mg; three (3) replicates for each sample set) in HCl (ca. 10 mL, 3 M). The mixtures were heated for 10 minutes, filtered and made up to 100 ml using deionised water. Sample solutions were stored in a refrigerator at 4°C until analyses were completed. Subsequent dilutions, where necessary, were done with deionised water. Mineral contents were determined using a Perkin-Elmer AA500 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (Perkin-Elmer Corporation, Waltham, MA).

Lipid Extraction The lipid content of the grasses was determined by diethyl ether extraction of the dried leaves according to the method of Mir et al. (2006)8.

Jamaica Journal of Science and Technology

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Fatty Acid Analysis 1) Methylation Fatty acid determinations were based on the method of Falloon et al. (2014)9 and Masood et al. (2005)10. Fat (ca. 10 mg), previously extracted above was placed in a vial to which methanol, acetyl chloride solution (9:1, 3 mL) and 0.9 ml C19:0 FAME (Fatty acid methyl ester) internal standard (prepared by dissolving 50 mg C19:0 FAME in 25 mL methanol) were added. The vial was capped tightly, and heated on a sand bath at 100°C for 2 hours. After cooling, hexane (2-3 mL, HPLC grade) was added, the mixture was shaken for 1 minute, left to stand for ca. 10 minutes, and the top layer carefully removed with a Pasteur pipette and placed in a GC vial.

The extraction was repeated by the addition of a further 0.5 mL portion of hexane. The fatty acid methyl ester composition was determined by GC-MS analyses.

2) GC-MS Analyses Analyses were conducted on an HP 6890 Gas Chromatograph equipped with an Agilent HP 5973 Mass Selective Detector (Agilent, California, USA). The following operating conditions were utilised: injector temperature, 225°C; detector temperature, 250°C; initial temperature, 130°C (held for 1 min); ramp rate, 4°C/min to 178°C, then 1°C/min to 225°C followed by 40°C/min to 245°C with a 13 minute hold. The carrier gas used was helium with a linear velocity of 60 cm/s at a constant pressure of 102.4 kPa. FID temperature was 250°C, air and nitrogen make-up gas flow rates were 450 and 10 mL/min, respectively. Mass scan range was 50-500 MHz. The column used was a HP 5 MS capillary column: 60 m x 0.25 mm (internal diameter) x 0.25 μm (film thickness), fused silica. After all chromatographic conditions had been optimised, the methylated test solutions (2 μL) were injected into the GC-MS. The relative percentage of each fatty acid methyl ester was reported. Analyses were done using three replicates.

Dry Matter Digestibility (DMD) DMD was determined by the method outlined in Sharma et al. (2008)11. 500 mg of each dried grass sample in triplicate were each placed in a 60 mL vial with a twist cap. 50 mL of a 2% Pepsin in 1 M HCl was added and the mixture incubated in a shaking water bath at 40°C for 24 hours. The digest was vacuum filtered using a sintered glass crucible and the residue washed back into the same vial using freshly prepared 1% cellulase in 1 M acetate buffer (pH 4.8) and digested in a shaking water bath for 24 hours at 40°C. The digest was then vacuum filtered using a sintered glass crucible, washed with hot distilled water, dried and weighed and % DMD determined.

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Results and Discussion

unpalatable during the seeding period (NovemberApril) and cattle would preferentially eat other grasses where the option was available (iv) the floral awns that accompany the seeding of the Themeda would sometimes get lodged in the mouths and between the hoofs of cattle forming abscesses and sometimes requiring veterinary intervention (v) Themeda appeared to be most invasive in the low-lying, hot, wet climate and (vi) the control measures used to stem the progressive invasion of Themeda included (a) use of competitive grasses (b) weeding (c) burning and (d) herbicide use – glyphosate and MSMA (monosodium methanearsenate - not widely used due to high toxicity to animals).

Table 1. Distribution of Grasses on Farms Surveyed

GRASS

% DISTRIBUTION

Cynodon

26

Brachiaria

21

Themeda

15

Panicum

13

Bothriochloa

10

Other

15

Table 1 shows the species distribution of grasses on the ten farms surveyed. The farms ranged in size from 7-1700 acres and covered a total of some 5,059 acres in the parishes of Manchester, St Elizabeth, St Ann, Trelawny and Portland. From the survey the most dominant grass encountered was Cynodon (African Star, 26%) followed by Brachiaria (Signal grass, 21%), Themeda (Piano grass, 15%), Panicum (Guinea grass, 13%) and Bothriochloa (Seymour grass, 10%).

From the survey conducted it was noted that: (i) Themeda occupied a total of some 15% of the farms surveyed (ii) all the farmers considered Themeda a nuisance to their operations (iii) Themeda was highly

Table 2 shows the nutrient composition and digestibility of the three grasses. In all cases except for the crude fibre, lipids and digestibility Themeda had the lowest levels when compared to Brachiaria and Cynodon.

The mean dry weight and protein differences between Themeda and the other grasses were significant ( tobs > tcrit; p=0.05; n=3). [Dry Weight, Protein – Themeda (241g kg-1, 86.5 g kg-1); Brachiaria (315 g kg-1, 104 g kg-1); Cynodon (374 g kg-1, 140 g kg-1)].

The difference in the mineralogy between the grasses was most remarkable for calcium, zinc, copper and manganese. The elements assayed were Ca, Mg,

Table 2. Nutrient Composition and Digestibility of Themeda, Brachiaria and Cynodon Grasses

Min

Themeda Max

Mean

Min

Brachiaria Max

Mean

Min

Cynodon Max

Mean

Dry Weight (g kg-1)

232

251

241

277

383

315

341

406

374

Ash (g kg-1)

450

500

470

760

780

770

630

700

660

Crude Fibre (g kg-1)

914

945

932

920

927

923

949

958

953

Crude Protein (g kg-1)

80.9

91.9

86.5

101

110

104

136

145

140

Ca (g kg )

3.4

4.2

3.8

5.8

7.5

6.9

7.5

8.1

7.8

Mg (g kg-1)

1.1

1.5

1.3

2.1

2.5

2.3

1.6

1.8

1.7

P (g kg )

2.1

2.3

2.2

2.7

3.2

2.9

3.1

3.6

3.4

Cu (ppm)

4.8

6.9

5.7

12.8

14.9

13.7

15.5

16.4

15.9

Zn (ppm)

10.0

14.5

12.1

24.0

25.0

24.5

38.0

43.3

40.2

Fe (ppm)

78.3

83.5

80.1

95.0

103.3

98.5

73.0

84.4

77.5

Mn (ppm)

32.4

37.3

34.7

64.0

75.0

69.0

63.0

67.2

65.3

Lipid (g kg-1)

4.05

5.32

4.7

4.70

5.41

5.1

3.25

4.53

3.9

DMD (%)

55

58

64

69

52

58

-1

-1

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Nutritional Value of Themeda arguens, Brachiaria decumbens and Cynodon nlemfuensis P, Cu, Zn, Fe and Mn. [Ca, Zn, Cu, Mn (ppm) – Themeda (3.9, 12.1, 5.7, 34.7); Brachiaria (6.8, 24.5, 13.7, 69.0); Cynodon ( 7.8, 40.2, 15.9, 65.3). The total lipids which were determined by extraction using diethylether did not differ greatly and ranged from about 40-50 g kg-1 with Cynodon (39.0 g kg-1) having the lowest mean content and Brachiaria the highest 51 g kg-1). The differences between the digestibility were not considered significant with Brachiaria having the highest (66.0% ) and Cynodon the lowest ( 55.3%). The mean digestibility of Themeda was 57.0 %.

Table 3 illustrates the essential and non-essential amino acid composition of the three grasses.

Lysine and tryptophan were not determined due to method related challenges. In all cases (essential and non-essential) the amino acid content of Themeda was lower (ca 60% less on average) when compared to Brachiaria and Cynodon. Except for histidine, Brachiaria and Cynodon amino acid levels were comparable. The histidine content of Brachiaria (9.6 g kg-1) was higher than Cynodon (0.9 g kg-1) and Themeda (0.5 g kg-1). The essential amino acids were present in all of the grasses assessed (except for tryptophan and lysine which were not determined). It should be noted there is a slight variation in essential amino acids for cattle compared with that for humans with lysine and methionine being considered limiting amino acids for milk production in dairy cattle12.

Table 4 highlights the relative fatty acid composition of Themeda, Brachiaria and Cynodon. All grasses were relatively high in polyunsaturates which comprised on average about 76% of all the fatty acids detected in the samples.

The intrinsic differences in the

Jamaica Journal of Science and Technology

Table 3. Nutrient Composition and Digestibility of Themeda, Brachiaria and Cynodon Grasses

Amino Acid

Themeda

Brachiaria

Cynodon

g kg

g kg

g kg-1

-1

-1

ASP

(D)

3.4

8.5

7.2

THR

(T)*

1.7

4.1

3.6

SER

(S)

1.6

4.0

3.3

GLU

(E)

3.8

9.5

8.3

PRO

(P)

1.6

3.5

2.8

GLY

(G)

1.8

4.2

3.4

ALA

(A)

2.1

5.4

4.5

VAL

(V)*

2.0

5.2

4.3

MET

(M)*

0.5

1.5

1.4

ILE

(I)*

1.3

4.2

3.7

LEU

(L)*

2.6

7.4

6.7

TYR

(Y)

1.4

3.9

3.7

PHE

(F)*

1.6

4.3

3.4

HIS

(H)*

0.5

9.6

0.9

TRP

(W)*

ND

ND

ND

LYS

(K)*

ND

ND

ND

ARG

(R)*

1.6

5.0

4.5

*Essential amino acid; ND = Not determined

fatty acid profiles between the grasses were unremarkable except for 11-Eicosenoic acid (C20:1, Gondoic acid) which was present in Themeda (9.1 g kg-1) and absent from the other grasses. The levels of saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats amongst the grasses were all similar. However, Brachiaria and Themeda had higher levels of lauric (C12) and myristic acid (C14) when compared to Cynodon. Linolenic acid was by far the most abundant fatty acid identified in all three grasses comprising on average about 80% of the polyunsaturates and 60% of the total fatty acids present. The levels of monounsaturated fats were relatively low comprising

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less than 1% of total fats in all cases. The major fatty acids identified in all three grasses was linolenic acid (ca. 60%), linoleic acid (ca. 15-17%), palmitic acid (ca.

15-17%) and stearic acid (ca. 4%) comprising about 96% of the fatty acids detected.

The dry matter yield/hectare13, forage nutritional value5 and dry matter digestibility13 are important indices for assessing the productive value of pasture grasses.

Maximum dry matter yields in temperate pastures have been reported at 15-16.5 m.t. DM/ hectare/year14 in contrast to a local study conducted in 1992 which indicated yields from African Star (Cynodon) to be as high as 45

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Nutritional Value of Themeda arguens, Brachiaria decumbens and Cynodon nlemfuensis m.t.DM/hectare/year14. High dry matter yields have been shown to be of fundamental importance to livestock productivity with respect to milk and meat productivity14.

Forage nutritional value mainly depends on the type and quantity of nutrients contained15. As such, the content of various nutrients has become the most basic factor for measuring the nutritional value of pasture and fodder crops5.

This paper examined the comparative nutritional value of three popular grasses in Jamaica namely Themeda arguens, Brachiaria decumbens and Cynodon nlemfuensis.

The study showed that Themeda was significantly lower in dry weight, crude proteins, minerals (Ca, Zn, Cu and Mn) and amino acid content when compared to Brachiaria and Cynodon thereby distinguishing it as the least productive for livestock farming.

The relatively low levels of calcium, phosphorus and protein in Themeda when compared to the other grasses was significant (tobs > tcrit; p =0.05; n=3) making it most unsuitable for dairy operations.

Calcium and phosphate levels in grasses for lactating cows should be 5.8 and 2.6 g kg-1 respectively16.

The calcium and phosphate levels for Themeda in this study was 3.9 and 2.2 g kg-1 respectively. Cynodon appeared to be the most productive with respect to these indices followed closely by Brachiaria.

Brachiaria had the highest pepsin/ cellulase DMD whereas the DMD for Themeda and Cynodon were comparable. Although Cynodon is the more dominant of the two grasses in livestock operations in Jamaica, Brachiaria is quite common but not as popular probably due to the potential toxicity of the steroidal saponins in the young leaves which when consumed can cause low growth rates, anorexia and wasting17. Despite this however, Brachiaria decumbens is

Jamaica Journal of Science and Technology

Table 4. Relative Fatty Acid (g kg-1) Profile of the Themeda, Brachiaria and Cynodon grasses

FATTY ACID

Themeda

Brachiaria

Cynodon

Lauric Acid (C12)

4.5

6.8

1.8

Myristic Acid (C14)

4.6

5.5

3.9

Pentadecanoic (C15)

0.4

0.0

0.8

Palmetoleic Acid (C16:1Δ9)

1.2

1.9

1.1

122.6

139.2

139.1

14-Methyl Hexadecanoic Acid (C17)

4.8

0.0

0.0

Margaric Acid (C17)

5.0

2.0

2.6

Linoleic Acid (C18:2Δ9,12)

122.4

147.5

118.3

Linolenic Acid (C18:3Δ9,12,15)

513.5

522.6

476.9

Stearic Acid (C18)

32.1

31.1

33.2

11-Eicosenoic Acid (C20:1Δ9)

9.1

0.0

0.0

Arachidonic Acid (C20:4Δ5,8,11,14)

7.4

3.7

7.9

Behenic Acid (C22)

4.0

4.7

5.5

Tricosanoic Acid (C23)

7.2

6.7

7.4

Pentacosanoic Acid (C25)

1.4

1.4

0.0

Octacosanoic Acid (C28)

0.0

0.0

0.9

191.4

202.4

205.8

3.1

1.9

1.1

635.9

670.0

595.1

Palmitic Acid (C16)

Total Saturated Total Monounsaturated Total Polyunsaturated

a highly productive tropical grass that is widespread through East Africa, South America, Australia, Indonesia, Vanuatu, Trinidad and Malaysia due to its adaptation to a wide variety of soil types and environments17.

The fatty acid content of the grasses were comparable in terms of quantity and quality. All had high level of polyunsaturates which corroborates the findings of a previous study done on the fatty acid content of forage species. In the study it was found

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that linolenic followed by linoleic and palmitic acid were the predominant fatty acids in several forage species18. Polyunsaturated fats have been cited to be important for human health and nutrition and as such relatively higher levels of these in meat and milk would be desirable. However, research has shown that in ruminants the biohydrogenation of linolenic and linoleic acids by rumen bacteria occurs, converting these fatty acids to their saturated counterparts19,20 prior to absorption and as such would not positively impact meat

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Nutritional Value of Themeda arguens, Brachiaria decumbens and Cynodon nlemfuensis

Figure 4. Themeda arguens in a Jamaican pasture or milk quality. It has been reported19 that differences in pasture forage fatty acids did not translate to differences in beef fatty acids which appear to be dictated by other factors such as cattle genetics. Of note though was the higher levels of lauric and myristic acids in Brachiaria and Themeda when compared with Cynodon in view of current interest in the levels of cholesterol in meats for consumption. Lipid research has suggested that not all saturated fats have the same impact on serum cholesterol. For instance, lauric acid (C12:0) and myristic acid (C14:0), have a greater total cholesterol raising effect than palmitic acid (C16:0), whereas stearic acid (C18:0) has a neutral effect on the concentration of total serum cholesterol, including no apparent impact on either LDL or HDL. Lauric acid increases total serum cholesterol, although it also decreases the ratio of total cholesterol:HDL because of a preferential increase in HDL cholesterol21-24.

In this study Themeda was found to constitute about 15% (range 1-40%) of the ten livestock farms surveyed.

This has serious productivity implications for these farms not only with respect to forage nutrition but the low palatability of this grass during the seeding period (November – April) and the potential damage by the floral awns to the mouths and feet of livestock presents a clear and present challenge to local livestock farmers, a problem further exacerbated by the aggressive and invasive nature of this grass/weed and the paucity of

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effective measures for control or eradication.

This investigation is the first documented study of the nutritional value of Themeda which can be considered a major forage species in some local as well as overseas jurisdictions. Further work will seek to examine differences in DNA and protein profiles of the grasses as well as possible strategies for the effective control and/or extermination of Themeda from local pastures where it poses a considerable hindrance to livestock productivity1,25.

Acknowledgements Acknowledgments are extended to Department. of Graduate Studies & Research, Northern Caribbean University for the research grant given to support this project. The authors would also like to acknowledge the Bureau of Standards Jamaica, the Sugar Industry Research Institute Jamaica, AAA Service Lab, Oregon, USA as well as (Hon) Dr. Karl Wellington, YS Farms Ltd, Jamaica and Dr. Michael Motta, Veterinary Consultant, Jamaica Broilers Ltd for their invaluable inputs and support.

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REFERENCES 1. Motta MS. Piano Grass. Ext. Circ. 51. Dep. Agric., Jamaica. 1953: 1-8. From: http://krishikosh.egranth. ac.in/handle/1/2031071.

2. Barkworth ME Themeda Grass Manual. Flora of North America; 2003.

3. Abom R Vogler W Schwarzkopf L. Mechanisms of the impact of a weed (Themeda quadrivalis) on reptile assemblage structure in a tropical savannah. Biological Conservation.2015; 191:75-82. DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.biocon.2015.06.016 4. Dell’Acqua M Gomarasca S Porro A Bochi S. A tropical grass resource for pasture improvement and landscape management: Themeda triandra -Forssk. Grass & Forage Science. 2013; 68: 205-215.

5.

Zhao Y Ma M Li X. Nutritional value and amino acid content of four grasses in Eastern Inner Mongolia. Journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances. 2012;11(21):3928-3936. DOI: 10.3923/javaa.2012.3928.3936

6.

Thomas RL Sheard RW MoyerJR Comparison of conventional and automated procedures for nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium analysis of plant material using a single digestion. Agronomy Journal 59:240-243.

7. AOAC, “Official Methods of Analysis”, Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Washington DC. 2000.

8.

Mir PS Bittman S Hunt D Entz T Yip B. Lipid content and fatty acid composition of grasses sampled on different dates through the early part of the growing season. Canadian Journal of Animal Science. 2006; 86(2): 279-290.

9.

Falloon OC Baccus-Taylor GS Minott DA. A comparative study of the nutrient composition of tree-ripened versus rack-ripened ackees (Blighia sapida). West Indian Journal of Engineering. 2014; 36(2): 69-75.

10. Masood A Stark KD Salem N. A simplified and efficient method for the analysis of fatty acid methyl esters suitable for large clinical studies. Journal of Lipid Research. 2005; 46: 2299-2305.

11. Sharma HSS Mellon RM Johnston D Fletcher H. Thermogravimetric evaluation of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) for the prediction of in vitro dry matter digestibility. Annals of Applied Biology. 2008; 152:277-288. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-7348.2008.00218.x 12. Zanton GI. Opportunities and challenges of applying recent advances in dairy cattle protein nutrition to beef cattle nutrition. Journal of Animal Science. 95:143-144. doi: 10.2527/ssasas2017.0121 13. Miller RC Ffrench DL Jennings PG. Cost of producing grass under commercial conditions in Jamaica.

Proceedings Scientific Research Council’s Seventeenth Annual National Conference on Science and Technology. 2003 November 19-22; Jamaica W.I. 14. Morrison J. The Influence of Climate and Soil on the Yield of Grass and its Response to Fertilizer Nitrogen. In: Prins, W.H. and G.H. Arnold (Eds) The Role of Nitrogen in Intensive Grassland Production. PUDOC, Wageningen, the Netherlands; 1980.

15. Zheng K Gu HR Shen YX. Research progress of forage quality evaluation system and breeding. Practaculture Sci. 2006: 25-28.

16. NRC. Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle.7th rev. ed. National Research Council, Nat. Acad. Sci. Washington, DC ; 2001. doi:https://doi.org/10.t17226/9825

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17. Low SG. Signal grass (Brachiaria decumbens) toxicity in grazing ruminants – Review. Agriculture. 2015; 5:971990. doi: 10.3390/agriculture5040971 18. Clapham WM Foster JG Neel JPS Fedders JM. Fatty acid composition of traditional and novel forages. J. Agric.

Food Chem. 2005; 53:10068-73.

19. Dierking RM. Fatty acid variation between forage species and within populations and fatty acid content of beef finished on pasture with different forage species. MSc Thesis, University of Missouri, USA; 2008. Retrieved from: https://mospace.umsystem.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10355/6289/research.pdf?sequence=3 20. Doreau M Demeyer DI Van Nevel C. Transformations and effects of unsaturated fatty acids in the rumen.

Consequences on milk fat secretion. In: Milk composition, production, and biotechnology. Ed. Welch RAS et al., Cab International; 1997.

21. Daley CA Abbott A Doyle PS Nader GA Larson S. A review of fatty acid profiles and antioxidant content in grass-fed and grain-fed beef. Nutrition Journal. 2010; 9 (10): 1-12. doi: 10.1186/1475-2891-9-10 22. Kris-Etherton PM Yu S. Individual fatty acid effects on plasma lipids and lipoproteins. Human studies.

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1997; 65(5):1628S-44S. 23. Mensink RP Zock PL Kester ADM Katan MB. Effects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: A meta-analysis of 60 controlled trials.

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2003; 77:1146-1155.

24. Mensink RP Katan MB. Effect of dietary fatty acids on serum lipids and lipoproteins. A meta-analysis of 27 trials. Arteriosclerosis Thrombosis Vascular Biology. 1992; 12:911-919.

25. Smith AC Flora Vitiensis nova: A new flora of Fiji. Volume I. Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii, USA: National Tropical Botanical Garden. 1979: 494

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THE PADOVAN P-HURWITZ NUMBERS AND THEIR PROPERTIES Ömür Deveci, 2Güzel İpek and 3Taha Dogan Faculty of Science and Letters, Kafkas University, 36100 Kars, Turkey

1

1,2,3

E-mail address : odeveci36@hotmail.com; guzelipek_36@hotmail.com; tahadogan8636@gmail.com

ABSTRACT The theory of generalized Padovan p-numbers was introduced by Deveci and Karaduman [8]. In this paper, we consider the usual Padovan numbers and as similar to the Padovan p-numbers, we give fair generalization of the Padovan numbers by Hurwitz matrix of the generating function of the Padovan p-numbers, which call the Padovan p-Hurwitz numbers. First, we derive relationships between the Padovan p-Hurwitz numbers and the generating matrices for these numbers. Also, we give miscellaneous properties of the Padovan p-Hurwitz numbers such as the Binet formula, the combinatorial, permanental, determinantal representations, the generating function, the exponential representation and the sums.

2000 Mathematics Subject Classification: 11K31; 11B50; 11C20; 20D60.

KEY WORDS AND PHRASES Padovan p-Hurwitz Sequence, Matrix, Representation

Introduction The Padovan sequence {P (n)} is defined by initial values P (0) = P (1) = P (2) = 1 and recurrence relation:

In [8], Deveci and Karaduman defined the Padovan p-sequence as shown:

for any given p (2, 3, 4, . . .) and (p + 2) = 0.

, where Pap (1) = Pap (2) =...= Pap (p) = 0, Pap (p + 1) =1 and Pap

Number theoretic properties such as these obtained from homogeneous linear recurrence relations relevant to this paper have been studied by many authors [2, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 20, 21, 22, 23]. Now we define the Padovan p-Hurwitz numbers and then, we obtain their miscellaneous properties using the generating matrix and the generating function of these numbers.

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THE PADOVAN P-HURWITZ NUMBERS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

The Padovan p-Hurwitz Numbers We define the Padovan p-Hurwitz numbers by the following homogeneous linear recurrence relation for any given p (4; 6; 8; . . .) and n ≥ 0

with initial conditions a0 = a1 = ··· = ap = 0 and ap+1 = 1.

By (2.1), we can write as following companion matrix:

The matrix M is said to be the Padovan p-Hurwitz matrix. By an inductive argument on n,we obtain

Now we consider the Binet formulas for the Padovan p-Hurwitz numbers.

Lemma 2.1. Let be a positive even integer such that does not have multiple roots.

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. Then the equation

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THE PADOVAN P-HURWITZ NUMBERS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

Proof. Suppose to get a contradiction that for , u is a multiple root of f (x) : Then, since u is a multiple root, u is a root of f'(x), that is, and

Since f (0) ≠ 0, we consider the equations and . One can see that these equations do not have a common root for p = 4, 6. But for the proof of the general case, let then we obtain the equations and . Assume that α is a common root. From the last equation, we can write equation, we get that

then plugging this into the first

‒

but using appropriate

software such as mathematica wolfram 10.0 [25], one can see that this last equation does not have a solution which is a contradiction. This contradiction proves that the equation does not have multiple roots.

It is important to note that the polynomial

is the characteristic polynomial of the Padovan p-Hurwitz matrix M. If are roots of the characteristic equation of the Padovan p-Hurwitz sequence , then by Lemma 2.1, it is known that are distinct. Let be the Vandermonde matrix as follows:

Let W(p) (i) be a

matrix as follows:

and suppose that column of by matrix

is a

Theorem 2.1. Let the

matrix derived from

matrix M be as in (2.2) and

by replacing the jth

,

for

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Proof. Since the eigenvalues of the matrix M are distinct, M is diagonalizable matrix. Then, it is readily seen that where . Since , we can write

Thus, the Padovan p-Hurwitz matrix M is similar to the diagonal matrix D. Then we have n for Since we may write

Then for each

, we obtain

So we have the following useful results.

Corollary 2.2. Let

be the nth element of the Padovan p-Hurwitz sequence, then

and ‒ Now we consider the combinatorial representations for the Padovan p-Hurwitz numbers.

Let

be a

companion matrix as follows:

See [16, 17] for more information about the companion matrix.

Theorem 2.3. (Chen and Louck [5]). The given by the following formula:

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in the matrix

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is

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where if

the .

summation is over nonnegative integers satisfying nonnegative integers satisfying, is a multinomial coeffcient, and the coeffcients in (2.4) are defined to be 1

Corollary 2.4. Let

be the uth element of the Padovan p-Hurwitz sequence, then

(i).

where the summation is over nonnegative integers satisfying

negative integers satisfying integeoveove.

(ii).

where the summation is over nonnegative integers satisfying over nonnegative integers satisfying and is a positive integer such that

Proof. (i). In Theorem 2.3, if we choose from (2.4) and (2.3). (ii).In Theorem 2.3, if we choose then the proof is immediately seen from (2.4) and (2.3)

then the proof is immediately seen and

such that

,

Now we consider the permanental representations for the Padovan p-Hurwitz numbers.

Definition 2.1. An real matrix is called a contractible matrix in the if the column (resp. row.) contains exactly two non-zero entries.

column (resp. row.)

be row vectors of the matrix A. If A is contractible in the column such that and then the matrix obtained from A by replacing the row with and deleting the row. We call the column the contraction in the column relative to the row and the row.

Let

if A is a real matrix of order

In [3], Brualdi and Gibson indicated that the matrix B is a contraction of A.

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Let be a positive even integer such that matrix defined by

and let

be the

super-diagonal

Then we have the following Theorem.

Theorem 2.5. Let be a positive even integer such that p-Hurwitz sequence. Then, for ,

and let

be the

element of the Padovan

Proof. We prove this by the induction method. Suppose that the equation holds for .Then we the show equation holds for holds . Expanding the holdshol by the Laplace expansion of permanent according to the Â…first row gives us

Since Padovan Let

, -Hurwitz sequence, we obtain be a positive integer such that and are defined by

and . and let

, by the definition of the . Assume that the

matrices

and

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.

Now we can give more general results by using other the permanental representation than the above.

Theorem 2.6. Let

be the

element of the Padovan

-Hurwitz sequence. Then, for

,

and

.

Proof. Consider the first part of the theorem. We prove this by the induction method. Suppose that the equation holds for , then we show that the equation holds for . If we expand the by the Laplace expansion of permanent according to the first row, then we have

Prove the second part of the theorem: Expanding the write

with respect to the first row, we can

.

Thus, by the results and an inductive argument, the proof is easily seen.

It is well-known that a matrix A is called convertible if there is an where denotes the Hadamard product of A and B.

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-matrix B such that,

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Let

and suppose that the

matrix T is defined by

Then, we easily derive that

and for

. So we have the following useful results.

Corollary 2.7. Let

be a positive even integer such that

and let

. Then,

and

It is readily seen that the generating function of the Padovan

where

is a positive even integer such that

-Hurwitz numbers

is

.

Now considering the function , we can give an exponential representation for the Padovan -Hurwitz numbers by the following Theorem.

Theorem 2.8. The Padovan

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-Hurwitz numbers have the following exponential representation:

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Proof. Clearly,

and

which is desired.

Now we consider the sums of the Padovan -Hurwitz numbers. Let be the element of the Padovan -Hurwitz sequence and let the matrix M be as in (2.2). If we denote the sums of the Padovan -Hurwitz numbers from 1 to , by , that is,

and we define

matrix

as in the following form:

then by the inductive argument, we write

.

Conclusions and Open Problems In [6, 7, 8, 13, 14, 21, 22, 23], the authors defined some linear recurrence sequences and gave their various properties by matrix methods. In this paper, we defined the Padovan -Hurwitz sequence which is related to the Padovan numbers, Padovan -numbers and Hurwitz matrix and obtained their structural properties by matrix methods. The open problems (possible future developments) in connection with results addressed in this paper can be summarized as follows: • Let us define more general form of the Padovan Jamaica Journal of Science and Technology

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for any given .

(4, 6, 8, . . .) and

, where

,

and

are integers and

Then, can we generalize the results of this paper similarly? • In [1, 4, 6, 7, 8, 18, 19, 24], some linear recurrence sequences were investigated in groups. Can the Padovan -Hurwitz sequence be extended to algebraic structures? • Given an integer matrix , A( mod ) means that all entries of A are modulo , that is, A( mod ) = ( ( mod )). Let us consider the set .If gcd , then is is ais a cyclic group; if gcd , then is a semigroup. In [6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15, 18, 24] the authors obtained the cyclic groups and the semigroups via some special matrices. Can any formula to determine the orders of the cyclic groups and the semigroups obtained by the aid of the generating matrix M of the Padovan p-Hurwitz sequence be found?

Acknowledgements The authors gratefully thank anonymous referee for her/his valuable suggestions which improved the presentation of the paper. This project was supported by the Commission for the Scientific Research Projects of Kafkas University. The project number is 2017-FM-63.

REFERENCES 1. Aydin H, Smith G C. Finite p-quotients of some cyclically presented groups. J. Lond. Math. Soc 1994; 49: 83-92.

2. Budden M, Hiller J, Rapp A. Generalized Ramsey theorems for r-uniform hypergraphs. Aust. J. Comb 2015; 63(1): 142-152.

3. Brualdi R A, Gibson PM. Convex polyhedra of doubly stochastic matrices I: applications of permanent function.

J Combin. Theory 1997; 22: 194-230.

4. Campbell C M, Campbell P P. The Fibonacci lengths of binary polyhedral groups and related groups, Congr.

Numer 2009; 194: 95-102.

5. Chen WYC, and Louck JC. The combinatorial power of the companion matrix. Linear Algebra Appl 1996; 232: 261-278.

6. Deveci O, Akuzum Y, Campbell C M. The recurrence sequences via polyhedral groups. Commun. Fac. Sci. Univ.

Ank. Ser. A1 2018; 67(2): 99-115.

7. Deveci O, Akuzum Y, Karaduman E. The Pell-Padovan p-Sequences and Its Applications. Util. Math 2015; 98: 327-347.

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8. Deveci O, Karaduman E. On the Padovan p-numbers. Hacettepe J. Math. Stat. 2017; 46 (4): 579-592.

9. Frey D D, Sellers J A. Jacobsthal numbers and alternating sign matrices. J. Integer Seq 2000; 3: Article 00.2.3.

10. Gogin N D, Myllari A A. The Fibonacci-Padovan sequence and MacWilliams transform matrices. Program.

Comput. Softw., published in Programmirovanie 2007; 33 (2): 74-79.

11. Hiller J. Old Friends in Unexpected Places: Pascal (and Other) Matrices in GLn (C). Amer. Math. Month 2016; 123 (2): 161-167.

12. Kalman D. Generalized Fibonacci numbers by matrix methods. Fibonacci Quart 1982; 20 (1): 73-76.

13. Kilic E. The generalized Pell (p; i)-numbers and their Binet formulas, combinatorial representations, sums.

Chaos, Solitons Fractals 2009; 40 (4): 2047-2063.

14. Kilic E. The Binet formula, sums and representations of generalized Fibonacci p-numbers. European J. Combin 2008; 29: 701-711.

15. Knox S W. Fibonacci sequences in nite groups. Fibonacci Quart 1992; 30 (2): 116-120.

16. Lancaster P, Tismenesky M. The theory of matrices. Academic, 1985.

17. Lidl R, Niederreiter H. Introduction to Â…nite Â…elds and their applications. Cambridge UP, 1986.

18. Lu K, Wang J. k-Step Fibonacci sequence modulo m. Util. Math 2006; 71: 169-177.

19. Ozkan E, Aydin H, Dikici R. 3-step Fibonacci series modulo m, Appl. Math. Comput 2003; 143: 165-172.

20. Shannon A G, Leon B. The Jacobi-Perron Algorithm and the Algebra of Recursive Sequences. Bull. Australian Math. Soc 1973; 8 (4): 261-277.

21. Stakhov, A P, Rozin, B. Theory of Binet formulas for Fibonacci and Lucas p-numbers. Chaos Solitons Fractals 2006; 27 (5): 1162-1167.

22. Tasci D, Firengiz M C. Incomplete Fibonacci and Lucas p-numbers. Math. Comput. Modelling 2010; 52: 17631770.

23. Tuglu N, Kocer E G, Stakhov A P. Bivariate Fibonacci like p-polinomials. Appl. Math. Comput 2011; 217 (24): 10239-10246.

24. Wall D D. Fibonacci series modulo m. Amer. Math. Month 1960; 67 (6): 525-532.

25. Wolfram Research, Inc. Mathematica, Version 10.0: Champaign, Illinois, 2014.

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HERBAL MONOGRAPH I Turmeric (Curcuma longa)

Shadae Foster, Melaine Randle, Cliff Riley and Charah Watson Product Research and Development Division, Scientific Research Council, Kingston, Jamaica, West Indies

Taxonomy Plant scientific name: Family: Common Names: Common Names:

Curcuma longa Zingiberaceae Curcuma, Indian-saffron, Jianghuang, Turmeric, Tambric, Curcumin, Yellow root, Yellow ginger Curcuma domestica Valeton [1,2]; C. aromatica Salisbury, C. rotunda L., C. xanthorrhiza Naves, Amomum curcuma Jacq. [3,4].

Plant Material of Interest/Part(s) Used The turmeric plant is propagated and harvested for its rhizomes.

General Appearance • Primary rhizome (extension of the stem), is a fleshy, oblong, nearly ovoid aromatic tuber (3 cm in diameter and 4 cm long) with smaller branching secondary rhizomes [1].

• Exterior of lateral rhizome contains rough, segmented skin and root scars.

• Colour ranges from yellow to yellowish brown, depending on developmental stage.

• Rhizomes are characterized internally by transverse, resinous parallel rings • Rhizomes can be dried and milled to produce an orange-yellow or orange powder.

Geographical Distribution • Turmeric is native to South or Southeast Asia including India (largest producer, exporter and consumer of the commodity), Bangladesh, Cambodia, Thailand, China, India, Nepal, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines and Vietnam [5-9].

• Also grown in several countries throughout the Caribbean and Latin America, such as Jamaica, Haiti, Costa Rica, Peru and Brazil.

Organoleptic Properties of Rhizomes • Odour: characteristic aromatic • Taste: bitter and warmly aromatic • Colour: internally brilliant yellow to deep orange-yellow [10].

Route of Administration Oral

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Turmeric (Curcuma longa)

Pharmaceutical Form and Dosage • • • • •

Dried powdered rhizomes: 0.5-3 g daily [11].

Fresh/crude rhizomes 3–9g daily [3,12].

Herbal tea: 0.5-1.0 g dried powder in 150 ml of boiling water, 2-3 times daily [11].

Capsules as recommended on product label Tincture (ration of powdered rhizome to extraction solvent 1: 10), extraction solvent ethanol 70%, 0.5–1ml three times per day [13].

There is no official consensus on effective turmeric doses.

Commercial Turmeric Products • Turmeric is mostly traded in the form of whole rhizomes • Three primary turmeric products are traded globally: 1. Dried rhizome 2. Turmeric powder 3. Oils and oleoresins

General Identity Tests • Microscopic characteristics and microscopic methods are used to authenticate Curcuma longa [6, 14].

• High-performance thin layer chromatographic (HPTLC) method is used to determine the curcumin content the Curcuma Longa [15].

• Spectrophotometer Analysis method is used to measure curcuminoid content [16].

Major Chemical Constituents • Turmeric rhizomes contain fatty oils and essential oils (4-6%) [17,18].

• The essential oil (5.8%) obtained by steam distillation of rhizomes has a-phellandrene, sabinene, cineol, borneol, zingiberene and sesquiterpines among others [19].

• Rhizomes contain between 2-5% curcuminoids which constitute three major types: curcumin I (curcumin/diferuloylmethane; 75-80%), curcumin II (demethoxycurcumin; 15-20%) and curcumin III (bisdemethoxycurcumin; 3-5%) (Figure 1) [15,18,20,18, 21, 22].

• Other curcuminoids such a cyclocurcumin or Curcumin IV have also been identified and isolated from turmeric [23].

• Turmeric powder, curcumin and its derivatives and many other extracts from the rhizomes were found to be bioactive. Phytochemical curcumin is most studied tumeric isolate and responsible for the orange-yellow color of turmeric [24].

Storage and Stability of Curcuminoid • Dried turmeric powder should be stored in well-closed containers protected from light (UV protective package) in a cool, dry place.

• Untreated fresh rhizomes should be kept in a cold room to preserve the quality and longevity of the sample.

Proximate Analyses and Anti-oxidant Activity • Most parameters for the Jamaican variety are not available.

• Mean moisture content determined for fresh and dried turmeric rhizomes grown in Hanover and Clarendon,

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Turmeric (Curcuma longa) Jamaica [6], indicated that the former had a moisture level of approximately 82.1%, compared to 3.7% for the dried sample [6].

• Higher anti-oxidant activity of 92.8% was detected in locally grown turmeric compared to 78.8 5% and 67.5%, (respectively) for organically and conventionally grown turmeric from other regions [25].

• Research has shown that a concentration of up to 10% curcuminoid has been quantified in the curcuma extract [26]. Analyses of Jamaican grown, dried and freshly processed tumeric rhizomes oleoresin under different temperatures showed curcumin levels ranging from 15 to 24 % [6].

• Reports have suggested a 4% curcumin content in the Jamaican turmeric, a concentration which is still highly valued in the turmeric trade [27].

The Chemical Structure of Curcuminoids

HO H3C

OH

O

O O

CH3

O

Curcumin

HO

OH

O O

CH3

O

Demethoxy Curcumin

HO

OH

O

O

Bisdemethoxy Curcumin Figure 1: The 3 main curcuminoid derivatives found in turmeric 19655)

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Turmeric (Curcuma longa) Uses and Therapeutic Properties of Turmeric and its By-products • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Spice, preservative, food colorant and home remedies or Ayurveda medicine [28,29].

Relieves digestive disturbances linked to indigestion flatulence, nausea, and feeling of fullness [30] Wound healing [31] Anti-inflammatory [32-35] Antioxidant [36,37] Immunomodulatory agents [38] Antimutagenic [39] Antitumor/anticancer [40-43] Antithrombotic [44] Antibacterial [45] Antifungal [46,47] Antiviral [48,49] Antidepressant [50,51] Antiparasitic [52] Antihepatotoxic [53,54] Hepatoprotective [55] Antiobesity and lower cholesterol levels [56-58] Alzheimer’s disease [59-64] Hypolipidaemic [65] Antidiabetic [42, 66-69]

Uses and Therapeutic Properties of Turmeric Essential Oil • • • • • •

Antifungal [70-72] Mosquitocidal [73] Antivenom [74] Antibacterial [75-77] Antioxidant [78] Antimutagenic [79]

Drug Interactions None reported

Contraindications Allergic dermatitis to turmeric has been reported (curcumin) [13,80].

Fertility and Lactation The safety and effectiveness of turmeric on pregnant and breast feeding mothers has not been established. Until such data are available, it recommended that it is not used during pregnancy and lactation.

Paediatric Use The effect of turmeric on children has not been established due to lack of adequate data.

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Turmeric (Curcuma longa) Safety The continuous high use of turmeric in Indian traditional Ayurvedic medicine for hundreds of years is indicative of its efficaciousness and its likely low toxicity. Turmeric products have been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA): “Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS)”. Same applies for the Joint Expert Committee of the Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization (FAO/WHO) [81-85].

Overdose No case of overdose reported.

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2. Adams, C. D., Proctor, G. R., & Read, R. W. (1972). Flowering plants of Jamaica, 56.

3. Wren, R. C. (1988). Potter’s New Cyclopaedia of Botanical Drugs and Preparations, revised by EM Williamson and FJ Evans, The CW Daniel Co. Ltd., Saffron Walden, UK. 4. Keys, J. D. (1976). Chinese herbs (their botany, chemistry, and pharmacodynamics). Charles E. Tuttle Company.

Inc., Tokyo.

5. Li, S., Yuan, W., Deng, G., Wang, P., Yang, P., & Aggarwal, B. B. (2011). Chemical composition and product quality control of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.). Pharmaceutical Crops, 2(1).

6. Green, C. E., Hibbert, S. L., Bailey-Shaw, Y. A., Williams, L. A., Mitchell, S., & Garraway, E. (2008). Extraction, processing, and storage effects on curcuminoids and oleoresin yields from Curcuma longa L. grown in Jamaica. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 56(10), 3664-3670.

7. Qin, N. Y., Yang, F. Q., Wang, Y. T., & Li, S. P. (2007). Quantitative determination of eight components in rhizome (Jianghuang) and tuberous root (Yujin) of Curcuma longa using pressurized liquid extraction and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Journal of pharmaceutical and biomedical analysis, 43(2), 486-492.

8. Krishnaswamy, K. (2006). Turmeric: The Salt of the Orient is the Spice of Life (Vol. 1). Allied Publishers.

9. Ammon, H. P., & Wahl, M. A. (1991). Pharmacology of Curcuma longa. Planta medica, 57(01), 1-7.

10. Amel, B. (2015). Microscopic analysis of Curcuma longa L. using multivariate test. International Journal of Pharmacognosy, 2(4), 173-177.

11. European pharmacopoeia, 3rd ed. Strasbourg, Council of Europe, 1997. Research 1953.

12. Bisset, N. G. (1994). Herbal drugs and phytopharmaceuticals. Stuttgart; Boca Raton: Medpharm.

13. World Health Organization. (1999). WHO monographs on selected medicinal plants (Vol. 1). World Health Organization.

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14. Paramasivam, M., Poi, R., Banerjee, H., & Bandyopadhyay, A. (2009). High-performance thin layer chromatographic method for quantitative determination of curcuminoids in Curcuma longa germplasm. Food Chemistry, 113(2), 640-644.

15. Jayaprakasha, G. K., Jagan Mohan Rao, L., & Sakariah, K. K. (2002). Improved HPLC method for the determination of curcumin, demethoxycurcumin, and bisdemethoxycurcumin. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 50(13), 3668-3672.

16. ASTA Analytical Methods, curcumin content of turmeric spice and oleoresins, method 18.0, revised December 1998.

17. Kapoor, L. D. (2017). Handbook of Ayurvedic medicinal plants: Herbal reference library. Routledge.

18. Tiwari, M., & Tandon, V. (2004). Medicinal plants (Vol. 1). Gyan Publishing House.

19. Kapoor, L. D., Handbook of Ayurvedic Medicinal Plants, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 1990.

20. Rajpal, V. (2005). Standardization of botanicals, Testing and extraction methods of medicinal herbs, Eastern Publishers, New Delhi, India, Volume 2, 120-121.

21. Tayyem, R. F., Heath, D. D., Al-Delaimy, W. K., & Rock, C. L. (2006). Curcumin content of turmeric and curry powders. Nutrition and cancer, 55(2), 126-131.

22. Govindarajan, V. S., & Stahl, W. H. (1980). Turmeric - chemistry, technology, and quality. Critical Reviews in Food Science & Nutrition, 12(3), 199-301.

23. Kiuchi, F., Goto, Y., Sugimoto, N., Akao, N., Kondo, K., & Tsuda, Y. (1993). Nematocidal activity of turmeric: synergistic action of curcuminoids. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 41(9), 1640-1643.

24. Devassy, J. G., Nwachukwu, I. D., & Jones, P. J. (2015). Curcumin and cancer: barriers to obtaining a health claim. Nutrition reviews, 73(3), 155-165.

25. Roghelia, V., & Patel, V. H. (2013). Antioxidant profile of organically and conventionally grown fresh turmeric (curcuma longa l.): a comparative study. Journal of Cell & Tissue Research, 13(2).

26. Quiles, J. L., Mesa, M. D., Ramírez-Tortosa, C. L., Aguilera, C. M., Battino, M., Gil, Á., & Ramírez-Tortosa, M. C. (2002). Curcuma longa extract supplementation reduces oxidative stress and attenuates aortic fatty streak development in rabbits. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, 22(7), 1225-1231.

27. Agro Investment Corporation. Investment profile for turmeric (2019). CORPORATION http://www.agroinvest. gov.jm/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Turmeric-Investment-Profile-2019.pdf.

28. Gupta, S. C., Sung, B., Kim, J. H., Prasad, S., Li, S., & Aggarwal, B. B. (2013). Multitargeting by turmeric, the golden spice: From kitchen to clinic. Molecular nutrition & food research, 57(9), 1510-1528.

29. Hutchins-Wolfbrandt, A., & Mistry, A. M. (2011). Dietary turmeric potentially reduces the risk of cancer. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev, 12(12), 3169-3173.

30. Bundy, R., Walker, A. F., Middleton, R. W., & Booth, J. (2004). Turmeric extract may improve irritable bowel syndrome symptomology in otherwise healthy adults: a pilot study. Journal of Alternative & Complementary Medicine, 10(6), 1015-1018.

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31. Gujral, M. L., Chowdhury, N. K., & Saxena, P. N. (1953). The effect of certain indigenous remedies on the healing of wounds and ulcers. Journal of the Indian Medical Association, 22(7), 273-276.

32. Zhang, N., Li, H., Jia, J., & He, M. (2015). Anti-inflammatory effect of curcumin on mast cell-mediated allergic responses in ovalbumin-induced allergic rhinitis mouse. Cellular immunology, 298(1-2), 88-95.

33. Rahimi, H. R., Jaafari, M. R., Mohammadpour, A. H., Abnous, K., Ghayour Mobarhan, M., Ramezanzadeh, E., ... & Kazemi Oskuee, R. (2015). Curcumin: reintroduced therapeutic agent from traditional medicine for alcoholic liver disease. Asia Pacific Journal of Medical Toxicology, 4(1), 25-30.

34. Meng, B., Li, J., & Cao, H. (2013). Antioxidant and antiinflammatory activities of curcumin on diabetes mellitus and its complications. Current pharmaceutical design, 19(11), 2101-2113.

35. Chainani-Wu, N. (2003). Safety and anti-inflammatory activity of curcumin: a component of tumeric (Curcuma longa). The Journal of Alternative & Complementary Medicine, 9(1), 161-168.

36. Kavakli, HS, Koca, C., & Alici, O. (2011). Antioxidant effect of curcumin in spinal cord injury in rats. Ulusal Travma Ve Acil Cerrahi Dergisi-Turkish Journal of Trauma & Emergency Surgery, 17, 14-18.

37. Unnikrishnan, M. K., & Rao, M. N. (1995). Inhibition of nitrite induced oxidation of hemoglobin by curcuminoids. Die Pharmazie, 50(7), 490-492.

Jantan, I., Bukhari, S. N. A., Lajis, N. H., Abas, F., Wai, L. K., &Jasamai, M. (2012). Effects of diarylpentanoid 38. analogues of curcumin on chemiluminescence and chemotactic activities of phagocytes. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 64(3), 404-412.

39. Polasa, K., Raghuram, T. C., Krishna, T. P., & Krishnaswamy, K. (1992). Effect of turmeric on urinary mutagens in smokers. Mutagenesis, 7(2), 107-109.

40. Unlu, A., Nayir, E., Kalenderoglu, M. D., Kirca, O., &Ozdogan, M. (2016). Curcumin (Turmeric) and cancer.

Journal of the Balkan Union of Oncology, 21(5), 1050-1060.

41. Devassy, J. G., Nwachukwu, I. D., & Jones, P. J. (2015). Curcumin and cancer: barriers to obtaining a health claim. Nutrition reviews, 73(3), 155-165.

42. Khajehdehi, P., Pakfetrat, M., Javidnia, K., Azad, F., Malekmakan, L., Nasab, M. H., & Dehghanzadeh, G. (2011).

Oral supplementation of turmeric attenuates proteinuria, transforming growth factor-β and interleukin-8 levels in patients with overt type 2 diabetic nephropathy: a randomized, double-blind and placebo-controlled study. Scandinavian journal of urology and nephrology, 45(5), 365-370.

43. Hossain, D. M., Bhattacharyya, S., Das, T., & Sa, G. (2012). Curcumin: the multi-targeted therapy for cancer regression. Front Biosci (Schol Ed), 4(1), 335-355.

44. Srivastava, R., Dikshit, M., Srimal, R. C., & Dhawan, B. N. (1985). Anti-thrombotic effect of curcumin.

Thrombosis research, 40(3), 413-417.

45. Ikpeama, A., Onwuka, G. I., &Nwankwo, C. (2014). Nutritional composition of Tumeric (Curcuma longa) and its antimicrobial properties. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, 5(10), 1085-1089.

46. Saju, K. A., Venugopal, M. N., & Mathew, M. J. (1998). Antifungal and insect-repellent activities of essential oil of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.). Current Science, 75(7), 660-662.

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47. Apisariyakul, A., Vanittanakom, N., & Buddhasukh, D. (1995). Antifungal activity of turmeric oil extracted from Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae). Journal of ethnopharmacology, 49(3), 163-169.

48. Lin, J. K., Huang, T. S., Shih, C. A., & Liu, J. Y. (1994). Molecular mechanism of action of curcumin: Inhibition of 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-induced responses associated with tumor promotion. In ACS symposium series (USA).

49. Li, C. J., Zhang, L. J., Dezube, B. J., Crumpacker, C. S., & Pardee, A. B. (1993). Three inhibitors of type 1 human immunodeficiency virus long terminal repeat-directed gene expression and virus replication. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 90(5), 1839-1842.

50. Bhutani, M. K., Bishnoi, M., & Kulkarni, S. K. (2009). Anti-depressant like effect of curcumin and its combination with piperine in unpredictable chronic stress-induced behavioral, biochemical and neurochemical changes.

Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 92(1), 39-43.

51. Yu, Z. F., Kong, L. D., & Chen, Y. (2002). Antidepressant activity of aqueous extracts of Curcuma longa in mice.

Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 83(1-2), 161-165.

52. Koide, T., Nose, M., Ogihara, Y., Yabu, Y., &Ohta, N. (2002). Leishmanicidal effect of curcumin in vitro. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 25(1), 131-133.

53. Liju, V.B., Jeena, K., and Kuttan, R. (2011). An evaluation of antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antinociceptive activities of essential oil from Curcuma longa. Indian Journal of Pharmacology, 43(5), 526-531.

54. Luthra, P. M., Singh, R., & Chandra, R. (2001). Therapeutic uses of Curcuma longa (turmeric). Indian Journal of Clinical Biochemistry, 16(2), 153-160.

55. Kiso, Y., Suzuki, Y., Watanabe, N., Oshima, Y., & Hikino, H. (1983). Antihepatotoxic principles of Curcuma longa rhizomes. Planta medica, 49(11), 185-187.

56. Budiman, I., Tjokropranoto, R., Widowati, W., Fauziah, N., &Erawijantari, P. (2015). Potency of tumeric (Curcuma longa L.) extract and curcumin as anti-obesity by inhibiting the cholesterol and triglycerides synthesis in HepG2 cells. International Journal of Research in Medical Sciences, 3, 1165-71.

57. RamÄąrez-Tortosa, M. C., Mesa, M. D., Aguilera, M. C., Quiles, J. L., Baro, L., Ramirez-Tortosa, C. L., ... & Gil, A. (1999). Oral administration of a turmeric extract inhibits LDL oxidation and has hypocholesterolemic effects in rabbits with experimental atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis, 147(2), 371-378.

58. Babu, P. S., & Srinivasan, K. (1997). Hypolipidemic action of curcumin, the active principle of turmeric (Curcuma longa) in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. Molecular and cellular biochemistry, 166(1-2), 169175.

59. Plotto, A. (2004). Turmeric: post-harvest operations. INPhO Post Harvest Compendium. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organizations of United Nations. FAO, 2-8.

60. Lim, G. P., Chu, T., Yang, F., Beech, W., Frautschy, S. A., & Cole, G. M. (2001). The curry spice curcumin reduces oxidative damage and amyloid pathology in an Alzheimer transgenic mouse. Journal of Neuroscience, 21(21), 8370-8377.

61. Ahmed, T., & Gilani, A. H. (2014). Therapeutic potential of turmeric in Alzheimer's disease: curcumin or curcuminoids. Phytotherapy Research, 28(4), 517-525.

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62. Park, S. Y., & Kim, D. S. (2002). Discovery of natural products from Curcuma longa that protect cells from betaamyloid insult: A drug discovery effort against Alzheimer's disease. Journal of natural products, 65(9), 12271231.

63. Park, S. Y., Kim, H. S., Cho, E. K., Kwon, B. Y., Phark, S., Hwang, K. W., & Sul, D. (2008). Curcumin protected PC12 cells against beta-amyloid-induced toxicity through the inhibition of oxidative damage and tau hyperphosphorylation. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 46(8), 2881-2887.

64. Zhang, L., Wu, C., Zhao, S., Yuan, D., Lian, G., Wang, X., ... & Yang, J. (2010). Demethoxycurcumin, a natural derivative of curcumin attenuates LPS-induced pro-inflammatory responses through down-regulation of intracellular ROS-related MAPK/NF-κB signaling pathways in N9 microglia induced by lipopolysaccharide.

International immunopharmacology, 10(3), 331-338.

65. Dixit, V. P., Jain, P., & Joshi, S. C. (1988). Hypolipidaemic effects of Curcuma longa Linn., and Nardostachys jatamansi DC, in triton-induced hyperlipidaemic rats. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol, 32, 299-304.

66. Kuroda, M., Mimaki, Y., Nishiyama, T., Mae, T., Kishida, H., Tsukagawa, M., ... & Kitahara, M. (2005).

Hypoglycemic effects of turmeric (Curcuma longa L. rhizomes) on genetically diabetic KK-Ay mice. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 28(5), 937-939.

67. Madkor, H. R., Mansour, S. W., & Ramadan, G. (2011). Modulatory effects of garlic, ginger, turmeric and their mixture on hyperglycaemia, dyslipidaemia and oxidative stress in streptozotocin–nicotinamide diabetic rats.

British Journal of Nutrition, 105(8), 1210-1217.

68. Suryanarayana, P., Saraswat, M., Mrudula, T., Krishna, T. P., Krishnaswamy, K., & Reddy, G. B. (2005). Curcumin and turmeric delay streptozotocin-induced diabetic cataract in rats. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science, 46(6), 2092-2099.

69. Arun, N., &Nalini, N. (2002). Efficacy of turmeric on blood sugar and polyol pathway in diabetic albino rats.

Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 57(1), 41-52.

70. Avanço, G. B., Ferreira, F. D., Bomfim, N. S., Peralta, R. M., Brugnari, T., Mallmann, C. A., ... & Machinski Jr, M. (2017). Curcuma longa L. essential oil composition, antioxidant effect, and effect on Fusarium verticillioides and fumonisin production. Food Control, 73, 806-813.

71. Sharma, R., Sharma, G., & Sharma, M. (2011). Additive and inhibitory effect of antifungal activity of Curcuma longa (Turmeric) and Zingiber officinale (Ginger) essential oils against Pityriasis versicolor infections. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 5(32), 6987-6990.

72. Apisariyakul, A., Vanittanakom, N., & Buddhasukh, D. (1995). Antifungal activity of turmeric oil extracted from Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae). Journal of ethnopharmacology, 49(3), 163-169.

73. Roth, G. N., Chandra, A., & Nair, M. G. (1998). Novel bioactivities of Curcuma longa constituents. Journal of Natural Products, 61(4), 542-545.

74. Ferreira, L. A., Henriques, O. B., Andreoni, A. A., Vital, G. R., Campos, M. M., Habermehl, G. G., & de Moraes, V. L. (1992). Antivenom and biological effects of ar-turmerone isolated from Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae).

Toxicon, 30(10), 1211-1218.

75. Negi, P. S., Jayaprakasha, G. K., Jagan Mohan Rao, L., & Sakariah, K. K. (1999). Antibacterial activity of turmeric oil: a byproduct from curcumin manufacture. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 47(10), 4297-4300.

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76. Stanojević, J. S., Stanojević, L. P., Cvetković, D. J., & Danilović, B. R. (2015). Chemical composition, antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of the turmeric essential oil (Curcuma longa L.). Advanced technologies, 4(2), 19-25.

77. Banerjee, A. & Nigam, S. S., (1978). Antimicrobial efficacy of the essential oil of Curcuma longa. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 68, 864–8.

78. Jayaprakasha, G. K., Jena, B. S., Negi, P. S., & Sakariah, K. K. (2002). Evaluation of antioxidant activities and antimutagenicity of turmeric oil: a byproduct from curcumin production. Zeitschrift für Naturforschung C, 57(9-10), 828-835.

79. Liju, V. B., Jeena, K., & Kuttan, R. (2014). Chemopreventive activity of turmeric essential oil and possible mechanisms of action. Asian Pacific journal of cancer prevention, 15(16), 6575-6580.

80. Seetharam, K. A., & Pasricha, J. S. (1987). Condiments and Contact Dermatitis of the Finger-Tips. Indian journal of dermatology, venereology and leprology, 53(6), 325-328.

81. Bhat, M. P., Patil, P., Nataraj, S. K., Altalhi, T., Jung, H. Y., Losic, D., & Kurkuri, M. D. (2016). Turmeric, naturally available colorimetric receptor for quantitative detection of fluoride and iron. Chemical Engineering Journal, 303, 14-21.

82. Pushpakumari, K. N., Varghese, N., & Kottol, K. (2014). Purification and Separation of Individual Curcuminoids from spent turmeric oleoresin, a by-product from Curcumin production industry. International journal of pharmaceutical sciences and research, 3246-3254.

83. Saltos, J. A., Shi, W., Mancuso, A., Sun, C., Park, T., Averick, N., ... & Raja, K. (2014). Curcumin-derived green plasticizers for poly (vinyl) chloride. RSC Advances, 4(97), 54725-54728.

84. Gupta, S. C., Patchva, S., & Aggarwal, B. B. (2013). Therapeutic roles of curcumin: lessons learned from clinical trials. The American Association of Pharmaceutical Scientists journal, 15(1), 195-218.

Prasad, S., & Aggarwal, B. B. (2011). Turmeric, the golden spice. In Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular and Clinical 85. Aspects. 2nd edition. CRC Press/Taylor & Francis

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HERBAL MONOGRAPH II Guinea Hen Weed (Petiveria alliacea L)

Channtal Golding-Wiles, Melaine Randle, Charah Watson and Cliff Riley Scientific Research Council, Kingston 6, Jamaica channtalg@src-jamaica.org

Taxonomy Plant scientific name: Family: Common Names (1):

Petiveria alliacea L. Phytolaccaceae The common names of this plant vary depending on geographical location.

• English-Speaking Regions:

Congo root; garlic weed; Guinea hen plant; Guinea-hen weed; gully root; skunk root; skunk weed; strong man’s weed

• Spanish-Speaking Regions:

Ajillo; anamú; apacina; epasina; hierba gallinita; hierba zorrillo; hoja de zorrillo; ipasina; mapurite; pipí; zorrillo

• In the Caribbean

Bahamas: obeah bush, garlic weed Lesser Antilles: conga root, cudjoe root, dandail

General Appearance/Description P. alliacea is a perennial herbaceous plant that grows approximately 50 to 150 cm in height (3). The common names reference the characteristic strong garlic odour that comes from the stems and the leaves (1). Leaves are alternate, simple, elliptical to oblanceolate, tapering at the end; the leaves range from 5 - 20 cm in length and 2 - 8 cm in width.

The stipules range from 1.5 – 2 mm and the petiole 0.4 - 2 cm. The flowers are zygomorphic and overlap slightly, or found in isolation and hang distally with peduncles 1 - 4 cm in length. The sepals are 3 - 4 mm in height and appear white, greenish or pinkish in colour (4) (5). P. alliacea produces small, narrow and oblong fruits (6-8 mm in length) with each containing a single seed.

Geographical Distribution P. alliacea is native to areas of South and North America, as well as the Caribbean (6). The plant was also introduced to parts of Africa and Mediterranean (6) and is found in parts of Asia, primarily in India (1).

Plant Material of Interest/Part(s) Used •

Whole plant (leaves, stems and roots)

Route of Administration • •

Oral Topical

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Traditional Uses • • •

•

• • • • • • •

Leaves and stems of P. alliacea are dried and infused in water to make a tea and consumed in Central America (eg. Mexico), Brazil and Guyana for the management of gastro-intestinal disturbances, fungal and parasitic infections (7) (8) (9) (10).

In Jamaica, the plant is consumed as a tea for treatment of various ailments including cold and flu. The plant leaves are also made into a concoction that is applied topically for reducing pain and swellings associated with arthritis (2).

Folklore uses for inflammation and respiratory illnesses within the Latin America region have also been reported (8) (9) (10). In Guatemala folklore medicine, the dried roots and stems of P. alliacea are crushed and inhaled for the management of inflamed sinuses or a tea concoction of the leaves is consumed for the same aliment (7).

The leaves of P. alliacea are made into a beverage and consumed in Brazil and some Central American countries to induce abortions (8). In the Caribbean (eg Trinidad and Tobago), South America (eg. Brazil and Guyana) and other neighbouring countries, the entire plant is dried, milled and used as an abortifacient (8) as well.

Many countries within the Central America and Caribbean region also use the roots to induce menstruation and to promote good uterine health after child-birth (11).

The whole dried plant is also used as a diuretic (8) and for the management of headaches (11) (8) in the West Indies.

In Peru P. alliacea is also consumed as a tea and used as a neuronal stimulant (12).

The plant is used as a sedative, to reduce anxiety as well to suppress muscle spasms (13).

A comprehensive review of the traditional use of the plant conducted (11) also documents chewing of the branches in Brazil to reduce toothache and other countries have reported the folklore use of chewing on the roots of P. alliacea to prevent tooth decay (10).

In Puerto Rico the roots of the plant are made into a beverage to treat (11), and to manage fever and other forms of inflammation (10).

The strong odour of the plant has also made it useful as a mild insecticide as well as an insect repellent (10).

Burnt remains of the leaves are applied to the skin to provide some form of insect repellence in Guatemala (11). The leaves of the plants are also used to make a wash for the management of skin conditions or added to a bath to sooth aching muscles (7).

Potential Medicinal Uses The inflorescences of Petiveria alliacea were found to contain benzaldehyde, benzyl thiol and dibenzyl disulphide (14). Other studies have also identified resinous acid, dibenzyl trisulfides, coumarins, benzyl-2-hydroxyethyl trisulfide and trithiolaniacine (11) (13). Phytochemicals such as flavonoids, tannins and polyphenols have also been identified, as well as allantonin, fredelinol, pinitiol, saponins, steriods, and triterpenes (13). These compounds have potential medicinal properties, which may have implications for their use in treating several diseases as highlighted below.

Anti-Cancer

Studies have highlighted the presence of phytochemicals such as dibenzyl-trisulfide, benxopyran, stilbin and coumarin (15) (16) which have been shown to retard the growth of certain cancer cell types such as brain (neuro blastoma), bladder (primary bladder carcinoma), breast (mammary carcinoma), fibrous (sarcoma), skin (melanoma) and small cell lung cancer, in vitro. Studies have also established the cytotoxic effect (via apoptosis, DNA fragmentation and caspase-3-activation) of an aqueous P. alliacea extract (29 µg/ml and 2 dilutions below) in vitro on metastatic breast adenocarcinoma line 4T1 (17). Anti-tumour properties of Petiveria alliacea ethyl acetatefractions have been detected against the human cell lines erythroleukemia (K562) and melanoma (A375) (16).

Ethanol extracts (18 µg/ml) of the P. alliacea has shown cytotoxicity to human hepatic carcinoma cell lines ATTC (16).

Dibenzyl-trisulfide has been isolated and synthetically produced and further investigations into the mechanism of cytotoxic activities have been documented in numerous studies (15) (18).

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Neurological Activity

Pre-clinical in vivo studies have shown the potential neuronal stimulator effect of P. alliacea (19) in particular the leaves (20). However, pre-clinical animal studies have highlighted a slight sedative effect when the root is used (8) (20).

Neurological Activity

The anti-inflammatory potential has been demonstrated in pre-clinical animal studies where an ethanol root extract of Petiveria alliacea decreased the eosinophil and mononuclear cell migration in a carrageenan-induced pleurisy animal model at a dose of 31.4 mg/kg body weight and a reduction of neutrophil migration at 43.9 mg/kg body weight (13). Guinea hen weed has been used traditionally for the treatment of arthritis and rheumatism. This folklore claim was validated by Swedish scientists who showed the plant has similar properties to an arthritis drug, a COX-1 inhibitors (2). A 31.4 mg/kg body weight dose of a 66.7% ethanol extract of the root of P. alliacea extract significantly reduced pain response when compared to a negative control (13).

Antibacterial

The alcoholic extracts of the root of P. alliacea have shown anti-microbial activity (8); (13); (10) both in in vitro and in vivo pre-clinical studies and hydro-alcoholic extracts of the leaves have also been reported to significantly suppress bacterial growth at doses ranging from 50 – 200 mg/ml (21). Crude methanol extracts of the roots and leaves of the plant have also shown antibacterial activity with particular potency against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Micrococcus sp. and Bacillus subtilis bacteria species (22).

Anti-Fungal

It was also discovered that the crude methanol extracts of the roots of Petiveria alliacea showed in vitro activity against Penicillium sp., Collectotrichum sp. and Rhizopus sp. while the leaves of the plant had nominal efficacy (22).

Anti-Viral

Research has documented a reduced Hepatitis-C virus (Huh 7.5) expression when exposed to P. alliacea extract (100 µg/ml) (23). Another study conducted (24) reported that a methanol fraction of P. alliacea leaves had significant effect on the reverse transcriptase activity against HIV-1 JRCSF strain (23) with EC50 at 21.60 µg/ml (24).

Dosage Forms Dosage forms include capsules, powders, tinctures of the dried leaves, root or whole plant.

Dosage, Administration and Safety •

Due to insufficient human research, there is inadequate information to determine a safe dosage regimen.

Several guinea hen weed supplement labels suggest dosages of 400–1,250 mg per day, but the safety and effectiveness of these recommendations are unknown (25).

• Reports of liver toxicity with repeated use has been reported in preclinical studies (26).

• An in vitro study conducted highlighted the potential for cytochrome p inhibition activity of the root (95 % ethanol extractions) with significant activity noted at CYPs 1A2, 2C19 and 3A4 (27). The study also highlighted inhibitory effect of CYP2C19 with a 96.5% extract of the whole plant.

Sustainability and Cultivation • Cultivation should not be problematic given that P. alliacea seeds can be easily dispersed over short and longdistances through attachment of the barbed projections present on the fruits to animal fur, bird feathers and human clothing (29).

• The plant grows rapidly and is tolerant to many environmental stresses. It is considered a nuisance to some farmers and applications of diuron combined with paraquat have resulted in good control (28).

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REFERENCES 1. Rojas-Sandoval, Julissa and Acevedo-Rodriguez, Pedro. Datasheet Petiveria alliacea. CABI Invasive Species Compendium. [Online] 2019. https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/70236.

2. Vendryes, Tony. Ounce of prevention guinea hen weed - a valuable herb. Jamaica Gleaner. July 28, 2018.

3. Leaf and stem morpho anatomy of Petiveria alliacea. Duarte, M. and Lopes, J. 2005, Fitoterapia, Vol. 76, pp. 599607.

4. TRAMIL. TRAMILibraryP/Petiveria alliacea. Tramil Program of Applied Research to Popular Medicine in the Caribbean. [Online] 2019. http://www.tramil.net/en/plant/petiveria-alliacea.

5. A systematic review of the traditional and medicinal uses of Petiveria alliacea L. in the treatment of chronic diseases. Randle, Melaine, Riley, Cliff and Watson, Charah. 1, 2018, Plant Science and Research, Vol. 5.

6. Medicinal plants. Schmelzer, G. and Gurib-Frankim, A. 2008, Plant Resources of Tropical Africa, pp. 412-415.

7. Neuropharmacological profile of ethnomedicinal plants of Guatemala. Giron, M., et al. 2001, 2001, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, Vol. 76, pp. 223-228.

8. Evaluation of antinociceptive effect of Petiveria alliacea (Guine) in animals. Lima, Thereza C., Morato, Gina S. and Takahashi, Reinaldo N. 2, 1991, The Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Vol. 86, pp. 153-158.

9. Caribbean and Latin American folk medicine and its influence in the United States. Morton, J. 2, 1980, Quarterly Journal of Crude Drug Research, Vol. 18, pp. 57-75.

10. Cytotoxic and antioxidant activitiy of Petiveria alliacea L. Perez-Leal, R., et al. 1, 2006, Serie Horticultura, Vol. 12, pp. 241-251.

11. Ethnobotanical inventory of medicinal plants used by the Guaymi Indians in western Panama. part 1. Joly, L.G, et al. 1987, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, Vol. 20, pp. 145-171.

12. The concept of plants as teachers among four mestizo Shamans of Iquitos, Northeastern Peru. Luna, L. E. 1984, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, pp. 135-156.

13. The anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects of a crude extract of Petiveria alliacea L. (Phytolaccaceae). LopesMartins, R. A.B., et al. 2002, Phytomedicine, pp. 245-248.

14. Volatile constituents from Adenocalymma alliaceum Miers and Petiveria alliacea L., two medicinal herbs of the Amazon. Zoghbi, Maria das Garcas B., Andrade, Eloisa Helena A. and Maia, Jose Guilherme. 2002, Flavour and Fragrance Journal.

15. A critical review of the therapeutic potential of dibenzyl trisulphide isolated from Petiveria alliacea L (guinea hen weed, anamu). Williams , L., et al. 1, 2007, West Indian Medical Journal, Vol. 56, pp. 17-22.

16. Petiveria alliacea extracts. Urena, Claudia, et al. 60, 2008, BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, Vol. 8.

17. A Petiveria alliacea standardized fraction induces breast adenocarcinoma cell death by modulating glycolytic metabolism. Hernandez, J. F., et al. 3, May 14, 2014, Journal of Ethanopharmacology, Vol. 153, pp. 641-9.

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Guinea Hen Weed (Petiveria alliacea) 18. Williams, Lawerence A.D., Rosner, Harald and Kraus, Wolfgang. Molecules with potential for cancer therapy in the developing world: dibenzyl trisulfide (DTS). [book auth.] K. E. Nelson and B. Jones-Nelson. Genomics Applications for the Developing World, Advances in Microbial Ecology. New York : Springer Science & Buisness Media , 2012, pp. 273-278.

19. Potential behavioral and pro-oxidant effects of Petiveria alliavea L. extract in adult rats. Andrade, Thais Montenegro, et al. 28, 2012, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, Vol. 2, pp. 604-610.

20. Neuropharmacological profile of ethnomedicinal plants of Guatemala. Cifuentes, C. Morales, et al. 2001, 2001, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, Vol. 76, pp. 223-228.

21. In vitro antimicrobial activity of total extracts of the leaves of Petiveria alliacea L. (anamu). Pacheco, Ania Ochoa, et al. 2, 2013, Brazilian Journal of Pharaceutical Sciences, Vol. 49, pp. 241-250.

22. Antifungal, antibacterial and phytochemical properties of Petiveria Alliacea plant from Iwo,Nigeria. Gbenga, Oke D. and Oluyemisi, Oluranti O. 1, 2019, Chemistry Research Journal, Vol. 4, pp. 12-18.

23. Inhibition of the human hepatitis C virus by dibenzyl trisulfide from Petiveria alliacea L (guinea hen weed).

Lowe, Henry I.C., et al. 1, 2015, British Microbiology Research Journal, Vol. 12, pp. 1-6.

24. Petiveria alliacea L. (guinea hen weed) and its major metabolite dibenzyl trisulfide demonstrate HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitory activity. Lowe, Henry I.C., et al. 1, 2014, European Journal of Medicinal Plants, Vol. 5, pp. 88-94.

25. Raman, Ryan. What is anamu, and does it have benefits? Healthline. [Online] July 1, 2019. https://www. healthline.com/nutrition/anamu.

26. Lowe, Henry, et al. Jamaica’s ethnomedicine: its potential in the healthcare system. Kingston : Lmh Publishing, 2001. pp. 173-174.

27. Significant inhibitory impact of dibenzyl trisulfide and extracts of Petiveria alliacea on the activities of major drug-metabolizing enzymes in vitro: an assessment of the potential for medicinal plant-drug interactions.

Murray, J., et al. 2016, Fitoterapia, Vol. 111, pp. 138-146.

28. Ethnobotanical study of plants poisonous to cattle in eastern Colombia. Torres, Paola, et al. December 2012, International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Research, Vol. 2, pp. 14-19.

29. Epizoochorous dispersal by barbs, hooks, and spines in a lowland moist forest in central French Guiana. Mori, Scott A. and Brown, John L. 1998, Brittonia, Vol. 50, pp. 165-173.

30. Blends of castor meal and castor husks for optimized use as organic fertilizer. Lima, Rosiane L.S., et al. 2011, 2011, Industrial Crops and Products, Vol. 33, pp. 364-368.

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HERBAL MONOGRAPH III Ginger Rhizome (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) Shawntae Rodney, Melaine Randle and Charah Watson

Product Research and Development Division, Scientific Research Council Kingston 6, Jamaica, West Indies

Introduction Ginger is one of the oldest and most consumed spices the world over. The crop, which favours loamy soils and thrives at elevations of 450 to 900 metres above sea level, originated in South East Asia and was introduced to Jamaica by the Spaniards in about 1525. It became the island’s chief export crop in the 1700s and in the 1930s and 1960s, Jamaica was among the top three exporters of ginger globally. However, since 1953, production has been on a downward trajectory, falling from approximately 2 million kilograms to about 0.4 million kilograms in 1995. This trend continued and in 2017, export volume was a paltry 15,258 Kg with earnings of US$42,6093 1. The decline has been attributed in large part to the Ginger Rhizome Rot Disease (GRR), which has severely impacted farmers in the major ginger growing areas of the island. With technical assistance from the FAO and local stakeholders, efforts are ongoing for the mass propagation of quality ginger through tissue culture and employing better farming practices.

This will invariably enhance the production of ginger to satisfy both the domestic and export markets, increasing the country’s potential to realize additional foreign exchange earnings. Jamaican ginger rhizome is a staple in many food and drink preparations and is esteemed for its high flavor profile and aroma. For commercial applications, it is mainly used for distillation of essential oils and extraction of oleoresin which is in high demand by the global food industry.

Taxonomy Plant scientific name: Family: Common Names: Synonyms:

Zingiber officinale Roscoe Zingiberaceae Ginger, Yellow Tambric, Jamaica Blue ginger, Jamaica Yellow ginger, Frog Blue, Jamaica Blue 2 Amomum zingiber L., Zingiber blancoi Massk.3

Appearance/Description General 4

• Externally, ginger rhizomes are light brown or buff.

• Rhizomes are longitudinally striated, somewhat fibrous and occur in horizontal, laterally flattened, sympodially branching pieces.

• Branches are flattish, obovate, short, about 2 cm long, each ending with a depressed stem scar.

• Whole rhizomes are 5 to 15 cm long, 1.5 to 6 cm wide, and up to 2 cm thick and sometimes split longitudinally.

• Broken rhizomes yield short fractures with projecting fibrous and vascular-like bundle fibres • Internally, rhizomes are yellowish brown, showing a yellow endodermis separating the narrow cortex from the wide stele, numerous yellowish points, numerous bigger greyish points, secretion cells, and vascular bundles scattered on the whole surface.

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Ginger rhizome (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) • Jamaica Yellow: Yellow flesh, smaller rhizomes than Jamaica Blue, thinner in diameter, fibrous, pungent • Jamaica Blue: Blue flesh, larger rhizomes than Jamaica Yellow, darker skin colour, thicker in diameter, fibrous, pungent • Jamaica Native: Yellow flesh (paler than Jamaica Yellow), smaller than Jamaica Yellow rhizomes, fibrous and pungent.

Jamaican ginger varieties 2

General Identity Tests 2 Molecular characteristics: genetically distinct; approximately 78% similar to Jamaica Native.

Molecular characteristics: genetically distinct, genetically similar (90%) to Jamaica Native.

Molecular characteristics: genetically distinct, genetically similar (90%) to Jamaica Blue; and 78% similar to Jamaica Yellow.

Jamaica Yellow: Jamaica Blue: Jamaica Native:

The genetic characteristics of the extracted DNA were analyzed using Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) protocol and the NTSYSpc 2.2 Numerical Taxonomy System.

Geographical Distribution (Jamaican varieties under cultivation) 2 • Jamaica Yellow

• Jamaica Blue

• Jamaica Native ◦

◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦

Clarendon: Kellitts, Spalding (Silent Hill, Moravia) Hanover: Cascade Hill, Cash Hill, Patty Hill Manchester: Christiana, Coleyville, Pike, Porus Portland: Millbank, Cornwall Barack St. Andrew: Salisbury Plain, Mavis Bank St Ann: Cave Valley St Catherine: Guys Hill, Above Rocks St Thomas: Johnson Mountain Trelawny: Highgate Hall, Crownland, Lorrimers Westmoreland: Williamsfield, Little London, Bethel Town, Leamington

◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦

Clarendon: Kellitts, Spalding (Silent Hill, Moravia) Hanover: Cascade Hill, Cash Hill, Patty Hill Manchester: Christiana, Coleyville, Pike, Porus Portland: Millbank, Cornwall Barack St Ann: Cave Valley St Catherine: Guys Hill, Above Rocks St Mary: Rosend St Thomas: Johnson Mountain

No geographical distribution reported in the sources identified.

Jamaican ginger is reported to be the highest quality and the most aromatic. However, supplies are limited 4.

Qualitative and quantitative composition Well-established Use Powdered herbal substance Chemical Composition Major chemical constituents of Z. officinale rhizome:

1. Carbohydrates - mainly starch (40 - 60%)

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Ginger rhizome (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) Well-established Use Major chemical constituents of Z. officinale rhizome (cont):

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Proteins - (9 - 10%) Lipids - (6 – 10%) which are composed of triglycerides, phosphatidic acid, lecithin and free fatty acids Vitamins - niacin and A Minerals - calcium, iron, copper, zinc, manganese, phosphorus and sodium 5; 6 Amino acids - isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine + cysteine, phenylalanine + tyrosine, threonine, valine Oleoresin - (4.0 – 7.5%) composed of non-volatile pungent principles (fats and waxes) and volatile oils (1.0 – 3.0%) of which 30 -70% are sesquiterpenes and monoterpenes 7.

Isolation through qualitative analysis of methanol extract of Jamaican ginger using High Performance Thin Layer Chromatography (HPTLC), qualitative and quantitative analysis of ethanol extract of ginger using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography (GC) of ginger oil: Phytochemistry: Similar chemical composition among the varieties of ginger, with Jamaica Yellow having a significantly higher level of essential oil content and total pungency.

HPTLC: Nine (9) distinct chemical zones at retention times (Rt) values including 0.46 (6-gingerol), 0.49 (8-gingerol), 0.52 (10-gingerol), 0.64 (6-shogaol), 1.06 (8-gingerol), 1.13 (10-gingerol) and 1.39 (6-shogaol) 8.

HPLC: 6-gingerol: clearly differentiated, 4 times more concentrated than the other pungent principles 10-gingerol: clearly differentiated, second highest dominant principle 6-shogaol: clearly differentiated 8-gingerol: present in smaller quantities Pungent principle concentration depends on the variety, with Jamaica Yellow (Yellow Tambric) containing 1.414 ± 0.032 % and Jamaica Blue (Frog Blue) containing 1.451 ± 0.048 % 8.

Essential oil concentration: Essential oil concentration of Jamaican ginger also depends on the variety, with Jamaica Blue (Frog Blue) and Jamaica Yellow (Yellow Tambric) comprising 1.206 ± 0.039% and 1.055 ± 0.017%, respectively 2;8.

The composition of the essential oil of Z. officinale varies as a function of geographical origin. The chief constituents of the essential oil are sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (responsible for the aroma). These compounds include (-)-zingiberene, (+)-arcurcumene, (-) β-sesquiphellandrene, and β-bisabolene. Monoterpene aldehydes and alcohols are also present 9.

Pharmaceutical Form Well-established Use

Traditional use

Herbal preparations in solid dosage forms for oral use .

Rhizome, peeled, sliced, dried and milled.

Dried root powder, extract, tablets and tincture 11.

Infusion or decoction used as a beverage.

10

Clinical Particulars Therapeutic indications

Well-established Use

Traditional Use

Uses supported by clinical data The product is a traditional herbal medicinal product The prophylaxis of nausea and vomiting associated for use in specified indications exclusively based upon with motion sickness 12, postoperative nausea 13, long-standing use. pernicious vomiting in pregnancy 14, and seasickness 15.

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Ginger rhizome (Zingiber officinale Roscoe)

Clinical Particulars (cont’) Therapeutic indications Well-established Use

Traditional Use Ginger is possibly effective in treating nausea and vomiting after surgery, dizziness, menstrual pain, arthritis, preventing morning sickness 16.

It is traditionally used as a carminative and digestive stimulant, and to treat wounds, fever and toothache 17 as well as a treatment for dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, vomiting, diarrhoea, spasms, and other stomach complaints 12.

Ginger is also reportedly used to treat cataracts, toothache, insomnia, baldness, and haemorrhoids, and to increase longevity 3; in the treatment of colds and flu, to stimulate the appetite, as a narcotic antagonist 18; 19; 20; 12 , and as an anti-inflammatory agent in the treatment of migraine headache and rheumatic and muscular disorders 21; 22; 23; 24.

Indication 1) Traditional herbal medicinal product for the symptomatic relief of motion sickness.

Indication 2) Traditional herbal medicinal product for symptomatic treatment of mild, spasmodic gastrointestinal complaints including bloating and flatulence 10.

Posology and method of administration Posology Adults and Elderly 1 - 2 g 1 hour before start of travel.

The use in children and adolescents under 18 years of age is not recommended 10.

For motion sickness in adults and children more than 6 years: 0.5 g, 2–4 times daily. Dyspepsia, 2–4 g daily, as powdered plant material or extracts 3.

The following guidelines are recommended by the American Botanical Council: Unless otherwise prescribed: 2–4 g per day cut rhizome or dried extract.

Powdered rhizome: 0.25–1.0 g, three times daily.

Infusion or decoction: 0.25–1.0 g in 150 ml boiled water, three times daily.

Fluid extract 1:1 (g/ml): 0.25–1.0 ml, three times daily.

Tincture 1:5 (g/ml): 1.25–5.0 ml, three times daily.

Duration of use Not determined

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Posology Indication 1) Adolescents, Adults and Elderly 750 mg half an hour before travelling.

Children between 6 and 12 years of age 250 or 500 mg half an hour before travelling.

The use in children under 6 years of age is not recommended 3.

Indication 2) Adults and Elderly 180 mg three times daily as necessary.

The use in children and adolescents under 18 years of age is not recommended.

Duration of use Indication 1) If the symptoms persist longer than 5 days during the use of the medicinal product, a doctor or a qualified health care practitioner should be consulted.

Indication 2) If the symptoms persist longer than 2 weeks during the use of the medicinal product, a doctor or a qualified health care practitioner should be consulted.

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Ginger rhizome (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) Posology and method of administration Well-established Use

Traditional Use

Method of administration Oral use.

Method of administration Oral use.

Contraindications Consult a physician with cases of gallstones 7.

Hypersensitivity to the active constituents 10.

Ginger may affect bleeding times and immunological parameters owing to its ability to inhibit thromboxane synthase and to act as a prostacyclin agonist 25;26.

However, a randomized, double-blind study of the effects of dried ginger (2 g daily, orally for 14 days) on platelet function showed no differences in bleeding times in patients receiving ginger or a placebo 27;28.

Special warning and precautions for use Not recommended for children less than 6 years of age 3 .

Not recommended for adolescents and children under 18 due to lack of safety and efficacy data 10.

Not recommended for adolescents and children under 18 due to lack of safety and efficacy data 10.

If symptoms worsen while using this product, consult a qualified health care practitioner.

Patients taking anticoagulant drugs or those with blood coagulation disorders should consult their physician prior to self-medication with ginger. Patients with gallstones should consult their physician before using ginger preparations 12.

If symptoms worsen while using this product, consult a doctor or pharmacist.

Interactions with other medicinal products and other forms of interaction Concomitant use of ginger with the drugs phenprocoumon, warfarin, or acenocoumarol may result in over-anticoagulation 29;33. The same effect may be possible with other anti-coagulants.

Large doses (12–14 g) of ginger may enhance the hypothrombinaemic effects of anticoagulant therapy, but the clinical significance has yet to be evaluated 3.

Although no side effects were reported by respondents, concomitant use of ginger with hydrochlorothizide, enalapril, aspirin, furosemide, hydralazine, nifedipine, carvedilol, digoxin is prevalent in Jamaica 37.

Fertility, pregnancy and lactation One source 30 does not recommend the use of ginger during pregnancy, although ginger is presumed safe in other literature.

As a precautionary measure, it is preferable to avoid the use during pregnancy. In the absence of sufficient data, the use during lactation is not recommended 10.

In a double-blind randomized cross-over clinical trial, ginger (250 mg by mouth, 4 times daily) effectively treated pernicious vomiting in pregnancy 14. No teratogenic aberrations were observed in infants born during this study, and all newborn babies had Apgar scores of 9 or 10 after 5 minutes 14.

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Clinical Particulars (cont’) Effects on ability to drive and use machines Well-established Use

Traditional Use

No studies on the impact of use on the ability of operate heavy machinery have been conducted 10.

No studies on the impact of use on the ability of operate heavy machinery have been conducted 10.

Undesirable effects Adverse effects are uncommon 31, but contact dermatitis of the finger tips has been reported in sensitive patients 32. Other possible adverse effects include heartburn, diarrhea, and mouth irritation; may increase risk of fibrinolysis 33.

Minor gastrointestinal complaints, particularly stomach upset, eructation, dyspepsia and nausea have been reported. Frequency: common (â&#x2030;Ľ1/100 and <1/10).

If other adverse reactions not mentioned above occur, a doctor or a pharmacist should be consulted 10.

Overdose No case of overdose has been reported.

No case of overdose has been reported.

Pharmacological Properties Pharmacodynamic properties Well-established Use

Traditional Use

Antiemetic

Antiemetic 13;14;15

13;14;15

Pharmacokinetic properties Studies by Mukkavilli, et. al. that compared the plasma concentration-time profiles of 6-gingerol, 8-gingerol, 10-gingerol and 6-shogaol on day 1 and day 7 following repeated daily oral administration of ginger extract suggest that there is no induction or inhibition of their clearance pathways and confirmed that 6-gingerol, 8-gingerol, 10-gingerol, and 6-shogaol were undergoing enterohepatic recirculation 34.

Not required.

Preclinical safety data Acute toxicity Oral administration of ginger extract (solvent 80% ethanol) at 2.5 g/kg was not associated with mortality in mice. Doses of 3 and 3.5 g/kg caused 20% and 30% mortality, respectively, within 72 h after the administration. The acute oral LD50 in rats and the acute dermal LD50 in rabbits of ginger oil exceeded 5 g/ kg body weight 53.

Not required unless necessary for the safe use of the product.

Mutagenicity A number of studies suggest that ginger contains mutagenic and antimutagenic constituents 53;55.

Genotoxicity Teratogenicity studies 56 demonstrated advanced skeletal development and increased embryo

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Ginger rhizome (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) resorption with the administration of ginger tea. In another study, it was shown that this extract neither decreased systolic blood pressure nor increased heart rate or had any effects on blood glucose levels 57.

Sustainability and Cultivation Sustainable cultivation of ginger can be encouraged through effective disease management, crop rotation, fertilization and management of the soil and surrounding environment. Additionally, biotechnology applications such as plant tissue culture facilitates improvements in the cropâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s agronomic features and production through in vitro propagation.

In vitro collections of Jamaican ginger varieties are stored in the Scientific Research Council gene bank and at the Biotechnology Centre, University of the West Indies 2; 38.

REFERENCES 1. Agro-investment Corporation. (2019). Investment Profile for Ginger. Kingston: Agro-investment Corporation.

Retrieved from http://www.agroinvest.gov.jm/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Ginger-Investment-Profile-2019.pdf 2. Blair-Thomas, M. (2018). Ginger Varietal Sector Study (Draft Report). Jamaica Business Fund.

3. World Health Organization. (1999). WHO Monographs on selected medicinal plants - Volume 1. Malta.

4. United States Pharmacopeia. (2008, August). United States Pharmacopeia 32- NF27. Retrieved May 21, 2019, from drugfuture.com: https://www.drugfuture.com/Pharmacopoeia/USP32/pub/data/v32270/usp32nf27s0_ m34965.html 5. Sangwan, A. K., Kawatra, A., Sehgal, S. (2014). Nutritional composition of ginger powder prepared using various drying methods. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 2260â&#x20AC;&#x201C;2262. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm. nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4152547/pdf/13197_2012_Article_703.pdf 6. Ogbuewu, I. J., Jiwuba, P.D., Ezeokeke, C.T., Uchegbu, M.C., Okoli, I.C., Iloeje, M.U. (2014). Evaluation of phytochemical and nutritional composition of ginger rhizome powder. International Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 17(1), 1663-1670.

7. American Botanical Council. (2018). Herbal Medicine: Expanded Commission E. Retrieved 07 2019, from Ginger Root: http://cms.herbalgram.org/expandedE/Gingerroot. html?ts=1562339665&signature=526826df808368b5cd7cf243d766c6e8.

8. Bailey-Shaw, Y. A., Williams, L. A. D., Junor, G., Green, C., Hibbert, S., Salmon, C., Smith, A. (2008).

Characterization of cultivars of Jamaican ginger (Zingiber officinale) by HPTLC and HPLC. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 56, 5564-5571.

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10. Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products. (2012). Assessment Report on Zingiber oficinale Roscoe, rhizoma.

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11. Awang, D. V. (2009). Tylerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Herbs of Choice: The Therapeutic Use of Phytomedicinals (Third ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press.

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13. Bone, M. E. (1990). Ginger root, a new antiemetic. The effect of ginger root on post-operative nausea and vomiting after major gynaecological surgery. Anaesthesia, 45, 669-671.

14. Fisher-Rasmussen, W. e. (1991). Ginger treatment of hyperemesis gravidarium. European Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, 38, 19-24.

15. Schmid, R. (1994). Comparison of seven commonly used agents for prophylaxis of seasickness. Journal of travel medicine, 1, 203-206.

16. What is ginger root? (2018, 12 18). Retrieved from Everyday Health: https://www.everydayhealth.com/drugs/ ginger-root 17. Mitchell, S., & Amhad, M. H. (2006). A Review of Medicinal Plant Research at the University of the West Indies, Jamaica, 1948-2001. West Indian Medical Journal, 55(4), 243-269.

18. Standard of ASEAN Herbal Medicine (Vol. 1). (1993). Jakarta.

19. Pharmacopoeia of the Peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Republic of China. (1992). Guangzhou: Guangdong Science and Technology Press.

20. Organization of African Unity Scientific, Technical and Research Commission. (1985). African Pharmacopoeia (1st ed., Vol. 1). Lagos.

21. Farnsworth, N. R. (Ed.). (1995). NAPRALERT database. Chicago.

22. Ghazanfar, S. A. (1994). Handbook of Arabian Medicinal Plants. Boca Raton: CRC Press.

23. Chang, H. M., But, P. P. H. (Ed.). (1986). Pharmacology and Applications of Chinese Materia Medic (Vol. 1).

Singapore: World Scientific Publishing.

24. Srivastava, K. C., Mustafa, T. (1992). Ginger (Zingiber officinale) in rheumatism and musculoskeletal disorders.

Medical hypotheses, 39, 342-348 25. Backon, J. (1986). Ginger: inhibition of thromboxane synthetase and stimulation of prostacyclin; relevance for medicine and psychiatry. Medical hypotheses, 271-278.

26. Backon, J. (1991). Ginger as an antiemetic: possible side effects due to its thromboxane synthetase activity.

Anaesthesia, 46, 705-706.

27. Srivastava, K. (1986). Isolation and effects of some ginger components on platelet aggregation and eicosanoid biosynthesis. Prostaglandins and Leukotrienes in Medicine, 187-198 28. Lumb, A. B. (1994). Effect of ginger on human platelet function. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 71, 110-111.

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29. Izzo, A. A. (2004). Herb–drug interactions: an overview of the clinical evidence. Fundamental and Clinical Pharmacology, 19, 1-16. doi:10.1111/j.1472-8206.2004.00301.x 30. McGuffin, M. H., Hobbs, C. Upton, R., Goldberg, A. (1997). American Herbal Product Association’s Botanical Safety Handbook. Boca Raton: CRC Press.

31. Izzo, A. A., Hoon-Kim, S., Radhakrishnan, R., & Williamson, E. M. (2016). A Critical Approach to Evaluating Clinical Efficacy, Adverse Events and Drug Interactions of Herbal Remedies. Phytotherapy Research, 30, 691-700. doi:10.1002/ptr.5591 32. Seetharam, K. A., Pasricha, J. S. (1987). Condiments and contact dermatitis of the finger tips. Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venearology and Leprology (53), 325-328.

33. White, B. (2007). Ginger: An Overview. American Family Physician, 75(11), 1689-1691.

34. Mukkavilli, R., Yang, C., Singh Tanwar, R., Saxena, R., Gundala, S. R., Zhang, Y., Ghareeb, A., Floyd, S. D., Vangala, S., Kuo, P. C. W., Rida G., Ritu Aneja. (2018). Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic correlations in the development of ginger extract as an anticancer agent. Scientific Reports. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-21125-2 35. Weiss, R. F. (2001). Weiss’s herbal medicine. Beaconsfield, UK: Sweden and Beaconsfield Publishers.

36. Tierra, M. (1998). The Way of Herbs. Pocket Books.

37. Picking, D., Younger, N., Mitchell, S., Delgoda, R. (2011). The prevalence of herbal medicine home use and concomitant use with pharmaceutical medicines in Jamaica. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 305-311.

38. Pryce, M., Mitchell, S., Burke, A., Mckenzie, C., Stirling, S., Ryan, J., . . . McGlashan, D. (2008). Jamaica: Country report to the FAO International Technical Conference on plant genetic resources for food and agriculture.

Kingston. Retrieved January 14, 2019, from www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1500e/Jamaica.pdf 39. Lockwood, B. (2007). Nutraceuticals: A guide for healthcare professionals. Great Britain: Pharmaceutical Press.

Uses of Herbs. IICA. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://argus.iica.ac.cr/Eng/regiones/caribe/jamaica/IICA%20Office%20 40. Documents/Use%20of%20Herbs.pdf 41. Heinerman, J. (1998). Heinerman’s Encyclopedia of Fruits, Vegetables and Herbs. Parker Publishing.

42. Goldberg, A., & Brinckmann, J. (2000). Herbal Medicine: Expanded Commission E Monographs, Integrative Medicine Communications. (M. Blumenthal, Ed.) American Botanical Council.

43. Gladstar, R. (2012). Rosemary Gladstar’s Medicinal Herbs: A beginner’s guide- 33 Herbs to know, grow and use.

Storey Publishing.

44. Connors, M. S., & Altshuler, L. (2009). The Everything Guide to Herbal Remedies: An easy to use reference for natural health care. Adams Media.

45. Coates, P. M., Blackman, M. R., Cragg, G. M., Levine, M., White, J. D., & Moss, J. (2004). Encyclopaedia of Dietary Supplements. CRC Press.

46. Blumenthal, M., Goldberg, A., Brinckmann, J. (2000). Herbal Medicine: Expanded Commission E Monographs.

Texas: American Botanical Council.

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47. Asprey, G. F. & Thornton, P. (1955). Medicinal Plants of Jamaica. Parts I and II. West Indian Medical Journal.

48. Adams, C. D. (1972). Flowering Plants of Jamaica. Glasgow: The University Press.

49. European Herbal Infusions Association. (n.d.). The World of Herbal Infusions. Retrieved August 24, 2015, from European Herbal Infusions Association: http://www.ehia-online.org/1843.0.html 50. Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products. (2012). Community herbal monograph on Zingiber officinale Roscoe, rhizoma. European Medicines Agency, London, UK. Retrieved May 15, 2019 51. United States Pharmacopeia 32- NF27. (n.d.). Supplemental Information for Articles of Botanical Origin.

Retrieved May 21, 2019, from drugfuture.com: https://www.drugfuture.com/Pharmacopoeia/USP32/pub/data/ v32270/usp32nf27s0_c2030.html#usp32nf27s0_c2030 52. European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. (2003). Zingiberis rhizome. In ESCOP Monographs: The Scientific Foundtion for Herbal Medicinal Products (pp. 547–553). United Kingdom: ESCOP. 53. Chrubasik, S., Pittler, M. H., Roufogalis, B. D. (2005). Zingiberis rhizoma: A comprehensive review on the ginger effect and efficacy profiles. Phytomedicine, 12, 684-701.

54. Soudamini, K. K., Unnikrishnan, M. C., Sukumaran, K. (1995). Mutagenicity and anti-mutagenicity of selected spices. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 39, 347–353.

55. Wilkinson, J. (2000). Effect of ginger tea on the fetal development of Sprague–Dawley rats. Reproductive Toxicology, 14, 507–512.

56. Weidner, M. S. & Sigwart, K. (2001). Investigation of the teratogenic potential of a Zingiber officinale extract in the rat. Reproductive Toxicology, 15, 75–80.

57. Weidner, M. S. & Sigwart, K (2000). The safety of a ginger extract in the rat. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 73, 513-520.

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