Ijhsss volume i issue v

International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies (IJHSSS) A Peer-Reviewed Indexed Bi-monthly Bi-lingual Research Journal

ISSN: 2349-6959 (Online) ISSN: 2349-6711 (Print)

Volume-I, Issue- V March 2015

Scholar Publications Karimganj, Assam, India

International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies (IJHSSS) A Peer-Reviewed Indexed Bi-monthly Bi-lingual Research Journal p-ISSN: 2349-6711, e-ISSN: 2349-6959

Volume-I Issue- V, March 2015 Website: https://www.ijhsss.com

Editor-in-Chief 

Dr. Bishwajit Bhattacharjee

Associate Editors   

Dr. Paramita Acharjee Soma Das Sanjoy Kr. Seal

Cover Designed by: Kishore Biswas Type Setting: Sanjib Dey & Biplab Bhattacharjee Printed at M’s Atelier, Karimganj, Assam, India © Scholar Publications, Karimganj, Assam, India

Disclaimer The authors are the sole responsible for the opinions/comments expressed in the articles/papers. The members of the Editorial Board/Reviewer or publishers of IJHSSS do not take the responsibility of the opinions/comments made by the authors. In case of plagiarism also absolute responsibility lies with the author.

International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies (IJHSSS) A Peer-Reviewed Bi-monthly Bi-lingual Research Journal ISSN: 2349-6959 (Online), ISSN: 2349-6711 (Print) Volume-I, Issue-V, March 2015, Page No. i Published by Scholar Publications, Karimganj, Assam, India, 788711 Website: http://www.ijhsss.com

Contents i.

A Study on Problem Faced By the Teachers at Secondary Level Teacher Training Programme in Jharkhand Rajesh Sameer Kachhap & Rajiv Lochan Namta, p. 1-6

ii. Recommendations of the Language Commission and the Movement of TASO in Dinajpur District in West Bengal Abhijit Datta, p. 7-14 iii. Factors Which Promote Community Participation in the Community Driven Development Approach Rebecca Waweru, p. 15-21 iv. Wastage and Stagnation in Primary Schools Jayeeta Bhattacharjee, p. 22-29 v. A comparative study between professional and non-professional course students: Social Adaptability Dr. Monika Arora (Seth), p. 30-36 vi. Impact of Mother’s Selected Attributes on Children’s Educational Attainment: A Household Level Study Promila Das & Dr. Sumanash Dutta, p. 37-42 vii. Protection from ‘Double Jeopardy’: A Constitutional Imperative Dr. Manoj Kumar Sadual, p. 43-50 viii. Mathematics Disability – Unperceptive Truth Dr. R. D. Padmavathy, p. 51-56 Volume-I, Issue-V

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ix. Human Rights and Women: National Perspective Rahul Mishra, p. 57-62 x. The Role of Hospital management in Human Resource Development Ningombam Reagan Singh & Dr. Arabinda Debnath, p. 63-74 xi. Authentic Community Development: Principles and Fundamentals Rebecca Waweru, p. 75-83 xii. Nationalism and the Japanese connection: Rabindranath Tagore’s perspective Sriparna Chatterjee, p. 84-89 xiii. Corporeal Images: A tool to Aesthetics of Macabre in Seamus Heaney’s poem Nagendra S Gangola, p. 90-95 xiv. Price Increases on Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) in the New Juaben Municipality: an implication for Women Home Management Budget Constraints Jamal Mohammed & Mrs. Doris Ntim, p.96-106

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International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies (IJHSSS) A Peer-Reviewed Bi-monthly Bi-lingual Research Journal ISSN: 2349-6959 (Online), ISSN: 2349-6711 (Print) Volume-I, Issue-V, March 2015, Page No. 1-6 Published by Scholar Publications, Karimganj, Assam, India, 788711 Website: http://www.ijhsss.com

A Study on Problem Faced By the Teachers at Secondary Level Teacher Training Programme in Jharkhand Rajesh Sameer Kachhap & Rajiv Lochan Namta Lecturer (B.Ed. Unit) Baharagora College Baharagora Jharkhand, india Abstract The Secondary level Teacher Training Programme in the state Jharkhand is in worst condition. If proper care is not taken by the External Administration level for Teacher Education programme, the whole future generation will collapse, because all the pupil at the beginning needs a good teacher to guide him. To produce good teacher needs good teacher trainer and good infrastructure. The secondary level teacher training programme in Jharkhand is going on in three types of institutions, namely government teacher training college, self-finance constituent college and privately managed college. But there is no proper attention towards the system from very beginning. Neither the SCERT has been formed nor has the appointment of teachers on regular basis been done for the government colleges. It is worst in the case of self-finance mode colleges. The teachers are appointed for eleven months by the respective universities. The service of the teachers may or may not be automatically renewed, depends on the decision by the university authority. In the selffinance colleges, the teachers of future teachers are facing a lot of problems and accordingly mentally so unbalanced that they are searching a stable job even with low salary. Here the author is trying to focus on problem faced by the teachers, job security of the teachers and job satisfaction of the teachers.

Key Words: Generation, Job satisfaction, Job security, Secondary level, Self finance.

Introduction: Indian teacher education system has been strengthened a lot during the past couple of years. There are questions on recognition of secondary teacher education institutions. There are questions on inputs and processes of secondary teacher education. Every fault of teacher education is attributed to the NCTE rather than finding faults let us try to meet the gaps between our policies and programmes. Major issues in teacher education concern the following: Proliferation of colleges of education, Isolation of colleges of education, Regional imbalances, Alternative modes of teacher education, Duration of teacher education programmes, Examination system. Further there are some issues related to the quality of the teacher education: Curriculum, Personal and social skills, Competencies, Subject knowledge, Information and Communications Technology (ICT) skills, Context sensitivity, and new pedagogy for the global world. Demand for opening more teacher training colleges and educating more people creates a need for acquiring more funds or resources. It also influences method of teaching, techniques and pattern of financing education. When the demand for education increases the, the country makes an effort to raise more funds for education, allows participation of more private agencies and management in the development of education. The socio-cultural environment, missionary zeal of various prevailing religious and political forms of the government, industrialization and unemployment, greater return from education to the individual, Volume-I, Issue-V

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higher social status accorded to the individual by education and so on. Financing for teacher education is also influenced by the importance or the status that is accorded to education by a country. If an educated and qualified person is considered more important in the society , more and more people will seek to get teacher education and a result qualititable teacher will produce. How the system of education of a state is structured and operated is very much dependent on what the financial resources of that state are. Availability of money or financial resources determines how the system of education will be financed. There are several sources which are tapped for raising revenue for financing education. But there is need of will power, there are needs to bring awareness among the society and accordingly the leaders should raise their voice at government level to solve the problem. Teaching involves working with pupils as a part of the essence of teaching profession.

Teachers, who try to work hard, are sympathetic towards students’ problems, cheerful, sincere, maintain good mental and physical health, personal adjustment, result and performance oriented and committed are sure to maintain very good classroom climate resulting in very good relationship with students. Education is vital to the human resources development and empowerment in the stages of growth of a Nation. But if the teachers do their duties without any job security, facing the problems of instructional facilities, lacking physical facilities, there is no scope to growth himself/herself by using the different resources at institutional level, to which he/she blames. Definitely to our system.

On the need for education, our Father of the Nation, Mahatma Gandhi, who once said that Education not only moulds the new generation, but reflects a society’s fundamental assumptions about itself and the individuals which compose it. No doubt humans are cultivated by education and education plays a significant role in Nation’s development. Kothari Commission remarks- ‘The destiny of India is being shaped in its classroom.’ But the quality of education is greatly determined by the quality of teachers. For getting qualititable teacher it needs to bring quality in teacher education. In the state of Jharkhand, the self-finance teacher training institutions have all the teachers are on appointment for eleven months only under contractual basis and make renew accordingly. There is no separate principal in B.Ed. section in the constituent colleges at where the training programme is going on, which violates the NCTE norms.

Review of related literature: Review of related literature means the similar studies made by previous researcher in the same area. Following are a few studies are – 

Goel D.R. (2012): In his study ‘Teacher education in India’, points out on quality crisis. He points out there is public private dichotomy in teacher education. There are problems of quality perceptions, quality scaling and quality differentiation in teacher education, poor integration of skills, rare innovations inadequate technology infusion, poor research scenario etc.



Salma N. (2011) : In her study on ‘ Problems of Teacher Education in India’ ,the major findings are – About 20% of the teacher education institutions are being run in rented building without any facilities for an experimental school or laboratory ,library and other equipments necessary for a good education department. In most of the state’s teacher education is still being run by the fee collected from student teachers, as the share of the state is too small. Lack of facilities for professional development. The supervision during the classroom teaching offer descriptive type of criticism, while constructive type is desirable. The percentage of the lesson supervised by the subject method specialist varies from 5% to 25% due to faulty staffing pattern, lack of time, too many lessons to be supervised.



Dash J. (1985) : Conducted study on ‘An investigation into the development of Teacher Education Programme in Orissa with reference to Motivation, cost effective and Quality.’

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His major findings were the private training colleges were establish mostly with commercial motives and parochial feelings, faulty admission procedure, no uniformity in the B.Ed. curriculum, the provision of in-service teacher education was inadequate ,the private training colleges were mainly financed by the contributions of the trainees, inadequate physical facilities etc. 

Natarajan S. (1984) : In his study ‘A competency based programme in Teacher Education Curriculum’ the objectives are to identify factors influencing competency achievement ,to find out the relationship between an individual’s self-esteem and competency achievement. The major findings are – the seminar method are more suitable, the lecture method was effective as group method, there was a significant relation between self-esteem and acquisition of competencies etc.



Bhide, L.G. (1987) : He conducted research on ‘An Experimental Study of the Impact of Teacher Education Programme on the self-concept of pupil teachers.’ The findings are – the comparisons among the participant group does not show accountable changes in selfconcept, intra group comparisons showed that P.G. students had the highest degree of development, followed by fresh pupil teachers etc.

Objectives: a. To study the attitude of teachers toward the existing secondary teacher training programme. b. To study the job security and job satisfaction among the teachers of the teacher training institutions.

Hypothesis: H01 : There is no significant difference between male teachers and female teachers in relation to attitude towards the existing teacher training programme.

H02 : There is no significant difference between Arts stream and Science stream teachers in relation to attitude towards the existing teacher training programme.

Methodology: Survey method was used for the study. The study was confined to the attitude of the teachers from self-finance secondary teachers training institutions of the state Jharkhand.

Population: The population of the study was the entire self-finance secondary teacher training colleges of the state Jharkhand.

Sample and Sampling Technique: The sample for the present study was selected by simple random sampling technique which comprise by 64 teachers from the self-finance secondary teacher training colleges. Out of these 34 were male teachers and 30 were female teachers.

Tools used: A self-inventory tool was developed and the tool was meant for the teachers working at different self-finance secondary teacher training colleges. The tool consists of 25 statements, anchored with three point scale namely Agree (A), Undecided (U), and Disagree (D) to indicate the level of acceptance by the teachers. The rating scale consists questions relating physical facilities available, job security, job satisfaction, nature of appointment, duration of appointment etc. The minimum and the maximum scores of the attitude scale are 26 and 51 respectively. Reliability and validity of the tool was established.

Statistical Techniques: Descriptive statistical measures such as mean, median, mode, range, SD, t test were used. Also Skewness and Kurtosis was found out.

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Delimitation of the study: The study was delimited to the colleges comes under two universities of Jharkhand namely Kolhan University and Vinoba Bhabe University at where secondary teacher training programme is going on under self-finance mode. Further the co-education institutions only, were taken as sample.

Analysis and interpretation of data: The frequency distribution of data collected from Teachers attitude scale are given in table-1. The descriptive statistics were calculated from this table. The Mean, Median, Mode and Standard Deviation of the frequency table were found to be 40.21, 40.10, 39.86 and 5.87 respectively. The maximum score obtained by the sample in this test was 51, while the minimum score was 26 with a range of 25. The coefficient of skewness is 0.0606, which indicates that the distribution is positively skewed. In this distribution, the obtained value of Kurtosis is 0.2515, which is less than 0.263 for normal curve. This indicates that the distribution is leptokurtic (peaked), shown in diagram -1.

The mean scores on teachers attitude towards the problems faced by them is 40.21 which is less than the midpoint 50 (25 items x 2) on the rating scale. It can be concluded that the teachers’ attitude is negative towards the existence level of secondary teacher training programme in Jharkhand; they have neither job security nor job satisfaction. Further to test the null hypothesis, attitude of the teachers in relation to their Gender and stream were analyzed and presented in table-2 and table-3 respectively.

Table – 1 Shows Frequency data obtained from Teachers attitude rating scale Scores Frequency (F) Cumulative Freq.

Deviation( D) D2 FD FD2 26 - 28 2 2 -4 16 -8 32 29 - 31 3 5 -3 9 -9 27 32 – 34 6 11 -2 4 - 12 24 35 – 37 8 19 -1 1 -8 8 38 – 40 15 34 0 0 0 0 41 – 43 11 45 1 1 11 11 44 – 46 9 54 2 4 18 36 47 – 49 6 60 3 9 18 54 50 – 52 4 64 4 16 16 64 To test the null hypothesis H01, attitude of the teachers in relation to their Gender were analyzed and presented in table-2. The obtained t – value 2.508 is less than the table value 2.66 at 0.01 level of significance. Hence the null hypothesis H01 is accepted. We conclude that there is no significant difference between male teachers and female teachers in relation to attitude towards the existing teacher training programme. The degrees of freedom is 62 for N1=34 and N2=30.

Diagram – 1 Shows Kurtosis of the curve

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Leptokurtic Normal

Playtikutric

Table – 2 Showing t - value at 0.01 level of significance in respect to Gender Gender Significant

N

Male level Female

34 30

Mean

SD

38.30 39.70

5.95

t- Value

Significant/Not

2.508

Not significant at 0.01

5.44

of significance

Further to test the null hypothesis H02, attitude of the teachers in relation to their stream were analyzed and presented in table-3. The obtained t – value 2.79 which is greater than the table value 2.66 at 0.01 level of significance. Hence the null hypothesis H02 is rejected. We conclude that there is significant difference between Arts stream teachers and Science stream teachers in relation to attitude towards the existing teacher training programme. The degrees of freedom is 62 for N1=48 and N2=16.

Table – 3 showing t - value at 0.01 level of significance in respect to stream level Stream Significant

N

Mean

Arts level Science

48

38.31

16

36.19

SD

5.67 6.33

t- Value

2.79

Significant/Not

Not significant at 0.01 of significance

Major findings:  The attitude of the teachers are negative towards the existing pattern of teacher training programme.

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   

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They have neither job security nor job satisfaction.

In cent percentage college there is no separate principal only meant for teacher training programme.

There is no significant difference between male teachers and female teachers in relation to attitude towards the existing teacher training programme.

There is significant difference between Arts stream teachers and Science stream teachers in relation to attitude towards the existing teacher training programme.

Conclusion : The secondary level teachers of the training institutions suffer a lot due to nonavailability of infrastructure, improper guideline at the government level, no appointment of teachers on regular basis, neither the principal or HOD for the secondary level training colleges running at different constituent colleges although private institutions are maintaining these. The appointment procedure of the teachers is not maintaining uniform city throughout the state. Neither subject wise appointment was made nor reservation roster was followed.

References: Best, J.W. & Kahn, J.V. (2005). Research in Education. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. Buch, M.B. (1991). Fourth Survey of Research in Education.Vol. 1&2, New Delhi: NCERT. Bhatnagar, R.P. & Aggarwal, V. (2009). Educational Administration Supervision and Planning.

Meerut: R Lall Book Depot.

Chauhan, S.S. (1982). A Textbook of Programmed Instructions. New Delhi: Sterling Publisher.

Garrett, H. E. (2006). Statistics in Psychology and Education. New Delhi: Surjeet Publication.

Namta, R. L. (2015). A research paper: Present Scenario of Secondary Teacher Education Programme in Jharkhand, Indian Journal of Applied Research. Vol.5 issue 2 February 2015.

P 17-18.

Panda, B. N. (2014). A Research Paper: Status of continuous and comprehensive Evaluation at Elementary stage, Journal of All India Association for Educational Research. Vol. 26 No. 1, June 2014 P 9-17.

Rath, R.K. (2001). Educational Measurement and Evaluation. Berhampur: Tara Tarini Publisher.

Mangal, S.K. (2005). Advanced Educational Psychology. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. Report of the Joint Review Mission on Teacher Education Jharkhand February 17-23, 2013.

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International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies (IJHSSS) A Peer-Reviewed Bi-monthly Bi-lingual Research Journal ISSN: 2349-6959 (Online), ISSN: 2349-6711 (Print) Volume-I, Issue-V, March 2015, Page No. 7-14 Published by Scholar Publications, Karimganj, Assam, India, 788711 Website: http://www.ijhsss.com

Recommendations of the Language Commission and the Movement of TASO in Dinajpur District in West Bengal Abhijit Datta Assistant Teacher, Kshudiram Pally Sukanta Smriti Bidyapith, Islampur, India Abstract TASO is an organisation founded by Mahammad Rafique and Pasherul Islam at Islampur subdivision in the district of Uttar Dinajpur in West Bengal to raise the voice of protest of the local people as the area suffered from illiteracy, social, political and economic exploitations since its birth when the area was transferred from Bihar to Bengal in 1956.They started the movement to implement the recommendations of language commission as the Commission recommended that the transferred area should become a separate district and parliamentary Constituency. So the organisation gathered the voice of protest in the concerned area and in national level they also raised different issues in different times. Now in transitional period in West Bengal TASO revived its strength.

Key Words: Suryapur, Re-organisation Commission,Islampur, Pasherul Islam, Refugee.

One of the main features of Indian history is its diversity. The tract of land lying in the region with the Himalayas in the north, Kanyakumari in the south, from the Bay of Bengal in the east to the Arabian Sea in the west is called India. Diversity lies in the realms of race, religion, provincialism, food, taste, civilization, creativity, dresses, means of enjoyment etc. India is a country wherein the people of almost all religions live in. It is an enigma that even the diversity among the Hindus overwhelms the world society. There are differences in the fields of casteism, festivities, dietary habits, creativity etc. in the Hindu society in the panoramic sense. In spite of the differences of such magnitude the Indian people are found united solidly. That is why V. A. Smith has used the terms „Unity in Diversity‟ to characterize the Indian society. But behind the curtain of unity the tunes of disunity has been traced at different times and at different places and the glaring examples of secessionism may be traced in Darjeeling of West Bengal or Telengana of Andhra etc in recent time.

TASO is an organization which is not devising in the sense of the term, but its activities and the nature of its programme expose its localized character and that would be discussed in the following pages.

Now, we may come to the context of the meaning of TASO, its aim, the backdrop of its origin and evolution, its demand etc and if language or religion has cemented the unity of them or not?

When the people of India attained independence at the mid-night of 14thAugust, 1947, the people of the country probably thought that they were completely free and the days of their sorrow, privation and deprivation were over. In reality the Indian people set aside many other problems and took up the struggle against the colonial rule as their kernel object of life. But when the struggle for independence was over, the people who once dedicated themselves wholeheartedly for the freedom struggle, exhibited militancy against the post independent polity in India. The glaring example of post independent military is the movement that started over the demand for the emergence of state on the basis of language. In the national movement Rabindra Nath Tagore to Jawahar Lal Nehru everyone emphasized on mother tongue. In 1937 J.N.Nehru remarked, “Our system of education and Volume-I, Issue-V

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public work must therefore be based on the provincial languages.”1 The first prime minister of India after independence Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru faced the new challenge over the demand for the development of new states on the basis of language along with the facing of the problems of hunger, poverty, fratricidal riots etc. So the unnecessary but lively problem of the development of states on the basis of language propelled Nehru to set up the Dar Commission under the leadership of S.K.Dar, the then justice of the Allahabad High Court. The object of the commission was work into the prospect of the viability of the creation of state on the basis of language .But the commission made the blunder by keeping off the viability of creating linguistic states and setting up the rational for the creation of states on historical, economic administrative and geographical basis. 2 To review the decision of Dhar Commission JVP Committee was formed in the month of December that year comprising of the members like Jawaharlal Nehru, Ballav Bhar Patel and Pattavi Sitaramaiya. That committee also in its report published in the month of April, 1949 articulated not in favour of the founding of states on the basis of languages. As a consequence the people rose in rebellion all over the country.The people took up arms even and there was large scale violence all around .The violent mob burnt buses, trains, shops, domestic establishments etc. The demand centered round the foundation of a separate state on the basis of language. The similar type of movement with the façade of violence took place in Andhra for the creation of separate state for the people using Telegu language as mother tongue. The freedom fighter Patti Sri Ramalu launched the movement and the movement assumed momentum with the holding of hunger strike of the freedom fighter for 58 days that caused his death.3 The result of the movement was the founding of the Telegu state. The rebellion spread like wildfire as a consequence and the government of India was forced to create a new state cutting off the region using Telegu language from the Tamil area.4 In this respect Prof.

Basudev Chattopadhay made a remark, „„Within twenty four hours Nehru‟s carefully orchestrated concept of a strong centre and four administrative zones has collapsed.‟‟ 5To decide the relevance of the creation of separate states on language basis , the then prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru set up „The State Re-organization Commission‟ under the leadership of Fazal Ali on 22 nd December,1953.The other two members of the commission were K.M. Panikkar and Hridaynath Kunjuru.6 The language commission was endowed with the responsibility to enquire into the possibility of the creation of new states throughout India. Anyway pursuant to the decision of the commission „State Reorganisation Act‟ was enacted on 1 st November,1956.The result was the reorganization of states within the Indian nation on the basis of language and the fallout of what was the evolution of Indian nation with 14 states and 6 union territories within it. Later on, once and again, it became imperative on the part of the polity of India to help in the emergence of states on language basis. Till today, there are 28 states and 7 union territories within the Indian nation. The matter has been narrated below.

The states set up in the year of 1956 were i) Andhra Pradesh ii) Assam ii) Bihar iv) Bombay v) Jammu and Kashmir vi) Kerala VII) Madhya Pradesh viii) Madras ix) Mysore x) Uttar Pradesh xi) Orissa xii) Punjab xiii) Rajasthan xiv) West Bengal.

The union territories were as follows: i)Andaman-Nicobar Islands ii)Delhi iii)Himachal Pradesh iv)Lakshadweep iv)Manipur vi)Trip era.

The states created on the basis of language are:-7 State away from 15)Gujrat 16)Nagaland Volume-I, Issue-V

Date of their creation 1960 1964 March 2015

Associated states broken Bombay Assam 8

Recommendations of the Language Commission and the Movement of TASO in Dinajpur ……

17)Haryana 18) Meghalaya 19)Himachal Pradesh 20)Trippera 21)Manipur 22)Sikkim

1966 1971 1971 1972 1972 1975

23)Mizoram 24)Arunachal Pradesh 25) Goa 26)Chattisgarh 27)Uttaranchal 28)Jharkhand 29)Telengana

1987 1987 1987 2000 2000 2000 2014

Abhijit Datta

Punjab Assam Converted into a state from union territory do do Converted into a state from a „associate state‟ Converted into a state from union territory do do Madhya Pradesh Uttar Pradesh Bihar Andhra Pradesh

The new union territories which came into existence as a result of the reorganization of states.

They are: 1) Andaman and Nicobar Islands 2) Chandigarh 3) Dadra and Nagar Haveli 4) Delhi 5) Daman and Diu 6) Lakshadweep 7) Pondicherry.

Now, we may come to the context. The Commission after its coming into existence made an extensive tour to the regions which were sensitive or the regions where the demand for the creation of states on language basis was very articulate. 8 The object was to unravel the real truth making extensive confabulation with the common men of those regions. Suryapur Pargana of Islampur subdivision within the district of Uttar Dinajpur happens to be a sensitive area like that. But concerning the geography of that region, it was extremely necessary that it should be amalgamated with West Bengal. The reason for its remaining with in West Bengal was that the Ganges have probably divided West Bengal into North and South Bengal and the Suryapur Pargana is lying in the middle of North Bengal. Varendrabhumi and Dinajpur district are lying in one flank and Terai-Dooars and Coochbehar district are lying at another flank. So it is easy to feel the necessity for the amalgamation of Suryapur Pargana with West Bengal. 9Apart from that the majority of the people of that region were Bengalees and were using Bengali a mother tongue. The people of that region were very much in favour of the amalgamation of the region with West Bengal from the point of view of education, culture and civilization, economy etc. So the movement for the inclusion of that region in West Bengal cropped up at Suryapur Pargana in the Purnea district. The State Re-organisation Commission went to delve deep into the relevance of the demand of the inhabitants of the Suryapur Pargana. The region of Suryapur Pargana in Bihar rose in rebellion against its amalgamation with West Bengal .The Commission after making an entry at Purnea felt the pulse of the people at large.

The business community of Kishanganj sub-division was fundamentally dependent upon Islampur. 10 The people of Bihar were not, at that time ready to forgo the tea gardens of Debizora and its adjoining regions.11 Today‟s Islampur sub-division happens to be densely populated with the Muslim people and they had to face court cases over land disputes regarding the matter of inheritance application and the trial was held at Kishanganj court.12 As a result, the advocates of Kishanganj were not prepared to hand it over to West Bengal. Apart from that the people of Islampur were not prepared to forgo the facility the enjoyed in the fields of medical treatment, communication and many others by segregating their connection with Kishanganj. 13 Side by side Volume-I, Issue-V

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with this, the contemporary prominent educationists of Islampur were not in favour of it inclusion with West Bengal. They will be overwhelmed by the Bengali intelligentsia in every sphere. More over one lakh people demonstrated before the SRC when the commission visited to the area. So it was evident that there were opinions in favour of its handing over to West Bengal and against that. 14 The leaders who took up the scepter of the movement for handing it over to West Bengal were late Swadesh Sen, Panchkari Mandal of Manora etc. They demanded the inclusion of many other parts of Purnea apart from Islampur with West Bengal. In this way there ensued movement between Bengal and Bihar regarding the handing and taking over of Suryapur Pargana. At length there came to an end of longstanding unresolved problem. Islampur was amalgamated with the Darjeeling district of West Bengal on 1st November,1956 on the basis of the recommendation of the commission.15 But in the next day, on 2nd November,1956,Islampur region away from Bihar was merged with West Dinajpur and declared Islampur as a sub-division.16Later on, another notification of March 3,1959, an area of 49.78 square miles lies to the north of the river Mahananda incorporating 19 mouzas belonging to Phansidewa Police Station had been again included in the Darjeeling district thus giving the Islampur sub-division its present shape.17 The areas around Islampur sub-division are as stated below:18 Name of Revenue collecting Thanas

1)Islampur

2)Kishanganj 3)Gopalpur

Police Thanas

No. of Villages

Square Miles

Population

Thakurganj Chopra Islampur Kishanganj Goalpokhar Karandighi Total

12 129 123 285 95 269 913

58 158 139 180 73 151 759

14357 52949 59652 66810 36028 47492 277288

With the inclusion of Islampur sub-division the total area of the newly formed West Dinajpur was 2052 square miles. As per the Census Report of 1961 the population of the District was 1,323,797.19 The most important point is that the Suryapur Pargana (Islampur Sub-division)was handed over to West Bengal keeping off the rituals, sentiment and many other things of the inhabitants of Bihar.

They only took into account the interest of narrow selfish groups. After all, the SRC pledged for the wholesale development of the region parted away from Bihar. SRC also promised to declare a parliamentary constituency covering the region and to give the transferred area the prestige of a district. But the govt. forgoes to redeem the pledges.

The refugees of Bangladesh and those of Assam started infiltrating in Islampur Sub-division like waterfalls. They were in search of livelihood. They started dominating the economy of the region by virtue of labour and economic strength. As a result of the pressure of those outsiders the local economy, culture, language and many other things are affected and those are gradually eroding. The owners of the large tea gardens took over the vast agrarian fields of the region. On the other hand, after the setting up of the subdivision at Islampur, the opportunity for service in schools and offices were thrown open to the middle class people. But though promised, the process of industrial development of the region is little. The consequence of all these are the spreading of unemployment, poverty, malnutrition famine over the region. Today the local language, heritage, culture, economy are in danger and the sons of the soil felt an urge for the preservation of their existence. They raised the voice of protest for the revival of the Suryapuri culture that was at stake as result of the Volume-I, Issue-V

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infiltration of the foreigners. In this way came into existence, the outfit like „The Transferred Territory Peoples‟ Development Organization (TTPDO)‟.The person who was closely associated with laying the foundation stone of the organization was Nizamuddin, the renowned advocate of that time. He strengthened the movement for the execution of the recommendation of the SRC Committee.20 But the movement failed to strike root at the heart of the people at large.

The overwhelming influence of the culture of outside and the economic dominance of the foreigners to this soil set in force the movement of secession At that moment some persons of the soil with revolutionary spirit came forward to bolster up, once again local aspiration and to organize the protest movement. In this way came into being a remonstrance organization called „Transferred Area Peoples‟ Organisation‟(TAPO,1988).The first president of the organization was Samsujjaman Raza and the secretary was Abdul Basi.21 The other members were Pasarul Islam, Parimal Saha, Basu Biswas etc. This organization too failed to raise the voice of protest to momentum and the result of what was the dwindling down of the outfit within two years (1988-90) There is a regular flow in history. It nemes ceases its motion. Changes occurred simultaneously with the changes in the political scenario .The district of West Dinajpur has been divided into two parts-Uttar Dinajpur and Dakshin Dinajpur .Islampur sub-division has been brought under the fold of Uttar Dinajpur district. The district headquarter is established at Raiganj bringing it away from Balurghat.It shortened the distance and the district headquarter is now 130 kilometer away only. But it has failed to efface the sense of deprivation and frustration of the people of Suryapur Pargana. The quality of education of the local people of the area deteriorated very steeply. The pitiable picture may be visualized in the realm of local language and the pressure of the Bengalis has brought the Suryapuri language to the brink of extinction. The snobbery of the outsider Bengalis has dragged the local people away from the arena of local language and they have started speaking in Bengali. The condition of health and hygiene deteriorated. The female education has reached to its last dreg. The influence of the owners of tea gardens has brought the peasants of agricultural land to extinction converting them to labours in tea gardens. As a sequel to the wholesale devastation of that community at this pitiable backdrop offence of different nature has taken root and the local youths have crossed over to different territories in India. Abduction of women has become common feature occurring every day. In that perspective of hard reality the contending sons of the soil have organized movement and set up an outfit named „Transferred Area Suryapur Organisation‟(TASO).Those who held the keystone of its foundation were Mahammad Rafique, Pasharul Islam and Parimal Saha.Pasarul Islam was the first president. It was given birth at ground adjoining the station road on 1st January,1997. TASO happens to be an organization more matured and relevant than those preceded it. It has been trying since its birth in 1997 to bring the hope and aspiration of the people of all work of life with in one umbrella. They are also trying to make the outfit relevant to the provincial and national level with forsaking the local emotion and aspiration.

The demands they placed before the administration for retrieval are given below: 22 1) The total transferred area should be consolidated into single political unit and itturned into a separate parliamentary seat..

2) The process of the development of the transferred area should be initiated on the basis of the recommendation of the State Reorganisation Commission.

3) Infiltration of the foreigners should be put to an end.

4) Youngmen and women of the transferred region should be provided with employment and the discrimination between Raiganj and Islampur Employment Exchange in the field of giving employment should be put to a halt.

5) Mother tongue must be allowed to use in the Primary and Secondary level.

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6) The sons of the soil of North Bengal should be allowed to have reserved land like of the tribal people 7) The Border Security Force should forced to refrain from tyrannizing the people living in the border region. In this way giving prominence to the local issues TASO got unprecedented response in the interior or rural areas. The indigents, the Hindus and Muslims, Santhals and Rajabanshis came forward to uphold the movement of the TASO. 8) North Bengal should be given autonomy on the basis of the article 244(A) of the Indian constitution. The TASO, in order to enhance their acceptability in state and national level, has been trying to interlink the local sentiment with different programmes in the state and national level. With a view to enhancing the relevance of the TASO movement, they are trying to get involved in Singur, Nandigram and many other relevant peoples‟ upsurges.

Side by side with that the TASO has raised its voice of protest and reviled at the root of the inequities like the corruption over mid-day meal, Tahelka misappropriation of fund and many other immoral practices. They also raised demands for 27% reservation in service for OBC communities and the imposition of the inhibitory order with regard to the sale of cold drinks rampantly.23 In addition to those general demands mentioned above the TASO, in order to strengthen the mass movement, has identified many local issues and problems and has strived to redress the problems with the help of the interference of higher administration. Those demands were reservation of land for the sons of the soil, the tea gardens emerged out of the extinction of agricultural land of the tribal people, refugees should be handed over to the original owners of land; extension of education in the primary level in Kamta, Sadri, Santhali etc languages along with Bengali ;to take steps to ensure the stoppage of trains running for long distance like North East Express, Darjeeling Mail, Kanchanjangha Express and Capital Express etc to arrange for the spread of education simultaneously in Bengali, Hindi, Urdu medium paying importance to the sentiment of the people of the locality, to hand over ration cards to the real citizens, the inclusion of the communities like Nasyasekh and Sersabadia in the of the list of OBC etc. 24 Since its formative state TASO is concerned with the problems of acquisition of agricultural lands for tea gardens. The organization is quite consistent in mobilizing the people and in augmenting its movement against any form of illegal conversion of agricultural land to tea garden.

On this issue TASO submitted several memoranda to local administration and organized a convention last on February 9, 2009.25 In said convention it was alleged that despite several protest movements about two thousand acres of land of the local people have been forcefully occupied by the tea-garden owners. Moreover, by adopting several unfair tactics approximately one lakh acres of agricultural land have been converted to tea-gardens. The number of landless people and agricultural laborers is therefore increasing fabulously. It is further alleged that in the area about 35 thousand acres of land are rightly in the possession of famous tea industrial house Duncans Company as teagarden. For another Jayashree/Kumarika company the corresponding amount is about ten thousand acres. In addition to this big and medium tea garden there are about 300 small tea-plantations in different parts of Islampur sub-division.

TASO asserts that as per government‟s circular there is a prohibition on making any teaplantation in the Teesta Command Area, on Vested, Patta and agricultural lands, on the land sunder the possession of tribal and refugees. But despite this prohibition some influential and moneyed persons with the help of local administration are illegally using and converting such lands to teagardens. In protest TASO staged several demonstrations and submitted memoranda to the SDO, Volume-I, Issue-V

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BLRO and OC Islampur demanding their intervention into the matter and fr taking necessary action against these illegal practices.

In a memorandum (1999) TASO drew the attention of higher authorities against conversion of land within Teesta Command Area into industrial land namely tea-plantation. It is alleged that such conversion had been made without the consent of concerned Gram Panchayats and by totally violating the Tea Plantation guidelines of the government of West Bengal. TASO apprehends that if is allowed to continue that may cause considerable loss to the local cultivators. Not only that, there is every possibility that ultimately the very objective of Teesta Canal Project may fail.. TASO thus placed the following charter of demands to the SDO Islampur for necessary action: a) prevent any form of illegal tea-plantation tea gardens unlawfully run by the capitalists in the prohibited categories of land must be returned to the legal owners, and c) an enquiry by CBI on illegal occupations of land for tea-plantation must be initiated immediately.

On the issue of phenomenal growth of illegal tea-gardens in the transferred area TASO organized a sit-in-demonstration in front of the office of SDO, Islampur on December18,2006.26In this demonstration an anxiety was also expressed over the proposed plan of acquisition of agricultural land for construction of a by-pass on national highway34 (NH-34) passing through Islampur.As a follow up TASO put an appeal to the President of India (letter dated December 28, 2006) through SDO, Islampur requesting his kind intervention in to the matter and not to approve the proposal of seizing agricultural land for the proposed by-pass. As an alternative he was requested to kindly ask the administration to think about the construction of a fly over bridge of 1.95 km length for the smooth running of traffic on NH-34 through Islampur. That may certainly cost less to the agricultural land and save many poor farmers from sear starvation and destitution.

Now, we may come to the point of the future of TASO. How far has the people of the state been influenced by the movement of the TASO? It came into existence in the second half of the 20th century. The TASO at the initial stage of its existence could make its influence felt by dint of its self strength, but gradually its activity was confined to the giving of deputation at different offices.

Today, the TASO, in order to maintain its existence, has felt the necessity of making alliance with different mass organization. It has brought into existence the platform for the movement seeking autonomy. In this platform there are similar outfits like UTJAAS, CPI (ML), PCC, UPJSS, CPRM, SJP, FIDER, RYO etc. in addition to the TASO.27 The state is now in the teeth of a series of unrests. The creation of separate district of Alipurduar also has given fuel to the people of Islampur Sub-division. Taking advantage of this the dormant outfit of TASO has regained its past strength.

They, once and again, have become conscious about their demands giving due weight age to the sentiment of the locality. So, the government should be concerned about the development of agriculture and economy of that region. It should be done as early as possible. The government should take steps for the wholesale development of the locality; otherwise the agitation may assume an alarming aspect of intractable regional problems. It may be the causes of consternation for the government as they are being regularly seen in the forest areas of West Bengal, Coochbehar, Darjeeling etc. regions of West Bengal.

References: 1) Quoted Basudev Chattopadhay : India After Independence:An Historian‟s Perspective (Prof.

Tarasankar Banerjee Endowment Lecture, Suri Vidyasagar College, Birbhum,2004) p-8 2) Bipan Chandra, Mridula Mukherjee, Aditya Mukherjee: India after Independence 1947- 2000 p-99 Volume-I, Issue-V

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3) ibid 4) ibid, p-100 5) Basudev Chattopadhay, opcit,p-8 6) Manmohan Chakrabatti: A summary of the changes in the jurisdiction of Districts in Bengal,1757-1916, Revised and updated by Kumud Ranjan Biswas,West Bengal District Gazetteers, p-221 7) D. D. Basu : Introduction to the Constitution of India, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi,1995,pp-68-69 8) Manmohan Chakrabatti,opcit,p-223 9) ibid.p-227 10) Partha Sen : “Transfer of Islampur Sub-division from Bihar to Bengal and its problems with special reference to the role of TASO” in „Social and Political Tensions in North Bengal ‟edited by Dr. Sailen Devnath, p-259 11) ibid.

12) Partha Sen : “Paschim Dinajpur Ziller Sange Islampur Mahakumar Sanjuktikaran- Itihas-oMulyan”in„Madhuparni‟, Bises Paschim Dinajpur Zilla Sankha,1399 (B.S), edi-Agitesh Bandopadhay, Balurghat. pp-1-9 13) ibid.

14) P.C.Ray Chaudhury, : Bihar District Gazetteer,Purnea,Patna,1963,Cal1965,p110 15) Government Notification No 3858 G.A.date-01-11-1956 16) Government Notification No 3875 G.A. date-02-11-1956 17) Government Notification No 1176 G.A date- 20-03-1959 18) P.C.Raychowdhury,opcit, p-120 19)Jatindra Nath Sengupta: West Bengal District Gazetteer, West Dinajpur, Cal, 1965, p-2 20) Information collected from SDO Office, Islampur.

21) Information collected from Pasherul Islam, an active organizer of TASO. 22) Leaflets of TASO published in different times.

23) Information collected from Chitta Ranjan Singha,President of TASO. 24) Deputation copies in different times given to administration.

25) ibid 26) Information collected from SDO, Islampur 27) Bulletin from „Swatya Sasan Sangram Mancha‟

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International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies (IJHSSS) A Peer-Reviewed Bi-monthly Bi-lingual Research Journal ISSN: 2349-6959 (Online), ISSN: 2349-6711 (Print) Volume-I, Issue-V, March 2015, Page No. 15-21 Published by Scholar Publications, Karimganj, Assam, India, 788711 Website: http://www.ijhsss.com

Factors Which Promote Community Participation in the Community Driven Development Approach Rebecca Waweru Lecturer, Dept. of Development Studies, St Paul’s University, Limuru, Kenya Abstract Community participation in development hardly takes place in a vacuum. There are motivating, militating as well as catalytic factors which propel the community to take part in community development. As much as development initiatives meet the needs of beneficiary communities, occasionally, there are other intrinsic and extrinsic factors that motivate communities to participate in development processes and discourses. These factors range from financial to non-financial, material to non-material, and short to long term factors. The study sought, among other objectives, to establish factors that promote beneficiary community participation in development in the community driven development approach. The study found out that key factors which make beneficiary communities to participate in development in the community driven approach are benefits (financial and material), development interest, development need, previous development experience, wanting to belong, to serve the community and project meets needs respectively. The implication of these findings to policy makers, practitioners and stakeholders is to design strategies that can divorce short term benefits and expectations as propellants for participation by beneficiary communities in development and instead, inculcate ownership and responsibility as core motivating factors.

Key Words: Approach, Beneficiary, Factors, Community, Development, Driven.

1. Introduction: Participation is the heart that pumps the community’s life blood (Reid, 2000).

Participation refers to the inclusion of diverse sectors of community members in an on-going community development process (Schafft & Greenwood, 2003). Participation is a dynamic process which is molded by community members desires to be part of affairs that affect their lives.

Participation is also considered an evolutionary process whereby beneficiaries influence the direction and execution of development projects as active participants and not just mere recipients of project benefits (Bamberger, 1988). It means some form of involvement of people, with similar needs and goals, in decisions affecting their lives. Community participation is a cyclical process and cumulative in nature thus becoming the locus of community empowerment (Samah & Aref, 2009).

Participation is an important concept in development and because of its wide application, it means different things to different people (Barasa & Jelagat, 2013). Further, the concept of community participation is considered ambiguous, meaning that there is no specific or right way to ensure community participation in the development process (Alli, N1 & Emery, nd). Where participation is interpreted as a means, it generally becomes a form of mobilization to get things done by the people themselves for their total good.

Participatory rural community development paradigm projects have become increasingly popular in the last 40 years (Ă˜stergaard et al., 2003). Participatory development approaches currently occupy a prominent and important position in community development practice and discourses (Schafft & Greenwood, 2003). There is a growing increase in the demand for community participation in Volume-I, Issue-V

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development projects, with its resultant challenges, advantages, disadvantages and benefits (Alli, N1 & Emery, nd). Participation is a matter on which there is considerable disagreement among development scholars and practitioners. However, it is considered to be an active process by which beneficiary groups influence the direction and execution of a development project (Paul, 1987).

Participation as a concept occupies a central place in development with resultant potential to influence, challenge, and change and modifies the state of affairs for the benefit of all community members (Barasa & Jelagat, 2013). Participatory approaches are closely linked to sustainable and decentralized development, and community involvement is a cardinal duty of funding and implementing agencies, including governments. There are resultant benefits of active community participation in project processes and discourses including increase in project acceptability, production of more equitable distribution of benefits, promotion of local resource mobilization and project sustainability (Bamberger, 1988).

Community participation is undeniably vital in the development process (Ă˜stergaard et al., 2003). Community participation in development is advocated for various noble reasons but it is often permeated by empty rhetoric and little impact (Botes & Rensburg, 2000). Beneficiary community participation, apart from enhancing cost-effectiveness for project implementation and resources distribution to a wider coverage of weaker sections of society, is a crucial strategy of ensuring that responsibility and benefits trickle to the beneficiaries too (Barasa & Jelagat, 2013).

Community participation does not just happen neither is it an idle principle, rather it needs some form of strategy and planned approach, resources and time allocation and commitment to the course (Burns et al., 2004). Samah and Aref (2009) observe that participation in community development activities means individuals are not only involved in initiating, deciding, planning, implementing and managing development processes and its activities, they are also subjects in meeting their collective needs and expectations to overcome their common development challenges. Communities that have chosen to participate in development discourses not only derive more satisfaction from the joy that comes from involvement, they also achieve more results, more rapidly, and with greater benefit to the community as a whole. Communities who participate in development initiatives report better success than those that only pay lip service to this important principle (Reid, 2000).

Beneficiary community participation in development discourses and processes is considered critical to the success of the community wellbeing because it is valued as one of the key ingredients of empowering development (Reid, 2000). It can greatly contribute to effectiveness and efficiency of projects as well as help to improve the living conditions of low-income communities (Botes & Rensburg, 2000).

Community-driven development approach has control of the development processes, resources and decision making, responsibilities and resultant benefits directly placed in the hands of beneficiary communities and community groups and in this approach, beneficiary community participation is a central principle, philosophy, fundamental and tenet.

2. Problem Statement: Successful community development approaches, including the community driven approach have been implemented over the years with mixed results. Community development initiatives are often demonstrated to be participatory if they can be shown to incorporate community perspectives and represent community concerns (Schafft & Greenwood, 2003). Participation does not occur by chance (Samah & Aref 2009). Hardly can development initiatives and processes succeed without mainstreaming community participation as a principle, fundamental and tenet of people driven development. There are usually intrinsic, extrinsic, catalytic, militating as well as promotive factors which drive beneficiary community participation in development agenda. However, beneficiary community participation poses a major challenge to Volume-I, Issue-V

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scholars in development studies, development practitioners and policy makers. This is because it is a rigorous and time-consuming process, which results in most development practitioners camouflaging it with quick fix consultations and pseudo-participatory gimmicks to justify means to the end.

With the already documented empirical evidence of beneficiary community participation in development, there are underlying motivating as well as militating factors for people’s participation.

However, there is not much documented knowledge on factors that motivate community members to participate in development in the community driven development approach specifically in the Kenyan context, a gap that informed the problem statement and necessitated need for this study.

3. Objective: The objective of the study was, among others, to establish factors which promote beneficiary community participation in the community driven development approach.

4. Study Design, Methods, Sampling and Locale: The geographical and administrative locale of the study was Gatuanyaga Sub-Location, Gatuanyaga Division, Thika East District, Kiambu County, Kenya.

The study employed a descriptive, ex-post facto cross-sectional survey research design, being carried out after an intervention (a multi-sectoral community driven development project). It was descriptive since it described the status of community participation as per the time of the study. Non – probability (quota) sampling technique was used to select the sample. The sample size for the individual interviews was 90 (N=90) and 5 focus group interviews (N=47) community interest groups (CIG) members. The breakdown of 90 was drawn from 9 sectoral groups with the quotas having been proportionately allocated (for purposes of representativeness). From the total 2304 CIG members, the calculation of quota proportionality was based on the size of each sector divided by the total of CIG members (from the 9 sectors) multiplied by 90. The 47 participants for the focus group interviews were randomly selected from the 9 sectors, with each interview having 8-10 participants proportionally drawn from the 9 sectors. The choice of 90 participants and 5 focus group interviews was discretionary.

Mixed methods (qualitative and quantitative) were used for data collection. The method used to collect quantitative data was individual interviews while qualitative data was collected using focus group interviews. The reason for the choice of both quantitative and qualitative methodologies was to enhance corroboration, diversification, verification and enrichment of the data collected through multiple methods. The tool used to collect quantitative data was a structured questionnaire, and an interview schedule with thematic topics was used to collect the qualitative information. Quantitative data was organised, processed and analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).

Descriptive statistics (univariate) were computed to generate frequency outputs. For qualitative data, refined themes were categorised and codes used to create thematic impressions and patterns that formed the basis of analysis and interpretation.

5. Results: This section presents, interprets and discusses findings on factors that promote community participation in the community driven development approach. Among the possible factors that are expected to promote community participation in development on the community driven approach include material (benefits), development interest, development need, previous development experience, wanting to belong, to serve the community, project meets needs and peer pressure. The respondents were required to give a yes or no for each response to each option and yes response was taken to be the highest percentage.

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5.1 Socio-demographic information of the study participants: Socio-demographic information of the study participants is as follows. On the variable of gender, 56.7% of the study participants were female while 43.3% were male. Age of participants (categorized on a likert scale) recorded the following results: 20-30 years was at 4.4 %, 31-40 years at 23.3%, 41-50 years at 30.0 %, 51-60 years at 18.9 % and 61 years and above at 23.3%. The marital status of the participants was 11.1% single, 86.7% married, while 2.2% reported being widows/widowers. Education level of the participants was as follows: 62.2 % of the respondents reported having primary education, followed by secondary at 30 .0 %, none at 4.4% while college at 3.3 % was the least category. Occupations of the participants ranged from farmer at 72.2 %, business at 23.3% while musician, mason, adult teacher and pastor were all at 1.1 %.

5.2 Factors which promote beneficiary community participation in the community driven development: The study sought to find out factors which promote community participation in the community driven development approach. The factors which were most mentioned by respondents in the individual interviews mentioned were development need as the highest at 88.9% followed by development interest at 85.6%, wanting to belong at 76.7 % and project meets needs at 75.6% respectively. The least mentioned were financial benefits at 14.4%, previous development experience at 21.1%, to serve community at 23.3%, material benefits at 32.2 % and peer pressure at 0.0% respectively (as indicated by table 5.1).

From the focus group interviews, it was evident that several factors similar to those identified by the individual interviews were mentioned. Among the factors mostly mentioned were development gap, previous bad experience with other approaches, positive experience with the community driven development approach, development interest and wanting to belong. The least mentioned factors were financial and material benefits or desire to serve the community.

On development need as a factor, a respondent from the focus group interviews said the following:‘The community participates since it expects to benefit through skills development and attitude change as well as the need to address development gaps’- Community Interest Group member .

About wanting to belong together, one of the focus group interviews had this to say:‘The need to belong together makes the community to participate in projects’- Community Interest Group member On financial and material benefits, a focus group interview participant had the following to say:‘Some of the community members participate because they expect to get provision of poultry’-Community Interest Group Member Table 5.1 Factors that promote community participation in development No Yes Total Category % % % Financial benefits 85.6 14.4 100.0 Material benefits 67.8 32.2 100.0 Development interest 14.4 85.6 100.0 Development need 11.1 88.9 100.0 Volume-I, Issue-V

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Previous development experience Wanting to belong To serve the community Project meets needs Peer pressure

78.9 23.3 76.7 24.4 100

21.1 76.7 23.3 75.6 0.0

Rebecca Waweru

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

6. Discussion: Community participation in development hardly takes place in a vacuum. This is usually motivated by different factors which include tangible and non-tangible benefits as well as short and long term gains. Various factors promote community participation in development, including motivation by projects that cater for their needs and give benefits as returns. Participatory development paradigm is embedded on and associated with people and their aspirations to change their own lives, resulting to promotion of equity, legitimization of decision-making processes, strengthening self-determination and predisposing beneficiary communities to more democratic development (Barasa & Jelagat, 2013). Moreover, community participation is not an idle principle, rather it is based on what the community derives from involvement, in achieving more results and with greater benefit to the community as a whole (Reid, 2000).

Several factors motivate beneficiary communities to participate in development. Such factors range from direct benefits (financial, material or otherwise), tangible or non-tangible to long or short term, among others. Other factors such as culture, history, government policy and social, political and economic structures influence community participation ( Botes & Rensburg, 2000).

6.1 Financial and Material and Non-material benefits: Goodman et al., (1998) posits that a community’s sense of benefits and costs associated with participation can determine if they participate in development or not. Maraga et al., (2010) argues that there was a strong positive relationship between community participation and the benefits farmers obtained from afforestation projects. Further, Bowen (2007) indicates that material incentives prompt communities to participate in the community subprojects. Further, expected personal or group benefits can promote participation in development (Chitere and Mutiso, 1991; Okinda, 2009). Other forms of nonmaterial benefits account for beneficiary community members wanting to participate in development. As a process, participation gives experience to individuals which provides and equips them with insights, confidence and skills to solve existing problems, which is crucial in achieving individual and communal goals (Samah & Aref, 2009). There are also social benefits which help in the empowerment of people to take charge of their development processes. The above observations correspond with the study findings.

6.2 Development interest, development need, project meets needs, previous development experience and to serve the community: Masanyiwa and Kinyashi (2008) in a study in Tanzania observe that community members participate effectively when they perceive that interventions being undertaken by a project address their immediate needs as identified in community consultation processes. Further, Bhatnagar and Williams (1992) observe that people support and participate in projects that account for their needs. Beneficiary communities participate collectively to take initiative for their own socio-economic development which results in empowerment through asset and capacity building (IFAD, 2009). People's participation can be based on the fact that people have the ability to carry out activities suited to their needs by becoming empowered to develop themselves in a collective effort to improve living conditions in the community which is dependent on the people determining their wants and needs and how to do it (Samah & Aref, 2009). The study Volume-I, Issue-V

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findings therefore indicate that in the community driven development approach, development interest, project meets needs, previous development experience, to serve the community and development need contributes to participation by beneficiary community in development.

6.3 Wanting to belong and peer pressure: Wanting to belong, compounded by peer pressure can make beneficiary community members to participate in development. As Botes and Rensburg (2000) argue, a critical factor influencing the motivation to participate is often the composition of a community. Moreover wanting to belong, based on existence of traditional forms of community cooperation, makes individuals to collectively give priority to the goals of the larger group they belong to which often results in actions of individuals leading to service to the community or society (Bamberger, 1988; Ardichvili, Maurer, Li, Wentling, & Stuedemann, 2006). Similarly, participation of community members in any organization is dependent on the opportunity that the organization provides for inclusion (Goodman et al., 1998). Further, community acceptance of one another by offering each member the safety of knowing that they are accepted for who they are can be a militating factor in community participation as a way of wanting to belong (Reid, 2000). Working on the old adage of unity is strength, participation is a means of exerting influence or bargaining power which motivates communities to work collectively in development processes because it serves to enhance social cohesion and it makes communities recognise the value of working in partnership with each other (Khwaja, 2004; Burns et al., 2004). The above observations agree with the study findings.

7. Conclusion: It is evident from the study findings that benefits (financial and non-material) are key factors that make communities to participate in development. Specifically, it can be concluded that factors that promote beneficiary community participation in the community driven development approach include development need, followed by development interest, wanting to belong and project meeting needs. Other factors include community member’s felt need and burden to serve their communities. It can further be concluded that financial benefits, previous development experience, to serve community, material benefits and peer pressure do not necessarily motivate communities to participate in development in the community driven development approach. The implication of the findings to policy makers, practitioners and stakeholders is to design strategies that can divorce short term benefits and expectations from beneficiary communities and instead inculcate ownership and responsibility as core factors why communities should participate in development processes and discourses.

References: 1. Alli , N1 And Emery (nd), S2 “Community Participation In Development Projects With Emphasis On The Road Industry”: npd 2. Ardichvili, A., Maurer, M., Li, W., Wentling, T., & Stuedemann, R. (2006)”Cultural influences on knowledge sharing through online communities of practice. Journal of Knowledge Management", 10 (1): 94–107.

3. Samah,A & Aref, F (2009) "People’s Participation in Community Development: A Case Study in a Planned Village Settlement in Malaysia" World Rural Observations 2009; 1(2):45-54 4. Bamberger, M (1988) "The Role of Community Participation in Development Planning and Project Management", Washington: World Bank

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5. Bhatnagar, B & Williams, A (eds) (1992) "Participatory Development And The World Bank, Potential Directions For Change", World Bank Discussion Papers, 183, Washington: World Bank 6. Barasa, F & Jelagat, T (2013) "Community Participation in Project Planning, Management and Implementation: Building the Foundation for Sustainable Development" International Journal of Current Research , 5 (02) : 398-401 7. Burns, D, et al., (2004) "Making community participation meaningful A Handbook For Development And Assessment", UK: The Policy Press 8. Botes, L & Rensburg, D. van. (2000) "Community participation in development: nine plagues and twelve commandments". Community Development Journal, 35 (1): 41–58 9. Bowen, G (2007) "An Analysis of Citizen Participation in Anti-Poverty Programmes" Oxford University Press and Community Development Journal 65–78. Available from www. oxfordjournals.org (Accessed 20 October 2013) 10. Chitere, O & Mutiso, R (eds) (1991) "Working With Rural Communities, A Participatory Action Research in Kenya", Nairobi: Nairobi University Press 11. Goodman, R. M., Speers, M. A., McLeroy, K., Fawcett, S., Kegler, M., Parker, E., Wallerstein, N. (1998) "Identifying and defining the dimensions of community capacity to provide a basis for measurement. Health Education & Behavior, 25(3):258–278.

12. IFAD (2009) "Community-Driven Development Decision Tools For Rural Development Programmes", IFAD : Switzerland 13. Khwaja, A (2004) "Is Increasing Community Participation Always A Good Thing?" Journal of the European Economic Association 2(2–3):427– 436 14. Maraga, J et al., (2010) "Factors Determining Community Participation In Afforestation Projects In River Nyando Basin, Kenya" , African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 4(12): 853-859. Available from: http://www.academicjournals.org/AJEST (Accessed 20 October 2011) 15. Masanyiwa, Z and Kinyashi, G (2008) "Analysis of Community Participation in Projects Managed by Non-Governmental Organizations A Case of World Vision in Central Tanzania", UK: Institute of Development Studies 16. Okinda, O (2009) "Giving Voice To The Chronically Poor A Study Of People’s Participation in Projects Funded under the Constituency Development Fund in Ibeno Location, Kisii District", Nairobi: Institute for Development Studies 17. Østergaard, Tom Dahl et al., and (2003) "Community-Driven Rural Development What Have We Learned?" Washington, D. C: Inter-American Development Bank 18. Paul, S. (1987) "Community participation in development projects". World Bank Washington, DC. Retrieved from http://www wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/1999/09/21/000178830_9810190 3572729/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf 19. Schafft, K & Greenwood, D (2003) “Promises and Dilemmas of Participation: Action Research, Search Conference Methodology, and Community Development”, Journal of the Community Development Society, 34 (1): 18-35, DOI: 10.1080/15575330309490101 20. Reid, N (2000) “How People Power Brings Sustainable Benefits to Communities”, USDA Rural Development: npd

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International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies (IJHSSS) A Peer-Reviewed Bi-monthly Bi-lingual Research Journal ISSN: 2349-6959 (Online), ISSN: 2349-6711 (Print) Volume-I, Issue-V, March 2015, Page No. 22-29 Published by Scholar Publications, Karimganj, Assam, India, 788711 Website: http://www.ijhsss.com

Wastage and Stagnation in Primary Schools Jayeeta Bhattacharjee Faculty, Vivekananda College of Education, Karimganj, Assam, India Abstract Primary education provides fundamentals of all formal education. It starts at 6 years and continues upto 10-11 years of age. Primary education is a fundamental need of life and its development.

Education is a birth right of every child which must be ensured by the State or Central Government.

Primary education is the minimum education for an individual which helps in the removal of the darkness of ignorance and illiteracy from his life. It makes man capable of reading, and writing and knowing the environment in which he lives. It enables him to make proper adjustment and progressive development in society. This education can identify and unfold the native potentialities of an individual for development. It can help in the effective use of the human and natural resources of a country. Therefore it becomes the obligatory duty and bounded responsibility of the Government of a welfare state to make this education available to every child. Wastage and Stagnation are two great hurdles in the way of attainment of universalisation of education in the country. Statistics show that the number of elementary schools has increased and we have now a primary school within easy walking distance from the home of every child. The enrolments in class I to V have increased, huge amount of money is spent on elementary education, but unfortunately there is not so much increase in literacy rate. Therefore, these two major leaks that is Wastage and Stagnation need to be plugged immediately. Only then education ceases to be an exercise in futility.

The earlier we do, the better it will be. This paper explains the meaning of wastage and stagnation in primary schools and their causes. It also describes the measures taken to remove wastage and stagnation in primary schools.

Key Words: Wastage, Stagnation, District Primary Education Programme, Mid-Day Meal Programme, Sarba Shiksha Abhijan.

Meaning of wastage: Wastage means dropout of pupils i.e. leaving the schools before completing the primary course. The number of primary schools is increasing in our country every year. The enrolment in such schools is increasing every year the expenditure on primary education has increased year after year. But unfortunately, there is not much increase in the literacy rate. Children generally join schools during the age of 5-7 years, but start dropping off from the age of 9 years. An All India Education Survey report shows that with 100 students in class I, the enrollment in class II falls to 66, in class III to 52, in class IV to 40 and in class V to 32. This is reduced further by 25 by the time they reach class VIII. In short of every 100 children enrolled in class I, only 25 are retained within the school system till they reach class VIII or the age of 14 years. Thus all students who enter the educational system do not complete the full level of the system for which they are enrolled and leave or drop out somewhere in the middle. This is known as wastage. Our Indian Constitution declared to provide free and compulsory education to all children till they are of 14 years of age. So if any child leaves school before this stage it becomes a case of wastage. When students leave the school before the completion of stage of education, the time, money and energy spent on his Volume-I, Issue-V

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education is a great national wastage. In India at primary level this wastage is estimated to the extent of 60%.

A study of the working group appointed by Kothari Commission 1966 revealed the following facts: (i) Wastage is minimum in class I and II (ii) Wastage is more in girls than boys (iii) Wastage in hills is more than the plains.

This shows that hardly 50% children enjoy the benefits of education. A UNESCO study lists India among countries where the drop-out in primary schools is very high. Prof. J.P. Naik had aptly remarked ‘of every 100 children who are admitted in primary Schools in class I, about 1/3 drop off at the end of class I and only 1/3 reach class V. The Indian Government, after the attainment of independence, stressed the need of primary education and provided funds for its development, but a scrutiny of statistics reveals that the desired success has not been achieved due to certain reasons. Since the children leave the school before completion of their courses, the time of both the teacher and the taught are wasted. The available statistics reveal that till 1992, 40% of the children have dropped out before completing primary education.

Causes of Wastage: (1) Economic causes – It has been estimated that sixty five percent of the causes of wastage are due to economic reasons. As the income of about fifty percent of our country is very low they have to depend on direct or indirect earning by their children. It has been found that in many cases the children are admitted in schools at the age of six plus. At about the age of nine they are withdrawn from schools in order to help the family by doing some work, like seeking some employment etc. Poverty is also directly responsible for wastage.

Educational institutions are suffering from paucity of funds. In village primary schools, students generally come bare footed, their clothes are tattered and dirty. They do not take interest in the education of their children nor they can help them in their studies. All these things lead to great wastage.

(2) Social Causes: – (i) There are some backward classes, like the scheduled or tribal people, who do not take interest in the education of their children. They do not enjoy adequate social facilities, because of their social set-up. They are reluctant in keeping their children in schools. (ii) Some of the parents are illiterate and as such do not understand the importance of education.

They are prejudiced and steeped deep in ignorance. They do not realise that their education is of vital importance. (iii) Some people are orthodox and do not like girl’s education. Such people withdraw their daughters from the school at an early age. (iv) Girls help their mothers at home. Therefore, they are generally withdrawn from school without the completion of primary education to assist their mother in domestic affairs. (v) Early marriage system is another hurdle. The girls are married early. Therefore they can’t continue their education even at primary stage. (vi) Most of the primary schools are co-educational institutions. Orthodox people do not like their daughters to study in these schools. So, as soon as they are a little grown up, they are withdrawn.

(3) Educational Causes: – Present primary education is not worth while both for the children and the parents. The following are some of the educational causes which lead to wastage and stagnation. (i) The curriculum of primary education is not in accordance with the real life of the children.

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(ii) Individual attention is not paid to the children. (iii) The environment of primary schools does not meet the psychological needs of children so, they play truant. (iv) Teaching methods adopted in primary schools are dull, boring. (v) Teachers of primary schools do not take interest in their job. Neither they attend to their duties regularly, nor do they pay heed to the difficulties and problems of the children. (vi) Ours is an examination ridden education. Fear of examination always remains in the mind of children. Because of this fear they develop repulsive attitude towards education. (vii) The provision of instructional material in primary schools is not adequate. (viii) There is lack of healthy contact between parents and teacher etc. (ix) Most of the parents feel that education imparted to their children is useless. It does not train them for better work. On the contrary it isolates the children from habits of work. So they think it better to withdraw their children from the school.

(4) Defective administration – Our educational system cannot be said to be completely free from any defects. There are very few schools which can claim to be successful in making the mental, physical and moral development of the Child. In most of the classes the standard of teachers, lack of educational implements on aim and there is a great lack of educational buildings built in healthy environment. In such condition neither the students are able to throw themselves heart and soul into the sacred task of acquiring and learning of knowledge nor the teachers are able to do their teaching work with complete enthusiasm and skill.

(5) Bad environment – Ordinarily the students have to pass their time in vicious environment in schools as well as outside the schools. In each class there are a number of such boys whose habits and behavior, method of conversation etc. are deplorable. Such types of students never sincerely aim to pass their class every year, and other students by coming in to contact with them start ignoring their studies.

(6) Pupil’s ill health – It has been observed that for several years the physical conditions of the students has been deteriorating. It is because of the lack of edible things, lack of nourishing food, and because of the increase of different diseases, because of being weak and ill, majority of Indian students is not able to devote properly to their studies and consequently they are not able to complete their course within the prescribed period.

(7) Illiteracy of the parents and guardians – Being illiterate, parents fail to understand the cultural and social importance of the education. Consequently even they admit their children in some schools, they take them out of these schools after some time, because from their point of view this is a wastage of time.

(8) Natural calamities like flood, drought and epidemic diseases disrupt educational activities in school.

Meaning of Stagnation: Stagnation means failure in the class i.e. repetition of classes by pupil. By stagnation we mean that a student continues to remain in one class for more than a year or the prescribed course is not completed within the allotted time. Stagnation is a major factor responsible for wastage in primary education, both directly and indirectly. If a student completes five years courses in seven years’ time it naturally means that he has wasted two years’ time and labour.

Besides, if the student consistently fails in a class, he loses interest in studies. The parents also get discouraged and lose interest in the child’s education. Generally, in the end, the child gives up studies and either gets into some trade thereby helping his parents to supplement their income or turns a vagabond menacing the society and thus increasing the burden of the nation. In this way Volume-I, Issue-V

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stagnation damages the primary education to a great extent. Hence, it is necessary to seriously deliberate over the causes of this stagnation.

Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics conducted an investigation and pointed out that stagnation was as greater evil than wastage. The Kothari Commission collected data regarding enrolment in Class – I to VIII in 29 districts of our country. On an analysis of the data it concluded that – (i) Stagnation is higher in Class – I (ii) It is reduced considerably in higher classes. (iii) At the Higher primary stage, stagnation decreases. (iv) On the whole, stagnation among girls is greater than that among boys’ and (v) The extent of Stagnation show considerable variation from area to area.

Thus the problem of stagnation is very acute at the primary stage in India.

Causes of Stagnation: (1) Heavy and uninteresting curriculum – The children studying in the primary classes are mostly in the tender age group of six to eleven years, and they have to study five subjects including arithmetic and science which are uninteresting for the children of this tender age. So, they find it difficult to complete this huge and un-absorbing curriculum within the prescribed period.

They therefore, fall victim to stagnation.

(2) Irregular attendance – Some pupils are irregular in attending schools due to indifference of their parents who are either illiterate or too busy to care for their kids. The failure of the school to attract its pupils and adjust its study hours to their needs also contributes to the irregularity of attendance of pupils.

(3) Absence of definite admission rules – There are no definite rules regarding admission in primary classes. Any child of any age within the age group may seek admission in any class. The result is that there is no co-ordination and balance between one’s age and mental development and consequently the child may have to repeat a year.

(4) Unsuitable atmosphere and conditions – Mostly two different types of atmosphere are faced by the student when he gets admission in the class. The first is that of his family or locality and the second is that of the school which comprises of children of various families and different social strata. It is generally not possible for all the children to strike a balance between the two. This mal adjustment sometimes not only causes stagnation but also becomes responsible for juvenile delinquency. Delinquency being an easy way out of the problems faced by the young students does spread fast among children at this vulnerable age.

Sometimes the atmosphere at schools or home being unfavorable for education causes stagnation. Many children do not get sufficient time to study at homes with the result that neither they complete the home task nor the prescribed courses within the expected time.

Hence, they do not achieve success in the examination. The stagnation is, therefore, natural in this case.

(5) A physical weakness of students – A healthy body possesses a healthy mind. Our children do not get balanced diet with the result that their physical development gets retarded. The mind and the memory, therefore, do not develop to the desire extent and the children fail to cope up with their course within the prescribed time.

(6) Social evils – Sometimes some evil social practices also become major hurdles responsible for stagnation. Even today early marriage takes place and the boys and girls get involved at a young age with married life. They lose interest in studies, and therefore fail in examinations. Besides, on boys falls the responsibility of supporting the family and therefore they leave studies to take Volume-I, Issue-V

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up a trade. Girls in particular are forbidden to pursue their education after marriage. Moreover, they have to at their tender age, begin to house-keeping and rear a family.

(7) Defective Education Systems – Due to shortage of teachers, a teacher has generally to take many classes and teach various subjects. Under these circumstances it is simply a folly to expect that the students will be able to complete their courses in time. Lack of trained teachers, dearth of educational material, unsuitable school buildings are some of the other causes responsible for stagnation in primary classes.

(8) Defective Pattern of Examination – Through the present examination system efforts are made to assess the knowledge gained by the student in a year within a few hours through some questions. Least importance is attached to the work a student does throughout the year. If due to any reason the student, despite knowing the subject matter, fails to answer in a particular fashion his entire year is lost and he once again has to repeat the class. Thus, the prevailing system of examination, besides being full of defects, also helps to increase stagnation.

(9) Stagnation in class - I – Besides the above causes which apply to the primary stage as a whole, there are certain causes which are peculiar to class - I: a. Heterogeneity of the age composition of students. Some children join late and they find it difficult to adjust psychologically with their peers who are of a lower age. b) Making fresh admission throughout the year. (i) Overcrowding in the class. (ii) Inability of the teachers to use play way techniques. (iii) Poor and illiterate parents consider it most profitable to use their children in household work than sending to school.

Measures to remove wastage and stagnation: We have acquainted ourselves with some of the causes of wastage and stagnation in education that are responsible for wastage and stagnation. Many measures have been taken by both Central and State Governments to remove wastage and stagnation. Now we have to deliberate on how to free education from the causes that are responsible for wastage and stagnation. Some suggestions to remove these causes are mentioned below – (1) Improvement of Curriculum – It is necessary to effect changes in the tough and burdensome curriculum in order to avoid wastage and stagnation. Wastage and stagnation may be avoided by making the subjects of science and arithmetic light and more interesting. The method of teaching these subjects should also be made attractive and the number of subjects should also be reduced.

(2) Regular Admission Policy – The administrators and the inspectors should formulate a uniform policy and strictly observe it. Wastage and stagnation may be checked by framing rules regarding the age and the stage of mental and physical development for the purposes of admission.

(3) Improvement of Atmosphere – Changes in the home, society and school atmosphere should be made in order to stop wastage and stagnation. The changes made should aim at improving and making the atmosphere healthy. To achieve this, it is desirable that the public, the teachers and the government should co-operate. It is necessary to remove the evil social practices and false values. Registrations should be imposed on indecent films, film-songs, etc. Much success in the sphere may be achieved by providing healthy entertainment to children under the supervision of teachers and adult education to the illiterate parents.

(4) Improvement of Health – Physical development is necessary for mental development of students, but the tragedy is that most of the parents in our country are unable to provide nourishing food for their children. In view of the helplessness of the parents it is the Volume-I, Issue-V

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responsibility of the state to take over the charge of providing food to the future citizens of the country. It is, therefore, necessary to provide milk and other nourshing food to the school going children. This is necessary for removing stagnation and for building up healthy citizens.

(5) Improvement in Teaching Method – The prevailing teaching methods being unpsychological and unattractive cause stagnation. The problem of stagnation may be solved to a large extent if psychological systems prevailing in other developed countries are adopted in this country, too.

In adopting these systems we will face the difficulty of financial resources and sufficient number of trained teachers. This difficulty may be over come if love for education is created in rich persons.

(6) Stopping child Marriage – Although child marriage has been proclaimed an offence under Act of 1930 and other Amendments to the Act, yet this social practice continues. Unless the society looks down on this practice with contempt, it will not be stopped. As such, it is the duty of the public and leaders to put an end to this practice. The government, too, should take effective steps to ensure the implementation of the act.

(7) Reforms in the Examination system – The system of examination should be based on the principle that education is imparted for success in examinations. The system, therefore, should examine the whole year’s work and promotions should be given after testing the real knowledge acquired during the period of study. There should be continuous comprehensive evaluation (C.C.E) of the performance of the pupils, and of their day to day activities.

For minimizing wastage and stagnation, Kothari Commission has made the following recommendations: (i) Examinations at the end of class I should be abolished and first two classes and where (ii) possible, even class I to IV should be regarded as one unit. (iii) Introducing a year of pre-school education (iv) Adoption of play-way techniques in class I (v) Providing ‘literacy classes’ for a period of one year at least to all children in the age group (vi) 11-14 who are not attending schools (vii) Right type of trained teachers should be appointed. Lady teachers have proved better in a. handling young children. (viii) The school should be properly equipped with teaching material, furniture, building etc. (ix) Medical facilities, free books to poor students and mid-day meals should be given. (x) Admission should be restricted to certain months, especially in the beginning of the year (xi) Class I should be made a homogeneous unit of age group 6-7 years. (xii) Educational system should be made realistic. (xiii) No failure at this stage. (xiv) Provision for adult education be made so as to create parent’s consciousness and (xv) interest in the education of their wards.

Some of the Implementing Schemes are: Alternative Model for Elementary Education: The governments’ major national strategy for promoting early childhood development, the Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS) Programme was launched in 1975. Under this programme expectant and nursing mother and children up to the age of 6 years benefit from a package of services including medical checks, immunizations, supplementary feeding, preschool education, health and nutrition education. The ICDS, the world’s largest early child hood programs, includes converging interventions for health, nutrition, psychological and cognitive development of pre-school children. This programme is primarily meant for the under privileged pre-school children and is run through the centers, called Volume-I, Issue-V

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Anganwadi Centres. With the help of Anganwadi under the Integrated Child Development Scheme Programme, pre-primary education would be provided for 3 years and thereafter in continuation and conjunction, at the same location, primary education would be organized. This would be evaluated by a public examination on the basis of which admission would be made for further continuation of education from class – VI to X. In this model, girls would be able to come to the school with siblings, who would be taken care of in Anganwadis.

District Primary Education Programme (DPEP): District Primary Education Programme was launched in India in 1994. It is one of the largest education project ever taken in the world. Some of the objectives of DPEP are to (i) Provide all children with access to primary education (class I to V) (ii) Reduce primary drop-out rates for all students to less than 10% (iii) Reduce difference in enrolment drop-out rates and learning achievement among gender and social groups to less than 5 %.

Sarba Shiksha Abhijan (SSA): Sarba Shiksha Abhijan is an educational scheme. The scheme has been formulated for universalisation of primary education. The main aim of Sarba Sikhsha Abhijan is to provide useful and practical primary education to all the children of 6 -14 years by 2010. Some of the abjectives of Sarba Sikhsha Abhijan (SSA) are – (i) To give more importance to the education of the girls (ii) To provide equal access of education of children belonging to schedule castes, tribes and living below poverty line (iii) To publicize the concept of education among the common people. (iv) To make the people conscious that the schools and other educational institutions belong to them. (v) To introduce a programme of literacy, library, women empowerment, games and sports, to establish a relation among the schools and the public.

Mid-Day Meal Programme (MDMP): The children of today are the citizens of tomorrow. The Mid Day Meal Programme for the children was initially viewed as an act of charity. MDMP was initialed in 1995 for the purpose of not only improving childrens’ health, but also increasing their school participation in terms of enrolment, regularity in attendance and performance leading to certain levels of achievement of objectives of school education. From 1 st July 2005 all Mid-Day Meal Schemes includes a component of micro nutrient supplementation covering essential micro nutrients such as Vitamin A, Iron, Iodine etc.

Reading Enhancement Programme: This Programme has been launched in 19 th September, 2007, for classes I and II in collaboration with Pratham (Parhim - Sikim). Goal of this programme is to make children ready to recognise alphabets, read simple words. Children should be able to read unseen paragraph without conjoined letter with understanding.

Meena Campaign: Meena Campaign was launched in 2008. Meena Camp is established in the Tea Garden and will be conducted in collaboration with UNICEF. Objectives of this Meena Campaign is to make an attempt to eliminate problem of girls education in tea gardens, char areas.

Conclusion: The present study deals with the causes of wastage and stagnation and the remedial measures taken to remove the same. Only by way of implementing the Government schemes it may not be possible to remove wastage and stagnation fully. It is only possible when the teachers take the pivotal role in transacting the lessons and curriculum as a whole in the classroom situations.

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Education is one of the factors affecting the physical and mental growth of a child. The SSA is doing yeoman’s service so far as enrolment of pupils in the age group 6 - 14 is concerned. Mere enrolment is not enough. The teachers are in collaboration with the parents, Government machinery, Panchayats to see that there is no instance of wastage and stagnation. The teacher as a manager of the teaching learning process, should plan, organize, lead and control the effects of all the available new material resources involved in the process of teaching learning in such a way as to achieve the teaching learning objectives with maximum efficiency and effectiveness and that too, in keeping conformity with the Constitutional guarantee to Right to Education.

References: 1. Dr. Agarwall, S. (2008). Systematic Approach to Education. Guwahati: Book Land Publication.

2. Jayapalan, N. (2001). Problems of Indian Education. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers & Distributors.

3. Kochhar, S.K. (1995). Pivotal Issues in Education. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. 4. Mishra, B.K. & Mohanty, R.K. (2009). Trends and Issues in Indian Education. Meerut: Lall Book Depot.

5. Safaya, R.N.S. (2000). Development planning and problems of Indian education. New Delhi: Dhanpat Rai Publishing Company (P) Ltd.

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International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies (IJHSSS) A Peer-Reviewed Bi-monthly Bi-lingual Research Journal ISSN: 2349-6959 (Online), ISSN: 2349-6711 (Print) Volume-I, Issue-V, March 2015, Page No. 30-36 Published by Scholar Publications, Karimganj, Assam, India, 788711 Website: http://www.ijhsss.com

A comparative study between professional and non-professional course students: Social Adaptability Dr. Monika Arora (Seth) Asst. Professor, Dept. of Humanities, Shri Ramdeobaba College of Engineering and Management, Nagpur, India Abstract Social change refers to an alteration in the social order of a society. Social change may include changes in nature, social institutions, social behaviours, or social relations. A Social change may refer to the notion of social progress or sociocultural evolution, the philosophical idea that society moves forward by dialectical or evolutionary means.

Social change in India may be considered as a process through which definite alterations in the structures and functions of a particular social system result. A particular social change may be good or bad, desirable or undesirable, sacred or profane, progressive or regressive depending upon the views and understanding of the observer. It is to be understood that when a particular social change occurs it will be evaluated in the light of the ideals, goals and theories of the observer.

Development of society depends upon how it responds to the process of social change. One which adopts itself faster to social change registers rapid progress. It is to be noted that different segments of society do not adopts them to the social change at the same pace. It is believed that education plays a vital role in accelerating the process of social change. The present study will make an attempt to find out how the students of professional and non-professional courses differ in their adoptability to social change.

Key Words: - Social change, adaptability, social institutions, students, professional and nonprofessional courses.

1.1 Introduction:- Social change refers to any significant alteration over time in behavior patterns and cultural values and norms. By “significant” alteration, sociologists mean changes yielding profound social consequences. Examples of significant social changes having long‐term effects include the industrial revolution, the abolition of slavery, and the feminist movement.

Today's sociologists readily acknowledge the vital role that social movements play in inspiring discontented members of a society to bring about social change. Efforts to understand the nature of long‐term social change, including looking for patterns and causes, has led sociologists to propose the evolutionary, functionalist, and conflict theories of change . All theories of social change also admit the likelihood of resistance to change, especially when people with vested interests feel unsettled and threatened by potential changes.

Social change refers to an alteration in the social order of a society. Social change may include changes in nature, social institutions, social behaviours , or social relations. A Social change may refer to the notion of social progress or sociocultural evolution, the philosophical idea that society moves forward by dialectical or evolutionary means. One of the most obvious changes currently occurring is the change in the relative global population distribution between countries. This comes from two sources. One source is random or unique factors such as climate, weather, or the presence of specific groups of people. Another source is systematic factors. For example, successful Volume-I, Issue-V

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development has the same general requirements, such as a stable and flexible government, enough free and available resources, and a diverse social organization of society. So, on the whole, social change is usually a combination of systematic factors along with some random or unique factors.

Some of the major areas in which social change is significant in the post-Independent India are the caste system, status of women, the status and role of backward classes, family etc.

Social change in India may be considered as a process through which definite alterations in the structures and functions of a particular social system result. A particular social change may be good or bad, desirable or undesirable, sacred or profane, progressive or regressive depending upon the views and understanding of the observer. It is to be understood that when a particular social change occurs it will be evaluated in the light of the ideals, goals and theories of the observer. The change implies continuity. Only when certain existing conditions, situations or things are partially modified we use the term „change‟. So change and continuity coexist. Any social change may produce discernible and widespread changes in social structures, functions, behaviour, values, norms, and ways of life, attitudes, roles and status. Regarding social changes, sociologists have made detailed studies and have formulated various theories on the direction of change, factors of change and areas of change.

Professional Students: A professional student is a student majoring in what are considered the professional degrees. These include Doctor of Philosophy, Doctor of Education, Veterinary Medicine Law, Dentistry, Medicine, Doctor of Physical Therapy, Engineering, Business Administration, Nursing, Pharmacy, Architecture, and more.

Professional students have to face stiff competition as they are expected to be successful in their career. Moreover society in general has high expectations from professional students. Parental or family expectations on one hand and their own desire to succeed in their chosen course builds a lot of pressure on professional students those results in high stress level.

Non Professional Students: Non-Professional students are those who pursue their degree in liberal courses such as arts, commerce, basic sciences, humanities, social work, fine arts, music, drama, creative writing etc. There is less competition in liberal courses. The expectations of parents in general and society in particular are not very high from non-professional students. The chances of high stress, anxiety, depression, psychosomatic disorders are also less among non-professional students as they are not exposed to the same degree of competition and social pressure.

1.2 Review of Literature: 1. According to Ashish Agrawal (2012) 1 Education can initiate social changes by bring about a change in the outlook and attitude of man. It can bring about a change in the pattern of social relationships and thereby it may cause social changes.

2. According to Huma Ahmed-Ghosh (2009) 2 A study was conducted on changes in the status of North Indian women of Palitpur village. The results clearly points out that economic prosperity, resulting from an increase in agricultural productivity due to modernization of the village, has not led to the improvement of women's social status in terms of emancipation, greater opportunities in work, or education. In fact, in some instances a certain amount of regression has taken place. Intergenerational comparisons show that women have continued to be as subservient to men as their mothers, grandmothers and great-grandmothers. Even though the assumption is that agricultural development and economic wealth is accompanied by a society which is less influenced by sex-differentiation.

3. According to Kamlesh Gakhar and Harjeet Kour(2012)3 A study on scenario of present education system: a comparative study of Haryana and its neighboring states was conducted .

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Haryana is in the line with India in number of literates, but this figure is still very low as compared to other states.

4. According to L.Dee Fink, Susan Ambrose, Daniel Wheeler(2005) 4 A study was conducted on changes adopted by different universities in education system. The result of the study was that Significant changes were brought about through the leadership of the dean and department heads, appropriate support and resources, and faculty members' willingness to learn all three are a result of a culture in a college that values effective undergraduate education.

1.3 Aim and scope of the study : Aim of this study is to comparatively understand the adaptability to social change among professional and non-professional students.

This research assumes special significance in 21 st century society which is characterized by rapid social change. Dues to advancement in communication technology during last two decades the world has witnessed phenomenal change impacting social relationships, social values and social institutions. Whether this rapid pace of social change is desirable or undesirable; whether it would lead to the betterment of human life; whether it would generate happier or more satisfactory living conditions; remains to be seen. It is to be noted that different groups of people, owing to their different social economic, political, cultural, religious, educational, spiritual, physical, emotional, psychological intellectual and ascetic orientations exhibit different degrees of adaptability to social change and there by getting influenced in varying degree by it. In order to understand the desirable impact of social change on different groups of people it is prerequisite to find out which groups show better adaptability to social change. The factors which are likely to influence the rate of adaptability are many. Professional education is one of such decisive factor. The scope of this research study is confined to understand different degree of adaptability shown by the students of professional and non professional courses. This knowledge would be useful for sociologist, educationist and planners of socio-economic development.

1.4 Hypothesis: Male and female students pursuing professional and non-professional courses differ significantly in social adaptability with special reference to social religious, marriage, position of Women and Education. a. Male and female students pursuing professional courses differ significantly on social change. b. Male and female students pursuing non-professional courses differ significantly on social change.

1.5 Method:  Design The present study investigates male and female professional and non-professional students.

Therefore 2x2 Factorial design has been used. Percentage method is used to calculate the positive and negative trend of male and female students of professional and non-professional courses regarding social adaptability.  Sample The sample of this study consists of 200 professional and 200 non-professional students with the age range of 18-23 year. The ratio of male and female students is equal. The sample was drawn from the Nagpur city for professional students from various Engineering, medical, Law and Management colleges. The non- professional students are taken from Arts, commerce, science, social work colleges. The research tool was administered on male and female students of professional and non-professional courses.

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1.6 Procedure: The students included in the sample will be contacted individually and the research tools will be administered. General information will be noted down using personal data sheet separately. The schedules of testing will be worked out through prior consultations with the participants.  Tools Following tools have been be used for the purpose of collection of data for this study: Social Change: - The modernization scale developed by Raghavendra S. Singh, Amar Nath Tripathi and Ramjee Lal 5 in 2012.  P.I.D.F.:- Personal Information Data Form.  Statistical analysis: The obtain data has been analyzed statistically by using percentage method in Microsoft Excel. Personal information data form has been used to present the data graphically and in language.

1.7 Interpretation of Data: Table showing the positive and negative trends of Social Adaptability of Male and Female students of Professional and Non-Professional Courses.

Type of Students

Dimensions of Social Adaptability in Percentage Socioreligiou s (+ve)

Profession al Males Profession al Females

74.94 % 75.05 %

70.30 % 64.96 %

75.11%

73.50%

78%

79.33%

70.04%

77.62 %

Positio n of Wome n (ve) 81.45 % 81.70 %

NonProfession al Males

74.88 %

67.73 %

79.88%

72.23%

83.33 %

75.62 %

83.83%

68.36%

NonProfession al Females

78.27 %

67.63 %

80.08%

72.06%

84.91 %

81.04 %

81.41%

71.02%

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Socioreligiou s (-ve)

Marriag e (+ve)

Marriag e (-ve)

Positio n of Wome n (+ve)

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Educatio n (+ve)

Educatio n (-ve)

80.41%

73.05%

75.91%

72.69%

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The Comparative trends of social adaptability related to socio-religious changes in Professional and non-professional course students: The positive trends of social adaptability among professional males about soio-religious matters are 74.94% while among females it is 75.05%. There is a slight difference between two genders. Males are more negative to socio Volume-I, Issue-V

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adaptability in this area as their score is 70.30% than females who scores 64.96%. The negative trends repeat themselves on similar lines between Non-Professional males and females students.

However, in positive trends non-professional females are ahead of male students.

The Comparative trends of changes related to institution of marriage in Professional and nonprofessional course students: So far as the social adaptability with regard to institution of marriage is concerned the female professional students with the score of 79.33% show higher degree of adaptability than those of male students with the score of 75.11%. Males show higher degree of negative social adaptability than those of females regarding changes in the institute of marriage. So far as the degree of adaptability is concerned about marriage male and female students of nonprofessional courses show the similar trend shown by professional students. Regarding negative adaptability there is no significant change between males and females non-professional students regarding changes in marriage.

The Comparative trends of changes related to position of women in Professional and nonprofessional course students: Male students of professional courses show slightly higher degree of positive adaptability regarding changes taking place about position of women in society than those of female students. Males and females do not differ significantly with regard to negative adaptability in this area. So far as Non-professional students are concern females are slightly ahead of men regarding adapting positive changes. Regarding negative adaptability to the status of women nonprofessional female students show higher degree with the score of 81.04% than those of male students with the score of 75.62%.

The Comparative trends of changes related to education in Professional and non-professional course students: The scores of male and female professional students differ significantly. Males show higher degree of adaptability with the score of 81.41% than those of females with the score of 75.91%.This difference is continued between males and females though it has reduced with regard to negative adaptability in this domain in males and females. Non-professional male students like their professional counter parts show higher degree of adaptability with the score of 83.05% than those of females with slightly lower score of 81.41%. The results show that non-professional female students show higher degree of negative adaptability to education than those of males.

1.8 Discussion: Social change is persistent phenomenon. Adaptability of people to social change differs. Social change is a composite entity. There are number of parameters which can be adapted to measure or understand the trends of social change prevalent among different groups. This research study has made an attempt to understand the trends of social adaptability both in its positive and negative dimensions among male and female students of professional and non-professional courses. The modernization scale developed by Raghavendra S. Singh, Amar Nath Tripathi and Ramjee Lal in 2012 has been used to find out the degree of adaptability of social change in four important areas namely socio-religious, institution of marriage, position of women in society and education.

1.9 Limitations :- No research study is free from limitations.

1.The major limitation of this study arises from the fact that it has taken into consideration only four areas namely socio-religious, marriage, position of women and education to find out the degree of social adaptability while there are other significant areas such as parenting style, social intelligence, family environment etc.

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2. The second limitation is that the study is confined only to the students of professional and nonprofessional students. Working population of adults and senior citizens are not taken care of by this study.

3. The sample of the study is drawn from Nagpur City only. This means we cannot say about the trends of social adaptability in other geographical locale such as tribal, urban and metropolitan areas.

References: 1. Agrawal A.(2012) .Essay-on-the-relationship-between-education-and-socialchange.html http://www.preservearticles.com/201107048805/.

2. Huma H.,et,al.(2013) .Comparative study of spiritual intelligence among students of professional and non-professional courses. ACADEMICIA: An International Multidisciplinary Research Journal Volume : 3.

3. Gakhar K and Kour H (2012) Scenario Of present Education System: A Comparative Study of Haryana And Its Neighboring States .International Journal of Social Science & Interdisciplinary Research Vol.1 Issue 8, August 2012, ISSN 2277 3630.

4. Fink D.L, et,al.(2005) Becoming a Professional Engineering Educator: A New Role for a New Era. Journal of Engineering Education, Pg. 185, January 2005.

5. Singh R., Tripathi A. and Lal R., (2012). On Modernization,(Social Change), Department of Psychology, A.P.S. University, Rewa, source National Psychological Corporation, Agra (India).

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International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies (IJHSSS) A Peer-Reviewed Bi-monthly Bi-lingual Research Journal ISSN: 2349-6959 (Online), ISSN: 2349-6711 (Print) Volume-I, Issue-V, March 2015, Page No. 37-42 Published by Scholar Publications, Karimganj, Assam, India, 788711 Website: http://www.ijhsss.com

Impact of Mother’s Selected Attributes on Children’s Educational Attainment: A Household Level Study Promila Das Ph. D Research Scholar, Department of Economics, A.U. S., Assam

& Dr. Sumanash Dutta Professor, Dept. of Economics, and Dean, SVS of Library Science, A.U. S., Assam Abstract The importance of education in nation building and economic development is now a wellestablished fact in relevant literature. The governments of less developed countries have been taking great efforts to spread education among the masses through awareness building and establishment of large number of schools, colleges in every part of the nations. However, the literature suggests that the ultimate decision regarding schooling and non-schooling of children rests with their parents. In this context, the back ground characteristics of parents and the households have come into close scrutiny for examining the relationship between these and the children’s educational attainments. The present paper examines the role of some attributes of mother and households in that direction. The study is based on primary data and geographical area of study is the urban area of Karimganj district of Southern Assam. The results obtained indicate that Mother’s empowerment and mother’s education have negative impact on Children’s Educational Attainments. This overbearing negative impact is probably because of the fact that the younger mothers have younger children who were found to have low educational attainments at the time of survey. This observation is vindicated by the observed fact that the control variables have turned up statistically significant exhibiting their negative impact on children’s educational attainments. However, household income and nuclear family structure are found to have positive and statistically significant impact on the educational attainments of children.

Key Words: Mother’s empowerment, Mother’s education, Children’s educational attainments, Correlation Coefficient, Multiple Regression.

JEL Classification: J16, I20 1. Introduction: Education imparts skills and competencies that are central to human development.

It enhances quality of life and brings wide-ranging benefits to both individuals and societies. The instrumental and intrinsic benefits of education are widely recognized as pivotal in transforming the life of women in particular since they are underprivileged by social conditioning in most of the developing societies from time immemorial. The existing literature suggests that the opportunities of education and higher education are relatively restricted for young women than for young men. The present gender bias in higher education and professional training in India manifest that fact. The same, nevertheless, prevail even in some of the richest countries of the world as well. Education facilitates women empowerment including her ability to take independent decision which is a primary condition for emancipation from the bondage of poverty and gender-based subjugation.

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of parents with higher levels of education do better in standard tests of school attainment than those of parents with less education and education have stronger impact on children’s overall educational attainments. Educated mothers invest more in their children’s cognitive development and thereby, contribute to the welfare of the next generation. It is expected that educated mothers can give better education to her children, make better decision regarding their children’s education and educated mothers can also take better decision within family which reflect positively on mother’s empowerment level. These observations, found in studies conducted in different settings of India and in other countries, are put to test in this paper with new data set for verification in the context of the developing but backward society of Karimganj district of southern Assam.

2. Theoretical Background: The level of empowerment of women and her overall wellbeing is perceptibly monotonically associated with the level of her education. Higher education is important for women to take better and appropriate decision within family regarding many important aspects e.g., health of family members, education of children, investment for sustained development of the economic status of the family etc. Literatures suggest that, at household level, many factors affect the educational attainment of children. Parents’ education, especially mother’s education is likely to be an important factor for the educational outcome of their children. Dearden (1998) observed that mother’s education is an important determinant of children’s educational attainment. Highly educated mother can give better education to her children, can take better decision regarding her children education, regarding household and as well as a highly educated women have greater chance to become employed than lower educated women and can live a better life than low educated women.

The human capital of mother is usually more closely related to the educational attainments of the child than is that of the father. Parental completion of high school and one or two years of postsecondary schooling are typically found to have a larger effect on children’s schooling than years of parental schooling beyond that level (Haveman, Robert and Barbara Wolfe, 1995). Glick and Sahn (2000), for West Africa, found that rise in household income leads to greater rise in investment in girls’ education but have no significant impact on schooling for boys. Rise in father’s education raises the schooling of both sons and daughters but mother’s education has significant impact only on daughters’ schooling. Male dominance implying lower empowerment of women in the household has also negative impact on children’s education.

Kalmijn (1994) tried to examine the influence of mother's occupational status on children's educational attainment. He found that mother’s occupational status has a strong effect on schooling of both sons and daughters.

Durrant and Sathar (2000) conducted a study in Pakistan tried to focus on the link between mother’s status and their investment in children. They found that women with higher status are better able to make positive investments in their children as a result their children’s chances of survival during infancy increases and hence ever attending school of their children also increases.

Deding and Hussain (2002) tried to focus on the importance of parental education and living conditions on children’s educational attainment. The authors found that parents’ education, especially mother’s education is more important for children’s educational attainment. Furthermore, the study revealed the importance of living conditions. They found significant effect of living conditions on children’s educational attainments.

Parveen and Leonhauser (2004), in their study conducted in Bangladesh, tried to focus on the nature and extent empowerment of rural women and factors influencing it. The authors used Volume-I, Issue-V

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stratified random sampling to select responds. Total 156 respondents were selected for survey. A Cumulative Empowerment Index (CEI) was developed after obtaining the scores of six empowerment indicators. They found the majority of rural women have a very low to moderate (82%) level of empowerment. The study demonstrated that the place of residence may also have profound impact on the empowerment level and the economic status of women. Furthermore, the multiple regression analysis showed that there were strong positive effects of formal and non-formal education, information media exposure and spatial mobility on women's CEI, whereas, traditional socio-cultural norms have a strong negative effect.

Niaz et al (2010) conducted a study in Pakistan, focused on the impact of women’s empowerment on the socio-economic conditions of their families. Purposive sampling technique was followed to select households. The authors found that empowered women played an important role in supplementing their family budget. They participated in all kinds of decision-making related to family matters, they observed no gender discrimination in health and education of their children and their children got better education and developed better personality.

In the perspective drawn above that underlies the formative role of women’s education at both family and societal level, the objective of the study is set as to investigate the degree of association between mothers’ education and their empowerment level and how these two are associated with their children’s educational attainment level. The study would also try to find out the impact of mother’s education and empowerment on the educational attainments of their children, the causal direction that have significant bearings on the process of the intergenerational transmission of education as the literatures suggest.

3. Research Design: The study is based on primary data which is generated through household survey conducted in the Karimganj District of Assam. The total sample comprises of 108 children from selected 52 households. The unit of the study is household and the mothers of the households are the respondents. Out of the selected 52 mothers , 14 respondents have high level of education (Graduation and above), another 11 respondents have attained twelve level of education (higher secondary) and the rest respondents have high school and below high school level of education .The variables taken in the study are listed below. i. Education of mother in years (MEd) ii. Mother’s Empowerment Index (MEI): This is determined with the help of nine variables which reflect on mother’s decision making power in the household. The variables represent mother’s decision making power regarding (a) FHC= Family Health Care, (b) MLH=Making Large Household Purchases, (c) MRHP=Making Routine Household Purchases (d) FS=Family Size, (e) FPS= Family Planning Services, (f) JOW= Job of Women, (g) GOH= Going Outside Home, (h) FDTDE= Family Day to Day Expenditure. (i) SPI= Spending Personal Income. These are quantified as follows. Value 2 is assigned in case mother takes decision about each of the above entirely by herself and 1, if jointly along with her husband or male Head of Household. Value 0 is assigned to a variable in case mother is found to have no role in decision making regarding the above 9 variables. iii. Children’s Average Education (CAEd): This is estimated by taking the average of completed education in years of all the children in a household (excluding 0-5 age group) iv. Average Age of Children (AAC): This represent the average age of all the children of the household in years v. Number of living Children (NOC) in a household. vi. Family Type (FT): Dummy, 1 if Nuclear, 0 if Joint Volume-I, Issue-V

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vii. Earning Mother (EM): Dummy; 1 if yes, 0 otherwise. viii. Household’s Annual Income (HAI) in INR from all sources. ix. Age of Mother (AM) in years.

Some of these variables need no elaboration as these are self-defined.

4. Methodolody: Purposive random sampling technique is followed for selection of sample households from all urban parts of the district of Karimganj. The data is collected with the help of a structured pre-tested schedule and information are obtained through personal interview method and household survey. Mother’s Empowerment Index (MEI) is estimated by taking simple arithmetic average of mother’s decision making power which is evaluated by 9 different indicators of empowerment as stated above. Simple Correlation Coefficient (r) is found out to show the degree of association between Mother’s Education and Mother’s Empowerment Index. Finally multiple regression equations are constructed to identify the proximate determinants of Children’s Average Education.

5. Results: The data set is used to find out the degree of association between Children’s Average Education and Mother’s Education by finding out the correlation coefficient value of these variables. Similarly the correlation coefficient is estimated for variables Children’s Average Education and Mother’s Empowerment Index; Mother’s Education and Mother’s Empowerment Index. The result is shown in Table 1. It is found that there exists a very high positive and statistically significant correlation between Mother’s Education and Mother’s Empowerment Index (r=0.788, significant at 1% level). However, the correlation between Children’s Education and Mother’s Education is found to be negative and statistically insignificant. Similar is the case with Children’s Education and Mother’s Empowerment Index.

Table- 1 Estimated Correlation Coefficient (r) Correlarion Between Value Statistical Significance r(CAEd, MEd) -0.059 Insignificant r(CAEd, MEI) -0.066 Insignificant r(MEd, MEI) 0.788 Significant at 1% level The positive high and statistically significant degree of association between Mother’s Education and Mother’s Empowerment Index is expected. It corroborates the fact that as Mother’s Education increases, Mother’s Empowerment also improves. The association between these two variables is explained from the point of view of education to empowerment since education is generally attained in the early part of life (if it is low as is the case in the present study, average education of mothers being only 11.33 years) and empowerment is a derived notion, a function of education. However, at higher level of education, empowerment and education reinforces each other. The negative association between Children’s Education and Mother’s Education; Children’s Education and Mother’s Empowerment Index is unexpected. Literature suggests a positive association between Mother’s Education and Children’s Education which however could not be established here. But the result shows that the correlation coefficient values between children’s Education and Mother’s Education and Children’s Education and Mother’s Empowerment Index are statistically insignificant. This leaves ample scope for further investigation of the nature of these relationships.

In order to carry the investigation forward, two regression equations are constituted to identify the proximate determinants of Children’s Educational Attainments. This includes identification of the causal impact of mother’s education and mother’s empowerment on children’s education. Two Volume-I, Issue-V

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models are constituted (Model 1 and Model 2) with dependent variable CAEd. In the first model Mother’s Education is taken as an explanatory variable along with other eight variables. In Model 2 Mother’s Education as explanatory variable is dropped and substituted by Mother’s Empowerment Index (MEI), keeping the other variables unchanged. This has been done to avoid the problem of multicolinearity (since MEI and MEd are found to be highly correlated with each other). In both the models variables AAC1, AM1 and AM2 are introduced as control variables where the variables are defined as under.

AAC1 = Average Age of Children is (10-20) years, 1 if yes; 0 otherwise. The reference group is average age of children above 20 years as there are no children in the age group below 10 years.

AM1 = Mother in the age group (30-40) years, 1 if yes; 0 otherwise.

AM2 = Mother in the age group (40-50) years, 1 if yes; 0 otherwise. Here the reference group is mother in the age group of above 50 years as there is no mother in the sample whose age is less than 30 years.

The regression results are shown in Table 2. The results show that the variables AAC 1, HAI, AM1, AM2 have statistically significant impact on CAEd in Model 1. In Model 2, the variables MEI, AAC1, FT, HAI, AM1 and AM2 are found to have statistically significant impact on children’s educational attainments. However, as in Model 1, MEd has no statistically significant impact on CAEd. More perplexing is the finding that, in Model 2, MEI is seen to have negative statistically significant impact ( at about 5% level) on CAEd.

Variables MEI MEd AAC1 NOC FT EM HAI AM1 AM2 CONSTANT Model Fit

Table-2 Regression Results (Dependant Variable: CAEd) Model: 1 Model:2 Coefficient t sig Coefficient t sig -4.564 -2.006 .051 -.181 -1.422 .162 -2.380 -2.398 .021 -2.117 -2.155 .037 -.355 -1.010 .318 -.388 -1.128 .266 1.049 1.599 .117 1.084 1.739 .089 -.980 -1.456 .153 -.423 -.551 .585 6.356E-06 3.043 .004 6.805E-06 3.325 .002 -4.133 -3.762 .001 -4.635 -4.150 .000 -2.105 -2.137 .038 -2.635 -2.661 .011 15.676 8.097 .000 15.036 10.235 .000 R2=0.67 R2 =0.684 Adj R2= 0.608 Adj R2 = 0.625 F-Value= 10.906 (Significant at 1% F- Value= 11.63 ( Significant at level) 1% level)

From the results, it is very clear that Mother’s Empowerment and Mother’s Education have negative impact on Children’s Educational Attainments. This overbearing negative impact is probably because of the fact that the younger mothers have younger children who were found to have low educational attainments at the time of survey. This observation is vindicated by the observed fact that the control variables have turned up statistically significant exhibiting their negative impact on children’s educational attainments. With reference to mothers aged above 50 years, the children of Volume-I, Issue-V

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younger mothers have lower level of education. Similar is the case of younger children. The variable AAC1 has turned up statistically significant, showing its negative impact on children’s educational attainments in both Model 1 and Model 2 with reference to relatively older children of the sample.

The acceptability of the Models is substantiated by the values of adjusted R 2 and F-values.

7. Conclusion: The study reestablishes the importance of Household Income (HAI) and Family Type( nuclear family) in children’s educational attainments. The variable HAI is found to have strong positive and statistically significant impact on the educational attainments of children.

Similarly, nuclear family structure is also found to have a positive and statistically significant impact on children’s educational attainments. The study, however, finds insignificant impact of mother’s education on the educational attainments of children.

Reference: 1. Deding, C.Mette and Hussain, A.M (2002). Children’s Educational Attainment Effects of parents’ education, living conditions, and other background factors. Socialforskningsinstituttet The Danish National Institute of Social Research, Welfare Distribution, Working paper 27.

Website http://www.sfi.dk/Files/Filer/SFI/Pdf/Working_papers/WP27MCDMHDanishChildrensEduca tional.pdf 2. Dearden, L (1998). The Effects of Families and Ability on Men’s Education and Earnings in Britain. Institute for Fiscal Studies, working paper 14 3. Durrant L. Valerie & Sathar A. Zeba ( 2000). Greater Investments in Children Through Women’s Empowerment: A Key to Demographic Change in Pakistan?. Website citeseerx.ist.pus.edu/view doc/download? doi=10.1.1.175.9610&rep=rep1&type=pdf 4. Glick, Peter and David E. Sahn (2000). Schooling of Girls and Boys in a West Africa Country: The Effects of Parental Education, Income, and Household Structure. Economics of Education Review 19, 63-87. website www.elsevier.com/locate/econedurev 5. Haveman, Robert and Barbara Wolfe (1995). The Determinants of Children’s Attainments: A Review of Methods and Fndings. Journal of Economic Literature, 33:4, 1829-1878 6. Kalmijn Matthijs (1994). Mother's Occupational Status and Children's Schooling. American Sociological Review, 59: 2, 257-275 7. Parveen and Leonhauser (2004). Empowerment of Rural Women in Bangladesh: A Household Level Analysis. Department of Agricultural Extension Education, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh-2002, Bangladesh. Website http://www.tropentag.de/2004/abstracts/full/382.pdf 8. Niaz Muhammad, Ali Askar and Rukhsana Javed (2010). Socio-Economic impacts of women’s empowerment in Peshawar, Pakistan. Sarhad J. Agric, 26: 3, 461-465

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International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies (IJHSSS) A Peer-Reviewed Bi-monthly Bi-lingual Research Journal ISSN: 2349-6959 (Online), ISSN: 2349-6711 (Print) Volume-I, Issue-V, March 2015, Page No. 43-50 Published by Scholar Publications, Karimganj, Assam, India, 788711 Website: http://www.ijhsss.com

Protection from ‘Double Jeopardy’: A Constitutional Imperative Dr. Manoj Kumar Sadual Lecture-in-Law, University Law College, Utkal University, Vani Vihar, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India Abstract Double Jeopardy is a legal term which simply means that a person cannot be punished for the same offence more than once. The double jeopardy rule, known in law as autrefois acquit, developed over centuries as a protection against oppressive prosecution. The principle of Double Jeopardy plays an important role for the protection of integrity of the criminal justice system including precious fundamental rights of the accused persons. The paper makes an attempt to analyse the concept of double jeopardy under Indian law with special reference to the Constitution of India and examines how it protects the fundamental rights of the persons accused of crime. It also makes an in-depth analysis of judicial pronouncements on the limits and boundaries of doctrine of double jeopardy.

Key Words: Double Jeopardy, autrefois convict, Fundamental Rights, Criminal Justice System, Constitution of India.

Introduction: Every civilized society maintains a criminal justice system in order to control crime and impose penalties on those who violate laws. Criminal justice is the system of practices and institutions of governments directed at upholding social control, deterring and mitigating crime, or sanctioning those who violate laws with criminal penalties and rehabilitation efforts1. But any criminal justice system to be valid must be in conformity with the constitutional requirements. The criminal justice system operates on the basis of certain values within which it admits no compromise. The „double jeopardy‟ principle is one such value protected by the system. . It is a procedural safeguard, which bars a second trial then an accused person is either convicted or acquitted after a full-fledged trial by a court of competent jurisdiction 2. The basic idea behind double jeopardy is deceptively simple: prosecutors should only get one chance to convict someone for a crime. The rule against double jeopardy originally flows from the maxim “nemo debet bis vexari pro uno et eadem causa” which means that no person shall be vexed twice for the same cause. The term “double jeopardy” expresses the idea of a person being put in peril of conviction more than once for the same offence 3.The core rule includes the old pleas in bar of jurisdiction,

1

Available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_justice.

Lawrence Newman, “Double Jeopardy and the Problem of Successive Prosecutions”, 34 S.Cal.R [1960], p.252.

3 Ian Dennis, “Rethinking Double Jeopardy: Justice and Finality in Criminal Process”, [2000] Crim. L.R. 993.

For the applicability of the principle, the conviction must be for the same offence: “For the doctrine of autrefois to apply it is necessary that the accused should have been put in peril of conviction for the same offence as that with which he is then charged. The word 'offence' embraces both the facts, which constitute the crime, and the legal characteristics, which make it an offence. For the doctrine to apply it must be the same offence both in fact and in law.” See, Lord Devlin in Connelly v.

Public Prosecutions, [1964] A.C 1254.

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namely autrefois acquit and autrefois convict4. These two doctrines are aimed to protect criminal defendants from the tedium and trauma of relitigation 5. When a criminal charge has been adjudicated by a competent court, that is final irrespective of the matter whether it takes the form of an acquittal or a conviction, and it may be pleaded in bar of a further prosecution when it is for the same offence6.

‘Double Jeopardy’: Conceptual Analysis: The word Jeopardy refers to the “danger” of conviction that an accused person is subjected to when one trial for a criminal offence. Thus „Double jeopardy‟ simply refers to the act of putting a person through a second trial of an offence for which he or she has already been prosecuted or convicted 7. A second prosecution for the same offence after acquittal or conviction or multiple punishments for same offence. The evil sought to be avoided by prohibiting double jeopardy is double trial and double conviction, not necessarily double punishment. This means that if a person is prosecuted or convicted once cannot be punished again for that criminal act. And if a person is indicated again for the same offence in the court then he has the plea of Double Jeopardy as a valid defence. Five policy considerations underpin the double jeopardy doctrine8: 1. preventing the government from employing its superior resources to wear down and erroneously convict innocent persons; 2. protecting individuals from the financial, emotional, and social consequences of successive prosecutions; 3. preserving the finality and integrity of criminal proceedings, which would be compromised were the state allowed to arbitrarily ignore unsatisfactory outcomes; 4. restricting prosecutorial discretion over the charging process; and 5. eliminating judicial discretion to impose cumulative punishments that the legislature has not authorized.

‘Double Jeopardy’: Historical Background: There is no unanimity of opinions regarding the origin of double jeopardy principle as it is one of the oldest legal concepts. It has been rightly observed that the history of double jeopardy is the history of criminal procedure 9. The rule is considered to have its origin in the controversy between Henry II and Archbishop Thomas Becket in 12th century10. At that time two courts of law have existed, the royal and the ecclesiastical. The king wanted the clergy subject to be punished in the royal court even after the ecclesiastical court punished him. Becket relied on St. Jerome‟s interpretation of Nahum and declared that the ancient

4

Autrefois acquit is a defense plea available to the accused in a criminal case, that he has been acquitted previously for the same offence and thus entitling a discharge. Likewise, Autrefois convict discharges an accused, as he has been convicted previously for the same offence.

5 Daniel K. Mayers and Fletcher L.Yarbrough, “Bisvexari: New Trials and Successive Prosecutions”, [1960] Harv. L. Rev.74.

6 R V. Miles, 24 Q.B. 423, at p.431, as cited in Broom‟s Legal Maxims, R.H.Kersley (Ed), Herbert Broom, Pakistan Law House, Karachi (10thed), 1998.

7 The American heritage dictionary.

8 Available at http://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/double+jeopardy.

9 Martin L.Friedland, “Double Jeopardy”, (1969) Oxford University Press,p.3.

10 Excerpt by Justice Roslyn Atkinson at Australian Law Student‟s Association (ALSA) Double Jeopardy Forum, 9 July 2003, Brisbane, available at http://archive.sclqld.org.au/judgepub/2003/atkin090703.pd.

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text prohibited “two judgments”11. He had viewed that the repeated punishments would violate the maxim nimo bis in idipsum that means no man ought to be punished twice for the same offence.

Followed by the dispute, King‟s knights murdered Becket in 1170, and despite of this King Henry exempted the accused from further punishment in 1176. This concession given by King Henry is considered as responsible for the introduction of the principle in English common law. In the twelfth century, the res judicata12 doctrine had been introduced in English civil as well as criminal law due to the influence of teachings of Roman law in England. During the thirteenth and part of the fourteenth centuries, a judgment of acquittal or conviction in a suit brought by an appellant or King barred a future suit. During the fifteenth century, an acquittal or conviction on an appeal after a trial by jury was a bar to a prosecution for the same offence. The sixteenth century witnessed significant lapses in the rational development of the rule partly due to the statute of Henry VII, by totally disregarding the principle. Further, it was during that period the famous Vaux‟s case was decided to the effect that a new charge could be brought even after a meritorious acquittal on a defective indictment. The last half of the seventeenth century was the period of enlightenment regarding the significance of the rule against double jeopardy. Lord Coke‟s writings contributed to it partly and of course, the rest was due to the public dissatisfaction against the lawlessness in the first half of the century. It is only by seventeenth the century, the principle of double jeopardy seems to have developed into a settled principle of the common law 13.

During the eighteenth century, the extreme procedure was generally followed. It should be noted that, in eighteenth century, Blackstone stated thus: “First, the plea of autrefois acquit, or a former acquittal, is grounded on this universal maxim of the common law of England, that no man is to be brought into jeopardy of his life for more than once for the same offence and hence it is allowed as a consequence that when a man is once fairly found not guilty upon any indictment or other prosecution, before any court having competent jurisdiction of the offence he may plead such acquittal in bar of any subsequent accusation for the same crime14.”

Until the nineteenth century, the accused was provided with virtually no protection against a retrial when he or she was discharged due to a defect in the indictment or a variation between what was alleged and proved15.

The protection given under this rule has gained international recognition also through various international documents16. Today, almost all civilized nations incorporate protection against double 11

Nyssa Taylor, “England and Australia relax the double jeopardy privilege for those Convicted of Serious Crimes”, [2005] 19 Temp. Int‟l & Comp. L. J., p.195.

12 Res judicata or res iudicata , also known as claim preclusion, is the Latin term for "a matter [already] judged", and may refer to two concepts: in both civil law and common law legal systems, a case in which there has been a final judgment and is no longer subject to appeal; and the legal doctrine meant to bar (or preclude) continued litigation of a case on same issues between the same parties. In this latter usage, the term is synonymous with "preclusion".

13 Charles Parkinson, “Double Jeopardy Reform: The New Evidence Exception for the Acquittals”, (2003) UNSW Law Journal,p.,605.

14 Blackstone, Commentaries, 335, (1889), excerpt by Lawrence Newman, “Double Jeopardy and the Problem of Successive Prosecutions”, 34 S.Cal.R [1960], p.252.

15 Supra note 9, p.3.

16 The states are bound to cope with the relevant provisions of the conventions to which they are parties. For instance, Article 14(7) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights; Article 4(1) , Protocol 7 to the European Convention of Human Rights; Article 50 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union.

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jeopardy in their municipal laws. While some of these countries have provided the protection through their constitution and others have incorporated it into their statute law17.

‘Double Jeopardy’: Protection under Indian Law: In India the Double Jeopardy principle was existed prior to the commencement of the Constitution of India. The principle was already recognized under the provision of General Clauses Act 18. And Section 403(1) of (the old) CrPC,189819 (Section 300 of the amended Criminal Procedure Code,197320) provided that a person who has once been tried by a court of competent jurisdiction for an offence and convicted or acquitted of offence shall, while such conviction or acquittal remains in force, not to be liable to be tried again for the same offence, nor on the same facts for any other offence for which a different charge from the one made against him might have been under sub- section (1) of the section 221 or for sub-section (2) thereof.

Further Section 71 of the Indian Penal Code21 which deals with „limits of punishment of offence made up of several offences‟ made it clear that where anything which is an offence is made up of parts is itself an offence, the offender shall not be punished of more than one of such his offences, unless it be so expressly provided.

In Constitution of India, Article 20 provides protection in respect of conviction for offences, and Article 20(2) contains the rule against double jeopardy which says that “no person shall be prosecuted or punished for the same offence more than once.” Thus the Constitution of India recognizes only autrefois convict whereas the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 incorporates autrefois acquit as well.

Further the protection under clause (2) of Article 20 of Constitution of India is narrower than the American and British laws against Double Jeopardy. Under the American and British Constitution the protection against Double Jeopardy is given for the second prosecution for the same offence irrespective of whether an accused was acquitted or convicted in the first trial. But under Article 20(2) the protection against double punishment is given only when the accused has not only been „prosecuted‟ but also „punished‟, and is sought to be prosecuted second time for the same offence.

The use of the word „prosecution‟ thus limits the scope of the protection under clause (1) of Article 20. If there is no punishment for the offence as a result of the prosecution clause (2) of the article 20 has no application and an appeal against acquittal, if provided by the procedure is in substance a continuance of the prosecution22. Thus the most important thing to be noted is that, sub-clause (2) of Article 20 has no application unless there is no punishment for the offence in pursuance of a prosecution.

Under the provisions of the Indian Constitution, the conditions that have to be satisfied for raising the plea of autrefois convict are  Firstly there must be a person accused of an offence; 17

For instance, in countries such as U.S.A and India, it is accepted as a constitutional right. In particular, Fifth Amendment to Constitution of USA and Article 20(2) of the Constitution of India. Conversely, in England and Canada, it is the part of Common Law and Statute Law. 18 Section 26 of the General Clauses Act, 1897 provides: “ Where an act or omission constitutes an offence under two or more enactments, then the offender shall be liable to be prosecuted and punished under either or any of those enactments, but shall not be liable to be punished twice for the same offence.”

19 Act No. 5 of 1898.

20 Act No.2 of I974.

21 Act No. 45 of 1860.

22 Smt. Kalawati v. state of H.P., AIR 1953 SC 131.

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 Secondly the proceeding or the prosecution should have taken place before a „court‟ or „judicial tribunal‟ in reference to the law which creates offences; and  Thirdly the accused should be convicted in the earlier proceedings.

The requirement of all these conditions have been discussed and explained in the landmark decision, Maqbool Hussain v. State of Bombay23. In this case, the appellant, an Indian citizen, was arrested in the airport for the illegal possession of gold under the provisions of the Sea Customs Ac, 1878. Thereupon, an action was taken under section 167(8) of the Act, and the gold was confiscated.

Sometimes afterwards, he was charge sheeted before the court of the Chief Presidency Magistrate under section 8 of the Foreign Exchange Regulation Act, 1947. At trial, the appellant raised the plea of autrefois convict, since it violates his fundamental right guaranteed under article 20(2) of the constitution. He sought the constitutional protection mainly on the ground that he had already been prosecuted and punished inasmuch as his gold has been confiscated by the customs authorities. By rejecting his plea, the court held that the proceedings of the Sea Customs Authorities cannot be considered as a judicial proceedings because it is not a court or judicial tribunal and the adjudgment of confiscation or the increased rate of duty or penalty under the provisions of the Sea Customs Act does not constitute a judgment or order of a court or judicial tribunal necessary for the purpose of supporting a plea of double jeopardy. The court also held that the proceedings conducted before the sea customs authorities were, therefore, not „prosecution‟ and the confiscation of gold is not punishment inflicted by a „court‟ or „judicial tribunal‟. The appellant, therefore, cannot be said to have been prosecuted and punished for the same offence with which he was charged before the Chief Presidency Magistrate Court.

To operate as a bar under Article 20(2), the second prosecution and the consequential punishment must be for the same offence, i.e., an offence whose ingredients are the same24. One of the important conditions to attract the provision under clause (2) of Article is that, the trial must be conducted by a court of competent jurisdiction. If the court before which the trial had been conducted does not have jurisdiction to hear the matter, the whole trial is null and void and it cannot be said that there has been prosecution and punishment for the same offence 25. Gajendragadkar, J. has stated the protection under Article 20(2) as follows: “The constitutional right guaranteed by Article 20(2) against double jeopardy can be successfully invoked only where the prior proceedings on which reliance is placed are of a criminal nature instituted or continued before a court of law or a tribunal in accordance with the procedure prescribed in the statute which creates the offence and regulates the procedure26.”

In the above context, it is to be noted that the Code of Criminal Procedure recognizes both the pleas of autrefois acquit as well as autrefois convict. The conditions which should be satisfied for raising either of the pleas under the Code are:  Firstly, that there should be previous conviction or acquittal,  Secondly, the conviction or acquittal must be by be a court of competent jurisdiction, and  Thirdly, the subsequent proceeding must be for the same offence.

23

AIR 1953 SC 325.

Manipur Administration v. Nila Chandra Singh, AIR 1964 SC 1533.

25 Bai Nath Prasad Tripathi v. Statel, A.I.R. 1967 S.C. 494.

26 Raja Narayanlal Bansilal v. M.P. Mistry, AIR 1961 SC 29.

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The expression “same offence” shows that the offence for which the accused shall be tried and the offence for which he is again being tried must be identical, and based on the same set of facts 27.

‘Double Jeopardy’: Role of Indian Judiciary: Some of the landmark judgements delivered by the Supreme Court of our country are cited below to throw light on the response of the Indian Judiciary with respect to the protection of Double Jeopardy as enshrined in the Constitution of India.

In Venkataraman v. Union of India28, an enquiry was made before the enquiry commissioner on the appellant under the Public Service Enquiry Act, 1960 & as a result, he was dismissed from the service. He was later on, charged for committed the offence under Indian Penal Code & the Prevention of Corruption Act. The court held that the proceeding held by the enquiry commissioner was only a mere enquiry & did not amount to a prosecution for an offence. Hence, the second prosecution did not attract the doctrine of Double Jeopardy or protection guaranteed under Fundamental Right Article 20 (2).

It is to be noted that Article 20 (2) will be applicable only where punishment is for the same offence, In Leo Roy v. Superintendent District Jail29, the Court held that if the offences are distinct the rule of Double Jeopardy will not apply. Thus, where a person was prosecuted and punished under Sea Customs Act, and was later on prosecuted under the Indian Penal Code for criminal conspiracy, it was held that second prosecution was not barred since it was not for the same offence.

In Roshan Lal & ors v. State of Punjab30, the accused had disappeared the evidence of two separate offences under section 330 & section 348 Indian Penal Code. So, it was held by the court that the accused was liable to be convicted for two separate sentences.

In A.A.Mulla v. State of Maharashtra31, the appellants were charged under section 409 IPC & Section 5 of the Prevention of Corruption Act,1947 for making false panchnama in which they have shown recovery of 90 gold biscuits while according to the prosecution case, they had recovered 99 gold biscuits. The appellants were tried for the same & acquitted. The appellants were again tried for the offence under Section 120-B of Indian Penal Code, Sections 135 & 136 of the Customs Act, Section 85 of the Gold (Control) Act & Section 23(1-A) of FERA and Section 5 of Import Export (Control) Act,1947. The validity of the subsequent prosecution was challenged by the appellant on the ground that it contravened the constitutional guaranteed embodied in Article 20(2). The court held: “After giving our careful consideration to the facts and circumstances of the case and the submissions made by the learned counsel for the respective parties, it appears to us that the ingredients of the offences for which the appellants were charged in the first trial are entirely different. The second trial with which we are concerned in this appeal, envisages a different fact- situation and the enquiry for finding out constituting offences under the Customs Act and the Gold (Control) Act in the second trial is of a different nature. Not only the ingredients of offences in the previous and the second trial are different, the factual foundation of the first trial and such foundation for the second trial are also not indented.

Accordingly, the second trial was not barred under Section 403 CrPC of 1898 as alleged by the appellants.”

27

State of Rajasthan v. Hat Singh, AIR 2003 SC 791.

AIR 1954 SC 375.

29 AIR 1958 SC119.

30 AIR 1965 SC 1413.

31 AIR 1997 SC 1441.

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In Union of India v. P.D. Yadav32, in this case, the pension of the officer, who was convicted by a Court-Martial, had been forfeited. The court held: “This principle is embodied in the well-known maxim nemo debet bis vexari si constat curiae quod sit pro una et eadem causa, meaning no one ought to be vexed twice if it appears to the court that it is for one and the same cause. Doctrine of Double Jeopardy is a protection against prosecution twice for the same offence. Under Article 20-22 of the Indian Constitution, provisions are made relating to personal liberty of citizens and others offences such as criminal breach of trust, misappropriation, cheating, defamation etc., may give rise to prosecution on criminal side and also for action in civil court/ other forum for recovery of money by way of damages etc., unless there is a bar created by law. In the proceedings before General Court Martial, a person is tried for an offence of misconduct and whereas in passing order under Regulation 16 (a) for forfeiting pension, a person is not tried for the same offence of misconduct after the punishment is imposed for a proven misconduct by the General Court Martial resulting in cashiering, dismissing or removing from service. Only further action is taken under Regulation 16 (a) are entirely different. Hence, there is no question of applying principle of Double Jeopardy to the present cases.”

In Jitendra Panchal v. Intelligence Officer, N.C.B.33, 17th October, 2002, officers of the US Drug Enforcement Agency, along with officers of the Narcotics Bureau, India, seized a consignment of 1243 pounds equivalent to 565.2 Kgs. of Hashish in Newark, USA. During the investigation, it appears to have transpired that one Niranjan Shah and the appellant were engaged in trafficking Hashish out of India into the USA and Europe and that the seized contraband had been smuggled out of India by the appellant and the said Niranjan Shah along with one Kishore. The appellant was arrested in Vienna in Austria by officers of the Drug Enforcement Agency, USA on 5th December, 2002 and was extradited to the USA. Soon, thereafter, on 25th March, 2003, the Deputy Director General of the Narcotics Control Bureau, hereinafter referred as `the NCB', visited the USA and recorded the appellant's statement. Subsequently, on 9 th April, 2003, officers of the NCB arrested Niranjan Shah, Kishore Joshi and Irfan Gazali in India and prosecution was launched against them in India. On 5th September, 2003, a complaint was filed by the NCB before the learned Special Judge, Mumbai, against Niranjan Shah, Kishore Joshi and two others under Sections 29/20/23/27A/24 read with Section 8(c)/12 of the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985, hereinafter referred to as `the NDPS Act', in connection with the above-mentioned incident.

While the said Niranjan Shah and others were being proceeded with before the learned Special Judge in Mumbai, the appellant, who had been extradited to the USA, was tried before the District Court at Michigan, USA34.On pleading guilty of the charge of conspiracy to possess with intention to distribute controlled substances, which is an offence under USC Controlled Substances Act 35, the appellant was sentenced to imprisonment on 27th June, 2006, for a total term of 54 months. After serving out the aforesaid sentence, the appellant was deported to India on 5th April, 2007, and on his arrival at New Delhi, he was arrested by officers of the NCB and was taken to Mumbai and on 10th April, 2007, he was produced before the learned Chief Metropolitan Magistrate and was remanded to judicial custody. At this juncture, it may be indicated that although the appellant could have been prosecuted for other offences under Title 21 USC, the other charges against the appellant were dropped as he had pleaded guilty to the offence of conspiring to possess controlled substances. On 32

(2002)1SSC 405.

AIR 2009 SC 1938.

34 Case No.04 CR 80571-1.

35 Section 846 of Title 21, United States Code Controlled Substances Act. Volume-I, Issue-V March 2015 33

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25th April, 2007, on the appellant's application that the proceedings against the appellant in India would amount to double jeopardy, the learned Special Judge, Mumbai, rejected the appellant's contention upon holding that the charges which had been dropped against the appellant in the proceedings in the USA had not been dealt with while imposing sentence against him in the District Court of Michigan, USA. The Special Judge extended the judicial custody of the appellant and subsequently rejected his prayer for bail on 17th May, 2007.

Conclusion: The “underlying idea” of double jeopardy includes the desire to protect an individual from repeat prosecutions that would subject him to live in a continuing state of anxiety and insecurity.

A critical analysis of the Indian law relating to the protection of double jeopardy as enunciated in Section 300 of the Code of Criminal Procedure and Article 20(2) of the Constitution of India, it is revealed that a partial protection against double jeopardy is a Fundamental Right guaranteed under Article 20 (2) of the Constitution of India. This provision enshrines the concept of autrefois convict, that no one convicted of an offence can be tried or punished a second time. However it does not extend to autrefois acquit, and so if a person is acquitted of a crime, he can be retried. In India, protection against autrefois acquit is a statutory right, not a fundamental one. Such protection is provided by provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure rather than by the Constitution. Recently the Supreme Court of India in Kolla Veera Raghav Rao case36 has also affirmed that Section 300(1) Cr. PC is wider in its scope than Article 20(2) 37of the Constitution. While Article 20(2) of the Constitution only says that “no person shall be prosecuted and punished for the same offence more than once”, Section 300(1) Cr. PC states that no one can be tried and convicted for the same offence or even for a different offence but on the same facts.

Double Jeopardy law in India essentially protects a person from multiple punishments or successive prosecution based on same facts of a case where the elements of multiple prosecutions are similar to those for which the accused has already been prosecuted or has been acquitted by the court. Going by the basic principle of law, a new charge cannot be framed against a person under Section 300 of Cr. PC based on same facts. It is essentially the duty of police who files the charge sheet to ensure that all the charges are framed against an accused properly; also it is the responsibility of the magistrate to ensure that the charge sheet has been filed without an error. So it creates extra burden on both i.e., accused and the state machinery if the charges are not framed cautiously, as it sometimes leads to the double victimization of an accused and on the other side, it also creates problem for state to prosecute a person as it should be.

36 37

(2011) 2 SCC 703.

Available at ndiankanoon.org, http://indiankanoon.org/doc/17858.

Article

20(2)

in

The

Constitution

of

India

1949,

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International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies (IJHSSS) A Peer-Reviewed Bi-monthly Bi-lingual Research Journal ISSN: 2349-6959 (Online), ISSN: 2349-6711 (Print) Volume-I, Issue-V, March 2015, Page No. 51-56 Published by Scholar Publications, Karimganj, Assam, India, 788711 Website: http://www.ijhsss.com

Mathematics Disability – Unperceptive Truth Dr. R. D. Padmavathy Asst. Prof. in Mathematics, Dept. of Education, Tezpur Central University, Assam, India Abstract In the technology world, importance of mathematics cannot be ignored. In India, if a student shows low achievement in mathematics it is not taken as serious problems by Parents and teachers. There was less awareness on mathematics disability and research done in this area is very less when compared to dyslexia. The purpose of this paper is to identify the mathematics disabled students, highlight the symptoms of mathematics disability, to find the factors contribute to math disability, the need to adopt different teaching strategies for children with mathematical disability, and ways to overcome the mathematics disability by understanding the problem and the overwhelming strategies to remove the impediment which cause math disability.

Key Words: Mathematics Disability, Working Memory, Cognitive Factors.

Introduction: Mathematics and Science are useful in the real world. “Mathematics and Science create the basis of our modern world and as long as our present generation continues to focus on Mathematics and Science, we can benefit the world and stresses need to disseminate globally the ancient Indian theories containing scientific and mathematical knowledge ”- Abdul Kalam (2007), 11th president of India a renowned Scientist and Engineer. Mathematics and Science are mandatory subjects in school syllabus. „Without the knowledge of science and mathematics, the doors of almost every form of useful occupation are closed for a student. Mathematics teaches ways of thinking that are essential to work and civic life”- Harpal Kaur(2012).

In India 10 - 20% million school children, have some specific learning disability. In that disability 60% have some difficulty with school mathematics and also studies reveals that about 4% to 8% of the school-age population suffers from mathematical disability (Fuchs & Compton, etc., Diane Pedrotty Bryant,2005; Geary,2004). Though the definition of specific learning disability includes mathematical disability (Federal Register, Department of Education part Ⅱ 34 CFR-3007, USA, August 23, 1977), due to unidentified/untouched/ unanswered research gaps, there is no universally accepted definition of mathematics disability. Mathematics disability subtypes will not share a unifying core deficit because several different domains of function have been linked to poor math achievement, primarily reading-related, memory, visuo-spatial skills, and/or executive skills.

In the field of mathematics disability, work toward establishing a consensus definition is in its early stages. (Michele, Mazzocco and Gwen F.Myers, 2003). There are many factors responsible for cause mathematics disability. No core deficit has been identified for mathematics disability, so not many children are referred for evaluation specifically because of deficits in mathematics problem solving. Research in mathematics disability is not well developed and documented compared to other disabilities.

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In the technological world, importance of mathematics cannot be ignored. But in India, if a student shows low achievement in mathematics it is not taken as serious problems by their parents and teachers. They consciously ignoring and preparing students to get pass marks or blaming mathematics as a dry subject and not ready to understand their children‟s mathematics competencies and deficiencies or not well informed or aware about their children‟s problem. These children‟s are inclusive in education process, but they are not identified and taken care as students of special education needs. There is less awareness on mathematics disability and research done in this area is very less when compared to dyslexia.

The purpose of this paper is to identify the mathematics disabled students, highlight the symptoms of mathematics disability, to find the factors contribute to math disability, the need to adopt different teaching strategies for children with mathematical disability, and ways to overcome the mathematics disability by understanding the problem and the overwhelming strategies to remove the impediment which cause math disability.

Mathematics Disability: Dyscalculia is a term that has been used for many years when talking about a math disability. Dyscalculia means "a severe or complete inability to calculate"(Diane Pedrotty Bryant, 2008). In other words, Dyscalculia means “the child has difficulties as learning math concepts like quantity, place value, and time; difficulty memorizing math facts, and difficulty organizing numbers.”-(Amiteswar Ratra,2008). Mathematics disability is characterized by an unexpected learning problem after a classroom teacher or other trained professional has provided a child with appropriate learning experiences over a period of time. The child with a math disability has difficulty making sufficient school progress in mathematics similar to that of her peer group despite the implementation of effective teaching practices over time. It affects the ability to acquire arithmetical skills comprehension or computation. Some people use the term dyscalculia to describe a child who has problems in learning mathematics skills and concepts. However, the terms learning disabilities in mathematics and math disability are used more widely today (Diane Pedrotty Bryant, 2008).

Factors Contribute to Math Disability – Research Evidences: Studies had identified factors like lack of attention, memory, motivation or interest, cognitive growth, and visual-spatial ability, low self efficacy, high anxiety, inappropriate earlier teaching or poor school attendance, generalized poor learning capacity, immature general ability, severe language disorders or sensory processing are responsible for mathematics disability & attention deficiency(Garnett, & Fleischner, 1983; Geary, 2004, Montani & Smith, 2005)Children might have memory problems that interfere with their ability to retrieve (remember) basic arithmetic facts quickly. According to Gersten et al., Students delayed cognitive development hinders learning and processing information with also leads math disability. Jordan et al., found visual spatial problems trouble interpreting maps and understanding geometry. Attention increases ones efficiency and it is important for acquisition of skills. It is an important aid to remembering and recall which is very basic to learn mathematics skill. Attention deficiency one or other way causes math disability. Studies have shown that some students with math disability also have a reading disability or Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD). A study by Mayes & Calhoun, (2006) found that 26% of children with ADHD have a specific math disability. Gross-Tsur, Manor& Shalev, suggested that attention deficits may be strongly associated with math disability than reading ability. Bynner & Parsons(1997) in their studies revealed that poor mathematical skills are more of a handicap in the workplace than poor literacy skills. So math skills should be improved to give confident among the learners. There are many evidences supports my work very few have been presented. These studies suggests that a Volume-I, Issue-V

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deeper understanding of the relationship between attention deficiencies, working memory, visual spatial performance and math disabilities.

Objectives of the study: 1. To identify the mathematics disability students from IX standard students by developing and administering a diagnostic cum achievement test in mathematics.

2.To find influence of each of the following cognitive factors on the extent the mathematics disability (i) Working Memory (ii) Logic - Mathematical Intelligence, (iii) Verbal - Linguistic Intelligence, (iv) Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence (v) Spatial/Visual Intelligence, (vi) Numerical Ability, (vii) Verbal Reasoning, (viii) Abstract Reasoning, (ix) Space Relations.

Methodology of the Study: In the present study descriptive survey research method was mainly adopted by the researcher. The present study is explorative and normative in nature. The aim of the study is to identify the math disabled IX standard students belonging different backgrounds. The data collected for the study are both nominal and scaled data. Both descriptive and inferential statistics are employed to analyse the data. The study employed inferential analysis to explore the various types of cognitive variables that could influence the occurrence of in mathematics disabled.

Samples Selected for the Study: A total sample of 900 students was selected for the final study included 439 boys and 461 girls from eighteen selected schools of IX standard were included for the final study. The selected sections were of students with mixed ability.

Research Instruments Used For the Study:  Mathematics Diagnostic cum Achievement Test (MDAT) constructed by Investigator  Digit Span Backward tests of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Ed. (1992)  Differential Ability Test subtests by Bennett et al., (1962) Statistical Techniques and Findings of the Study: The Mathematics Diagnostic cum Achievement Test (MDAT) constructed by investigator was used to identify the mathematics disabled students.

The responses of each student were analysed to determine how many times each of the different types of errors are committed. The students who did not do any error in any one particular type he/she was identified as „Non Error Doers‟ in that error type. Based on the frequencies of errors committed by students error doers in each type separate frequency distribution were made for all the 900 students taken together. All the remaining students in any particular error category who have committed different types of errors at least once in the provided chances were grouped as „error doers‟. A total of 22 students were identified as mathematically disabled students and their background, cognitive factors were analysed. The mean scores in cognitive factors of the students belonging to error groups in each type of error were compared using one way analysis of variance (ANOVA). From all the selected cognitive factors namely working memory, logic-mathematical Spatial Visual intelligence, numerical ability and space relations had significant influence on mathematics disability. At the same time general verbal-linguistic intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, verbal reasoning, abstract reasoning, had no influence on it.

List of Symptoms: 1. Poor math memory, mental math ability and inconsistent computation results in addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Almost always unaware of these mistakes: (number additions, substitutions, transpositions, omissions, reversals) 2. Poor with money and credit. Short term, not long term, financial thinking.

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3. Poor memory for the "layout" of things, long-term memory (retention & retrieval) of math concept mastery. They have Normal or accelerated language acquisition 4. May be unable to comprehend or "picture" mechanical processes.

5. Mistaken recollection of names. (Newman, 1985).

6. Experiences directional confusion & has difficulty in remembering the rules for playing order, how to keep score in games and time management.

7. Tendency to personalize statistics, odds and probabilities due to a lack of appreciation or true understanding of common large numbers relative to a situation 8. Tendency to drastically underestimate the frequency of coincidences. Tendency to attribute “Great significance to correspondences of all sorts, while attributing too little significance to quite conclusive but less flashy statistical evidence (Paulo‟s , 1988) Different Strategies for Teaching Math Disability Students: Every child is unique so identifying and understanding the individual differences, needs, strength and weakness of students in mathematics and also other areas teachers should adopt the following strategies while teaching a student with mathematics disabilities. Before taking class introduce needed materials and additional resources related to the content and make ready by summarizing what is going to be done in the classroom that day. If it is already taught continuations then remind children that yesterday's lesson focused on learning how to regroup in subtraction. Based on that select the teaching strategies that creates and provides active participation of learners. Use audiovisual materials, assistive technology, Software and cooperative learning strategies and visual monitoring. Introduce new skills beginning with concrete examples and later moving to more abstract applications. Use graph paper for students who have difficulty organizing ideas on paper. Work on finding different ways to approach math facts instead of memorizing. Practice estimating as a way to begin solving math problems.For language difficulties, explain ideas and problems clearly and encourage students to ask questions as they work. Provide a place to work with few distractions and have pencils, erasers and other tools on hand as needed. ( National Center for Learning Disabilities-NCLD,2006).To enhance the attention memory strategy like mnemonics, Mercer & Miller‟s FAST DRAW and SLAM strategy , Owen‟s TINS Strategy should be practiced. Teachers must try to capture the attention of students by motivating objective factors and subjective factors.( David Mitchell,2008). To improve attention of students, active participation activities should be encouraged. Avoid memory overload. Assign manageable amounts of work as skills are learned. Build retention by providing review within a day or two of the initial learning of difficult skills. Provide supervised practice to prevent students from practicing misconceptions and "misrules." Make new learning meaningful by relating practice of sub skills to the performance of the whole task. Reduce processing demands by pre-teaching component skills of algorithms and strategies. Help students to visualize math problems by drawing. Use reallife situations that make problems functional and applicable to everyday life. Do math problems on graph paper to keep the numbers in line. Use uncluttered worksheets to avoid too much visual information. Practice with age-appropriate games as motivational materials. Have students track heir progress. Challenge critical thinking about real problems with problem solving. Use manipulative and technology such as tape recorders or calculators (Rochelle Kenyon) Conclusion: According to SSA in Indian education system largest number of school aged children (around) 2.2 percent in the 6-14 aged has special needs. Awareness should be created to the parents and teachers about math disability. Different strategies should be introduced and adopted by the teachers in the classroom who are next to god to save the mathematics disabled children‟s. More research must be done to identify to find the exact causes for math disability in the classroom and Volume-I, Issue-V

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provision should be made to remove the hindrance which blocks the path of mathematics disabled children‟s.

Reference:       

     

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Amiteswar Ratra.(2008). Introduction to Inclusive Education .Report of In-Service Teacher Education on Inclusive Education. New Delhi: An IGNOU-MHRD, Govt. of India Project.

Bynner, J., & Parsons, S. (1997). Does numeracy matter?.London: The Basic Skills Agency.

Diane Pedrotty Bryant, (2005). Math Disability in Children: An Overview. Working with Your Child's Teacher to Identify and Address Math Disabilities . Retrieved from http://Dyscalculia Support Services. Retrieved on 20 .01.2015.

Fuchs, L., Compton, D., Fuchs, D., Paulsen, K., Bryant, J.D., Hamlett, C.L.(2005). The Prevention, Identification, and Cognitive Determinants of Math Difficulty. Journal of Educational Psychology. 97:3, 493-513. http://www.shianet.org/~reneenew/teacher.html.

Geary, D. C. (2004). Mathematics and learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 37, 4-15.

Gross-Tsur V, Manor O, Shalev R.S. Developmental dyscalculia: Prevalence and demographic features. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 1996;38, 25-33. http://www.ldonline.org/article/Teaching_Children_with_ADHD_Instructional_Strategies_and _Practices in children with clinical disorders. Learning and Individual Differences.16, 145157.

Jordan, N., Hanich, L., & Kaplan, D. (2003). A longitudinal study of mathematical competencies in children with specific mathematics difficulties versus children with comorbid mathematics and reading difficulties. Child Development, 74(3), 834-850.

Mayes. S.D., & Calhoun, S.L. (2006). Frequency of reading, math and writing Disabilities National Center for Learning Disabilities-NCLD,(2006).Dyscalculia. http://www.ldonline. org/article/13709.

Newman, Renee M. (1985). Letter to my math teacher. Henderson, MI: Dyslexia and Paulos, John Allen.(1988). Innumeracy: Mathematical illiteracy and its consequences.

NewYork: Hill and Wang.

U.S. Department of Education, (2004).An overall strategy for the successful instruction of children with ADHD Teaching Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Instructional Strategies and practices. www.schwablearning.org/ print_resources.asp? type=article& r=1001f=http%... 6.10.2008 AbdulKalam. (2007), Kalam stresses need to disseminate globally the ancient Indian theories containing scientific and mathematical knowledge, Muni Mahendra Kumar &Dr.A.P.J Abdul Kalammeeting. Retrieved on 20.08.2010. Available at http://www. Herenow 4u.net/ index. php?id=74241.

Harpal, Kaur. (2012). Causes of Low Achievement in Mathematics at Secondary Stage.

Department of Education and Community Service. (Ph.D. Thesis). Punjabi University.

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Michèle M. M. Mazzocco and Gwen F. Myers.(2003). Complexities in Identifying and Defining Mathematics Learning Disability in the Primary School-Age Years Ann Dyslexia. available at .retrieved on 5 Feb 2015. Ann Dyslexia Jan 1; 53(1): 218–253.

Garnett, K., Frank, B., & Fleischner, J.X. (1983). A strategies generalization approach to basic fact learning (addition and subtraction lessons, manual #3; multiplication lessons, manual #5). Research Institute for the Study of Learning Disabilities. New York, NY: Teacher's College, Columbia University.

Montani, T. O., & Smith, L. F. (2005). Mathematics fluency/calculations: Differences between children with and without mathematics disabilities. Learning Disabilities: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 13(4), 145-150.

Rochelle Kenyon(2000). Accommodating Math Students with Learning Disabilities, .As cited in Garnett, K., Frank, B., & Fleischner, J. X. (1983). A strategies generalization approach to basic fact learning (addition and subtraction lessons, manual #3; multiplication lessons, manual #5). Research Institute for the Study of Learning Disabilities. New York, NY: Teacher's College, Columbia University.

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International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies (IJHSSS) A Peer-Reviewed Bi-monthly Bi-lingual Research Journal ISSN: 2349-6959 (Online), ISSN: 2349-6711 (Print) Volume-I, Issue-V, March 2015, Page No. 57-62 Published by Scholar Publications, Karimganj, Assam, India, 788711 Website: http://www.ijhsss.com

Human Rights and Women: National Perspective Rahul Mishra Assistant Professor, Amity Law School, AUR, Jaipur, India Abstract Women constitute almost half of the world population. However, their enjoyment of rights equally with that of men is far from satisfactory. In every society from ancient to modern times, women are considered as the property of men to serve their interests in both society and domestic front. In order to halt such practices, the UN and the international community have evolved a number of methods to augment the rights of women on par with men without any kind of discrimination.

Among the various vulnerable groups, children are another major category, whose rights are affected by negligence and other conditions in every society. In many societies in the world, especially in the developing world from tender age, their rights are abused for a variety of reasons.

A child has a number of basic rights, such as, protection and prevention of illegal abortion, right to nourishment, adequate nutritious food, basic health care, love and affection of family, society, not to abuse the tender age, recreation, right to basic education, right to development, right to identity, community and social life, etc.

Key Words: Human Rights, Law, Commission, Child abuse.

Introduction: Womanhood has been reverenced in the ancient Indian culture as a manifestation of divine qualities. Womanhood is a symbol of eternal virtues of humanity expressed in compassion, selfless love and caring for others. The Indian philosophers of yore (the rishis) considered that the seeds of divinity grow and blossom in a truly cultured society where women are given due respect and equal opportunities of rise and dignity. The scriptures and later works on Indian culture and philosophy stand witness to the fact that women indeed receive high recognition and respect in the Vedic age. The contribution of women rishis in making the ancient Indian culture a divine culture were not less than those of their male counterparts. In the later ages too, women had always been integral part of cultural, social and intellectual evolution of the human society. Women 1 constitute almost half of the world population. However, their enjoyment of rights equally with that of men is far from satisfactory. In every society 2 from ancient to modern times, women are considered as the 1

http://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/h_es/h_es_pande_women_frameset.htm(Last accessed on 0402-2015) 2 The principle of gender equality is enshrined in the Indian Constitution in its Preamble, Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties and Directive Principles. The Constitution not only grants equality to women, but also empowers the State to adopt measures of positive discrimination in favour of women. Within the framework of a democratic polity, our laws, development policies, Plans and programmes have aimed at women’s advancement in different spheres. India has also ratified various international conventions and human rights instruments committing to secure equal rights of women. Key among them is the ratification of the Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) in 1993.

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property of men to serve their interests in both society and domestic front. In order to halt such practices, the UN and the international community have evolved a number of methods to augment the rights of women on par with men without any kind of discrimination. The efforts of the international community and the government of India are discussed in two separate heads in brief.

National Perspective: The customary practices such as sati, purdah and devadasi system robbed the freedom of women to a great extent and deprived of their political, social and economic rights especially in inheritance of property. The Hindu law completely prohibited the property rights of inheritance until recent times. During the British Period, a number of reformers, Raja Ramohan Ray, Iswarchandra Vidayasagar, Knadukuriveerasalingam, Jyothirao Phule, Balaganadara Tilak and many other reformers fought for the abolition of unequal treatment meted out to women in many fronts.

After independence, the Constitution of India adopted on January 26, 1950 abolished all kinds of discriminatory practices against women. The constitution on the lines of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948 recognizing the rights of women3 has a number of provisions to protect in augmenting their rights.

3

The principle of gender equality is enshrined in the Indian Constitution in its Preamble, Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties and Directive Principles. The Constitution not only grants equality to women, but also empowers the State to adopt measures of positive discrimination in favour of women.

Within the framework of a democratic polity, our laws, development policies, Plans and programmes have aimed at women’s advancement in different spheres. From the Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-78) onwards has been a marked shift in the approach to women’s issues from welfare to development. In recent years, the empowerment of women has been recognized as the central issue in determining the status of women. The National Commission for Women was set up by an Act of Parliament in 1990 to safeguard the rights and legal entitlements of women. The 73rd and 74th Amendments (1993) to the Constitution of India have provided for reservation of seats in the local bodies of Panchayats and Municipalities for women, laying a strong foundation for their participation in decision making at the local levels.

1.3 India has also ratified various international conventions and human rights instruments committing to secure equal rights of women. Key among them is the ratification of the Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) in 1993.

1.4 The Mexico Plan of Action (1975), the Nairobi Forward Looking Strategies (1985), the Beijing Declaration as well as the Platform for Action (1995) and the Outcome Document adopted by the UNGA Session on Gender Equality and Development & Peace for the 21st century, titled "Further actions and initiatives to implement the Beijing Declaration and the Platform for Action" have been unreservedly endorsed

by India for appropriate follow up.

1.5 The Policy also takes note of the commitments of the Ninth Five Year Plan and the other Sectoral Policies relating to empowerment of Women.

1.6 The women’s movement and a wide-spread network of non-Government Organizations which have strong grass-roots presence and deep insight into women’s concerns have contributed in inspiring initiatives for the empowerment of women.

1.7 However, there still exists a wide gap between the goals enunciated in the Constitution, legislation, policies, plans, programmes, and related mechanisms on the one hand and the situational reality of the status of women in India, on the other. This has been analyzed extensively in the Report of the Committee on the Status of Women in India, "Towards Equality", 1974 and highlighted in the National Perspective Plan for Women, 1988-2000, the Shramshakti Report, 1988 and the Platform for Action, Five Years After- An assessment" Volume-I, Issue-V March 2015 58

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Some of the Salient Features are: The Constitution of India through Article 14 recognized equality and equal protection before law for both men and women.

1. No discrimination against women is permissible. (Article 15 (1)).

2. Equality of opportunity in matters of public appointments for all citizens is guaranteed and in particular gender-based discrimination in respect of employment or office under the state has been prohibited. (Art. 16).

3. Through Article 15 clause (3) it permits the state to make any special law or provisions or concession to be extended for the promotion and welfare of Women.

4. Article 21 guarantees the Life and Liberty to all the citizens without any sort discrimination. The Directive Principles of States Policy (which in the language of human rights described as Economic, Social and Cultural Rights) directs the State to make provisions through Article 39 (a) the state to ensure both men and women have the right to an adequate means of livelihood.

5. Article 39 (Clause D) Provide for equal pay for equal work without any kind discrimination.

6. Article 42 allows the state to make provisions for securing just and human conditions of work and maternity relief. According to Article 51( A ) (e) it is the fundamental duty of every citizen to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women.

National Policy of Women: The Government of India in the year 2001 adopted a National Policy of Women for advancement, development and empowerment of women. The Ministry of Women and child development takes care of various aspects of women’s development and empowerment.

The aims and objectives of the policy are looked after by the Ministry to achieve self sufficiency of Indian women. The aims and objectives of the policy are: (i) Creating an environment4 through positive economic and social policies for full development of women to enable them to realize their full potential. (ii) The de-jure and de-facto enjoyment of all human rights and fundamental freedom by women on equal basis with men in all spheres – political, economic, social, cultural and civil. (iii) Equal access to participation and decision making of women in social, political, and economic life of the nation. (iv) Equal access to women to healthcare, quality education at all levels, career and vocational guidance, employment, equal remuneration, occupational health and safety, social security and public office etc.

1.8 Gender disparity manifests itself in various forms, the most obvious being the trend of continuously declining female ratio in the population in the last few decades. Social stereotyping and violence at the domestic and societal levels are some of the other manifestations. Discrimination against girl children, adolescent girls and women persists in parts of the country.

1.9 The underlying causes of gender inequality are related to social and economic structure, which is based on informal and formal norms, and practices.

1.10 Consequently, the access of women particularly those belonging to weaker sections including Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes/ Other backward Classes and minorities, majority of whom are in the rural areas and in the informal, unorganized sector – to education, health and productive resources, among others, is inadequate. Therefore, they remain largely marginalized, poor and socially excluded.

4 “Democracy, development and respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms are interdependent and mutually reinforcing.” Vienna World Conference on Human Rights 1993(http://www.unicef.org/gender/files/WomensAndChildrensRightsInAHumanRightsBasedApproach.pdf) Last accessed on 03-02-2015.

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(v) Strengthening legal systems aimed at elimination of all forms of discrimination against women. (vi) Changing societal attitudes and community practices by active participation and involvement of both men and women. (vii) Mainstreaming a gender perspective in the development process. (viii) Elimination of discrimination and all forms of violence against women and the girl child; and (ix) Building and strengthening partnerships with civil society, particularly women’s organizations.

Apart from National Policies and other initiatives, the Government of India and the State Governments has evolved a number of policy formulations, schemes through annual budgets for the promotion of women’s rights5.

Violation of human rights in general: The employment of the women in agriculture, traditional industries and in sizeable section of new industries is declining at a very fast rate. The reason is that the adoption of new technological changes requires new skill, knowledge and training. And women in India, who constitute a large share of world‟s illiterate lacks such skills and knowledge. The studies have also showed that for the same task, women are paid less than the males. Technological changes in agriculture and industry are throwing out women from the production process. The women workers are concentrated only for certain jobs which require so – called female skills. Thus, Indian labor market is adverse to women workers. It shows that, the role of women in large scale industries and technology based businesses is very limited. But even in the small- scale industries their participation is very low. Only 10.11% of the micro and small enterprises are owned by women today. Statistics show that only 15% of the senior management posts are held by the women. In agriculture where women comprise of the majority of agricultural laborers, the average wage of women on an average is 30 – 50 % less than that of men.

Violation of right from society, state and family system 6: Child marriage has been traditionally prevalent in India and continues to this date. Discrimination against the girl begins even before their 5

Globalization has presented new challenges for the realization of the goal of women’s equality, the gender impact of which has not been systematically evaluated fully. However, from the micro-level studies that were commissioned by the Department of Women & Child Development, it is evident that there is a need for reframing policies for access to employment and quality of employment. Benefits of the growing global economy have been unevenly distributed leading to wider economic disparities, the feminization of poverty, increased gender inequality through often deteriorating working conditions and unsafe working environment especially in the informal economy and rural areas. Strategies will be designed to enhance the capacity of women and empower them to meet the negative social and economic impacts, which may flow from the globalization process.

6 Special initiatives for women: (i) National Commission for Women In January 1992, the Government set-up this statutory body with a specific mandate to study and monitor all matters relating to the constitutional and legal safeguards provided for women, review the existing legislation to suggest amendments wherever necessary, etc. (ii) Reservation for Women in Local Self -Government The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Acts passed in 1992 by Parliament ensure one-third of the total seats for women in all elected offices in local bodies whether in rural areas or urban areas.

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birth and continues as they grow. According to the law, a girl cannot be married until she has reached the age of 18 at least. But the girl in India is taken as a burden on the family. Sometimes the marriages are settled even before the birth of the child. In south India, marriages between cousins is common as they believe that a girl is secured as she has been marries within the clan. Parents also believe that it is easy for the child – bride to adapt to new environment as well as it is easy for others to mould the child to suit their family environment. Some believe that they marry girls at an early age so as to avoid the risk of their unmarried daughters getting pregnant. This shows that the reasons for child marriages in India are so baseless. Basically, this phenomenon of child marriage is linked to poverty, illiteracy, dowry, landlessness and other social evils. The impact of child marriage is widowhood, inadequate socialization, education deprivation, lack of independence to select the life partner, lack of economic independence, low health/nutritional levels as a result of early/frequent pregnancies in an unprepared psychological state of young bride. However, the Indian boys have to suffer less due to male dominated society. Around 40% child marriages occur in India. A study conducted by „Family Planning Foundation‟ showed that the mortality rates were higher among babies born to women under 18. Another study showed that around 56% girls from poorer families are married underage and became mothers. So, all this indicated that immediate steps should be taken to stop the evil of Child Marriage.

How can the women be made to feel secured: In Sunil Batra v. Delhi Administration 7 the apex court has observed that Human Rights jurisprudence in India has constitutional status. Again in Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India8 the Supreme Court has held that provisions of part III of the Constitution of India should be given widest possible interpretation. Article 14 guarantees equality before law and the equal protection of law. Article 15 prohibits discrimination on any basis. It also deals with the special provisions to be made for women which shall not be considered as discriminatory. Article 16 provides equal opportunity in matters of public employment. Part IV of the Constitution of India deals with Directive Principles of State Policy. These are not enforceable in the courts of law like fundamental rights. Even though Directive Principles of State Policy are helpful in guiding the State while making legislations and policies, it has its own importance as binding on the States. “Equal Pay for equal work “Just and Human conditions of work and for maternity relief” and Fundamental duty to respect women and renunciation of practices derogatory to dignity of women are the important provisions of Constitution of India.

Supreme Court of India on International law concerning the human rights of women: The Supreme Court of India has interpreted various provisions of international instruments correlated with Constitutional law of India. India is a signatory to various International Conventions and Treaties. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted on 10 th Dec. 1948, has greatly helped (iii) The National Plan of Action for the Girl Child (1991-2000) The plan of Action is to ensure survival, protection and development of the girl child with the ultimate objective of building up a better future for the girl child. (iv) National Policy for the Empowerment of Women, 2001 The Department of Women & Child Development in the Ministry of Human Resource Development has prepared a “National Policy for the Empowerment of Women” in the year 2001. The goal of this policy is to bring about the advancement, development and empowerment of women.

7 (1978) 4 SCC 409. Singh, Dr. Devinder,“Human Rights Women and Law”, (2005), Allahabad Law Agency, Faridabad at p 52.

8

1978 AIR 597.

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to create a universal thinking that Human Rights are supreme shall preserve. In Madhu Kishwar v.

State9 Supreme Court has considered the provisions of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, 1979 and held that it is a mirror image of Part III and Part IV of the Constitution of India Women Empowerment: March 8 is celebrated all over the Globe as International Women’s Day. The International Women's Day (IWD) was originally called International Working Women’s Day. In different regions the focus of the celebrations range from general celebration of respect, appreciation and love towards women to a celebration for women's economic, political and social achievements. It is a significant march towards women empowerment. This is the occasion to analyze all about empowerment of women throughout the world. The word empowerment is an inclusive one and it means empowerment on multidimensional aspects such as Civil, Political, Social, Economic, Cultural and Educational empowerment of women. The United Nations theme for International Women’s Day 2012 is Empower Women – End Hunger and Poverty .The above mentioned points are the various areas of women empowerment. The requirement is that awareness through education for all round development of women.

Conclusion: The Universal Rights10 belonging to an individual are the virtue of being human.

Studies have revealed that women as a human being hampered since ancient time. Dominance on women in the society resulted into backwardness of women in the civil, political, social, economic, political and educational spheres of view. Gender equality and brotherhood in the society will change the current situation. The attitude towards women can be changed with proper policy implementation with the aid of Governmental and Non Governmental organizations. The development11 in science and technology has changed everything in the society women are still living with less responsibility. In day to day life women are facing violence in the society. Changing the mentality of people is not an easy task but quality education to children at primary stage to eradicate gender inequality and to bring about a change in typical thinking about women, will bring drastic change in the society. The international and national framework to protect rights of women has not attained satisfactory results. Finally collaboration between all classes of society may be suggested and Governmental, Non Governmental instruments, an effective and efficient Judiciary and conscious Media is the need of the hour.

9

1996 AIR 1864.

Iyer Krushna V. R.,“The Dialectics and Dynamics of Human Rights in India (Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow)” , (1999), Eastern law House Private Ltd, Calcutta.

11 Basu, Dr. Durga Das, J., “Human Rights in Constitutional law”, (2003), Wadhwa, Nagpur, 3rd Ed. 10

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The Role of Hospital management in Human Resource Development Ningombam Reagan Singh Research Scholar, Dept. of Management, Assam Downtown University, Panikhaiti Guwahati, Assam, India

& Dr. Arabinda Debnath Asst. Professor and HOD, Dept. of Humanities and Social Science, B. B. Engineering College, Kokrajhar, BTAD, Assam, India Abstract Through this paper an attempt is being taken to discuss as how Hospital Management plays various roles for human resource development. With a view to systematizing the study, the entire paper is divided into three parts. The first part entitled, “Theoretical Approach” encloses an introduction, meaning of health care sector and human resource development, objectives, hypothesis and methodology of the study. The second part entitled, Hospital Management as a tool for human resource development,” is a comprehensive study where it is discussed as how the hospital management can contribute a lot to the human resource development. The third part entitled, “Conclusion” includes some findings and recommendations in addition to a conclusion.

PART –I

Theoretical Approach 1.1 Introduction: The human resource development mostly depends on the progress and quality of hospital management. Hence, the existence of quality hospital management is a immensely important for the overall development of a state. But in case of Guwahati city it is seen that, quality of health care service provided by the government hospitals are very poor. On the other hand the health care service rendered by private hospitals are to some extend better then government hospital but where there is a question of heavy expenditure which is not possible for middle and low class people. So, overall health care sector in Guwahati is not at all satisfactory to treat as a powerful tool for human resource development. So, it is considered that keeping in view to develop the health care sector in the greater interest of human resource development. The hospital management system should be upgraded. Hence the discussion of hospital management is found to be needed.

1.2 Meaning of Hospital Management system and Human Resource Development: Hospital Management system is designed for hospitals ,to cover a wide range of hospital administration and management processes .It is an integrated end- to- end hospital management system that provides relevant information across the hospital to support effective decision making for patient care, hospital administration and critical financial accounting ,in a seamless flow. “It is a managerial

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process of pactising the principles of management as well as a social process because it consider hospital a social institution.” 1 Human Resource Development is a part of human resource management that especially deals with training and development of the employees. Human Resource Development includes training and individual providing opportunities to learn new skills, distributing resources that are beneficial.

“It is a learning experiences which are organized for a specific time and assigned to bring about the possibility of behavioural change for the employees tasks and any other developmental activities”2 1.3 Objectives: The basic objective of the study is to examine various aspects of hospital management of selected Guwahati based hospital from human resource development point of view.

To fulfil the basic objective the following specific objectives has been taken of the study. .  To examine the various service and their qualities of four selected hospital under study.

1.4 Hypothesis: In order to examine the above objectives the following hypothesis has been formulated and same is tested in the third part.

H1: It is assumed that existing service of the selected hospitals are not adequate and upto the satisfactory quality from patient point of view.

1.5: Methodology of the study: The study is based on both primary and secondary data. The primary data are collected by the technique of field survey, personal interview and questionnaire.

The secondary data are collected from internet and other sources. In Guwahati, there are numbers of private hospitals, among of this 4 private hospitals have been selected they are namely as: 1. GNRC 2. International Hospital 3. Arya Hospital 4. Nemcare Hospital Various relevant questions related to the study are asks to these 160 respondents for eliciting their views, attitudes and experience towards the present position of health care management system, policy and guidelines that prevailing in case of Assam. Both primary and secondary data are explained and analysed by the help of statistical technique such as table and a pie diagram.

In find, the study well identified some serious and major problems that exist in health care management system of Assam and some suitable suggestions are put forwarded that should develop human resource of the state.

PART-- II

“Hospital Management As A Tool For Human Resource Development” With a view to contributing the human resource development, the hospital management is to provide quality service to the people of the society. By virtue of rendering quality service a hospital can become an integrant part of society. It is not exception to the 4 hospitals under study.

In Assam, there are five Government Hospitals and thirty private hospitals. Out of this total thirty five hospitals. Four Guwahati based private hospitals have been selected randomly. These are: 1. GNRC 2. International Hospital 1 2

. SM.JHA,Hospital Management,ISBN:978-93-5024-458-6,Himalaya Publishing House,Second Revised Edition-2011,page no.12.

D.Monil Chaturvedi,Human Resource Development,ISBN:81-88719-18-8,Indus Valley Publications,Edition-2005,page no.22.

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3. Arya Hospital 4. Nemcare Hospital In this part an attempt is being taken to discuss various service rendered by this hospital from the human resource development point of view.

2.1 An overview of the hospitals:

I. Gnrc Hospital: GNRC (formerly known as Guwahati Neurological Research Centre), is the first super specialty healthcare centre in India. It was established in 1987 by neurologist Dr. Nomal Chandra Borah. At present it operates three hospitals - GNRC Dispur, GNRC Sixmile and GNRC Medical.

Vision: The vision of GNRC is Health for All, Smiles for All At GNRC, flawless round the clock patient care is ensured by a dedicated team of 100 Doctors, 300 Nurses and 1000 employees.

Presently GNRC has 200 beds including 110 ICU beds. Every action of the Hospital is steered towards making quality healthcare available and affordable. Along with diagnostic and therapeutic function, GNRC also organises academic programmes like annual lectures and regular research programmes so that its team always remain updated with latest developments across the world and thus can pass on the benefits to the people in need.

The coveted British Standard Institute, London, has accredited the organisation with ISO 9001: 2008 and ISO 14001:2004 In continuation of its process of evolution in the field of Health Care at a Global level, the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has also accredited this centre for Medical Research under ICMR since the year 2002. This centre has also been supported by WHO for a medical library.

II. International Hospital: In the mid - nineties a few like-minded individuals with trail blazing successful career in diverse professions had a vision of setting up a Health Care Organization to make available best health care facility for the people of the North Eastern States of India. Thus began Assam Hospitals Ltd. on the 14th Day of February 1997. International Hospital, Guwahati was set under the aegis of Assam Hospitals Ltd. and was formally inaugurated by late Surabala Bordoloi, noted freedom fighter and wife of Bharat Ratna Gopinath Bordoloi, the first Chief Minister of Assam on 30th May, 1999. The following words from the Promoters aptly reflect their Over vision about the Hospital.

Since its inception on 30th May’ 1999, INTERNATIONAL HOSPITAL that started as a 50 bedded facility has grown to become a 220 bedded hospital now and still continues to grow to meet the ever increasing demand. This growth is attributable to the faith reposed by the customers and the untiring efforts put in by the consultants and employees as well as the Directors with active support from the vendors. This 220 bedded super specialty hospital providing tertiary level clinical care, backed by multidisciplinary team of doctors, is centrally located on the G. S. Road Guwahati. The primary thrust areas are Nephrology, Surgery, Cardiology, Neurology, Internal Medicine, Gastroenterology, Paediatrics, Ophthalmology, Neurosurgery, Urology, ENT, Obstetrics & Gynaecology, Dermatology, Psychiatry, Cardiothoracic and Orthopaedics including Pathology & Radiology department. A team of eminent consultants have ensured that the highest standards are always maintained.

III. Nemcare Hospital: "A Multi-Speciality Hospital" was established in 2001 with strength of 100 beds with modern diagnostic equipments backed by a team of dedicated doctors and paramedical staff. The hospital has provisions to cater to the needs of different sections of the society. Affordable quality service and Cleanliness is their mantra.

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Nemcare Hospital, Guwahati Specialities in Dentistry, Dermatology (Skin),ENT (Otolaryngology),General Medicine, General Surgery,Gynecology,Laparoscopic Surgery, Micro Surgery,Nephrology,Neurology,Neurosurgery,ObstetricsandGynecology,Ophthalmology,Orthopedi cs,Pathology,Pediatric Oncology, Paediatrics and Psychology.

IV. Arya Hospital: ARYA hospital is a unit of North Eastern Medical Research Institute Ltd., a Public Limited Company. It is an multi-specialty hospital that opened its doors to offer quality health care to the people of northeast on 17th of January 2004 at A.M.Road, Rehabari, Guwahati-8.

They have been leading in the industry of super specialty health care and renowned doctors available at our patients’ disposal 24x7. State of art medical infrastructure is the best. Diagnosis and treatment are undertaken with the latest technological equipments.

Mission The mission of the Arya hospital is practicing medicine as it should be practiced  A critical care hospital with new cost effective technologies for diagnosis and treatment of diseases  Regular updating of technology, emphasis to maintain quality and to provide personal care and attention to each individual with assurance of trust and confidence  To provide ultra modern and state of the art diagnostic facilities with highest level of accuracy.  Endeavour is to take healthcare more closer to the people of the North East to provided the best and affordable healthcare facility to our people.

The facilities provided by Arya hospital to the patients are: Out Patient Department, In patient Department,Diagnosticcentre, Radiology and Imaging,Gastroentrology Department, Intensive Care Unit(I.C.U),Operation Theatre (O.T.),Cardiology Department, Neurology Department, Nephrology and Telemedicine Centre.

2.2 No. of Doctors & Nurse: Table - I Hospitals No. of Doctors No. of Nurses GNRC Above 100 Above 300 International Above 60 Above 120 Nemcare Above 50 60 to 80 Arya Above 50 Above 100 Sources: Field survey, personal interview and relevant web site.

From the above table, it is observed that the no. of Doctors in all the hospitals are same except Internationl GNRC the no. of nurses and Doctors are more than the other three hospitals. So, it can analyse that, in respect of services by Doctors and Nurse GNRC got highest rank followed by International.

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2.3 No. of Departments: Table – II Hospitals No. of Department GNRC 17 International 7 Nemcare 14 Arya 11 Sources: Field survey, personal interview and relevant web site.

The above table reflects that in GNRC hospital the no. of departments are more than the other followed by Nemcare Hospital. It indicates GNRC hospital offers maximum no. of customized treatment compare to others. If also, analyzes that because of having more no. of departments the management may not be able to concentrate in every aspect of quality service.

2.4 Separate Management system for different department : Table – III Hospitals YES NO GNRC √ X International √ X Nemcare √ X Arya √ X Sources: Field survey, personal interview and relevant web site.

From the above table that is seen all these hospitals have a separate management system. So, from the efficient management system point of view, these act hospitals are efficient hospital.

2.5 Emergency Services: Hospitals

Table – IV Ambulance services 24 hr. pharmacy

Blood Bank

GNRC √ √ √ International √ √ √ Nemcare √ √ √ Arya √ √ √ Sources: Field survey, personal interview and relevant web site.

From the above table it has been seen that, emergency services like ambulance service, pharmacy, blood bank are there in these hospitals.

2.6 Bed Capacity: Hospitals

Total

Table – V In ICU

Operation theater (OT)

GNRC 200 110 3 International 220 15 2 Nemcare 100 15 5 Arya 100 20 3 Sources: Field survey, personal interview and relevant web site.

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From the above table in has been observed that in case of bed capacity the GNRC hospital has more no. of bed followed by International but Nemcare has 5 no. of Operation theater.

2.7 Faculty Development Program. (FDP) to Employee: Table – VI Hospitals No. of FDP per year GNRC 4 International 2 Nemcare 2 Arya 2 Sources: Field survey, personal interview and relevant web site.

Now a days, faculty development programme is a more important tool which helps the doctors to upgrade themselves with the new technologies in their respective areas and which consecutively helps the hospital authority to give better serviews to the patients. And from the above table it has been seen that GNRC is no. 1 to upgrade their personnels with 4 times development programme in a year than others.

2.8 Quality Assurance Certification Table – VII Hospitals No. of FDP per year GNRC ISO 9001: 2000 and ISO 14001: 2004 International ISO 9001:2000 Nemcare ISO 9001:2008 Arya ISO 9001:2008 Sources: Field survey, personal interview and relevant web site.

From the above table it has been found that all the hospital get ISO certificate where as GNRC has two certificates from ISO in 2000 and 2004.

2.9 Inflow of patient cum cure Table – VIII Hospitals Average In Low Per Month Percentage Of GNRC 2800 99.9% International 1500 99% Nemcare 1400 99.9% Arya 1300 95% Sources: Field survey, personal interview and relevant web site.

From the above table it has been observed that, GNRC hospital is more effective in case of cure, and it has been seen in point of inflow of patient, than GNRC is get highest rank among the survey hospitals.

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2.10Measures to ensure better services Table – IX International Nemcare No. measures Appoint Qualified Dedicated and trained Doctors

GNRC Customers Relationship Management

Arya No. measures

Frequent training to Doctors & Staff Technology up gradation Sources: Field survey, personal interview and relevant web site.

From the above table it has been found that, GNRC and Nemcare hospital is very active by ensuring better services for the patients. The remaining, the International and Arya Hospital are not ensuring better services for the patients.

2.11Promotional activities: GNRC Employees Efforts Word of Mouth Social activities Banner and Hoardings Print Media Promotion Broadcasting Media Promotion Monthly Magazine

Table- X INTERNATIONAL NEMCARE Word of Mouth Word of Mouth Social activities

Academic Activities Social activities

ARYA Word of Mouth Banner and Hoardings Through Quality Service

Broadcasting Media Promotion

Sources: Field survey, personal interview and relevant web site.

From the above table it has been observed that GNRC is giving maximum effort in promotional activities compared to other three hospitals.

2.12 Questionnnaire Analysis: In addition to above analysis below some question analysis have been done .It is mentioned in the methodology that for the purpose of conducting question. A group of 160 respondents have been selected. With a view to a eliciting the views and attitudes of these respondents. The following questions have been put and accordingly explain.

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1. Do you think that only rich people can afford the cost of these private hospitals ?

No. of Respondents Agree Highly Agree Disagree Highly disagree 160 75 27 38 20

Explanation: Against this question, 46.9% no. of respondents are found to be agree, 16.9% no. of respondents are highly agree, 23.7% are disagree and remaining 12.5% are highly disagree.

2. Can these hospitals can capture the demand of entire Assam?

No. of Respondents

Not at all

To some extent

Entire

160

22

46

92

Explanation: Against this question, 13.75% no. of respondents says not at all, 28.75% no. of respondents says to some extent and remaining 57.5% no. of respondents says that entire.

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3. Are these hospitals have modern equipments with comparision to North East outside hospitals?

No. of Respondents 160

Yes 112

No 48

Explanation: Against this question, 70% no. of respondents says “Yes”, and remaining 30% no. of respondents says “No” 4. Are these hospitals provide proper treatment to the patients?

No. Respondents 160

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of Agree 96

Highly Agree 32

Disagree

Highly disagree

24

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Explanation: Against this question, 60% no. of respondents are found to be agree, 20% no. of respondents are found to be highly agree, 15% no. of found to be disagree and remaining 5% no. of respondents are found to be highly disagree.

5.Are these hospitals eco- friendly to the environment ?

No. of Respondents

Agree

160

92

Highly Agree 22

Disagree 38

Highly disagree 8

Explanation: Against this question, 57.5% no. of respondents are agree, 13.75% no. of respondents are highly agree, 23.75% no. of respondents are disagree and remaining 5% no. of respondents are highly disagree.

PART-III 3.1 Findings: 1. It is seen that the no. of Doctors in all the hospitals are same except Internationl GNRC the no. of nurses and Doctors are more than the other three hospitals. So, it can analyse that, in respect of services by Doctors and Nurse GNRC got highest rank followed by International.

1. It is seen that in GNRC hospital the no. of departments are more than the other followed by Nemcare Hospital. It indicates GNRC hospital offers maximum no. of customized treatment compare to others. If also, analyzes that because of having more no. of departments the management may not be able to concentrate in every aspect of quality service.

2. It is seen that all the hospitals have a separate management system. So, from the efficient management system point of view, these act hospitals are efficient hospital.

3. It is seen that, emergency services like ambulance service, pharmacy, blood bank are there in these hospitals.

5. It is seen that GNRC hospital has more no. of bed followed by International but Nemcare has 5 no. of Operation theater.

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6 . It is seen that GNRC is no. 1 to upgrade their personnels with 4 times development programme in a year than others.

7. It is found that all the hospital get ISO certificate where as GNRC has two certificates from ISO in 2000 and 2004.

8. It is observed that, GNRC hospital is more effective in case of cure.

9. It is seen that, GNRC and Nemcare hospital is very active by ensuring better services for the patients. The remaining the International and Arya Hospital are not ensuring better services for the patients.

10. It is observed that GNRC is giving maximum effort in promotional activities compared other three hospitals.

11. Most of the private hospitals can afford only by rich people.

12. It is seen that,most of the private hospitals can capture the demand of entire Assam.

13. It is seen that most of the private hospitals have modern equivement with comparision to North East outside hospitals.

14. Most of the private hospitals provide proper treatment to the patients.

15. Most of the private hospitals are eco-friendly to the environment.

3.2 Recommendations: 1. These hospitals should provide concessional rate of service for financially poor people of the reasons.

2. These hospitals should extend their services towards rural backward areas by Introducing Mobile Medical Units.

3. In order to increase the level of awareness among general public, regarding the various preventive measures. These hospitals should arrange frequently some medical campaign.

4. It is suggested to open a cell for maintaining relations among patient, doctors and management.

5. Keeping in view providing information about these hospitals they should urgently extend their promotional activities to all the states of North East.

6. All of the hospital should immediately improve their eco- friendly environment to build up a hygienic environment.

Conclusion: In this hospital different category rooms are there some are highest, average lowest.

But in our region as most of the people come from the financially poor so this hospital should increase the lowest and average cost bearing room according to the proportion of the people.

Because it is observed that, frequently the lowest and average cost bearing rooms can not cover the required people. These hospitals should formulate their policies and planning considering changing in environment of the society. In this connection financially position of the majority people. Their needs and demands communication with patient and doctor. Frequent training of doctors and nurse and other officials. So, they can increase their skills and efficiency to make these hospital an integral part of human resource development. The management of these hospitals should keep in mind that in addition to physical support and treatment they should provide some mental support to the patient. It is a lamentable matter that most of the management, doctors of the hospital still do not know about the Music therapy. So, with a view to curing the patient these hospitals should provide some suitable music with an effective and low sound throughout the hospital.

In this connection, they can use some sweetest Folk Song and Indian Rags Music instead of providing and showing television. For that purpose the management of these hospitals can appoint some experts of Music therapy.

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This way the Music therapy can be implemented parallel with the model treatment. Such types of steps of these hospitals in contribute a lot to the development of Human Resource.

References: 1 .www.google.co.in 2.www.gnrc.com 3.www.iniernationalhosp.com 4 .www.nemcarehospital.com 5.www.aryahospital.com 6. "World Health Organization - Management".

7."Health Care Administrator". Retrieved 11 September 2012.

8. Kliff, Sarah. "$1.43 of every $100 in America goes toward hospital administration". Vox. Retrieved 16 September 2014.

9."Bachelor's Degree in Healthcare Administration" New England College 10. "healthcare management" 11."Bureau of Labor Statistics - Occupational Outlook Handbook entry".

12. Haddock, Cynthia Carter "A Brief History of Healthcare Management", 2002.

13. "University of Chicago - Graduate Program in Health Administration and Policy".

14. Rosemary Harrison (2005). Learning and Development. CIPD Publishing. p. 5.

ISBN 9781843980506.

15. Employee Development 16. Patrick J. Montana and Bruce H. Charnov (2000). "Training and Development".

Management. Barron's Educational Series. p. 225. ISBN 9780764112768.

17.Thomas N. Garavan, Pat Costine, and Noreen Heraty (1995). "Training and Development: Concepts, Attitudes, and Issues". Training and Development in Ireland. Cengage Learning EMEA. p. 1. ISBN 9781872853925 18. Rusobya, Kelvin (2012), Training and Developmen 19. SM .JHA,Hospital Management,ISBN:978-93-5024-458-6, Himalaya Publishing House,Second Revised Edition-2011,page no.12.

20. D.Monil Chaturvedi,Human Resource Development,ISBN:81-88719-18-8,Indus Valley Publications,Edition-2005,page no.22.

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International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies (IJHSSS) A Peer-Reviewed Bi-monthly Bi-lingual Research Journal ISSN: 2349-6959 (Online), ISSN: 2349-6711 (Print) Volume-I, Issue-V, March 2015, Page No. 75-83 Published by Scholar Publications, Karimganj, Assam, India, 788711 Website: http://www.ijhsss.com

Authentic Community Development: Principles and Fundamentals Rebecca Waweru Lecturer, Dept. of Development Studies, St Paul’s University, Limuru, Kenya Abstract Authentic community development is an essential process which endeavors to empower communities towards self-propelled and sustainable development. Being a process, it is guided by a set of principles and fundamentals which qualify it as authentic, participatory, inclusive, empowering and sustainable. Authenticity of community development is dependent on adherence to key guiding principles and fundamentals including holism, human orientation, participation, diversity, ownership, sustainability, promotion of equity, among several others. It is crucial that principles and fundamentals of authentic community development show clearly what their contribution to development is. As it is with principles and fundamentals in other disciplines, adherence to and practice of these principles and fundamentals poses major challenges to practitioners, policy makers, funders, governments and other stakeholders of community development. This article outlines and expounds various principles and fundamentals that guide authentic community development.

Key Words: Authentic, Community, Development, Fundamentals, Principles, 1. Introduction: Community development as a social science, practice and approach is guided by underlying principles and fundamentals. However, it is important to note that there exists a thin line between conceptualization, theorization and definition of principles and fundamentals of community development. To some, it could be one and the same thing while to others, it means two different things altogether. For community development to be regarded as authentic, it must be geared towards attainment of social justice, self-determination, working and learning together, participation, reflective practice, sustainable communities, among other deliverables. Community development that meets some needs and ignores the others cannot be considered authentic. The discussions in this paper are based on relevant literature review, own conceptualization, observations and personal field experiences.

2. Background: Community is as old as humanity itself and for the last two hundred years, the word community has been defined by different people in different times in different ways, and it is still a difficult term to comprehend (Sajid, nd).

Chambers (1994) observes that over the years, there have been shifts in rural development which has involved reversals from top-down to bottom-up, from blueprint to learning process and a leaning towards community oriented and people driven development approaches. Dimensions of community development are multiple, ranging from social, economic, spiritual, political, cultural and environmental, among others. These dimensions are geared towards meeting concrete or abstract human needs and rights, key of which are participation, self - determination and protection, among many others.

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According to Ife (2002:204), „…community development is not governed by simple technical law of cause and effect but it is a complex and dynamic process, teaching and nurturing this development is more of an art than science‟. It takes place in complex, dynamic and heterogeneous environments, without a single rule of thumb for mastery. Further, Ife (ibid) argues that community development seeks to empower individuals and groups of people by providing these groups with the skills they need to effect change for the betterment of their own communities.

3. Definition and conceptualization of terminologies: Principle: According to Mulwa (2010:94), „principle can be defined as an accepted or professed rule of action. It is a fundamental, primary, or general law or truth from which policies, decisions and actions are derived‟. A principle is a statement of fundamental truth which describes the occurrence of things or phenomena as they are, what is basic or essential and what works and what does not and why. Principles are standards which are generalized expressions of rules of sound practice (Sajid, nd). Principles therefore provide frameworks for analysis and interpretation of various phenomena.

Community: A community is a group of two or more people who are connected through common interests and characteristics and/or a geographic location and/or identity in social-cultural, political, economic or professional spheres. According to Popular Oxford dictionary, the word „community‟ implies togetherness, which connotes an organization of human beings framed for the purpose of serving together (Sajid, nd).

Development: The concept of development has several different and opposing definitions which are based on the interests of different groups and each group defines development in a way that benefits it (Mchombu et al., 2004). The term development implies improvement of social, political, economic, infrastructural and physical conditions in a community. Siraj (1980) as cited by Sajid (nd) defines development as a purposive change in a society to achieve an improved state of socioeconomic conditions. Development connotes advancement of status of human beings, resulting to improved quality of life of people in all spheres that affect their daily life. In the context of community development, development is therefore a process for enhancing the wellbeing of a given community.

Community Development: Sajid (ibid) defines community development as the purposeful effort by community people to learn and work together to guide the future development of their communities by making full use of their own as well as external resources for their own betterment. Moreover, Chitere (1999) contends that community development is a method, a process, movement, means to an end, among many other concepts. Community development is about social change through a long-term process that needs to be holistic and responsive to local circumstances and needs (REGLAP, 2012). Ife (2002) argues that community development is by its nature a long term process. It entails working with the people and not working for them, providing opportunities for improvement of people‟s lives, building relations between community members and enhancing capacities of communities to take charge of their own development. This involves creation of conditions that will facilitate multidimensional progress for the whole community with its active participation by going through various stages that are implemented linearly and vertically to cater for the needs of and improve the way of life for a given community. Ife (2002) explains that community development implies helping communities to articulate their needs and act accordingly to meet the needs. It means initiating interventions to address development needs and gaps in provision of solutions not only for concrete but also abstract needs. Community development Volume-I, Issue-V

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facilitates manipulation of factors that contribute towards change of a state of need to a state of self support and an end product of self -sustenance.

Authentic Community Development: Authentic development is one that is homegrown and organically initiated with the local people taking centre stage in the entire development cycle. It is what is called balanced development, which seeks to initiate development from the centre of the wheel, with effects rippling to the periphery. It can also be described as development of the people, by the people, for the people, using locally available resources and indigenous technical knowledge that ensures sustainability. As advanced by Mulwa (2010) authentic community development is not only signified by the end (results), but also the means (process). Authentic and genuine community development necessitates empowerment, transformation and the participation of all segments of the community including the marginalized people in their own development by strengthening their ability to identify their needs, decide best way to meet the needs, and to demand better services and accountability from development stakeholders (REGLAP, 2012).

4. Principles and Fundamentals of Authentic Community Development: Authentic community development deviates from the mainstream conventional approaches to participatory, people centered development. Adoption and practice of authentic community development requires a mindset change for both communities and development practitioners. Authentic community development means starting from the centre with ripple effects, impacts and benefits thereof spreading out to the periphery. Authentic community development demands that the community be at the centre of the wheel to able to spin it and manage the process and speed of their development.

Authentic development must involve all constituents as equal and valuable partners. The implementation of authentic community development means the realization that resources, ideas, knowledge and skills can all be found within communities.

Authentic community development is guided by principles which are rules which determine right action or value-judgment as to what is sound or good community development practice (Sajid,nd).

However, it is important to note that there is no “recipe� for a process of community development but rather, it is a set of key flexible principles which guide the process of engagement and action (Cavaye, nd). Below are a set of principles and fundamentals that guide authentic community development.

4.1 Principle of Participation.: Participation as a means to empowerment and consciousness raising, is a very crucial aspect of authentic community development. In the process of authenticity in community development, structures and processes should not be alienating to the beneficiaries but instead, they must enhance participation. Community participation spins the wheel from top down, imposed to bottom – up, self-motivated and involving status. The principle of participation is embedded on the bedrock of people doing it themselves in partnership with development agents. As advanced by Mulwa (2010), participation is a paradigm shift that seeks to correct anomalies of the conventional development paradigms and authentic community development should of necessity mainstream active participation in the entire process. In this principle, development constituents are part of the community development entire process. According to this principle, everyone has a valuable contribution to make towards their development (FCLC, nd). Further, this principle takes cognisance of the fact that empowerment results from influence and participation, and by supporting communities to gain skills to engage in participation through developing of structures that enable communities to participate effectively. Participation principle as discussed by Ife (2002), ensures that community development must always seek to maximize participation, with the aim being for everyone in the community to actively participate in community processes and activities, aimed at Volume-I, Issue-V

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recreating community and personal futures. People must be enabled to participate in the entire development process since they know their problems better, they understand and appreciate their environments better, they can use their own resources and indigenous technical knowledge and they can be able to own the results as their own initiative in „we did it ourselvesâ€&#x;.

4.2 Principle of Valuing Local: a) Knowledge and Skills: The sub-principle of valuing local considers local knowledge and skills as very crucial in viable community development. Indigenous technical knowledge and skills must be recognized and valued. As Ife (2002) argues, the principle of valuing local knowledge simply states that local knowledge and expertise are likely to be of most value in informing community development and they must be identified and validated rather than subordinated to the knowledge and expertise of outside experts. In this principle, a community development process should seek to identify local knowledge, to assess the extent of local expertise, whether formally recognized or not, and realize that external expertise can only help a community in a general way and not in terms of specific programs (Ife, ibid). This principle acknowledges that local skills and knowledge are more applicable and sustainable and therefore they should be natured and a two-way transfer, exchange and sharing established. b) Cultures: Local cultures are very crucial especially in sustainable use of resources. Culture being what gives communities an identity and self-value should be a key component of authentic community development. The principle of valuing local culture requires that cultural traditions and processes be validated and supported as part of a community development process (Ife, ibid).

Culture can promote adoption or rejection of development initiatives. Further, (Ife, ibid ) acknowledges that community development itself cannot be imposed on people but it must be genuinely developed within the community, in a way that fits the specific extent and is sensitive to local community, culture, traditions and environment. c) Resources: This sub-principle of valuing local resources encompasses all forms of local resources e.g. financial, technical, natural and human. Key to authentic community development is resource mobilization and sustainable utilization of the available resources. In sustainable and viable community development, the community mobilizes and uses its own material and monetary resources to attain her development goals (Chitere, 1999). Further, Hope and Timmel (2000) observe that communities have many resources and with these resources (both human, material and monetary), communities can engage in community development initiatives that can change the state of communities from an undesirable state to a desirable state. Use of local resources makes sure that communities do not always depend on external funding that comes with too many conditionalities without self-reliance. Ife (2002) further posits that community development that cannot be done with local resources is not worth doing at all. This points to the fact that local resources are very crucial in authentic community development. d) Processes: This is a sub-principle of valuing local in community development which argues that the imposition of solutions, structures or processes from outside the community seldom works.

Communities usually have clearly set, stipulated and acceptable processes on decision making and development. For community development to be authentic, processes that are used in development initiatives need not be imported from outside, and instead they should be local community processes that are well understood and accepted by the local community (Ife, ibid).

4.3 Principle of Organic Development (as opposed to Makeshift / Mechanistic Development): Organic development can be described as development that starts from the grassroots, initiated by Volume-I, Issue-V

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communities to meet their development needs. Organic development is development that originates and grows spontaneously as a result of real felt needs, based on homegrown priorities and alternatives, using indigenous technical knowledge for sustenance and sustainability. Authentic community development is basically the „... need to allow structures and processes to develop organically from the community itself (Ife, 2002:200). Further, Ife (2002: 204) qualifies it by explaining that, „organic development means that one respects and values the communities particular attributes and allows and encourages it to develop in its own unique way, through an understanding of complex relationship between the community and its environment‟. Organic development starts where people are, and the existing concerns and situation of people is the starting point of development initiatives (Cavaye, nd). REGLAP (2012) argues that in this principle, priority is given to the needs and interests that the community identifies as their starting point and that there be homegrown interventions to meet the needs.

4.4 Principle of Inclusivity and Community Building: Authentic community development should be inclusive and embrace provision of equal opportunities for and contributions from all sections of people, irrespective of any differences. This encourages diverse sectors of the community to participate (Sajid, nd; Cavaye, nd ; FCLC, nd). The principle of inclusitivity means that the community development process must include all the community members irrespective of their gender, religion, race, age or socio-economic status in the community. Applying the principle of inclusiveness to community development requires that processes always seek to include rather than to exclude, that all people be intrinsically valued, and that people be allowed space to change their positions on an issue without „losing face‟ in the community (Mulwa, 2010). Inclusitivity includes ability to make decisions that dictate the direction the community wants to take to better themselves.

This is a principle that implies that community development in not only an initiative to address needs but also a process that uses community structure strengthening, organizing and mobilizing strategies to better the community. „The principle of community building simply states that the process of community development should always seek to bring people together, to strengthen the bonds between community members, and to emphasize the idea of interdependence rather than independence‟(Mulwa, 2010: 223-224). This means that although communities are heterogonous, community development must endeavor to create homogeneity in order to achieve just and fair development.

4.5 Principle of Empowerment: Empowerment is a key principle in community development.

Empowerment is not only a principle but also its one of the ultimate goals of community development. According to Mulwa (2010:98), „essentially, empowerment can be conceptualized as the capacity to manage our own life, whether as an individual or as a community‟.Empowerment as a process respects, values and enhances people‟s ability to have control over their lives and it also encourages people to meet their needs and aspirations in a self-aware and informed way by utilising their skills, experience and potential (FCLC,nd). As Ife (2002) argues, empowerment should be an aim of all community development. Empowerment means giving people (including the poor, minority and marginalized community members) the power to be able to make decisions, choices and directions that will lead to an improvement of their lives. It means that beneficiaries being the major stakeholders in the development process have the power to manage their own development.

Authentic community development must address powerlessness by removing or ameliorating the barriers to people‟s complete control of their own destinies. Community empowerment leads to selfdetermination, self-help and self-reliance among beneficiaries by supporting rather than leading them. Ife (2002:53) argues that „empowerment aims to increase the power of the disadvantaged‟.

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Moreover, empowerment as a community strategy requires that the barriers to people exercising power be understood, addressed and overcome (Mulwa, 2010). In any case, „any increase in empowerment for more disadvantaged sections of the community will help to bring about a more socially just society, and the empowerment of members of a local community will strengthen that community and will enable more effective community- based structures to be put in place‟ (Ife,2002: 209).

4.6 Principle of Ownership: According to Mulwa (2010), ownership as a principle of authentic community development is anchored on the premises that people will identify with, protect and maintain what they have toiled to build. The ownership in authentic community development starts from the visioning, conceptualization to implementation of development projects. In this principle, the community fully owns the development process and any benefits thereof and only gets external technical support in form of training and supportive capacity when they request for it. Ontario Health Communities Coalition (n.d) observes that communities thrive when they develop their own assets, own their problems and issues and they work together to develop homegrown solutions.

Cavaye (nd) corroborates that by arguing that through community ownership, the community itself makes and implements decisions to change their lives.

4.7 Principle of Diversity: Diversity is a crucial principle that is important in authentic community development. Diversity is expected within and without. As Ife (2002) explains, all community development processes are context – specific and they cannot be understood in terms of universal rules. In this principle, it is observed that community is made of several segments of stratification either vertically or horizontally. Community development values diversity between communities, and accepts that different communities will have different ways of doing things, rather than imposing a „right‟ way to do things (ibid). Diversity ensures that there is complimentality that seeks to enrich the entire development process.

4.8 Principle of Sustainability: Sustainability is another principle of authentic community development. Sustainability is embedded on inter and intra-generational interdependence and therefore authentic community development is tied to sustainability. This means the ability to take care of a communities‟ today‟s needs must not compromise tomorrow‟s generations to take cater of their needs. Ife, (2002) observes that it is essential that any community development activity occurs within a framework of sustainability otherwise it will simply reinforce the existing unsustainable order, and will not be viable in the long term. Further still Ife (ibid) argues that if community development is to be part of the establishment of a new social, economic and political order, its structure and processes must be sustainable. This means that any viable community development initiative must put into consideration the issue of sustainability in terms of extraction and exploitation of resources as raw materials and factors for production.

4.9 Principle of Addressing Structural Injustices and Discourse of Disadvantaged: This is a principle in community development that not only initiates projects but seeks to address underlying impediments to development. There should be a systematic analysis of internal and external factors that entrench inequities. Community development should address issues of class, gender, race, ethnical, age, disability and sexuality by ensuring that power relations, in which structural inequalities are addressed by any community development initiative (Ife, 2002). In this principle, community development should not by any means reinforce structural oppression. Also, this principle recognises that the community is not a homogenous group and therefore efforts need to be made to ensure all community members benefit from development processes (REGLAP 2012).

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opposition and inequalities. This principle advocates for a fair distribution of resources and power between people so as to improve the social, environmental, economic and cultural infrastructures within their communities (FCLC,nd).

4.10 Principle of Holism (Wholism): Holism is a principle based on the fact that any development in one sector of the community will affect other spheres in a way. Community development should adopt and adapt a holistic approach in addressing community needs. As Ife (2002) explains, the principle of holism applies ``to all aspects of community development, at analysis as well as practice levels. Cavaye (nd) argues that a holistic approach is used in building economic, human, social and environmental aspects of community as an interrelated whole. Ife (2002) further observes that development holism should emphasize the importance of ripple effect where every development initiative in one sphere has a ripples-like effect on other spheres in the system. It should entail balanced development that caters for all spheres of a human life by recognising that social, economic and political needs are inter-twinned.

4.11 Principle of Learning: The principle of learning is crucial in the attainment of authentic community development. According to Mulwa (2010:100), „there is wide consensus in community development practice today that true transformation is born of a learning attitude perfected by dialogue with others‟. Chitere (1999) further argues that community development is a means for taking the knowledge to people and making use of the knowledge in improving their living conditions. Development practitioners can impart knowledge with the aim of building capacities of the communities. This means that development should be a continuous learning process that ensures that development practitioners engage target communities in practical action oriented learning. This results in capacity building as a strategy and end product of learning. Knowledge learnt has to be adaptive and with ability to address people‟s development needs. The learning should be reflective, with best practices learnt duplicated in other places or projects or scaled-up. This enhances building and supporting of skills, knowledge, abilities and resilience of people that results to selfdevelopment (FCLC,nd).

4.12 Principle of Adaptiveness (Not Blue Print Planning): This is a principle that dictates that community development needs to be context specific and that there are no universal ways of doing development projects. This principle emphasizes the need to plan and learn with people based on experimentation. Sajid (nd) contends that development should be adaptative to suit different conditions and situations. As Lele (1976) further argues, development planning should be based on adequate knowledge of local constraints and not blue printing because adaptiveness to local conditions is a critical pre-liquisite for viable community development. Social, political and economic environments must be factored in the entire development process.

4.13 Principle of Release as Opposed to Relief: This is a principle that is based on the need for the external „experts‟ to let go the control of development process so that communities can have full grip and control. This principle gives the community the mantle to mobilize and utilize their resources as opposed to depending on the outside donor-manipulated assistance which creates a vicious cycle and trap of dependency and apathy. This principle makes it possible for communities to regain confidence in their ability to manage their own lives, and development agencies must be willing to let go.

4.14 Principle of Consciousness Raising: The principle of consciousness raising is important for community development (Ife, 2002). This is a principle that dictates that community development should aim and result in raising communities‟ consciousness to their needs and ability to initiate Volume-I, Issue-V

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their own development. This principle ensures that community members are well aware and empowered to make decisions on their destinies and make choices regarding their development.

4.15 Principle of Linking the Global and the Local: This is a principle that puts into perspective the fact that the world has become a global village and no local development can take place independent of the happenings in the globe. Ife (2002) observes that there is globalization of the world and the practice of community development cannot ignore global issues, however local its focus may appear to be. There must be linkage of local to global which leads to exchange of ideas, knowledge, approaches, methodologies and best practices in community development.

4.16 Principle of Simplicity and Not Complexity: This is a principle that makes community development adapt the idea of simplifying the process as opposed to complex ambiguous development interventions. As Mulwa (2010:102) argues, ‘the smaller and simpler project, the easier it will be to get long-lasting results’. Piecemeal and cumulative community development is more effective as opposed to big chunks which are not manageable and sustainable, leading to massive project failure.

4.17 Principle of Human Orientation: Principle of human orientation shows that any community development must be based on the fact that it recognizes and strives to cater for abstract verses concrete needs. Mulwa (2010) notes that any community development initiative ought to alleviate poverty and suffering through meeting peoples basic needs, but neglecting their abstract needs is defective development and cannot qualify to be authentic.

4.18 Principle of Means Justifies the End: This is a principle that means that the quality of community development is in the process and not the end product alone. In this principle, community development is essentially about a process rather than an outcome, about a journey rather than the destination, and hence it is important to focus on processes as well as results (Ife, 2002).

Conclusion: Authentic community development is a long term process that is based on small but incremental improvement in communities‟ living standards. Authentic community development must promote social justice, cohesion and sense of belonging and one that not only liberates but also empowers. Authentic community development should not only cater for concrete needs but also abstract needs. It should be holistic and transformational in nature, meaning that, it caters for the social, economic, political as well as intellectual needs of human beings. There are a set of principles and fundamentals that guide practice of authentic community development. Principles and fundamentals of authentic development values people and places them at the centre of the wheel.

Key to effectiveness of these principles and fundamentals is that if development agents adhere to them religiously, they can be viable vehicles and catalysts of authentic community development.

References: 1. Cavaye, J (n.d) Understanding Community Development: npd 2. Chambers, R (1994) “The Origins and Practice of Participatory Rural Appraisal “World Development, 22 (7):pp 953-969 3. Chitere, O (1999) Community Development Its Conceptions and Practice with Emphasis on Africa, Nairobi: Gideon S .Were Press 4. FCLC ( n.d ) Community Development Principles: npd Volume-I, Issue-V

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5. Hope, A & Timmel, S (2000) Training for Transformation. A Handbook for Community Workers, Book IV, London: ITDG Publishing.

6. Ife, J (2002) Community Development, Community Based Alternatives in an Age of Globalization, 2nd ed, Australia: Pearson Education Australia Pty Limited 7. Lele, U (1976) The Design of Rural Development, Lessons from Africa, Washington: Bank For Reconstruction & Development.

8. Mchombu et al., (2004) Sharing Knowledge for Community Development and Transformation: A Handbook, Oxfam Canada: Canada 9. Mulwa, F (2010), Demystifying Participatory Community Development, (Revised Edition) Nairobi: Paulineâ€&#x;s Publications Africa 10. Ontario Health Communities Coalition (n.d.). Values and Principles of Community Development. Ontario Health Communities Coalition. Retrieved from http://www.ohccccso.ca/en/courses/community-development-for-health-promoters/module-one-conceptsvalues-and-principles/valuesREGLAP (2012) Good Practice Principles on Community Development for Use in DRR in the Drylands of the Horn of Africa: npd 11. Sajid, I (n.d) Community Development: npd 12. Swanapoel, H & De beer F (2006), Community Development Breaking the Cycle of Poverty, 4th ed, South Africa: Juta and Co Ltd

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International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies (IJHSSS) A Peer-Reviewed Bi-monthly Bi-lingual Research Journal ISSN: 2349-6959 (Online), ISSN: 2349-6711 (Print) Volume-I, Issue-V, March 2015, Page No. 84-89 Published by Scholar Publications, Karimganj, Assam, India, 788711 Website: http://www.ijhsss.com

Nationalism and the Japanese connection: Rabindranath Tagore’s perspective Sriparna Chatterjee Asst. Professor, Dept. of Political Science, Matiaburj College, West Bengal, India Abstract Rabindranath Tagore was aware of the admiration of the concept of nationalism and its universal recognition as the only legitimate form of political organization but he himself was not ever been eager to get overjoyed about this concept. Tagore was a worshipper of creativity who has put his faith on imagination over reason, natural over the artificial, has vehemently condemned the mechanical, need based, and goal oriented aspect of nationalism which is way apart from the puritan patriotism. His patriotism called for true freedom for the people, freedom of the spirit as much as freedom from external control. Tagore was in favor of interaction, sympathy and harmony among nations which could give birth to a morally and politically enlightened community of nations.

Tagore cited the example of Japan and described this country as ‘old and new at the same time’.

This is because when most of the Asian countries unquestionably admitted the decline of their past glory, culture, style of living in the face of Western modernity then only Japan withheld the belief that she can rise again and in general beyond the submissive nature of ‘Asia’. Tagore was of the view that unity and plurality of consciousness could only be achieved through proper education of the people, cultivation of freedom of thought and imagination.

Key Words: Nation, Nationalism, Indigenous, Modernity, Culture.

While discussing the multi-faced excellence of the legend known as Rabindranath Tagore, one has to stumble on the point of marking him as a theoretician of nationalism. Perhaps this is the „light and shade‟ area of his career where rays of clarity hesitates to fall upon. Tagore‟s political viewpoints can never be codified in any single document as they are sporadic and on the very concept of „nation‟ and „nationalism‟ his ideas have remained dubious and controversial. Tagore‟s opinion in his book Nationalism evoked the notion that he was against nationalism, however according to many scholars Tagore‟s idea on nationalism cannot be judged from this book alone, as it was a periodic essay written on the background of First World War. Even later on Tagore himself attempted to amend some of the thoughts expressed in „Nationalism‟ in a revised version which unfortunately never came in public domain. We need to make sincere efforts to understand his concepts on nationalism. In the present era of globalization the very concept of nationalism is continuously struggling to find out its relevance and without referring to Tagore‟s thoughts the indigenous study on nationalism can never become complete. At this point one may raise a justified question that why „Japanese connection‟ be studied while focusing on his ideas on nationalism? Perhaps the answer is the „uniqueness‟ which Tagore noticed in Japan‟s attempt of blending Western pattern of nationalism with her own culture, taste and necessity and which according to him can be cited as a pioneering instance for rest of the world.

Before going into detail it would be better to remember that Tagore never felt the necessity of creating a mere Bengali translation of the term „Nation‟. In his essay „Atmashakti‟ he stated that the Volume-I, Issue-V

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word „jati‟ can never become a suitable synonym of the word „nation‟ rather it could be used as a synonym for the word „race‟. Tagore was very much influenced by the French Philosopher Renan‟s idea of nation. In his 1882 discourse on „Qu’est-ce qu’une nation’? (What is a Nation?) Renan said that the essence of a nation is that all its people have a great deal in common, and also that they have forgotten a great deal. Renan essentially meant that a nation, in the words of Benedict Anderson, is an „imagined community‟, a group of people sharing a common story, a community by choice. „Nationalism‟, the other side of the coin „nation‟, has got numerous explanations from worldwide veteran scholars. According to Ernest Gellner "nationalism is primarily a political principle that holds that the political and the national unit should be congruent". He also argues in his book Nations and Nationalism that nationalism has become a sociological necessity in the modern world.

But in modern society, work becomes technical. One must operate a machine, and as such one must learn. There is a need for impersonal, context-free communication and a high degree of cultural standardization. The concept of nationalism as a political expression with people sharing a common geographical boundary and some cultural or political similarities is in fact not very old, but cultural nationalism is a much older concept. While one group of scholars have attributed the growth of nationalism to the rise of enlightenment and reason the other group has related it with the birth of industrial capitalism in eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Asia‟s first Nobel laureate poet Rabindranath Tagore was very much aware of the admiration of the concept of nationalism and its universal recognition as the only legitimate form of political organization but he himself was not ever been eager to get overjoyed about this concept. Tagore was a worshipper of creativity who has put his faith on imagination over reason, natural over the artificial, has vehemently condemned the mechanical, need based, and goal oriented aspect of nationalism which is way apart from the puritan patriotism. The poet actually made a clear distinction between „deshoprem‟, that is patriotism and „jatiyatabad‟ or nationalism, the ideological foundation of the nation state. The former is rooted in culture; the latter is an implant from the West. He was a patriot per excellence but not a nationalist in traditional sense. His patriotism called for true freedom for the people, freedom of the spirit as much as freedom from external control.

Tagore opined that as nationalism is the product of industrial-capitalism it can do no good to humanity as it is only an „organization of politics and commerce‟ that brings „harvests of wealth‟ or „carnivals of materialism‟ by spreading greed, violence and destroying basic human instincts. He was opposed to the kind of nationalism that found its expression in Thucydides‟ ancient maxim“large nations do what they wish, while small nations accept what they must”. Tagore was in favor of interaction, sympathy and harmony among nations which could give birth to a morally and politically enlightened community of nations. He raised his voice against all types of parochial, self interest based attitudes and cordially invited inter- civilizational alliances. He has written at one place, “believe me, nothing would give me greater happiness than to see the people of the West and the East march in a common crusade against all that robs the human spirit of its significance”. In most of his writings, essays, poems he has depicted nationalism as a source of war, death and destruction. His perceived anti-nationalist thought has received eyebrows from many of his contemporaries e.g. Georg Lukacs, D.H. Lawrence etc. After the publication of Tagore‟s antinationalist, anti-revolutionary novel The Home and the World in 1915 Lukacs condemned Tagore as „a wholly insignificant figure‟, while Lawrence said that Tagore by his attempt of placing East and West on a similar platform was trying to encourage barbarism as the culture of the West is superior than the East in every respect.

In spite of these criticisms Tagore‟s idea on nationalism was proved to be correct with the outbreak of two World Wars which destructed millions of lives and enormous properties. Tagore Volume-I, Issue-V

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was skeptical about the fabricated aspects of nationalism which overwhelms the inner qualities of human beings. In his famous novel Ghare barire he expressed his thoughts against narrow, selfsatisfying aspects of nationalism. Tagore robustly criticized the British imperialism which was the result of industrial capitalism. His grievance seems more justified when he exposed the true nature of the British colonial power which in the name of nationalism never hesitated to dominate the underprivileged, forlorn countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America. The colonizers never thought of improving the prevailing conditions of the colonized countries rather they were keen to maximize the revenue. No sincere attempt has been made on their part to convert their „hunting grounds‟ into „cultivated lands‟. In Tagore‟s expression the Western civilization was based on cruel power play politics where it had become rule rather the than exception that the rich and affluent countries should possess the right to dictate and dominate the poorer ones.

So far Indian nationalism is concerned it can be said that Tagore opposed to India joining the bandwagon of nationalism. He never acknowledged India to imitating the Western concept of nationalism as Indian culture, civilization, politics and society were markedly different from the Western world. He felt that the problem of India is not political rather social, and therefore India has to seek her solution in a way distinctly different from the West. India itself is the world in miniature as different caste, creed and race lived here since ages. Hence she must try to resolve the diverse issues associated with caste, religion and society. Imitation might be necessary at the beginning and acceptable up to a point, however one has to keep in mind that blind imitation might lead to complete disaster as the culture, taste, and the social background of two nations can never be the same. More important is the appropriate and proportionate blending of the two, essentially which means adopting the finer qualities, traits from the ideal and thereafter modifying them to adopt to the realistic needs of own nation.

Tagore sited the example of Japan the „land of the rising sun‟ at this point and described this country as „old and new at the same time‟. This is because when most of the Asian countries unquestionably admitted the decline of their past glory, culture, style of living in the face of Western modernity then only Japan withheld the belief that she can rise again and in general beyond the submissive nature of „Asia‟. She had complete faith in her own potentialities, in her humanitarian quality which all in turn became her greatest weapon while dealing with modernity. Like a magician Japan has transformed her land into a place decorated with all the contemporary facilities, infrastructure, industries that one could usually witness in West. She acted as the Asian mirror where reflection of West was seen clearly. Tagore in his book Nationalism described the situation in the following words “it was done in such an incredibly short time that it seemed like a change of dress and not like the building up of a new structure”. Another interesting expression can be found in this regard in the book Politics, society and colonialism: an alternative understanding of Tagore’s response that –“it was not like getting gradually adjusted to new education and adding (gradually) to it; not like rearing it as a child to develop him into a full-blown man in youth-but rather like welcoming an outsider in the flush of his full youth into her family as son-in-law”. Credit of Japan lies in the fact that neither has she rejected her past, the close bondages of her society nor has she complained against those shekels which her country as a part of Asian community had to face; in spite of these she ignited her mind to open up the new vista, to accept the contemporary in a unique way. May be this became possible due to Japan‟s simplicity and devotedness in everything. In Japanjatri at one place Tagore has mentioned about a tea invitation ceremony where he found it surprising that with how much care and creativity a host can offer tea. What revealed from this is the sense of beauty in Japanese mind. People are simple there, habituated in leading a simple life and everywhere a touch of cordiality could be realized. In his lecture „The spirit of Japan‟ Tagore said Volume-I, Issue-V

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that Japan is such a country where one can come across the triumph of humanity over mechanization. While in the West stunning display and extravagance in everything would take one‟s breath away by wonder, in Japan simple love and admiration for mankind would leave footprint for ever in ones heart. Most appreciating part is that Japan has prepared her mindset according to the need of the time so that she could easily move forward with all that she has possessed by inheritance. Rabindranath Tagore who was a creator in every aspect was fascinated by this originality of Japan and perhaps this is the reason why Japan made an everlasting impression in his mind. Tagore‟s another link to Japan was his friend Okakura Tenshin (Kakuzo), the Japanese curator. The chemistry of their friendship was quite amazing. There was no documentation, or records of their exchanges to provide evidence that they shared a cordial relationship. In fact they met only twice in their lives, once in Calcutta in 1902 and later in Boston in 1913. In between they did not speak of each other‟s work. Their friendship was not affected by this detachment rather in the words of Rustom Bharucha it „acquired an iconic quality‟. Okakura for the first instance influenced Tagore‟s mind by his concept of „Asia is One‟ that is Asia is „one‟ in its humiliation, of falling behind in achieving modernization, and thus being colonized by the Western powers. Tagore on the other hand enabled Okakura to travel deep into another Asia that in spite of its fuzzy ideals has greater emotional depth and humanitarian insight. Contrast adds variety to any discussion and gives it a new insight; therefore gap in Tagore‟s and Okakura‟s thoughts and ideals helps the readers to realize their friendship chemistry in a better way. It is mention worthy that while Tagore was against of the concept of nationalism and preached against its parochial, self-centered attitude.

Okakura Tenshin in most of his famous writings like The Ideals of the East: with special reference to the art of Japan, The Awakening of Japan supported nationalism. Both have divergent constructions of Asia. Tagore was critical of the violent face of nationalism that was potentially destructive of civilization while Okakura‟s vision of Asian unity was hierarchical and even racist.

From the above statements it may appear Japan was a near ideal case which Tagore wanted to exemplify. In fact Japan‟s emergence as a great Asian power is truly remarkable, however the overall experience was not as romantic as it was perceived to be. Tagore in his later half of life became increasingly alarmed of the transformation of Japan into mechanical civilization, sacrificing her heterogeneous culture she was known for. Tagore commented that at the imitative age of schooling one remains unaware of his needs, unable to distinguish between the indispensable and redundant but as life gradually unfolds one has to take an appropriate choice to make the life meaningful. Same is applicable for a Nation which is engaged in endless conflicts in order to explore her potentialities. At the maiden stages admiration in the name of replication was acceptable but Japan has to remember that contextual differences of the West and the East. In this era of modernity, West is busy in devising a strategy with a principal objective to make all the players identical; a strategy better expressed by the name: „homogenization of nations‟. Asia is distinguished by her diverse character, diverse flavors would become captive in their own land, if the „wonder child‟ of Asia, Japan, decides to be a participant in the Western plot. Tagore was not opposed to the idea that Japan should acquire the contemporary weaponry of self-protection, rather he made a conscious attempt to alert Japan not to move beyond her instinct of self preservation.

According to him actual modernity lies in freedom of taste and not in mere capitulation. With great anguish he pointed out that Japan is gradually loosing her internal qualities by recklessly accepting the Western approach of civilization, the Western life style and above all, putting emphasis on political aspects of civilization while negating the human bond. The prodigious corollary of Darwinism: „survival of the fittest‟ can be a magnificent axiom to explain evolution, but its wide Volume-I, Issue-V

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spread application in social life essentially results in ruthlessness, brutality and self-centered attitudes.

A broad analysis of Tagore‟s idea of nationalism makes it evident that at the same time he was in favor and opposed to nationalism. Although it sounds contradictory but from his writings and discourses it becomes noticeable that he was not in favor of drawing any „Laxman Rekha‟ (a particular circle intended to restrict one‟s mobility) based on geographical boundary. He said that if nationalism is something imaginary then humanity has to open up a new panorama by adjusting their mind. National boundary is an evil that builds a wall of separation between human beings and halts the spontaneous interactions, an essential ingredient for setting up of the world civilization.

Mohammad A Quayum in his article „Imagining “one world”: Rabindranath Tagore‟s Critique of Nationalism‟ said that “Tagore‟s process calls for a two-way ambiguous negotiation so that nations or communities can flourish and find their own fulfillment and yet rise above exclusivism and provincialism to forge an international community”. In his Creative Unity on the chapter „Nation‟ at one place Tagore commented that in spite of man‟s reliance in moral laws and the exercise of selfcontrol, evil exists in human mind. People have turned to be materialistic and aggressive for survival and ready to snatch out the best for themselves, while the lofty ideals of patriotism is adding zing to this venture. True love for the nation is a „holy grail‟ to be worshipped by all but as the motive of supremacy or ego sneaks in the way, the aim becomes filthy. A fundamental change is required to overcome this situation. Today nation has become a political or commercial institution whose foundation is wealth and power and only objective is to accomplish the material needs of her inhabitants. However, in order to enkindle the real spirit of nationalism one has to restore his/her soul. Any change completed by mere brainwork may or may not stay forever but when the heart and soul work in unison with the brain, the transformation becomes historical. But how to bring out that change? Tagore often attracted criticism from his friends that although he was always instrumental in pointing out the problems, but did not provide their solutions. Admitting this to a certain extent in Creative Unity he said that no alternative institution can become the guarantee of a better choice. It is human being who can bring the rational choice. In this case only education can guide them.

Tagore was of the view that unity and plurality of consciousness could only be achieved through proper education of the people, cultivation of freedom of thought and imagination.

To many Tagore‟s vision seemed idealistic and unattainable. Tagore can be charged with the allegation of becoming only a cultural nationalist who was not keenly interested to explore the political content of nationalism. But as we explore his ideas deeply, we find that again and again he emphasized that nationalism is not something which is a nation‟s invention rather it is a political provocation which the West has witnessed since the inception of industrial capitalism and attempted to impose on the rest of the World. Therefore he did not feel the urge to discourse on its political aspect. In today‟s world where the violence and cruelty are spreading its tentacles everywhere like lethal virus and the power of devastation is ever increasing by each passing day, one has no other option but to seek refuge in the principles laid down in Tagore‟s ideology in order to save the mankind. We can conclude with Tagore‟s maxim: “Freedom of mind is needed for the reception of truth”.

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List of References: 1. Bharucha Rustom, Another Asia: Rabindranath Tagore and Okakura Tenshin, Oxford University Press (New Delhi), 2006.

2. Mukhopadhyay Amartya, Politics, Society and Colonialism: An alternative understanding of Tagore’s response, Foundation Books (Dehli, Bangalore,Mumbai,Kolkata,Chennai,Hyderabad,Pune), Chapter: 3, “Alternation or search for the Nationness in and of Bharatavarsiya Samaj”, 2010.

3. Quayam A Mohammad, “Imagining One World: Rabindranath Tagore‟s Critique of Nationalism” Interdisciplinary Literary Studies, Pages 33-52, 2006.

4. Tagore Rabindranath, Japanjatri, 1919.

5. Tagore Rabindranath: Creative Unity, The Macmillan Company,(New York),1922.

6. Tagore Rabindranath, Nationalism, Rupa and Co, London: 2002. 

Acknowledgement: Special thanks to Dr. Nilay Chatterjee, MD, DM, Senior Specialist in Anesthesia & ICU, Khoula Hospital, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman, for valuable insight in the intellectual content.

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International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies (IJHSSS) A Peer-Reviewed Bi-monthly Bi-lingual Research Journal ISSN: 2349-6959 (Online), ISSN: 2349-6711 (Print) Volume-I, Issue-V, March 2015, Page No. 90-95 Published by Scholar Publications, Karimganj, Assam, India, 788711 Website: http://www.ijhsss.com

Corporeal Images: A tool to Aesthetics of Macabre in Seamus Heaney’s poem Nagendra S Gangola Research Scholar in M.B.G.P.G College, Haldwani, India Abstract Seamus Heaney is widely recognized as one of the major poets of the 20th century. A native of Northern Ireland, Heaney was raised in County Derry, and later lived for many years in Dublin. He was the author of over 20 volumes of poetry and criticism, and edited several widely used anthologies. He won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1995 “for works of lyrical beauty and ethical depth, which exalt everyday miracles and the living past.”

Corporeal images as cultural and historical critiques are often related to landscapes in Heaney's poetry. Land is imagined as a place where histories of atrocity and sacrifice are inscribed and preserved. In „At a Potato Digging‟ for instance, the text shifts between a modern agrarian landscape and images from the famine of the 1840s.However, it can also be argued that although Heaney‟s work is full of images of death and dying, it is at the same time deeply rooted in life, endlessly metaphorical, it holds out an offer of endlessness, of cyclical history, of eternity. Heaney‟s poems are ultimately peace poems, intensifying the sense of beauty in contrast to the horror of violence and the pathos of needless death. This paper is an attempt to bring out the elements which give a sense of macabre at very first appearance but unfolds plethora of aesthetic beauty embedded in the poems of Seamus Heaney.

Key Words: Corporeal images, Aesthetic of Violence, Beauty, Landscapes, Metaphors.

Introduction: Although much has been said about bodies in recent social and post-colonial theory they continue to be problematic for literary criticism. Corporeality resists representation because experiences such as pain only affect individuals. Maud Ellmann proposes this when she says that „it is impossible to feel another person's pain‟, the sensation is one which „demonstrate the savage loneliness of bodily experience‟. Representations of bodies are, then, inevitably ambivalent in literature and can be understood as another instance in which a gap between signifier and signified perpetuates. The importance of corporeality is embedded in Heaney's poetry from his first collections and a disparity between words and flesh prevails. „ This opposes the significance of Jesus‟ body in the Eucharist as understood by Catholicism. According to Scripture, Jesus is the word made flesh; during the sacrament of the Eucharist the Priest's annunciation of his words and body and the community's participation in communion marks an ultimate embodiment of them within Christ.

Corporeal images and Aesthetic of Macabre: An Analysis: In „At a Potato Digging‟, for instance, the text shifts between a modern agrarian landscape and images from the famine of the 1840s. An image of „live skulls, blind-eyed‟ is used firstly to describe the potatoes and then the starving: „Live skulls, blind eyed, balanced on/ wild higgledy skeletons‟. The text intersects victim and „blighted root‟, and inscribes land with a permanent stench of that blight: „and where potato diggers are, /you still smell the running sore‟. Skeletal bodies of famine victims are repeated in „For the Commander of the Eliza‟ (1966, 21), which follows 'At a Potato Digging' in Death of a Naturalist Volume-I, Issue-V

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“Six grown men with gaping mouths and eyes Bursting the sockets like spring onions in drills.

Six wrecks of bone and pallid, tautened skin.”

Nagendra S Gangola

[1]

Victims‟ bodies are often conflated with nature through metaphor. This is a common motif in Heaney, and is exemplary in his bog people poems. „Requiem for the Croppies‟ from Door into the Dark continues this theme; an image of death becomes a metaphor of regeneration: “Until, on Vinegar Hill, the fatal conclave.

Terraced thousands died, shaking scythes at cannon.

The hillside blushed, soaked in our broken wave.

They buried us without shroud or coffin And in August the barley grew up out of the grave.”

[2]

Here Heaney draws on a popular history of the rebellion on Vinegar Hill, County Wexford, in 1798, playing on 'a reported fact that when the rebels died they were buried in common graves', and the barley which they carried in their pockets to eat subsequently grew out of those graves (O'Brien 2002,16). Heaney thus uses a reportedly literal historical moment and adopts it as a metaphorical image. This image reflects a common motif in Irish literature that is particularly notable from the Aisling tradition onwards: a rejuvenation of land through violence. Heaney engages with this tradition to suggest a need for continual reclamation and reinterpretation of history. The personification of nature in „Requiem for the Croppies‟ posits the landscape in an attitude of judgement: the croppies‟ blood is incorporated into the landscape; humanising and affronting it („The hillside blushed‟). [3] Wintering Out follows Door into the Dark; many poems in this collection contain corporeal images which point towards the bog body poems of North. Indeed, Wintering Out is prefaced by a poem which is subsequently integrated into „Whatever You Say Say Nothing' in North : “This morning from a dewy motorway I saw the new camp for the internees: A bomb had /left a crater of fresh clay In the roadside, and over in the trees Machine-gun posts defined a real stockade.

There was that white mist you get on a low ground And it was deja-vu, some film made Of Stalag 17, a bad dream with no sound.

Is there a life before death? That's chalked up On a wall downtown. Competence with pain, Coherent miseries, a bite and sup, We hug our little destiny again.”

49-60 [4] Similar to the reference to internment in Stations‟ introduction, Wintering Out is underpinned by an uncomfortable despair invoked by Northern Ireland's Troubles. Andrews proposes that the last stanza questions the quality of life that is possible amid such conditions. The rest of the poems in the book have to be read in the context of this numbed despair.

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As „A Northern Hoard‟ unfolds, it shifts away from bodily metaphors, focusing instead on archaeological motifs, however, the first three poems specifically point to a corporeality of violence.

Interestingly, because he is not directly involved in any physical conflict, it is primarily the speaker‟s body that is foregrounded. In „Roots‟ he is haunted by sounds of atrocity: „the din/ Of gunshot, siren and clucking gas‟ (6-8) [5]. The final two stanzas relate this to physicality: “I'll dream it for us before dawn When the pale sniper steps down And I approach the shrub.

I've soaked by moonlight in tidal blood A mandrake, lodged human fork, Earth sac, limb of the dark; And I wound its damp smelly loam.

And stop my ears against the scream.”

(13-20) [6]

The speaker describes making a barricade. By appropriating natural materials and „tidal blood‟, he imaginatively blocks out the external world from his body. The body thus becomes a place of sanctity where the speaker can attempt to protect himself from „the scream‟. „No Man's Land‟ is the second poem of „A Northern Hoard‟. In it the speaker‟s attempted escape is further disrupted. An image of shelter is introverted to become part of that which the speaker wishes to transgress: “I deserted, shut out Their wounds „fierce awning, Those palms like streaming webs.”

(1-3) [7]

Because wounds are described as having a „fierce awning‟ an image of covering is projected onto them. Thus there is a twofold image of exclusion: the speaker shutting these images out and the wounds sheltering themselves. Imagery of an inverted shelter is emphasised by a reference to hands in which an allusion to Christ's sacrifice reminds the reader of the Troubles‟ religious hypocrisy. At the same time, the stigmata points ironically to a communal redemption which sacrifices supposedly secure. Thus a denial of victims‟ individuality, which Parker criticises Heaney for, is central to the social critique foregrounded in „A Northern Hoard‟. It is the communal significance of victimage itself which voids victims of their individuality.

Paradoxically, by metaphorically projecting the whole space of violence as an image of personal injury, the second stanza furthers this emphasis: “Why do I unceasingly Arrive late to condone Infected sutures And ill-knit bone?”

(4-7)

[8]

The speaker‟s relationship with this violence is imagined as an attempt to resolve or mend a rift.

Corporeality is personalised through images of „infected sutures‟ and „ill-knit bone‟ which localise the space of damage. The use of „their‟ in the first stanza affects a note of specificity. However, there is no implication of who exactly these men are, so they do not explicitly represent any Volume-I, Issue-V

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particular side of the conflict in which they are caught up. These factors allow the text to shift its focus onto a description of a single body; the plurality of „their wounds‟ is conflated into an image of one body, prefiguring a similar conflation in „Act of Union‟. „Suture‟ is pertinent here because it suggests not only a surgical joining of a wound, but also a junction „forming an immovable articulation‟ . Thus „No Man's Land‟ renders victims of violence as belonging to one and the same body, the injuries are self-contained and self-inflicted: one social body attacking and violating its own margins.

Heaney's concern with violence is fundamentally engaged with relationships between victims and spectators. In the third poem of „A Northern Hoard‟ – „Stump‟ - the speaker imagines himself as both part of the social body projected in „No Man's Land‟, and as external to it: „What do I say if they wheel out their dead? / I'm cauterized, a black stump of home‟. Here, the speaker distances himself from the dead by using the third-person plural, yet aligns himself with violence by describing himself as 'cauterized'. The act of cauterising implies a surgical operation which deadens infected tissue in a wound; the speaker thus projects himself as both part of the infected wound and absolved from it through the cauterising process, his place within 'home' is passive and thus impotent.The influence of this dilemma is prominent throughout Wintering Out. Corporeal union is also an explicit part of the imagery in „Mother of the Groom‟from Wintering Out In this poem, the speaker imagines the emotions of a groom's mother. Her son's development into manhood is metaphorically History and Union captured within an image of his mother bathing him as a baby, thus evoking a sense of maternal care still permeating her feelings for the groom: Hands in her voided lap, She hears a daughter welcomed.

It's as if he kicked when lifted And slipped her soapy hold.

(5-8)

[9]

The final stanza carries over this soap imagery and again conflates temporalities, but the focus shifts from parental to marital relations: Once the soap would ease off The wedding ring That's bedded forever now In her clapping hand.

(9-12)

[10]

Once young, the mother was able to take off her wedding ring, and could, therefore, imaginatively evade the union that it symbolises. In age, the ring is „bedded forever now/ In her clapping hand‟. This can be interpreted as suggesting marriage entails constraint and entrapment.

Alternatively, this image can be read as a shift in the ring,s signification. Initially it symbolises union, as it will for the new bride and groom. But for the mother of the groom her ring has become an extension of herself, embedded in her finger. This inscribes onto the poem a temporal development from marital union as an ideal of physical union (as well as a union of two souls) to an embodiment and extension of each individual‟s corporeality.

In North the relationship between stasis and action is engaged with more explicitly, and this becomes a central and recurring theme in Heaney's poetry to date. „The Unacknowledged Legislators Dream‟ projects the poet's work as a physical struggle in which his efforts are imagined as a physical attempt to dislodge „state and statute‟. However, the reference to dreaming, and the poet‟s eventual jailing undermine his potential physicality: Volume-I, Issue-V

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In the cell, I wedge myself with outstretched arms in the Comer and heave, I jump on the concrete flags to test Them. Were those your eyes just now at the hatch?

North closes with „Exposure‟, a poem which emphasises a relationship between the speakers internal confrontation about his relationship with Northern Ireland and „the massacre‟: I am neither internee nor informer; An inner émigré, grown long-haired And thoughtful; a wood-kerne Escaped from the massacre, Taking protective colouring From bole and bark, feeling Every wind that blows; Who, blowing up these sparks For their meagre heat, have missed The once-in-a-lifetime portent, The comet's pulsing rose.

(29- 40)

[11]

Ending North in this way frames the whole collection within a context of guilt about complacency. This focus continues into Field Work where the will to act is set in tension with a conscious awareness of the violence and violation action would augment. The framing poems of this collection, „Oysters‟ and „Ugolino‟ foreground the significance of this tension throughout Field Work. „Oysters‟ ends with a will for action that is marked and undercut because it renders that desire through a grammatical designation for a linguistic expression of action rather than action itself: „I ate the day/ Deliberately, that its tang/ Might quicken me all into verb, pure verb‟ (24-26) [12]. It is, however, in relation to the bog people poems of North that this dilemma is most thoroughly explicated and opened up to a self-referential critique. Through their emphasis on victims‟ bodies and voyeuristic speakers, these poems engage with questions of social passivity, and render what is active within this.

Conclusion: Seamus Heaney carves out a multilayered presentation of Aestheticism through his varied corporeal images.In „Act of Union‟ the male female bodies are presented as Britain and Ireland. The image of pregnant woman depicts Ireland and its conflicts. Corporeal union is also an explicit part of the imagery in „Mother of the Groom‟ from Wintering Out In this poem, the speaker imagines the emotions of a groom's mother.

On one hand Heaney represents the executed bodies in „Bog Poems” striping out the macabre happenings with them connecting with the essence of Ireland, At the same time the corporeal images used by Seamus Heaney connects past with the present exploring beautifully the real conflict of Northern Ireland. No doubt on the surface the poems seem to radiate sense of macabre but there lies a great aesthetic value beneath the lines of his poems.

Notes: [1]. „At Potato Digging‟ by Seamus Heaney, lines 15-17 [2]. „Requiem for the Croppies‟ by Seamus Heaney, lines 10-14 Volume-I, Issue-V

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[3]. „Requiem for the Croppies‟ by Seamus Heaney, line 12 [4]. „Whatever You Say Say Nothing'(North) by Seamus Heaney , Part IV lines.49-60 [5]. „Roots‟ by Seamus Heaney,lines .6-8 [6]. „Roots‟ by Seamus Heaney,lines.13-20...last stanza [7]. „No Man's Land‟(„A Northern Hoard‟) by Seamus Heaney,lines. 1-3 [8]. „No Man's Land‟(„A Northern Hoard‟) by Seamus Heaney,lines. 4-8 [9]. „Mother of the Groom‟from Wintering Out by seamus Heaney , lines. 5-8 [10]. „Mother of the Groom‟from Wintering Out by seamus Heaney , lines. 9-12 [11]. „Exposure‟ (North) by Seamus Heaney, lines. 29-40 [12]. „Oysters‟ by Seamus Heaney , lines . 24-26

References: 1) Adair, Tom. "Calling the Tune," The Linen Hall Review 6.2 (Autumn 1989): 5.Print 2) Andrew Waterman, "Keep It in the Six Counties, Heaney!" PN Review 16.6 (1989): 37-41.

3) Andrews, Elmer. The Poetry of Seamus Heaney. New York: Columbia University Press, 1998. Print 4) Andrews, Elmer. “The Gift and the Craft: An Approach to the Poetry of Seamus Heaney”, Twentieth Century Literature,1985. Vol. 31, No: 4, 368-379. Print 5) Auge, Andrew J. “A Buoyant Migrant Line: Seamus Heaney‟s Deterritorialized Poetics”, Literature Interpretation Theory, 2003. Vol. 14, 269-288. Print 6) Beisch, June. “An Interview with Seamus Heaney”, Literary Review, 1986. 29:2, 161-169.

Print 7)Blake Morrison, Seamus Heaney (London: Methuen, 1982).

8)Blake Morrison, "Clearing the Old Ground," Observer June 28, 1987.

9) Brandes, Rand. Seamus Heaney. Alexander G. Gonzalez (Ed.), Modern Irish Writers: A BioCritical Sourcebook (pp.102-110). Westport-Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1997.Print 10)Brown, Terence. The Literature of Ireland: Criticism and Culture. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010. Print 11)Heaney,Seamus. Death of a Naturalist. London: Faber and Faber. 1966. Print 12)Heaney,Seamus Door into the Dark. London: Faber and Faber. 1969. Print 13)Heaney,Seamus Field Work. London-Boston: Faber and Faber. 1979. Print 14) Heaney,Seamus. Field Work, London, Faber & Faber.1979. Print 15)Heaney,Seamus North, London, Faber & Faber.1975.Print 16)Heaney,Seamus Opened Ground, London, Faber & Faber.1998. Print 17) www.google.com

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International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies (IJHSSS) A Peer-Reviewed Bi-monthly Bi-lingual Research Journal ISSN: 2349-6959 (Online), ISSN: 2349-6711 (Print) Volume-I, Issue-V, March 2015, Page No. 96-106 Published by Scholar Publications, Karimganj, Assam, India, 788711 Website: http://www.ijhsss.com

Price Increases on Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) in the New Juaben Municipality: an implication for Women Home Management Budget Constraints Jamal Mohammed & Mrs. Doris Ntim Dept. of Liberal Studies, Faculty of Business and Management Studies, Koforidua Polytechnic, Koforidua, Eastern Region, Ghana Abstract This study sought to assess Price Increases on Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) in the New Juaben Municipality: an implication for Women Home Management Budget Constraints. The specific objectives of the study were to identify the challenges and opportunities associated with the usage of LPG by women in the New Juaben Municipality and to examine the effects or impacts of price increases of LPG on women home management budget in the New Juaben Municipality. To achieve the set objectives, questionnaires and interview were the data collection method used in the Municipality. A sample size of 397 was used along with simple random sampling. Data was fed into SPSS version 20 for analysis. An ordinary least square multiple regression model was used explain the impact of independent variables on the dependent variable. The result was that, majority of the women 90% (307) believed that, price increases on LPG has brought about reduction in expenditure of other household items. The study also showed other constraints and opportunities in the use LPG by women in the New Juaben Municipality. It was however recommended that, government could reduce taxes on cylinders and LPG to make them more affordability to the poor household. In addition, the government could find an efficient way of billing the commercial users separate from domestic users of LPG; this could in a long way increase LPG usage and reduce demand on the natural environment.

Key Words: Price Increase, LPG, Women, Home Management, New Juaben Municipality.

Introduction: Among the essential needs of man is energy, which is used in cooking, boiling water, lighting and heating. It is thus seen as a prerequisite for good health but has not been taken seriously by the world in totality (WHO, 2006).

There are many different forms of energy available to man and are been exploited either in the raw or finished form. Estimates from World Health Organization (2006) has it that, more than three billion people still burn wood, dung, coal and other traditional fuels inside their homes. These aforementioned energy forms are considered not to be clean energy partly due to 1.5 million deaths annually for indoor air pollution mostly of young children and their mothers blamed on unclean energy usage.

Unclean energy usage is a prerequisite for poverty and as such energy poverty which is seen as a phenomenon for the poor in the world. Energy poverty could be seen as existent because of lack of infrastructure. An IEA (2006) study postulated that, countries could escape energy poverty if the demand for traditional energy could be reduced to 1.85 billion in 2015 but shockingly their estimates put demand for traditional energy to increase to 2.55 billion in 2015.

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As WHO (2006) puts it “A rigorous acceleration of energy provision is needed to break the vicious cycle of energy poverty and lack of development in the world's poorest countries”. Many governments headed to the advice of making clean energy available and affordable, and thus give rise to the adoption of liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) in many countries including Ghana.

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) is acknowledged to be a clean-burning, very efficient, adaptable and easily carried by product of natural gas extraction and crude oil refining used as fuel. This particular energy The accessibility of clean energy for cooking predominantly has been seen as a gender issue, mainly as some cultures have viewed women to be responsible for cooking and bringing in or choice of energy for cooking. More so, indoor air pollution and inefficient household energy practices are a significant in affecting the lives of women and young in the population, as the young help the parents in cooking, and are therefore a threat to the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals.

Open Working Group made a proposition on Sustainable Development Goals for 2030 for inclusion of goal 5 to take care of achievement of gender equality and empower all women and girls. This particular goal 5 extended to eliminating all forms of discrimination against women and girls, recognise and value unpaid care and domestic work through the provision of infrastructure, ensure women’s effective participation and equal opportunities, and enhance the use of enabling technologies (WLPGA, 2014).

Gender issues matter in home management and energy provision; and therefore, a study on price increases on Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) and female home management budget constraints in the New Juaben Municipality is very necessary and important.

Problem of the Study: Energy is an essential component of every household’s consumption basket.

Energy sources ranges from the traditional biomass (fuel wood, charcoal, etc) to modern fuel types like Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG).

Ghana has introduced policy measures aimed at reducing dependence on the natural environment and increasing domestic usage for LPG. Estimates from Energy Commission (2008) cited in Acharibasan and Apatinga (2014) showed domestic usage of LPG in 2008 to be 55%, this was an increased from 14000 tonnes in 2003 to 46000 tonnes in 2007 depicting 35.16% average growth over the estimated period.

The direct users of LPG domestically within Ghana either for cooking, heating and so on are in majority terms carried by women. Whether male or female headed household, in most cases, the female has to purchase the LPG from their allocated home management budget. The amount of money provided to the women for home upkeep has some constraints and is eroded by price increases on LPG. The question is, how much impact are the increases in the prices of LPG on women home management budget, the answer is scanty. Due to income constraints, resistance to increase home management allowance in some cases from men, the budget of women suffers whenever there are increases in the price of LPG. Ghanaian customers of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) are subject to exploitation. . A gas cylinder that used to take a household four to five months a year or two ago, now only takes them two months. This makes planned budget by women to erode leading to adjustments and could perhaps affect nutritious content of food prepared at homes.

This particular study is a novelty from the researchers attempt to look at hidden issues regarding gender budget constraints from the perspective of women and how this erodes the amount of women home management allowances.

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Using the New Juaben Municipality as a case, the study would contribute to the literature of price increases on LPG in Ghana by looking at the impact on women planned budget in the households.

Objectives of the Study: The main objective of this study is to assess Price Increases on Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) in the New Juaben Municipality: an implication for Women Home Management Budget Constraints.

The specific objectives of the study are as follows:  To identify the challenges and opportunities associated with the usage of LPG by women in the New Juaben Municipality.  To examine the effects or impacts of price increases of LPG on women home management budget in the New Juaben Municipality.

Research Questions: 1. What are the challenges and opportunities associated with using LPG in the New Juaben Municipality?

2. What are the effects or the impact of price increases of LPG on women home management budget in the New Juaben Municipality?

Hypothesis for the study: Ho: Price increases on LPG does not affect women home management budget.

The particular study will be limited to the price increases of Liquefied petroleum Gas (LPG) and its implication for women home management in terms of budgetary constraints in the New Juaben Municipality. The choice of New Juaben Municipality is also due to the newness of the topic and an increasing demand by households for LPG in the area.

With the increase debate on the need to increase usage of LPG and switch form the use of less clean energy consumption in Ghana, this study is timely and will contribute to the debate by providing further explanations for the challenges to LPG consumption for the household citing budget constraints, prices increases and frequent availability. The study’s findings will also serve as a source of secondary data for other researchers and students who will want to conduct similar studies.

Empirically, available studies have pointed to the seemly interest in the usage and demand for LPG in the world and Ghana is no exception.

Poongodi and Madurai (2014) studied the impact of LPG on the Indian economy. They concluded that, the prices of oil are often seen as being connected in a cause and effect relationship.

The effect of increasing oil price had a negative impact on the common man, middle class families as a result of the high cost of living. They explained that oil is a major input in the economy as it is use for fueling transportation and providing heat at homes etc. Therefore, as the oil price increases it leads to economic slowdown within an economy.

Cooke et al. (2014) estimated the impact of poverty on Ghana’s fuel subsidy reform and its mitigating response. They argued that the removal of the fuel subsidies, by causing an increase in prices, results in a negative impact on household welfare. The negative effect was worst for the poorest group who experience a reduction in their total consumption of 2.1%. Given that people in the poorest quintile are living in chronic poverty with no margin for manoeuvre, such a decline in their consumption would have a long--‐term negative impact on their health, education, nutrition and their consequent ability to contribute productively to development.

Ayakwah and Mohammed (2014) sought to evaluate fuel price adjustments and growth of SMEs in the New Juaben Municipality of Ghana. Their specific objectives were to: find out whether fuel price adjustment affects SMEs negatively or positively, and explain the effect of fuel price Volume-I, Issue-V

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adjustment on employment, turnover and output of SMEs in the New Juaben Municipality. This study was a social survey with a sample size of 204 and a purposive sampling was used to illicit information from respondents in which quantitative and qualitative analysis were undertaken. The results of the study showed that, increases in fuel price due fuel price adjustment result in increases in transportation costs, raw material costs, capital costs and other costs but have a negative relationship with consumer real income. In addition, increases in fuel price constrained the growth of SMEs. The study recommended that, government should take steps to subsidize the fuel costs of SMEs to enhance their growth which could lead to increase in employment. SMEs should be provided with managerial training to enhance their understanding of their activities.

Acharibasam and Apatinga (2014) studied about Ghana and the liguidified petroleum gas dilemma critical analysis of Ghana’s LPG policy. They argued that fuel wood and charcoal have lost prominence in recent literature since their contribution to deforestation in Ghana is glaring.

Fundamental problems must therefore be tackled seriously if deforestations is to be reduced. First, the government must pass laws prohibiting cars either private or commercial from running on LPG. Second, ensure regular supply of LPG at lower prices than charcoal and fuel wood. Besides, the provision of alternative employment to those employed by the fuel wood and charcoal industry.

Also, the government should strengthen its borders to help curb the problem of smuggling.

Additionally, the government should continue to provide logistics to forest guards to help them in executing their duties. Perhaps, charcoal producers could be trained and made LPG distributors.

Finally, mass reforestation and public education are necessary to change people’s strong preference for fuel wood and charcoal as cooking fuel.

Adam et al. (2013) in their study confirm the hypothesis that, access to modern forms of energy increases as income levels increase. Their results show that the number of households using electricity as the main source of lighting increased with increasing income levels whereas kerosene had a decreasing trend. In the same vein, charcoal and gas were also observed to be the fuels of choice as their usage increased with increasing income, unlike wood use, which was observed to decrease as income levels increased. Similar trends were observed at the regional level where, apart from the three northern regions, all the other regions in Ghana had a clear trend with an increasing number of households using electricity as the main source of lighting, and charcoal and gas as the main fuel for cooking, as the income quintile levels increased.

Methodology: This particular study is a cross sectional survey aimed at evaluating price increases on liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) in the New Juaben Municipality (NJM): an implication for women home management budget constraints. The NJM is located in the Eastern Region and capital town is Koforidua. As it was not possible to deal with all households within the New Juaben Municipality, the study was done with a sample of some selected households and women engaged in home management within the NJM. The New Juaben Municipality (NJM) is depicted in the map below showing districts in the Eastern Region (Ayakwah and Mohammed, 2014).

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Map of Eastern Region

Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NewJuaben_Municipal_District#mediaviewer/File:Eastern_Gh ana_districts.png The 2010 Population and Housing Census has put the total population in the households in the NJM to be 173,653 with the number of households as 49,474 with households size as 3.5. The urban household population as 171,376 and rural household population as 12,351. This particular study concentrated in the urban locality as many studies showed increases consumption of LPG to be higher in the urban locality. The study defined household as people who eat from the same pot of cooked meal. It therefore requires that, the same source of LPG is used for cooking and thus, the researchers answered the number of households and not the population in the households. The highest use of LPG for cooking in the Eastern region is in New Juaben (12.5%) followed by Akwapim South (7.3%) and Akwapim North (5.4%). In the remaining 12 districts the use of L.P Gas for cooking is less than 3.5 per cent of households in any district Ghana Statistical Service, 2010).

Sample Size and Sampling Technique: When the target population is definite, in determining the sample size the formula below is used:

n

N 1  N  2 

Where: n is the sample size N (49,474) is the target population and the sample frame  (5%) is the error margin and the confidence interval is 95%.

The sample size is therefore by computation is 396.79 and therefore, the sample size for this particular study was 397.

This means that using the formula by convention and principle the sample size for this study is 397. However, to allow for non-response and protest cases in the study communities, a sample of 400 questionnaires was printed.

The sampling technique for this study was simple random sampling aimed at reducing bias and providing equal opportunity for all respondents. The raw data obtained was fed into SPSS version 20 for analysis and interpretation.

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Price Increases on Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) in………

Jamal Mohammed & Mrs. Doris Ntim

Empirical Model: The researchers have provided an economic model based on experiences on a prior expectations and theoretical variables that could possible influence the demand for LPG by households in the NJM. The demand for LPG at the household level is said to be influenced by the income of the individual household, education, number of immediate dependents, age and substitute energy availability. The econometric model therefore takes the form as: LPG Demand= β0 + β1Income+β2Education+β3Age+β4Immediate Dependents+β5Substitute Energy+ Error The above econometric model has variables that influence the demand for LPG, the expectation is that, income, education, immediate dependents, and age should have a positive relationship with demand for LPG whereas substitute energy has a negative relationship with demand for LPG. Results and Dicussions: The results of the study revealed interesting results as regards Price Increases on Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) in the New Juaben Municipality: an implication for Women Home Management Budget Constraints.

Table 1. Gender Distribution of LPG Usage Gender Number of Respondents Male 90 Female 307 Total 397 Source: Field study, 2015

Percentage (%) 22.67 77.33 100

From the above table 1, 90 (22.67%) out of the total respondents of three hundred and ninety seven (397) users of LPG in the New Juaben Municipality which are males and 307 (77.33%) are females.

The above results confers with what WLPGA (2014) when they opined that, women want and love LPG despite risks associated with it including fears of accidents, often higher fuel expenses, and supply issues.

180

160 140 120 100

Number of Respondents

80

Percentage(%)

60 40 20 0 JHS

SHS

Tertiary

None

Figure 1: Educational Background of Respondents Source: field Survey, 2015

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Price Increases on Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) in………

Jamal Mohammed & Mrs. Doris Ntim

The figure 1 above indicates that, 27(6.8%) of the respondents had completed JHS, 130 respondents representing 32.75 percent of the sample size, 80 (20.15%) of the respondents completed tertiary education and whilst 160 (40.30%) representing those respondents’ who did not have any form of education. Considering the entire Eastern Region in terms those who never had any form of education, it was revealed that 111,357 of the inhabitants of the eastern region had not had any form of attendance to school.

Table 2 Number of Years of LPG usage Number of Years No. of Respondents At least 1 year 88 At least 2 years 206 3 years and above 105 Total 397 Source: field survey, 2015

Percentage (%) 22.17 51.89 26.45 100

From the table 2 above, eighty eight (88) respondents constituting 22.17% of the total number of respondents have been using LPG for at least 1 year, two hundred and six (206) respondents representing 51.89% of the total number of respondents have been consuming LPG for at least 2 years, and one hundred and five (105) respondents representing 26.45% of the total number of respondents have been consuming for 3years and above. The above results demonstrated massive adoption of LPG as a preferred source of energy for cooking and heating among households in the NJM. The creation of profitable and sustainable supply chains is the flagship intervention project by the government of Ghana. A more active involvement of the private sector and local community-based organizations.

No. of LPG consumers 5 60 GH₵100.00 GH₵200.00

80 252

GH₵300+.00 None

Figure 2: Level of Income per Month Source: field survey, 2015 The figure 2 above shows that, sixty (60) respondents earn GH₵100.00 per month, eighty (80) respondents earn GH₵200.00, two hundred and fifty two (252) respondents earn GH₵300.00 and above, and five (5) respondents revealed that they did not earned any form income yet uses LPG. Volume-I, Issue-V

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Price Increases on Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) in………

Jamal Mohammed & Mrs. Doris Ntim

How often does the Price of LPG Increase?

Respondents were asked questions to gauge their understanding of the changes in the price structure of LPG and how it affects LPG prices. The table below shows the increase in price of LPG in the New Juaben Municipality.

Table 3: Perceived Price increases on LPG Duration No. of Respondents Weekly Fortnightly Monthly Total Source: Field survey, 2015

Percentage (%)

54

13.60

203 140 397

51.14 35.26 100

From the table 3 above, fifty four (54) respondents constituting 13.60% of the total number of respondents said that price of LPG increases weekly, whilst two hundred and three (203) respondents constituting 51.14% of the total respondents said that, the price of LPG increases fortnightly, and one hundred and fourty (140) respondents also representing 35.26% of the total respondents said the price of LPG increases monthly.

400 350 300 250

200 No. of Respondents 150

Percentage (%)

100 50 0 Stop buying LP Gas

Decrease in Consumption level

Remains Unchange

Figure 3: The Effects of Price increase of LPG on Women Decision Source: field survey, 2015 Respondents were asked to state their decisions regarding LPG price increases and how it could affect their purchases of LPG. From the above figure 3, it has shown that, four (4) respondents representing 1.01% of the total respondents will stop consuming of LPG when the price increases, three hundred and fourty seven (347) respondents constituting 87.41% of the total respondents will decrease their purchases. This is Volume-I, Issue-V

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Price Increases on Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) in………

Jamal Mohammed & Mrs. Doris Ntim

a basic law of demand as higher prices reduce consumption by respond nets and lower prices attract increase purchases. However, the higher could serve to increase the dependence on the environment for other sources of fuel, which raise environmental concerns. And the fourty six (46) respondents confirmed that no matter what the increase price of LPG their level of consumption will remain unchanged.

Table 4: Challenges Associated with usage of LPG by Women Challenges Frequency High Cylinder Costs 50 Unreliable Supply 32 High Price of LPG 285 Fear of Accidents 30 397 Total Source: field survey, 2015

Percentage (%) 12.59 8.06 71.79 7.56 100

Table 4 above depicts some perceived challenges faced by the respondents in usage of LPG by women in the NJM. The cost of a cylinder was noted to have accounted 50 (12.59%) of the many associated challenges in LPG usage by the respondents, whereas the least among their challenges was fear of accidents. The respondents viewed high price of LPG as the highest challenges they were faced with 285 (71.79), unreliable supply of LPG was 32 (8.06%), which depicted a form stabilization as far as the supply of LPG was concern.

Opportunities Associated with LPG Usage: The study revealed that, many of the respondents believed that, the usage of LPG has many benefits and these benefits serve as opportunities that made the usage of LPG a good option. The study revealed that, the usage of LPG brings to bear on women, a reduction in work and time burn, improvement in health, and decrease in deaths and also increase in leisure as time will be available to do other things. This is as a result of reduced time in cooking. These particular findings are further supported by WLPGA (2014).

Effects of LPG price increases on Women home management budget: Women usage of LPG is one surest way of meeting the UN Sustainable Energy for All Initiative and also a reduction in vulnerability from the usage of unclean energy. At times past, wider acceptance of LPG usage had been blamed on availability.

From regulatory point of view in Ghana, availability of LPG has not been a major bottleneck.

The main issue from the view point of this research was that, price increments reflecting world market prices of LPG has always been the issue of domestic price increment.

The results from the study showed that, 90% (307) of the women believed that, price increases on LPG has brought about reduction in expenditure of other household items. This was due to the reason been, lack of cooperation from men who are bread winners to refusing to adjust for increases in price of LPG. The effect becomes more pronounced when the women involved are not gainfully employed and has no other source of income to make up for the increase price of LPG. The resulting decision is always to reduce expenditure on other items, and perhaps this could contribute to the nutritious level of the food cooked.

Table 5: Model for LPG Usage Variables Coefficient Constant 71.856 Income 43.906 Volume-I, Issue-V

Standard Error 79.940 28.912 March 2015

t - Value 5.421 4.023 104

Price Increases on Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) in………

Jamal Mohammed & Mrs. Doris Ntim

Education 27.534 27.928 4.006 Age 19.102 16.462 2.687 No. of Immed. Dependents 21.872 15.309 3.517 Substitute Energy -8.391 -6.213 3.604 R2 = 97% Adjusted R2 = 95% DW = 1.923 Dependent Variable: Demand for LPG Source: Field Survey, 2015 LPG Demand= β0 + β1Income+β2Education+β3Age+β4Immediate Dependents+β5Substitute Energy+ Error LPG Demand= 71.856 + 43.906I+27.534E+19.102A+21.872ID-8.391S The above econometric model has variables that influence the demand for LPG, the expectation is that, income, education, immediate dependents, and age should have a positive relationship with demand for LPG whereas substitute energy has a negative relationship with demand for LPG. From the table 5 above, the study sought understanding of the influence of the independent variables on the demand for LPG. The result demonstrated that all the a prior expectations were met and the model was able to provide adequate fitness and explanation for the study. The predictive power of the was further upheld considering R2= 97% and adjusted R2 = 95% with DW=2. The null hypothesis (Ho): Price increases on LPG does not affect women home management budget, has been rejected and the alternative hypothesis, (Ha): Price increases on LPG does affect women home management budget is accepted by this study. The result of this study further supported by the work of WLPGA (2014) that, LPG is often been branded as a fuel for the middle and upper class in the society, from the point of view of financial constraints.

Conclusions and Recommendations: The study has provided interesting findings which could shape policy issues in the world and Ghana. The main objective of this study was to assess Price Increases on Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) in the New Juaben Municipality: an implication for Women Home Management Budget Constraints.

The specific objectives of the study are as follows:  To identify the challenges and opportunities associated with the usage of LPG by women in the New Juaben Municipality.  To examine the effects or impacts of price increases of LPG on women home management budget in the New Juaben Municipality.

Energy is considered to be the life blood of every household world over and therefore making it available to every segment of the population must not be negotiable but must be a deliberate policy if nations are to meet the UN sustainable energy for all initiative.

The bane of reducing challenges with women home management budget will be elusive if affordability of LPG is not considered a deliberate policy by the government of Ghana but rather depending on the market forces to provide a fair price.

Major findings of this study revealed that, majority of the women 90% (307) believed that, price increases on LPG has brought about reduction in expenditure of other household items. The study also showed other constraints and opportunities in the use LPG by women in the New Juaben Municipality.

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Price Increases on Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) in………

Jamal Mohammed & Mrs. Doris Ntim

The study therefore provided the following recommendations to reduce the burden women go through when price of LPG increases. In the first place, government could reduce taxes on cylinders and LPG to make them more affordability to the poor household. In addition, the government could find an efficient way of billing the commercial users separate from domestic users of LPG, this could in a long way increase LPG usage and reduce demand on the natural environment.

Also, women must communicate and dialogue with male counter parts in terms of home management budget and general education on the importance of complementarity must be provided to enable couple understand the role they play in home management.

References: Acharibasam, J. B. and Apatinga, G. A. (2014). Ghana and The Liguidified Petroleum Gas Dilemma Critical Analysis of Ghana’s LPG Policy. International Journal of Energy and Environmental Research, Vol.2, No.2, pp.1-8, June 2014, Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (ww.ea-journals.org).

Adam, F. W., Brew-Hammond, A. and Essandoh, E.O, (2013). Relationships Between Energy Use and Income Levels, for Households in Ghana. Mechanical Engineering Department/The Energy Center Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi.

Ayakwah, A. and Mohammed, J. (2014). Fuel Price Adjustments and Growth of SMEs in the New Juaben Municipality, Ghana. International Journal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship Research, Vol.2, No.3, pp. 13-23, September 2014. Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org).

Cooke, E, F.A., Hague, S., Cockburn, J., Abdel-Rahmen, El. L.and Tiberti, L. (2014). Estimating the impact on poverty of Ghana’s fuel subsidy reform and a mitigating response.

Ghana Statistical Service, 2010 Population and Housing Census. Summary Report, Ghana.

IEA, (2006). World Energy Outlook 2006, Paris: International Energy Agency.

Poongodi, P. and Madurai (2014). A Study on the impact of LPG on Indian Economy.

International Journal of English Language, Literature and Humanities. Vol. II,Issue VI, ISSN: 2321-7065.

WHO, (2006). Fuel for Life: Household Energy and Health. Geneva: World Health Organization, Geneva: The World Health Organisation.

WLPGA (2014). Cooking with Gas: Why Women in Developing Countries want LPG and how they can get it. A report developed for World LPG Association by ENERGIA International Network on Gender and Sustainable Energy.

*****

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International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies (IJHSSS) A Peer-Reviewed Bi-monthly Bi-lingual Journal of Humanities & Social Science

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