Montaigne Essays Summary

Michel de Montaigne The world is a place of chaos nowadays. At every turn of a corner, there is desolation triggered from humanity's sidetracked views of what the world is about. With all this deception and superficiality, pureness in the human soul seems almost non–existent. Michel de Montaigne recognizes the essential need of this purity for the improvement of society in his Essays. Although the main topics he is focusing own are his own nature, own habits, and own opinions, he uses these personal vignettes to illustrate larger truths about man and his behaviors, his strengths and weaknesses. He subtly forces us to see the materialistic ideals that supposedly make us "happy" and dares us to see how it has tainted our minds and...show more content...

Artifice is the unnecessary "magnificence which drains away immediately from use or money" (334). In "On Coaches", we see Montaigne's frustration with society's tendency to attempt to gain respect with "deeds of the purse–string" rather than true "deeds of virtue" (338). He asserts that this type of generosity doesn't have any real influence because of the tainted intentions behind it. Montaigne urges us to see the limits of the mind that is shaped by shallowness and materialistic possessions. He speaks with a harsh tone, "and against the ides of a universe which flows on while we are in it, how puny and stunted in the knowledge of the most inquisitive men" (341), trying to wake society out of he oblivion of artifice it has settled itself on to. In "To philosophize is to learn how to die" he compares the span of human lives to the span of mountains and rivers, as well as to insects whose lives lasts a single day. Carnal aspects influence even the general fear of death humans' feel. "I truly believe that what frightens us more than death it self are those terrifying grimaces and preparation with which we surround it" (35). At times it seems as if he was writing in a state of frenzy because of human's ignorance of the insignificance issues they deem to be significant when compared to the powers of nature. His frustrations make him scold us in the place of Mother Nature. "Why do you complain of me or of Destiny?? Do we do you wrong? Should you

"On the Inconsistency of our Actions"

They show that humankind is dishonest and inconsistent. Humans are constantly being contradictory against themselves by going against what they have previously said or promised.

These examples illustrate Montaigne's belief that while there is some justification to base a judgment based on daily activities, it is nearly impossible to create a proper judgment of humankind, and when a historian cannot, they become hypocrites. Montaigne believes that it is necessary to trace our actions to the circumstances, situation, and context with which it happened, without creating a judgement. It is not possible to create a proper judgement without all of the information, just like one cannot find the solution without...show more content...

The three cannibals complain that the European society shouldn't be run by a child, but rather an older gentlemen to commande. They continue to criticize the society by saying that there is disparity in wealth, and that it is not a proper place where only half can dine and live in wealth while the other half is hungry.

"On Experience"

Montaigne says that it is a "personal weakness" that makes one content with their own or the knowledge of others. Rather, a better human would always keep learning, never be happy with what they know, because the more you know, the more you know that you don't know. In order to gain knowledge, one must study him or herself. By learning about oneself, one ultimately learns about others and the world around him or her.

In studying himself....

Montaigne realized that he should not trust his own judgment but rather try to regulate it.

Montaigne learned how to foresee when his passions, such as anger, would come and watch its course

On

Cannibals,

By Michel De Montaigne

The 17th century French aristocrat Michel de Montaigne lived in a tumultuous world. With the spark of Luther's Ninety–Five Theses, the fire spread rapidly to France. The nation divided against itself. The rebellious protestant Huguenots and the traditional staunch Catholics both viewed the other group as idolatrous heretics in time when that crime could justify execution. Consequently, Catholic monarchs throughout Europe felt the impending threat to their reigns, too, because if they supposedly ruled through divine right, what would change concerning the support of their subjects? After the peace–making Edict of Nantes, rehashing the religious conflicts of the century was forbidden, but seeing his country–and even his own family–torn apart, how could one refrain from comment? So in his writings, Montaigne has to write around his actual subjects. This isn't to say, however, that he conveyed none of his ideas directly. Montaigne criticizes the cultural belief in a correct way of life, opposing the idea with a more relativistic viewpoint, though the way in which he presents it, as mere musings in personal correspondence, fails to effectively convince his readers. Throughout his essays, Montaigne expresses strong opinions against ethnocentrism, such as in On Cannibals, where he writes that, "there is nothing savage of barbarous about those peoples, but that every man calls barbarous anything he is not accustomed to," (82) and, "We should be similarly wary of accepting common Get

The difference between humans and animals is not their ability to reason or think about reality, but rather the human tendency for anthropocentric idealism – a false illusion of superiority in which society accesses nature through an exclusively anthropomorphic perspective. As we distinguish and separate ourselves from nonhuman animals, we, in the process, lose our connection to nature, to the natural world. Michel de Montaigne, in his essay "Apology to Raymond Sebond," emphasizes the cause of this divergence from nature was due to "presumption [,] our natural and original illness." According to Montaigne, humans, despite being the "ill fated and [feeblest] of all creatures," assumed the role of superiority by "equating themselves with God,"...show more content...

His skepticism about the values and uses of human knowledge does not depend upon his relegation of "cannibals" as non–human animals, but rather how human knowledge has shifted European's perception of human identity. In his essay, Montaigne criticizes how Europeans refer to "everything that is not in use in [their] own [respective] country" as barbaric. Under this premise of cultural superiority, Montaigne ridicules how, under that notion, "[barbarians] are savages at the same rate that we say fruits are wild," critiquing on European hypocrisy in their lack of self–reflection and awareness of their own flaws. Nonhuman identity, according to Montaigne, is derived when one is "changed by [their] artifice and diverted from the common order," thus losing "the genuine, most useful, and natural virtues and properties [of] vigorous and sprightly," which European society, through corruption, injustice and greed, have "degenerated." Dismissing previous European conceptions of "cannibals" as barbaric and uncivilized, which repeated tropes of "the lack of," such as the lack of government, the lack of clothing and the lack of religion, Montaigne, in his essay "Of Cannibals," describes a contrasting perspective of cannibals as "noble savages," closer to what he defines as the "natural" Get more content

Montaigne On Fear

A line from Montaigne's essay on fear. "But even amongst soldiers, a sort of men over whom, of all others, it ought to have the least power, how often it converted flocks of sheep into armed squadrons, reeds and bull rushes into pikes and lances, friends into enemies, and the French white cross into the red cross of Spain" Montaigne's thoughts about fear was that it controlled us, and that the most fearful thing was fear itself. However, after many centuries this idea slowly changed. In today's society, many young teens and adult enjoy the feeling of fear. Now instead of being controlled by fear, we can appreciate the adrenaline and thrill it brings. While in the past, being fearful of something was a terrible feeling, but now fear can be

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The Education Of Children

By Michel De Montaigne

Today's education is largely based on memorization and conforming students to not have their own thoughts. However in Michel de Montaigne's ideas On the Education of Children, he critiques the way the education system is today. Montaigne argues that children should apply their education to their own life, rather than memorization and reciting the information. Montaigne's ideal of education of children guides today's education at all two levels by using his idea of application rather than memorization and educate without anger or force.

Post secondary school has become to focus more on application than just pure memorization and recitation. When students were forced to just memorize and regurgitate information, many were harshly disciplined and had a flawed view of intelligence. Montaigne's idea of the education should put a student "through its paces, making it taste things, choose them, and discern them by itself" (Montaigne 2006). Students should be allowed to recognize important information for themselves. But since the implementation of application in mainstream studies, many students faced fewer punishments and also at the same time, were able to learn more. Even if students don't memorize every content they won't be punished for.

Universities often encourage students to apply their knowledge and judgment with real world situations and experiences. However, Montaigne mentions in his essay that school during his time were more focused on knowing the information

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Acceptance and understanding are major factors that must be met in order for people to come together. In many circumstances, it is up to the minority whom are joining the majority to adopt and change its customs and practices in order to assimilate into the majority. However, there are some circumstances in which the minority somehow becomes able to overpower majority and take control. This is the situation which occurred between the Natives and the Europeans during the 1513 conquest. The Spanish Conquest of Central and South America and the voyage to the New World by Christopher Columbus in 1492 brought the Spanish crown a great amount of wealth. The native inhabitants which resided in the Americas prior to the discovery, saw what was...show more content...

In 1514 he renounced his property and began to preach about the brutal treatment towards the native people in the Spanish colonies (PBS, 2010). Therefore de La Casas treatise is more reliable on the situation that occurred in the Americas because he was able to witness this first–hand. So indeed the facts and arguments that Las Casas makes within In Defense of the Indians are all true because he witnessed everything first–hand. Although there may be a discrepancy regarding the number of Native deaths due to diseases versus those caused by the Europeans, his treatises is full of true statements. Seigneur De Montaigne was known as a great renaissance thinker who was born into a wealthy merchant family (Edelman). He spent his younger years being raised by servants who only spoke Latin to him. He attended the college de Guienne , a highly reputable school (Edelman). In 1554, Montagine became councilor in the Bordeaux parliament (Edelman). In 1571 Montaigne retired to a life of study and contemplation (Edelman). In all his writings he tries to first search for the truth by reflecting on his readings, his travels as well as his experiences, both public and private. Unlike Las Casas treatises, Montaigne essay was not based off of first hand experiences but rather of other sources which he read about prior to writing his essay. For the most part his essay is

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Michel de Montaigne, Excerpts from Book III, Chapter IX from Essays Michel de Montaigne, French author and philosopher, was born February 28, 1533 near Bordeaux, France. He was born into a family of administrative nobility and fortune that went back several generations. Montaigne 's father was a mayor of Bordeaux and had unique ideas concerning his son 's education. Montaigne was home–schooled exclusively in Latin and did not learn French until the age of six. When he attended college, Montaigne was not highly interested in the offered disciplines. Following, he attended a university to study law in order to continue the family 's tradition of public service. It was during his time in the French parliament that he befriended a distinguished scholar, who years later was an inspiration for his first essay on friendship. Montaigne was married at about thirty two, not out of love, but out of a sense of social duty. During the marriage, the couple had six daughters with only one surviving past infancy. He published his first writing in 1569, however, it was only in 1570 that he made a decision to leave public office and emerge himself in reading, meditation, and writing. Montaigne spends a great deal of his time in the library located in his castle 's tower. It is there, surrounded by a thousand books, that he spent ten years working on his first two essays, publishing them in 1580. Following the publication, Montaigne, being tired of the political climate of France and looking Get more content

History is primarily a study of people. How they lived, why they lived that way, and what impact their lives had. Montaigne is one of those characters in history that has a reach far beyond his life and the study of it by historians. Montaigne's Essays, a completely new literary form, are an insight not only to the man but also to the world of the French Renaissance. In discussing a variety of topics from education and women to cannibalism and the human nature, Montaigne marks himself as both modern and pre–modern, influenced heavily by the Age of Reconnaissance and the Wars of Religion. Montaigne was a man ahead of his time and a read can gain much from his Essays, lessons vital to today despite that he wrote 400 years ago....show more content...

Not only should a student not simply memorize, but he should also question what his tutor teaches him. As Montaigne suggests, "The tutor should make his pupil sift everything, and take nothing into his head on simple authority or trust" (Montaigne, p. 56). This idea was not new to Montaigne, as Socrates first said question everything. What Montaigne is describing is critical thinking, which is an important aspect of modern educational skills that students are supposed to learn. Only once the student learned how to learn should he receive education in the fields of logic, physics, geometry, and rhetoric; Montaigne saw these as fundamental for futurelearning of any other subjects (Montaigne, p. 66). The Greeks taught these subjects long before Montaigne, but his use of them shows him as well read. Not only does Montaigne give instructions on how to educate children, he also says what should not be a part of their education. The most abhorrent practice in contemporary education, for Montaigne, was the physical punishment of students. Montaigne laments, "Instead of being invited to study, children are now confronted with terror and cruelty. Away with violence and compulsion! There is nothing, in my opinion, that is so debasing and stupefying to a noble nature." (Montaigne, p. 72). Being against physical punishment puts him ahead of his time and shows Montaigne's character as a gentle soul, compassionate for his fellow human being. As Get

Montaigne's essay "On the Education of Children" brings to light a new way at looking at the way one would educate a child. Yet, the question still stands; has today's modern style of educating children changed for the better since Montaigne was alive? During Montaigne's day education focused heavily on rhetoric, on learning to speak a certain or remember a fact only to be able to show off that you remembered it. For example Montaigne says "not in the fashion of our French nobles, simply to report on the length of the Pantheon, or the sumptuousness of Signora Livia's drawers" (Frampton pg. 138). He talks about how in his day teachers just talk students to remember facts and numbers to remember and not the morals behind them. Montaigne's idea of education though was that everything the student learns should be used to help the child form a judgement. Those lessons should focus on a moral understanding, then just the facts. As a student myself, I have to agree with parts of Montaigne's idea. I've always felt that the purpose of education was to inspire a child to want to learn. To take what they learn and use it to help people. I have seen this myself with every child that comes out on a Safari tour at Busch Gardens. There is this reaction that look of awe when they feed a Giraffe or see a Rhino for that first time. I believe that Montaigne would agree with this too, that education is supposed to inspire children to learn. Then take what they have learned and be able to

Montaigne is considered the first modern essayist but he refuses to define exactly what an essay is. For Montaigne essays seem to be a form of story–telling and a stream of consciousness. Considering he worked on the essay, "Of Coaches," for 12 years it is logical to conclude that his essays would digress and drift off to other topics. His thoughts paralleled his life and not everything stays consistent throughout our lives which is why his essay continues to change topics. Comparatively, this is a very different style ofwriting than we are accustomed to academically.Essays have been established in setting in which at times it feels like creativity has been suppressed. Thoughts are not allowed to run rampant and everything has to be extremely professional in order to achieve the grade.

Essays such as Montaigne's give me hope as to the creative potential in essays. He has this timeless aspect to his essays; what was once applicable in his time is still very much relevant in today's world. At first Montaigne's essay seems to be a jumble of different stories put together. It starts off with Montaigne first describing why we sneeze. He then continues to describe how he prefers horseback, then with the spending of public money, and finally with the abuse of the native people by the Spaniards. Montaigne was still able to connect the beginning of the essay and the end. The beginning described a type of coach, a chariot, that was used in battles. The end described the last king

"On the Inconsistency of our Actions"

The examples highlight the idea that humankind is dishonest and inconsistent. Humans are constantly being contradictory against themselves by doing the opposite of what they have previously said or promised, thus becoming extremely selfish and untrustful. These examples illustrate Montaigne's belief that while there is some justification to base a judgment based on daily activities, it is nearly impossible to create a proper judgment of humankind, and when a historian cannot, they become hypocrites. Montaigne believes that it is necessary to trace our actions to the circumstances, situation, and context with which it happened, without creating a judgement. It is not possible to create a proper judgement without all of the information, just like one cannot find the solution without all...show more content...

The three cannibals complain that the European society shouldn't be run by a child, but rather an older gentleman to command. They continue to criticize the society by saying that there is variety in wealth, and that it is not a proper place where only half can dine and live in wealth while the other half is hungry.

"Of Experience"

Montaigne says that it is a "personal weakness" that makes one content with their own or the knowledge of others. Rather, a betterhuman would always keep learning, never be happy with what they know, because the more you know, the more you know that you don't know. In order to gain knowledge, one must study him or herself. By learning about oneself, one ultimately learns about others and the world around him or her.

Rather than trusting it, Montaigne realized that he should instead try to regulate it. Montaigne learned how to foresee when his passions, such as anger, would come and watch its course

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The article "Of the Cannibals" from Michel Eyquem de Montaigne speaks about two major problems. The first one is the problem of men telling stories subjectively instead of objectively. This problem is dealt with only in very short and there is no real solution presented in the essay. The other problem is men calling others barbarous just because they are different. The essay also deals with the word "barbarism" and what can be meant by that.

Eyquem de Montaignes' thesis is that his own countrymen are not less or more barbarous than cannibals, which are still very close to nature and to the origin of life.

The following excerpt of the essay will elaborate on these problems.

Michel Eyquem de Montaigne was born in 1533. After a...show more content...

Michel Eyquem de Montaigne also brings other examples where things change rapidly. So, for example, a river that shifted its borders from one side to the other, or a city that his brother discovered that got buried under sand within a very short time. This excurse seems to be there to make clear that things change very fast. Then he returns to the new nation that some people call barbarous whereas he himself does not think so. Michel says that all the invention and changes to nature that humankind caused, did not make it any better, but the purity that was in it before is worth much more than human intelligence. And that is the reason why he doe not call the newly discovered nation barbarous because they are still very close to the origin of nature. In the following passage he describes the tribe a bit closer: It is a nation without traffic, letters and politics but they are free of envy and falsehood. There are no sick people amongst them and they have abundance of all sources of nature. They sleep in long buildings and make drinks of roots. The tribe spends a lot of time dancing and they have two important rules to follow: The first one is "undismaied resolution to warre" and the second one is "inviolable affection to their wives." They also have a religion which can be seen when the priests and prophets come to the town and speak to them. They prophets often

Cannibals and Culture: The Anthropology of Michel De Montaigne is a journal article, written by Norris Brock Johnson, published in Dialectical Anthropology, Vol 18, No 2 (1993) pages 153–176, a journal that focuses on providing a forum for intellectuals to publish their work (peer–reviewed articles, editorials, letter, reports, book reviews, etc.) over social sciences and humanities. I chose this article, because I was so drawn to Michel De Montaigne's writing. In my opinion, Montaigne is the most intriguing of the other authors. Montaigne has a way of drawing us, the readers, in to believe every word he has written on paper, and then he manages to make us feel like fools, because we cannot be certain that what he is telling us is true. He seems to have a different motivation behind his writing. Not to entertain an audience, but himself. It is no secret that Michel De Montaigne is a very important man when it comes English Literature. He seemed to be ahead of his time, unknowingly shaping what English is today. I was curious to see what others thought of Montaigne, his work and the effects that he had on American literature. That is what brought me to this specific article.

To many anthropologist, Michel De Montaigne'sessay "Of Cannibals" is very insightful when discussing the notion that is cultural relativism. Written in 1580, "Of Cannibals" compares the ethics of the considerably savage Indian tribe known as the Tupinamba and theirculture to his own. Montaigne wrote, Get more content

The "good life" is one of stability and the failure to be affected by forces and circumstances beyond the control of the individual. This has been clearly stated beginning with Socrates, stating how each life should be lived with self–purpose: no outside influences. The artificial "goods" represent that of wealth, status, and political power, whereas what an individual should cherish is their own personal beliefs and convictions. All items that society has taught a person to hold and respect create more damage and disruption than they benefit as they can easily be taken from oneself. A fortune can be lost, the President will run out of terms, but the moral holding of each person is something that cannot be lost or stripped by a force outside...show more content...

Thus, stating that a human has desire not only to attain a flourishing life, but also to appreciate what surrounds them daily. He believes that every person has the craving for knowledge, but that each can only learn a limited amount about Nature and how it operates. Montaigne later says, "In her [Nature] promises and threats there is great uncertainty, variability and obscurity," (Montaigne 1243). Knowledge is so limited to each individual because Nature is constantly changing; changing what it has to offer at any given time. It is not right or fair to live a life in which no material items are cherished or respected. It is necessary to acknowledge that objects such as wealth, power, and social status allow for a more comfortable life. However, like Boethius, Montaigne also accepts that these material possessions are only temporary and will not be with the one forever. That is why they need to be recognized while such Fortunes exist, but one should not allow oneself to become attached or dependent upon such items. He contradicts Plato's platform stating, "I hate being told to have our minds above the clouds while our bodies are at the dinner–table," (Montaigne 1257–1258). Plato, like Socrates, believes in only focusing on what cannot be taken from an individual. Montaigne is beginning to break free of the mold previously set by other philosophers and does not accept their way of thinking. Although he does believe that societies "goods" should not take over one's life it is crucial to accept them to live the "good life." Montaigne believes that all things in life were placed by Nature gives all that is needed. Therefore, to ignore temporary material possessions is nothing more than to break Nature's laws. (Montaigne

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Human Identity In Of Cannibals By

Montaigne

Throughout "Of Cannibals," Montaigne describes how human knowledge, through a false sense of cultural superiority, have not only shifted European definition of human identity, but also how knowledge, through inventions, have disconnected European society from nature. Cultural superiority, according to Montaigne, is derived from the idea that there is "no other level of truth and reason than the example and idea of the opinions and customs of the place wherein we live." Lost in our biased perception of nature and reality, Montaigne criticizes how Europeans view "others," such as cannibals, as inferior and nonhuman, "accommodating them to the pleasure of our own corrupted palate." Rather than trying to understand their cultural and ethnic backgrounds,...show more content...

Montaigne, throughout both "Apology to Raymond Sebond" and "Of Cannibals," imply that we have to be aware of our biases and perspectives, as our awareness is merely a result of our perception of the truth. Despite Montaigne's repetition of the "lack of," such as the "no manner of traffic, no knowledge of letters, no science of numbers . . . no use of corn or wine," they also have no words that signify corruption and greed, such as "lying, treachery, dissimulation, avarice, envy, detraction, [and] pardon." Compared to indigenous cultures, which lives in harmony with the laws of nature, Montaigne criticizes how Europeans have corrupted nature through intermixing it with corruption and greed, and thus, corrupting our interpretation of nature and others. Furthermore, in order to emphasize the simplicity and purity of cannibals, Montaigne analogizes them to the ancient Greeks, as "all their inventions [feign] a happy state of man, but moreover, the fancy and even the wish and desire of philosophy itself. Thus, human knowledge and inventions, such as religion, not only corrupts out interpretation of nature, but also, as a result, disconnects us from nature itself. Since our interpretations are representations of nature, they are not equivalent to nature and, as a result, not all interpretations are Get more content

Michel de Montaigne's "Of Cannibals" is an essay about a tribe in Brazil; however, not all its content revolves around cannibalism. He describes their traits and customs; nevertheless, one of the most important theses of the work is, "[T]here is nothing barbarous and savage in that nation... excepting, that everyone gives the title of barbarism to everything that is not in use in his own country" (Montaigne 3–4). Indeed, people tend to treat anything unfamiliar with prejudice; however, cannibalism is a topic that is hard to defend and Michel de Montaigne is not trying to do so. He explains that for "a long time" the tribe "[treats] their prisoners very well, and [gives] them all the hospitality they can think of" and later kills them with swords,

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Acceptance and understanding into a persons society is one of the major goals that people strive to achieve. There is a natural tendency for the individual to be compelled to join the majority. Many times, however, a person will change themselves to fit into the group instead of having the group change itself for the person. This forces a person to take action, form opinions or adopt customs that do not reflect their own beliefs. Montaigne addresses the differences between two distinctly different forms of society in his essay Of Cannibals. Montaigne's comparison between the recently discovered aborigines of the new world and his European society compels a person to reconsider what an ideal society should be. Should a natural state be the...show more content...

The absence of vices also means an absence of a more comfortable living standard. A more comfortable living standard creates more vices. I believe the inhabitants of the new world could live out their lifestyle because they were ignorant to their own possibilities. However, these possibilities were discovered and utilized by the Europeans. With more knowledge and understanding the basic society that Europe once belonged to grew into the society that discovered the new world. The possibility of discovering what an ideal society would be portrayed as is an impossible feat. This is impossible because the ideal society is all subjective. I agree with Montaigne that the basic society, that is ignorant of their potential creativity and imagination, can create an ideal society. I do not agree however, that a complex society is only the things he says it is, brutal and greedy. I believe that he has overlooked all the good qualities that a basic society can

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Comparing Pico Della Mirandola And Montaigne

State of Human Nature

Human nature is the idea of how humans act and behave in the state of human nature. Giovanni Pico della Mirandola and Michel de Montaigne both have different ideas of what human nature is. Pico believes that the state of human nature is based on what is within the person, such as their morals and how they treat themselves intellectually, and how they treat their body. Montaigne believes that the state ofhuman nature should not be based on where people live but their way of life. Human nature is best represented by what is within a person rather than having an environment represents a person because looks can be deceiving.

Pico was a humanist, a person who believes in the value and goodness of human beings. In Pico's,...show more content...

"Classical Humanism in the Age of the Renaissance." 2015. The Humanistic Tradition. 7th ed. Boston: McGraw Hill, 2015. 385–87. Print. Montaigne, Michel De. Of Cannibals. N.p.: David Widger, 1877. Essays of Michel De Montaigne. Michel De Montaigne, 17 Sept. 2006. Web. 14 Mar. 2016.

French philosopher Michel de Montaigne's essay "On the Cannibals", part of the larger collection of his complete essays, was written before the term nostalgia officially existed. The term nostalgia was coined by the Swiss physician Johannes Hofer in 1688 whereas "On the Cannibals" was first published in 1580 . Hence there is an absence of theory on nostalgia at the time of Montaigne's writing. However, this does not mean that Montaigne's work cannot be examined in relation to the concept of nostalgia. It just means that it is necessary to historicise the concept and not impose modern values on to the premodern use of the term. Modern nostalgia is usually understood as a sentimental longing for familiar surroundings or for a period of time...show more content...

Montaigne wrote "On the Cannibals" during the period of the French Wars of Religion fought between the Roman Catholics and the Huguenots. Montaigne, though a Roman Catholic himself, loathed the fanaticism and violence of these wars and retired from public life to his lands in the Dordogne, devoting himself to reading and reflection. For Montaigne, cruelty was a deciding factor that differentiated the French Wars of Religion from previous conflicts. Montaigne's disgust at the cruelty committed by his own people during these wars is a central theme running throughout "On the Cannibals". The French Wars of Religion called into question the idea that western European society was the pinnacle of civilisation as well as the idea that humanity is progressive, forever working to reach the best version of itself. The concept of the Ages of Man, explored earlier, depicts history and by proxy humanity as in a state of decline in contrast to the progressive view of history that informs modern nostalgia in which humanity is striving to reach its most perfect state. Montaigne implicitly questions the assumption that western European society was the most advanced and civilised at the time by comparing the behaviour and bloody rituals of the TupinambГЎ people to the behaviour of the people in his own

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