International Advances Towards Urban Climate Adaptation. In-depth analysis on the urban water sector

UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI CATANIA MASTER UNIVERSITARIO DI II LIVELLO in Reti per l’Efficienza e la Sostenibilità Energetica del Territorio (R.E.S.E.T.) RESPONSABILE SCIENTIFICO: Prof. MATTEO IGNACCOLO

INTERNATIONAL ADVANCES TOWARDS URBAN CLIMATE ADAPTATION. In-depth analysis on the urban water sector.

RESIN- climate resilient cities and infrastructures Ing. Sara Altamore Relatori Prof. MATTEO IGNACCOLO Prof. IBON GALARRAGA Dr. MARTA OLAZABAL ANNO ACCADEMICO 2014/2015 1

Contents 0. Abstract ..................................................................................................................4 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................5 1.1 Why urban area .................................................................................................6 1.2 Problem and possible solution ..........................................................................7 2. Methodology ..........................................................................................................8 2.1 Database structure ...........................................................................................10 2.2 Systematic review of empirical evidence .......................................................13 2.2.1 Selection of cities (a) ................................................................................15 2.2.2 Selection of sector (b) ...............................................................................16 3. Sustainable urban water .......................................................................................17 3.1 Climate change impacts on urban water systems ...........................................19 3.2 International advances towards urban climate adaptation ..............................21 3.2.1 Adaptation strategies in selected cities .....................................................21 3.2.2 Adaptation measures and implementation process in selected cities .......27 4. Case of study: Bilbao City ...................................................................................36 4.1. Regional level .............................................................................................37 4.2. Local level ..................................................................................................40 5. Analysis of the case study ....................................................................................44 6. Discussion and conclusions: lessons learnt and final recommendations.............47 7. Reference..............................................................................................................53 8. Appendix ..............................................................................................................59 2

8.1 Structure of database....................................................................................59 8.2 List of cities .................................................................................................67 8.3 Systematic review ........................................................................................75

List of figures Figure 1. Steps of methodology followed ..................................................................8 Figure 2. outline of the approaches ............................................................................9 Figure 3. Recap of case studies topic .......................................................................76 Figure 4. Items published each year ........................................................................77

List of tables Table 1 inclusion and exclusion criteria ..................................................................13 Table2. List of cities analyzed in this study.............................................................15 Table 3. Climate change impacts in urban water systems .......................................19 Table 4. Effect of extreme events in relation to municipalities and affected population.................................................................................................................38

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Working paper developed during the internship at BC3 (Basque Centre for Climate Change) in Bilbao, Spain. From 14/09/2015 to 20/11/2015 Supervisors: Marta Olazabal, Postdoctoral Researcher; Ibon Galarraga, Research Professor.

0. Abstract Climate adaptation measures can generate opportunities for urban renewal and can improve safety and quality of public space. The traditional defensive approach can be turned into a positive and proactive approach to urban renewal. The aim of this study is advancing towards the standardization of urban climate adaptation action by (1) developing a framework to compare adaptation measures and (2) by studying the transferability of specific adaptation measures through a case study. The study is framed within the H2020 EU project Climate Resilient Cities and Infrastructure – RESIN (2015-2018). A systematic review and a database support the collection of information and allow to understand the state of knowledge regarding the preparedness of cities facing climate hazards so far. Scientific literature and ongoing initiatives and projects in cities are reviewed. This study takes as case study the city of Bilbao which is highly exposed to fluvial and pluvial flooding. Through the analysis of implemented strategies to adapt the water sector in selected cities, I analyse the necessary conditions for transferring adaptation measures to Bilbao and draw some recommendations.

The criteria for transferability can be divided into three major categories: physical; sociocultural and economic. I discuss five important factors for a successful transferability of an adaptation measure: flexibility; interaction at different governmental levels; coordination; awareness within the institutions and community participation process.

Keywords: climate adaptation measures; urban areas; water sector, implementation, transferability.

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1. Introduction

Climate adaptation strategies are critical to manage climate risks (Smith et al., 2011). Particularly in cities, the knowledge about adaptation is limited and only few studies analyse the ongoing adaptation action at local level.

Lack of standardised adaptation measures and policies makes it difficult to evaluate advances; consequently it does not facilitate decision-making processes.

The appraisal of decisions is carried out through different methods. Decisionmakers need to evaluate different alternatives and to consider costs and benefits, in order to choose the better adaptation strategy (Willows et al., 2003; NAO, 2011).

Adaptation measures should be flexible to ensure resilient responses to a range of future climate impacts. Without this process, adaptation does not guarantee return of investments.

There is a significant amount of data available, however it is not easy to examine if and how adaptation is taking place. For this reason, there is a need to improve the existing knowledge through a systematic synthesis, in order to evaluate if adaptation options respond to vulnerability and to inform governance systems on the current status (Biesbroek et al., 2013; Ford et al., 2011; Pielke et al., 2007).

The aim of this paper is advancing towards the standardization of urban climate adaptation action by (1) developing a framework to compare adaptation measures and (2) by studying the transferability of specific adaptation measures through a case study. This aim fits with one of the goals of H2020 EU project Climate

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Resilient Cities and Infrastructure - RESIN1, running from May 2015 until November 2018. As a result of the project it will be developed approaches to enhance the resilience of Europe’s cities and urban critical infrastructure to extreme weather and climate change. RESIN project outputs will be developed and applied in four case study areas: Bilbao, Bratislava, Paris and the Greater Manchester city-region. This paper takes as case study the city of Bilbao.

1.1 Why urban area It is expected that 80% of the population in Europe will live in urban areas by 2050 (UN, 2015). The concentration of people and assets in cities renders them extremely vulnerable to the effects of extreme weather events and climate change (IFRC, 2010; UNISDR, 2009, 2011;). When disasters occur in urban areas, they threaten the lives of large numbers of people, critical infrastructure systems, and interregional and global value chains. Therefore cost of climate adaptation is often lower than the consequences without one (Hallegatte et al., 2013).

Particularly in Europe, there is a significant north-south divide with southern cities showing less progress in climate action (Mimiko, 2012.; Reckien et al., 2014).

Also, the development of urban climate change adaptation strategies has been slower than mitigation. In general, even where urban adaptation strategies exist, there are weaknesses in the process of adaptation planning and the nature of the outputs produced (Reckien et al. 2014).

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RESIN project addresses current knowledge gaps in the field of urban climate change adaptation such as the integration of all critical sectors and infrastructures, the connection of risk management approaches with the vulnerability approaches and the standardization of adaptation measures. To this aim, one of the tasks of RESIN is the development of an adaptation library/catalogue of effective adaptation measures based on standardization and comprehensive characterization of adaptation options including costs and benefits. This study aims to support RESIN by collecting data related to adaptation measures and studying the process of their implementation.

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1.2 Problem and possible solution Local governments are pivotal for urban adaptation action but they face several difficulties. For example, existing climate models are not downscaled to the city level. Also, data relevant for climate change planning are often scattered across city government departments or seldom collected (Hardoy and Pandiella, 2009).

This leads to the idea that the fragmented knowledge on urban climate adaptation planning makes the study of adaptation slower than mitigation. Studying adaptation measures is important as well as difficult.

Urban settings are composed of buildings and public space, of communities and economic activities and thus the adaptation of urban areas demands an integrated approach that involves many different (public and private) stakeholders simultaneously (WGII AR5, 2014). Bringing together these stakeholders is one of the challenges facing any agreement on coherent adaptation programmes, as well as developing a coherent and socially equitable approach to disaster risk management policies. For this reason, implementing participatory processes when drafting climate strategies is essential to align increasing resilience of a city with the existing urban dynamics.

The objective of this specific study is covering a knowledge gap: to get comparable advances in urban climate adaptation. Specific emphasis will be put on investigating implemented actions (e.g. existence of monitoring systems) and existence of data on economic costs and benefits. The goal is to allow comparing adaptation measures in order to make easier the process of standardization and therefore, the transferability of adaptation measures. The paper analyses adaptation solutions and extracts information necessary to understand the effective possibility

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of transferring an example measure to a different context through the Bilbao case study.

2. Methodology Adaptation solutions are collected into a database in order to identify, classify and analyse them. The construction of a database of empirical evidences involves first, the database design and second, a systematic storage of information from both grey and scientific literature. A systematic review supports the collection of information and permits to make the state of knowledge clear. The methodology of a systematic review includes the application of predefined criteria to identify relevant studies. Keywords and other filters used are reported in this study.

Overall, the methodology used in this study can be summarized as follows: 1. Development of a systematic review of scientific and grey literature 2. City database definition 3. Analysis and interpretation

1. Development of a systematic review

2. City database

Figure 1: Steps of methodology followed 8

3. Analysis and interpretation

A wide variety of information is available from city plans, reports and government documents. I designed three different approaches to search for data concerned grey literature: a) Explore adaptation measures that have been planned or implemented by a selection of advanced cities on the issue of climate change; b) Explore adaptation measures that face climate hazards into a specific urban sector; c) Focus on measure that address vulnerabilities in a specific urban sector, and search for cities that implemented it.

Figure 2: outline of the approaches The first option (a) would enable an overview of a wide range of measures from several cities of the world. ‘Sector’, ‘climate threat’ and ‘main urban element concerned’ are some of the data collected from cities. The lists of cities chosen for the analysis and selection criteria are respectively available in the paragraphs “selection of cities” and “data structure”. This selection method has the disadvantage of dealing with an extensive database that it is difficult to manage.

The second option (b) focuses on a specific sector. This way, data collected could have many characteristics in common (e.g. driver), and this facilitates the comparison more than option (a). Generally, a sector is defined as a particular field 9

that comprises an activity. In this study I consider urban sector as a functional part related to the dynamics of the city. This definition is specified in “Selection of sectors”.

The last option (c) allows us to get into detail. The study of a measure is useful to well understand how it is implemented. The selection of the same measure in other advanced cities gives us information about differences among the various implementations. Even if it allows going into detail, this approach excludes other information that may be important, such as if there are different types of measures for the same type of vulnerability.

In this paper I decided to study how implementation takes place in measures concerning water sector, following the second approach (b). The first option (a) is tested and the results appear in this article. Option (c) is left to future research.

2.1 Database structure The database is organized in four domains: • General Information: it is helpful to understand the background of the measure; • Organisation: this indicates who the actors are; • Effectiveness: this provides indicators useful for understanding the effectiveness of the option; • Cost-Efficiency: it is useful to know the benefit-cost.

This categorization takes account of the diversity of adaptation options, paying specific attention to: the description of climatic region for each adaptation option, the spatial scales, the sector(s) for which the option can provide a solution, the technology maturity of the option, the main impact area, the monitoring of 10

adaptation measures implementation and stakeholders involved. Particular attention is given to: * Climate threat: The climate hazard(s) addressed by the option with its variables: - Heat waves; - Pluvial and fluvial flooding; - Sea level rise & storm surge; - Drought * Type of option: this value is collected through these variables: - Structural/Physical : Engineered and built environment - Technological -

Ecosystem based: green

- Services - Educational - Informational - Behavioural - Economic - Laws and regulations - Government policies and programs * Scale of implementation of option: At the urban scale, components and parameters for architectural and spatial quality include infrastructure, urban form, proximity to facilities and functions, access to green areas, building typology and morphology, transition between different urban areas and city boundaries. At the building scale, examples include views, isolation and contact, internal and external arrangements, transition between public and private domains, and perceived density. Options might be: 11

- Building/ infrastructure - Building block/ garden /square - Street - District/ Neighbourhood - Village/city - Land use zoning - Region - Nation * Responsible party: Stakeholder responsible for implementation. It relates to the Governance and institutional needs. The options might be: - National government - Regional administration - Municipality - Company - Household/individual - Water board/water catchment management organization * Investment cost and funding sources.

The database structure is shown in Appendix 1.

Moreover I defined a time frame of 10 years (2005-2015), in order to identify actions in progress or already implemented, most of the plans found were approved in

2007.

Because of the time available I could not study in detail all the cities and measures found. So I only investigated some of the measures implemented, particularly, in the urban water sector. In this way, this work should not be regarded as comprehensive, but rather, as an account of the more common and effective 12

adaptation measures in progress in this specific sector and as a methodological proposal to search for adaptation measures.

2.2 Systematic review of empirical evidence Academic literature about adaptation has been increasing in these years. But grey literature is still the main source of adaptation measures and implementation. Most of the climate adaptation measures relate to urban planning in which local governments and development organisations are the main players. For this reason, grey literature contains as much -or probably more- information about adaptation than academic literature. In this section I explain the methodology followed to identify academic and grey literature on urban adaptation planning and specific measures. Full details are available in Appendix. In particular, inclusion and exclusion criteria are here summarize: Table 1 inclusion and exclusion criteria Inclusion

Exclusion

English

No English

WOS

Other search engines for academic literature Meetings

Grey literature: report, programmatic document Academic literature: Abstract

Review, articles

Adaptation

Mitigation, risk, vulneribility

Present time

Prehistoric, future

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Measures, actions

Predictive models

Development Nations

No development Nations

Local area, neighborhood

Nation, building scale

Grey literature: I considered project documents, reports, agreements, treaties and policy documents. Promotional material and meetings are excluded. A search for adaptation measures being or already implemented in cities is conducted using: • Websites of international institutions (such as United Nations, Word Bank, ICLEI); • European projects: GRaBS and BASE; • International urban climate action-specific networks: C40 cities, Mayors Adapt, ARC 3; • Urban sustainable-related Databases: Arcadis Sustainable cities index; • Internet search engines to search for specific cities.

The results appear partially in the paragraph 2.2.1 Selection of cities (a) of this paper, the complete list of cities found is in the Appendix.

Academic literature: The main sources of information for academic abstracts are academic databases. I used: • WOS - web of science (Thomson and reuters).

The results appear partially in the paragraph 2.2.2 Selection of sectors (b), the complete list of cities found is in the Appendix.

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2.2.1 Selection of cities (a) I focused on cities of developed countries with adaptation strategy ongoing, because big and economically prosperous cities are more engaged in climate adaptation plans (Reckien et al., 2014). Advanced cities in adaptation to climate change are found used methodology above.

In this study, big cities are regarded as hubs to global economic system, but also political significance and size. Indicator of pollution, size of population and density are important to evaluate the exposure to climate vulnerabilities. So other indicators to classify the cities are: gross domestic product; GHG emissions; total population and density.

I focused on four cities from different country and analysed their strategy and measures about water sector. The complete list of cities is given in the Appendix.

Table2. List of cities analyzed in this study City New York

Country

Plan

North

PlaNYC, A GREENER, GREATER

America

NEW YORK

Year 2007 2013

PlaNYC, A STRONGER, MORE RESILIENT NEW YORK Vancouver

Canada

Copenhagen Europe

GREENEST CITY 2020 ACTION PLAN 2012 COPENHAGEN CLIMATE

2011

ADAPTATION PLAN Rotterdam

Europe

ROTTERDAM CLIMATE PROOF ADAPTATION STRATEGY 15

2010

2.2.2 Selection of sector (b) Urban spatial structure is the placement and organization of urban space and its functions. The manner that urban space is arranged has implications for many social and economic aspects (Amin, 2008), for example environmental sustainability, social equity, safety, economics, etc.

Many urban theories over the years have tried to explain the city and its evolution.

One of these, from the School of Chicago, established that cities tended to grow in sectors. Homer Hoyt defined a model of urban land use called "sector model". He theorized a model city that grows in sectors dependent on major transport routes (Adams, 2005). Of course, this theory is not applicable to the complexity of the urban system today.

City is a complex system. Especially in this century, a drastic transformation of urban structures leads to new problems that need to be addressed: information speed, complexity of system (multidimensional scale) and self-organization. This way, the definition of sector is transformed: from a physical part of the city to a functional part related to its dynamics. In general, a sector is defined as a particular field that comprises an activity, a business or a science of large and complex extension. Changes in temperature, rising sea levels, more extreme precipitation events and droughts affect every economic sector. Many of these, such as human health, water resources or energy are already experiencing the impacts of climate change at multiple scales (local, national, and international) (Program and Karl, 2009).

According to Work Group II (Chapter 8 “Urban Areas “of IPCC report), there are six urban sectors that are involved to climate change. These are: - Water supply, wastewater and sanitation; 16

- Energy supply; - Transportation and telecommunications; - Build environment, recreation and heritage sites; - Green infrastructures and ecosystem services: - Health and social services.

Furthermore the European Environment Agency (EEA) in the report “Climate change, impacts and vulnerability in Europe 2012� identifies affected sectors for climate change, such as: costal zones, terrestrial ecosystem, energy, water and transport services.

Selecting the most common sectors among analysed cities is a valid alternative to identify urban sectors. This integrated assessment considers the following sectors: - Water, which includes problems linked with sea level rise, thus Coastal Protection - Transport and mobility - Buildings and property - Social, health and community - Energy and communications - Green infrastructures.

Measures belonging to the water sector are analyzed in the present study.

3. Sustainable urban water Climate change alters relationships among water users, exacerbating tensions between the various end users (residential, commercial, industrial, agricultural, and infrastructural) (Roy et al., 2012; Tidwell et al., 2011). Also urban population growth in the next decades will intensify urban vulnerability and place additional 17

pressure on diminishing supplies of resources such as water (Dobbs et al., 2012; Pageler et al., 2009). In this sense, innovation and transformative development coming from urban climate adaptation provides real opportunities (IPCC, work group II, chapter 8.3, 8.4). For example, the renewal of water infrastructure can be an opportunity not only to increase safety but also to allow growth. This is important given that an annual global rise of urban infrastructure and building investments is expected, from $10 trillion today to more than $20 trillion by 2025 (Dobbs et al., 2012).

Climate hazards affect the water cycle and water quality, even if sea and river water are not included into the common approach to the urban water network, they affect the system as well, due to water-level rise. Most often this issue is not managed by the water sector, but given its importance and influence in climate change impacts, this study considers all water sources as urban water.

Water sector management

Figure 3. Water sector management in urban areas 18

3.1 Climate change impacts on urban water systems The geomorphologic characteristics of cities modify exposure to climate related hazards (Luino and Castaldini, 2011). Extreme rainfall, storm surges and sea/riverlevel rise impact urban areas through flooding, which would destroy public infrastructure, contaminate water sources, loss livelihood options and increase in water-borne and water-related diseases (Adelekan, 2010; Shepherd et al., 2011).

Table 3. Climate change impacts in urban water systems

IMPACTS ON WATER RESOURCES - Changes in the quantity and quality of resources

Climate Change - Increased sea/river level - Natural Disasters

- Greater competition for their use IMPACTS>

- Increase in arid and semi-arid areas

IMPACTS ON COASTAL AREAS - Increased risk of erosion and flooding - Loss of beaches - Increased efforts to protect the coast

Climate change impacts in urban water infrastructure include: • Water supply; • Wastewater; • Stormwater and drainage systems; • Coastal and river protection.

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Water supply Water supply affects the city in terms of water quantity or quality. The availability of potable water will be reduced by sea-level rise, as well anomalous precipitation patterns. Moreover water supply is negatively affected by droughts and alterations in water demand. For example water use in New York City increases by 11 liters per degree centigrade once temperatures go above 25°C (Protopapas et al., 2000).

Reduced water availability could put into question drinking water production license renewals (Zwolsman et al., 2009). Examples of measures about water supply follow below.

Wastewater The integrity and functionality of wastewater treatment infrastructure will be affected by coastal flooding linked to sea and river level rise and also by flooding caused by increased precipitation. Extreme events can negatively influence wastewater treatment plants and coastal flooding can increase the salinity compromising biological processes. Higher temperatures coupled with reduced rainfall can have negative consequences, increasing deterioration of pipes. (Bates et al., 2008; Howe et al., 2005; Zwolsman et al., 2009).

Storm water During extreme rainfall, the system results overburdened and the vulnerability becomes apparent. The intensity of precipitation affects stormwater and drainage systems and sometimes can exceed the capacity of sewer systems. This increases the likelihood of flooding, resulting in damage to public areas and buildings; also it endangers the health due to contamination for conveyance of wastewater by means of combined pipes. During extreme precipitation events water systems will be 20

weighed down, if maintenance and replanted do not take into place (Wong et al., 2009; Howard et al., 2010; Mitlin and Satterthwaite, 2013).

Coastal and river protection The coastline and river coast are a natural resource, a setting for industry and a place for recreation, but they are always very vulnerable to climate hazards. With sea-level rise and intense storms, flooding and erosion are more likely.

The

estimates of losses for flooding of coastal cities in the absence of adaptation are far higher than the estimated costs of adaptation (Hallegatte et al., 2013).

3.2 International advances towards urban climate adaptation Advancing our knowledge on the state-of-art about applied adaptation plans is useful to analyse possible criteria of transferability. In this study I have collected data from different part of the world, then I decided to analyse only the one related to urban water sector. This section has a list of significant examples on urban adaptation, focused on four cities: New York City; Copenhagen; Vancouver and Rotterdam.

I preferred to divide the information in two parts: strategies and

measures. In the first part “Adaptation strategies in selected cities” I show different types of strategies extrapolated from the four cities analysed. In the second part “Adaptation measures and implementation process” I analyse a measure for each city.

3.2.1 Adaptation strategies in selected cities Before discussing the implementation process it is important to frame the strategies into which the measures are part of. The aim is to show how the strategies are designed and which initiatives are taken into account. The main climate hazards observed in water sector are: pluvial and fluvial flooding; sea/river level rise; storm 21

surge and drought. Challenges, actions taken and lesions learned are summarized for each case study.

New York City PlaNYC, A GREENER, GREATER NEW YORK, 2007 Challenges: Water quality and water network clean and available.

Type of measures: water conservation measures, treatment infrastructure, green and grey mixed technical solutions.

Measures: - Continue implementing infrastructure upgrades: develop and implement Long-Term Control Plans; expand wet weather capacity at treatment plants; - Pursue proven solutions to prevent stormwater from entering the system: increase use of High Level Storm Sewers (HLSS); capture the benefits of our open space plan; expand the Bluebelt program; - Expand, track, and analyze new Best Management Practices (BMPs) on a broad scale: form an interagency BMP Task Force; pilot promising BMPs; require greening of parking lots; provide incentives for green roofs; protect wetlands; - Protect wetlands: to assess the vulnerability of existing wetlands and identify additional policies to protect and manage them; - Ensure the quality of our drinking water: continue the Watershed Protection Program; construct an ultraviolet disinfection plant for the 22

Catskill and Delaware systems; build the Croton Filtration Plant; - Create redundancy for aqueducts to New York City: launch a major new water conservation effort; maximize existing facilities; evaluate new water sources; - Modernize in-city distribution: complete Water Tunnel No. 3; complete a backup tunnel to Staten Island;

accelerate upgrades to water main

infrastructure.

PlaNYC, A STRONGER, MORE RESILIENT NEW YORK, 2013 Challenges: Security, quality, water storage and lack of public spaces to manage storm water after Sandy hurricane.

Type of measures: green and grey mixed technical solutions.

Measures: - Coastal protection: different waterfront solutions. E.g.: dunes, wetlands and floodable parks, barrier islands, polders, armor stone waterfronts; - Building protection: new building code. E.g.: flood resistant structures, integrate flood shields in buildings, elevated buildings, floating houses, elevated entrances; - Protection of technical and transport infrastructures; - Protection, modification and planning of new green infrastructures. E.g.: modification of shorelines, fortify marinas, green corridors as huge drainage systems; - Reduce CSOs. Recover degraded creeks. Construction of a separate 23

system high level system to discharge storm water.

Lessons learned: Investments justified increasing security. More resilience city is more safety of the inhabitants. Community participation promoted.

Copenhagen COPENHAGEN CLIMATE ADAPTATION PLAN, 2011 Challenges: protection against high waters, manage urban floods, avoid CSOs. Type of measure: green and grey mixed technical solutions.

Measures: - Against stormwater: reduction of the hydraulic loading of watercourses; passing on knowledge to the public/businesses on options for climateproofing; planning and implementation of plan b solutions in the city of Copenhagen;

opening

of

piped

watercourses;

disconnection

of

stormwater from the sewer; quantification of the effect of different suds elements; coordinated wastewater planning in the whole catchment of lynettefĂŚllesskabet; - Seawater: surveying of coastline; selection of instruments; - Soil and groundwater: risk of infiltration to the drinking water resource; calculations of effects of increased infiltration of stormwater; monitoring

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of groundwater level; - Greener city: planting strategy; green and blue structure plan; watering systems for trees and green spaces.

Lessons learned: Work at several levels, in this specific case at three levels of adaptation. The aims are: reduce the likelihood of the event happening; reduce the scale of the event and reduce vulnerability to the event by taking measures that make it easier and cheaper to clear up after an event.

Vancouver GREENEST CITY 2020 ACTION PLAN, 2012 and CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGY, 2012 Challenges: protection against high waters, manage urban floods.

Type of measure: green and grey mixed technical solutions.

Measures: - Clean water: water metering; develop and implement enhanced water education, incentive, and conservation programs; expand public access to drinking water and reduce use of bottled water; eliminate combined sewer overflow; - Against heavy rain events: citywide Integrated Stormwater Management Plan; Separate the sanitary and stormwater sewers; develop a policy for back-up power and assess departments for shortfalls; 25

- Against sea level rise: complete a coastal flood risk assessment and develop a City-wide sea level rise adaptation response; - Drier: water conservation.

Lessons learned: Use the best science available at the time of planning and review regularly.

Promote flexible and adaptive management approaches that leave a range of future options available. Improve awareness, knowledge, skills and resources of City staff.

Rotterdam Rotterdam climate proof - adaptation strategy, 2010.

Challenges: security, quality, water storage and lack of public spaces to manage storm water Type of measure: green and grey mixed technical solutions.

Measures: - Water storage and lack of space: water squares in low-lying public spaces as an attractive recreational area that temporarily is open water storage facilities; - Improve water quality: wastewater collection, drainage system, etc.

Lessons learned: Adaptation measures as an opportunity to improve the quality of the public

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space. 34.9 m2 of green space per person.

3.2.2 Adaptation measures and implementation process in selected cities The measures are individually analysed in order to understand they are implemented and which benefits there have. The aim is to study the implementation process, to identify a list of potential alternative actions and to analyse the applicability of the measures.

New York City. A GREENER, GREATER NEW YORK. PlaNYC, 2007.

Complete Water Tunnel No. 3 Water supply Chapter: Water Network Initiative 7, into: Modernize in-city distribution.

This initiative intends to provide the city with new connection to its Upstate New York water supply system. This is an ambitious project of New York City begun in 1970; it is the largest and most expensive capital project. The tunnel will be 60 miles (97 km) long, designed in four stages.

Originally projected to cost $1.5 billion and take 16 years to complete, Water Tunnel No. 3 will ultimately cost more than $6 billion and have taken more than half a century to build. During the fiscal crisis of the 1970s, construction of the tunnel stopped completely. Progress continued through the succeeding decades.

But in 2002, the City declared its commitment to completing the tunnel. Even through the economic downturn after September 11th, that commitment has

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remained resolute. Over the past five years, nearly $2.6 billion has been earmarked to propel the project to completion.

It will be formed by approximately three million cubic yards of concrete. As it snakes through the subterranean city, the tunnel will plunge up to 800 feet underground and rise to a depth of less than 150 feet at its highest points.

I decided to include this project into my analysis as an example of a big investment.

Implementation process

Stage 1 – Completed Where: It serves northern Manhattan and parts of the Bronx Opened: 1998 Cost: a billion dollars, to cost $238 million Time horizon: be completed within eight years.

Stage 2- ongoing Where: Brooklyn, Queens, and Manhattan Opened: Brooklyn/Queens leg will open in 2009 In October 2013, the City announced the activation of the Manhattan portion of Stage 2.

Cost: $5 billion

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Time horizon: spanned 40 years in construction.

Although stage 2 will not provide full redundancy for the in-city distribution, its completion will enable Water Tunnel No. 1 to be shut down for repairs, which are estimated to cost $365 million.

Stage 3 - under planning Where: extend from the Kensico Reservoir to the valve chamber in the Bronx Opened: N/A Cost: N/A Time horizon: complete design in 2015

This 16-mile section, currently in the planning stage will provide critical redundancy between the Kensico and Hillview reservoirs. It will also provide an additional aqueduct to supply water to the city, which will run parallel to the Delaware and Catskill Aqueducts.

Stage 4 - under planning Where: eastern parts of the Bronx and Queens Cost: N/A Time horizon: N/A

These systems will be 14 miles long and provide 90% of the city's 29

drinking water. The Van Cortlandt Park Valve Chamber is 620 feet long (longer than two football fields placed end to end), 42.5 feet wide and 41 feet high. The complex also contains nine vertical shafts, two manifolds - each more than 560 feet long and 24 feet in diameter - and 34 steel-lined lateral tunnels - each more than 100 feet long. Pressure and flow are controlled through a series of valves and flowmeters.

New York City. A STRONGER, MORE RESILIENT NEW YORK. PlaNYC, 2013.

Improve interconnection between the Catskill and Delaware aqueducts and maximize capacity to deliver water from the Catskill/Delaware system Water supply Chapter: Water and Wastewater Initiative 14, into strategy: Promote redundancy and flexibility to ensure constant supply of high-quality water.

Lead city agency: NYC Department of Environmental Protection Cost: 485-528 million EUR Funding source: City A new connection between the Catskill and Delaware water supply systems allows improving the resilience on the city’s three water supply systems: the Catskill, Delaware, and Croton systems.

Implementation process 30

Step 1: begin construction in 2014- completed Where: Catskill and Delaware aqueducts, New York City Time horizon: 2 year to study the measures and began implementation

Step 2: complete construction and design of Catskill pressurization in 2020 under planning Where: Catskill and Delaware aqueducts, New York City Time horizon: 5-6 year to complete the construction

Copenhagen. COPENHAGEN CLIMATE ADAPTATION PLAN, 2011 Disconnection of stormwater from the sewer Wastewater Cost: about 20000 â‚Ź (150000 DKK) in 2011; after funded from charges Carried out: Technical and Environmental Administration in cooperation with Copenhagen Energy Funding: Copenhagen Energy with resources funded by charges.

The aim of the project is to reduce the likelihood of flooding in the city adapting the volume of wastewater conveyed to the sewer. The initiative includes a detailed

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project to clarify the legal situation regarding payment and identifying needs and options.

Implementation process

Step 1 – Completed Where: City of Copenhagen Time horizon: one year (2011); short time (<5 years)

Clarification of legal situation concerning payment conditions, and identification of needs and options Step 2 – Completed Where: City of Copenhagen Time horizon: 2011-2015; short time (<5 years)

Detailed project planning and execution

Vancouver. GREENEST CITY 2020 ACTION PLAN, 2011 Address Vancouver’s coastal open spaces in City-wide sea level rise response Coastal protection Initiative in: Climate Change Adaptation Strategy, 2012 32

Commissioned by: City Funding: Capital and Operating budget Strategic planning for sea level rise is complex given the uncertainty associated with the rate of water level rise and changes in storm frequency, the environmental and financial implications of engineering solutions, and the long timeline for fundraising and implementing such unique capital projects. A comprehensive risk assessment is a recognized best practice and first step toward planning actions to mitigate the risks posed by sea level rise. This project provides to increase naturalization through green shores and rock groyne.

Implementation process

Step 1 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; In Progress Where: City of Vancouver Time horizon: short time (<5 years)

Initiate a Sea Level Rise Working group to recommend next steps for City-wide strategic approach to sea level rise.

Step 2 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Action by 2020 Where: City of Vancouver Time horizon: Medium time (<5 years)

33

Consider: Increased naturalization; Green shores sustainable shoreline development approach; rip rap, rock groyne and seawall durability; new armouring, breakwaters, steeper sloped beaches; accept loss and replace in lower risk areas; and use excavation materials to reinforce shoreline or stable substrate below sand.

Rotterdam climate proof - adaptation strategy, 2010.

Water square Benthemplein Rotterdam Stormwater Chapter: Urban water system, activities in 2010 Commissioned by: City of Rotterdam and the Schieland and Krimpenerwaard Water Board With financial support from: Ministry for the Infrastructure and Environment, Mooi Nederland (subsidy scheme for Beautiful Netherlands), European Union, Interreg IV Cost: 4,5 million EUR Area: 9000 m2 Capacity to store: 1800 m3 This project makes money invested visible and enjoyable. Adaptation measure creates environmental quality and identity. This was also a participatory project, 34

have taken part: students and teachers of the Zadkine college and the Graphic Lyceum; members of the adjacent church, youth theatre and David Lloyd gym; inhabitants of the Agniese neighborhood. The part of participation project is carried out with the aid of three workshops, into have been discussed possible uses, desired atmospheres and how the storm water can influence the square.

It is composed by three basins collect rain water. Two of these capture water immediately when it falls, the other only when it consistently keeps raining.

Furthermore this system allows capturing water from the roofs of the buildings around, acting as water storage. After the rain, the water is then filtered to get into groundwater. When it is dry, it can be enjoyed for leisure.

Implementation process

Step 1: study- completed Where: City of Rotterdam Time horizon: 5 year to study the measures and began implementation

In detail: 2006-2007: typological research 2007: the square became official policy on an urban scale in the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Rotterdam Waterplan 2â&#x20AC;?

2008-2009: pilot study

35

2010: identifying and listing promising locations Step 2: implement - completed Where: Agniesebuurt, a densely populated neighborhood dating from the nineteenth century, and the modern centre of Rotterdam.

Time horizon: 3 years to design and complete

In detail: 2011-2012: design 2013: completed

4. Case of study: Bilbao City Bilbao is a dense and compact post-industrial seaside city that has grown along the Nerbioi river margins. The city of Bilbao due to its location and climatic conditions will be specially affected by river and pluvial flooding, sea level rise, heat waves and air pollution (Ramses-cities, 2013). A comprehensive strategy to adapt to climate change in Bilbao is absent, but there are several planning document that report adaptation solutions to climate change. In order to have an overall vision of the situation in Bilbao, I examined documents from different level of governance (municipal and regional level).

36

The government levels with respect to water management and sustainability of these are: - Regional level: Autonomous Community of Basque Country - Local level: The municipality of Bilbao The documents that I studied are: - Manual de Planeamiento Urbanístico en Euskadi para la mitigación y la adaptación al cambio climático (regional level); - Plan de Acción para la Energía Sostenible de Bilbao – SEAP of Bilbao City (local level); - Estudio hidráulico de la apertura del Canal de Deusto – example of Zorrotzaurre plan (local level).

4.1. Regional level Manual de Planeamiento Urbanístico en Euskadi para la mitigación y la adaptación al cambio climático This is not a programmatic document, but a handbook that is not binding. It gives advice on how to address climate change in the Basque Country, putting attention to climate hazards.

Expected impacts: One of the variables potentially most affected by climate change it is the temperature.

It is expected that during the last third of the century there will be an increase in extreme minimum temperatures between 1 and 1.5 ° C on the coast; between 2 and 37

2.5 ° C in the rest of the Atlantic coast; and between 2.5 and 3 ° C in the southern part of the Community. On the other hand, it is estimated that extreme maximum temperatures 1.5 ° C increase in the coastline and 3.5 ° C in the rest of the territory with the seasonal distribution.

It will also affect the current sea level rise, both as a result of melting of large ice masses as by the very expansion of the water. Estimates of loss in the coastal area; besides the coastal towns, especially port, it can be affected by other marine mechanisms derived from these conditions.

Rainfall will also be affected by climate change, expected absolute annual reduction of it between 15 and 20%, especially during the summer months.

Regarding distribution, projections indicate an increase in winter thereof, between 5 and 20%, and a reduction between 30% and 50% in summer. Thus, erratic rainfall is expected to be more conditioned by the seasonal distribution that the percentage decreases in values.

Table 4. Effect of extreme events in relation to municipalities and affected population (Table adapted from Manual de Planeamiento Urbanístico en Euskadi para la mitigación y la adaptación al cambio climatico)

Events

Sea

Municipalities

Population

Number

Number

Percentage

Percentage

level 21

8,4

rise

38

764.000

35,3

Floods

137

54,6

1.737.800

80,3

Sea level rise and Flooding.

During the second half of the twentieth century, sea level has been rising on the Cantabrian coast about 2 mm / year. Although the Basque coast is mainly steep, with elevations above sea level in excess of 40 meters, most of the Basque population lives around the estuarine areas that are topographically lower and therefore suffer more intensely consequences of gradual sea level rise that may involve flooding in urban areas. In this sense, a necessary step is the restoration of coastal ecosystems, to create natural barriers to the marine advance and minimize the consequences of this phenomenon. The Climate Change Office of the Basque Country has developed an approach to the costs arising from an alleged flood of the city of Bilbao due to climate change which will increase by 56.4% over the cost of course have other floods in the past.

Due to the current sea level rise (50 cm by the end of this century) the disappearance of about 22 km length of the beaches of the Basque Country and Cantabria will occur, equivalent to 30% of the total. This disappearance will affect mainly confined to small width and slope beaches.

Measures: - Defining risk areas (both flood and by increased erosion) and cost-benefit study of alternative maintenance and transfer building defenses; - Assess the potential flood-prone areas that can have a direct influence on impacts of urban floods - Make hydraulic models to understand the urban flows of vulnerable cities;

39

- Flooding database: registering the historical flooding events, the areas affected and installing alarms connected to the regional and national level emergency services; - Prohibit residential uses in flood-prone areas; - Upstream control of rivers by using detention basins, filter barriers for debris and discharge channels to control the water flow of rivers; - Design infrastructures to protect urban areas against flooding events, sewage systems and treatment plants, integrating removable flood barriers to handle flash floods; - Drainage systems to reduce the runoff volume; - Act in the building foundations and basements; - Security studies about hydraulic system; - Logic location of communication infrastructures and other technical networks out of vulnerable areas; - Green roofs.

4.2. Local level Plan de AcciĂłn para la EnergĂ­a Sostenible de Bilbao 2020 The water sector is taken into account In the Sustainable Energy Action Plan 2020 of Bilbao City Council. The goal is to save 12.55 Hm3 of water, reducing leakage of the drinking water in the municipality. For achieving this aim the City launched several measures.

To reduce leakage of the drinking water, thus reducing emissions associated with water use.

40

Measures: - Renewal of pipes; - Auscultation of pipes to detect leaks. It consists of an identification system losses in the distribution network by a geophone and correlate locates leaks noise generated by them (electro acoustic location); -

Troubleshooting to eliminate leakage;

- Subdividing the network to manage and to guide the auscultation, and to achieve effective leak detection; - Implementation of a remote control system to optimize intervention times.

Thus, if there is a malfunction in the system, remote alerts immediately online, so the problem is solved immediately.

Responsible: Area Works and Services, Water Department of Bilbao.

Relationship with other plans: Renewal Plan of Water Distribution Network.

Reduced GHG with this operation: 37.650 tCO2 Cost/ tCO2: 227 â&#x201A;ŹtCO2

Public budget: 72.801.600 â&#x201A;Ź (until 2020) Financier: Bilbao Town Council

Schedule

41

Step 1 – completed Time horizon: short term – to 2010 Implementation time: 2005-2010 medium time (5 years)

Renewal, auscultation, and segmentation of the network in addition to troubleshooting and remote system implementation.

Step 2 – ongoing Time horizon: medium term – to 2015 Implementation time: 2011-2015 short time (<5 years)

Maintenance of the network by remote control system and study the possibility of restoring springs for irrigation.

Step 3 – under planning Time horizon: long term – to 2020 Implementation time: 2017-2020 short time (<5 years)

Maintenance of the network by remote control system.

To reduce water consumption in the residential sector by 8% in raising awareness actions Measures: 42

- Development of a manual of good practices for the management and/or citizenship in terms of sustainable water management; - Design and implementation of an information and awareness campaign on the use and water quality.

Responsible: Urban Planning, Housing and Environment of Bilbao; Area Works and Services, Water Section of Bilbao.

Relationship with other plans: unknown

Reduced GHG with this operation: unknown tCO2 Cost/ tCO2: unknown €tCO2

Public budget: 600.000 € (until 2020) Financier: Bilbao City Council and financial support for awareness campaigns Basque Government, Ministry of Environment and Biodiversity Foundation.

Schedule Time horizon: medium term 2011-2020

Estudio hidráulico de la apertura del Canal de Deusto - Zorrozaurre project The Zorrozaurre project is the last major urban regeneration plan launched in Bilbao. It involves the transformation of Zorrotzaurre from peninsula to island. The 43

master plan is designed by Zahah Hadid and it includes the opening of Deusto Canal. The aim of the hydraulic study is to verify the reduction of the risk of floods.

Measures: - open Deusto Canal (75m width); - two underground tunnels of 12m of diameter and 3,8km of length The Peninsula of Zorrotzaurre is identified as floodable zones with a return period of 100 years. Nevertheless this area is in developable land, so it will be urbanised keeping a distance of 15-30m from river margins.

The Plan provides for the construction of 5,473 homes and 202,129 m2 for economic activity. Two-thirds of the new Zorrotzaurre (Mixed Zone) have a public use, including 154,066 m2 of open space and 93 537 m2 for public facilities. The expected total charges initially amount to 142 million Euros, of which 54 million are compensation to owners and occupants for transferring their buildings or their business.

5. Analysis of the case study Needs and opportunity of Bilbao A series of precautionary measures to minimise flood hazards will be accomplished in Bilbao, for example in Zorrotzaurre project. However the planned measures designed (e.g. Zorrozaurre) are not framed within a comprehensive adaptation strategy. There is a lack of coordination between the different planning levels in terms of adaptive strategies which makes difficult dealing with urban flooding and storm water use. Acting locally can be helpful because the benefits 44

are perceived easier than at upper scales, but there is the likelihood of dispersing efforts. For this reason a better coordination between the different planning levels is necessary.

In Bilbao, the current situation of adaptation to climate change could be summarised as: - Local action designed: there are specific projects to minimise flood hazards as Zorrotzaurre; - Lack of comprehensive strategy: these local actions are not under a global view of climate change. Zorretzaure is a project under the Hydrological Plan, it is not a climate change project; - Lack of coordination between levels of government: there is no a coordinated plan of action against climate change at various levels. The “Manual de Planeamiento Urbanístico en Euskadi para la mitigación y la adaptación al cambio climático” is a handbook that is not binding. It is necessary a dialogue between various institutional levels to develop an adaptation plan.

Zorrotzaurre is a significant example to understand the current situation in Bilbao.

It was an industrial area that will undergo a process of urban development in the next years. In the example of Zorrotzaurre project, one can wonder if it is necessary to urbanize an area subject to flooding risk as this would represent an unsustainable economic effort at the urban level. In this case, the lack of coordination at the various levels may cause a disproportionate expenditure of effort. Currently Zorrotzaurre has turned into an alternative cultural hub; its factories are occupied by cultural associations that organize social and cultural activities. Equally important is to take into account the current social situation. So 45

adaptation measures can be an important opportunity to add value to the attractiveness of the city and should be sustainable not only economically and environmentally, but also socially. This sustainability stall must be assessed over time.

From the current situation, I identify three important needs to face the impacts of climate change in Bilbao: - Better cooperation and interaction at different levels: the planning documents have to address the same strategy from different levels (territorial, local), in order to develop a more flexible and feasible plan. The development of flood-prone areas should be rethought considering the land use. So collaboration with other municipalities is important as well; - Develop a map of actions: coordinated actions allow to act efficiently following the priorities of the strategy adopted. For example, it will be possible to act in a crucial way identifying and locating the risk areas affected by flooding, starting from an improvement in the permeability of the soil, differentiating the drainage of water and increasing the green areas, etc; - Flexible adaptation measures: a flexible adaptation option means that alternative option pathways are not excluded and the design can be modified over time, in such a way that the adaptation measure can be adjusted accordingly.

Vulnerability management often is focused mainly on technical fixes, because there are limited co-operation between local sector organisations, lack of local coordination, and an absence of methods to build institutional knowledge (Glaas et al., 2010). Only after a good coordination between government levels it will be 46

possible to develop a map of actions aimed at achieving the common strategy.

Furthermore flexible and adaptive management approaches are important to make an effective adaptation strategy. This leaves a range of future options available and includes a smart land use. The functioning of institutions, the necessary knowledge base and the support of appropriate policies are important aspects of resilience (Da Silva et al., 2012). Rigid planning frameworks, excessive reliance just on technical solutions or reluctance to change are some of barriers that cities have to overtake.

These problems impede the implementation of comprehensive strategy (Stahre, 2006; Wangel, 2012).

6. Discussion and conclusions: lessons learnt and final recommendations This study reviews the state of the art in urban climate adaptation and draws some recommendations to guarantee a successful transferability of an urban adaptation measure. Through the analysis of selected water adaptation strategies in phase of implementation around the world, I analyse the necessary conditions for transferring adaptation measures. This is done through a case study in the city of Bilbao.

Lessons learned The lessons learned from the four international examples are: work at several levels; use the best science available; promote flexible and adaptive management approaches; improve awareness; knowledge, skills and resources of City staff and promote community participation. Some of these coincide with the needs identified for Bilbao.

The database developed supports the choice of appropriate measures. The first two sections of the database (General Information and Organisation) identify the 47

background of the measure, the climate hazard facing and the actors involved. The other two sections allow us to know the conditions required for the effectiveness and the feasibility (Effectiveness, Cost-Efficiency). The information extracted from the database are useful for individuating measures that are compatible with the current situation of Bilbao.

Two of the measures analysed in the section â&#x20AC;&#x153;International advancesâ&#x20AC;? are particularly suitable to face the flooding in Bilbao: disconnection of stormwater from sewer (Copenhagen) and water square (Rotterdam). The first could reduce the likelihood of flooding in the city adapting the volume of wastewater conveyed to the sewer. A good knowledge of the state-of-art and the availability of specific technologies are important to carry out this type of measure. Disconnection of stormwater in Bilbao will be possible after a feasibility study. The second combines water storage and stormwater protection with the improvement of the quality of urban public space. This involves not only technological knowledge, but also the consent of citizens. A participatory trajectory with the local community is useful to conceive ideas about the square. A water square project in Bilbao could be useful to create flooding protected areas.

Factors that facilitate the transferability of adaptation measures Two important factors that facilitate the development of adaptation measures are: - Improve awareness levels within the institutions: collection of good practices is a manner of cover knowledge gap; - Increase the awareness and participation of different groups of interested agents: the citizens are the main stakeholders with as little decision-making power (and cheap). Improving processes of participation clears the inequality into decision-making.

48

Cover the knowledge gap is important to increase the awareness and competence of local administrations. Furthermore, if a measure is designed through a participatory process, likely it will comply with the criteria above, because cultural and economic aspects and needs of citizen are take into account.

The citizens are the main stakeholders and they could be a resource for the implementation process. Also people live the city, so their needs have to be included in the project. Participatory process can create equality of social power and increase the feeling of identity and the attachment to certain places. Moreover, as above mentioned, projects at local scale have different advantages such as the potentially quick return of the investment, as the case of Rotterdam.

If a factor is important for the implementation of a measure, it will be crucial for the transferability. The success of adaptation measures are influenced from (Kazmierczak A. and Carter J., 2010): -

Collaboration with external stakeholders;

-

Development of local regulations and policies;

-

Access to funding;

-

Awareness levels within the organisation;

-

Human resources and skills;

-

Public awareness and engagement;

-

Quality and availability of information and data.

Table 5. Some of transferability factors: inputs and outcomes.

General input

Output expected

Population as resource

Increase feeling of identity

49

Cost of measure

investment visible; proportional benefits

Background knowledge

improve awareness

Technology level

improve feasibility

Map of coordinated actions

more efficient strategy

Identification of transferability criteria To transfer a measure from the city of origin to a new city, it is necessary to take into account where the measure should be developed and the cultural background of the city to design an effective process that leads to an adaptive system. Through the case study analysis of the city of Bilbao, taking into account the criteria selected in the database, I have identified these transferability criteria: physical, socio-cultural and socio-economic.

The first affects the spatial area. Note that the spatial area does not only include the projected area. The area of influence of a project could be bigger than the project boundaries. For example if a drainage system is in a strategic area, it will bring benefits to a wider area. The physical aspect also includes land-use as physical organization of the measure. Furthermore technical aspects should be taken into account. The feasibility of reproducibility of a measure depends not only on the costs of implementation but also on technological aspects such as the availability of a specific technology.

The second aspect is also related to land use. The use of space is not just strictly physical, but it is also determined by cultural practices. In the past, the waterfront of a city was a place for industrial activities due to its strategic position; today it is 50

often dedicated to recreational uses, so measures involving the coastal zone are mainly focused to its revitalization and the creation of natural areas for recreation.

The third aspect concerns the feasibility of the project in economic terms. In fact it is important to have secure funds in a coordinated way with the various levels of government.

When a measure is transferred to a new city, the monitoring process is important for evaluating the success of that step by step. The monitoring process is a crosscutting aspect to the three above. It does not affect the feasibility of implementation, but it is a factor that must be considered into the implementation process. In the case of initiatives involving local physical change, monitoring is relatively straightforward (Kazmierczak A. and Carter J., 2010) and this can help to assess its effectiveness. For example it is possible to measure the amount of stormwater going into the drainage system. In the case of strategic plans and policy, monitoring mechanisms to assess the success of a measure need to be established from early stages together with the design of the project. Aspects such as having a clear objective, accurate coordination and detailed time frame can facilitate the monitoring of the implementation.

Final recommendations From the case study I conclude that adaptation needs (flexibility; interaction at different

government

levels;

and

coordinated

actions)

and

successful

implementation factors (awareness within the institutions; and community participation

process)

should

be

addressed

to

guarantee

a

successful

implementation and transferability of an urban climate adaptation measure.

Together with the above, technical knowledge or access to it about: assessment of vulnerability, potential alternative best practices and assessment of costs and 51

benefits of potential measures, helps to choose the best actions. Moreover the monitoring process should be taken into account simultaneously to the draft and the implementation of the measure in order to evaluate the success of the measure transferred.

The need for urban development and regeneration would be an extra motivation to implement measures. Cities need maintenance, so this could be an opportunity to develop adaptation measures. Moreover learning from others (networking, research projects) is important to improve awareness and knowledge.

Adaptation measures can generate opportunities for urban renewal and can improve safety and quality of public space. Traditional defensive approaches should be turned into positive and proactive attitudes towards an urban renewal that integrates climate adaptation criteria.

52

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8. Appendix 8.1 Structure of database

GENERAL INFORMATION Dimension

Description

Variables

Units

Title adaptation option

Name of the adaptation option

na

text

General description

Short description na of the option (aim, functioning, etc)

text

Climate threat The climate hazard(s) addressed by the option

* Heat waves; Check box * Pluvial (multiple flooding; choice) * Fluvial flooding; * Sea level rise & storm surge; *Drought; * Wind storm.

59

Reference: literature

EEA, 2012; 8; ESPON 2011; IPCC, 2012; http://www.urbangr eenbluegrids.com/de sign-tool/; http://www.grabseu.org/, http://www.ppgis.m anchester.ac.uk/grab s/tool.html; http://baseadaptation.eu/; http://www.ramsescities.eu/; http://www.tyndall.a c.uk/adamproject/ab out; http://climateadapt.eea.europa.eu/

documents/18/1115 5975/Adaptation_St rategies_for_Europe an_Cities_Final_Re port.pdf Type

Describes the dimension of the options, clasifying in different types.

This categorization aims to take into account the diversity of adaptation options for different sectors and stakeholders.

Some options cut across several categories.

Furthermore, some adaptation options are interrelated.

*Structural/Ph ysical: Engineered and built environment

* Structural/Physic al: Engineering and built environment (Grey), Technological, Ecosystem based (Green-Blue) and services oriented

* Government policies and programs

* Technological * Ecosystem based: green * Services * Educational * Informational * Behavioral * Economic * Laws and regulations

* Social: 60

Check box (multiple category choice)

IPCC, WGII,chap 14, 2014

Educational, Informational and Behavioral * Institutional: Economic, Laws and regulations, Government policies and programs Geography

Scale

Climatic region(s) to which the option be applied.

Climate change regions (not only climate regions) are regions with similar climate change characteristics and derive from a cluster analysis of 8 climate change variables

* SouthernCentral Europe

Scale of implementation of option:

* Building/ infrastructure

* At the urban scale, components and parameters for architectural and spatial quality include infrastructure, urban form,

* Northern Europe

Check box (multiple category choice)

EEA, 2012; Espon, 2011

Check box (single choice)

http://www.urbangr eenbluegrids.com/de sign-tool/

* NorthernCentral Europe * Mediterranea n region * Northernwestern Europe

* Building block/ garden /square * Street * District/ Neighbourhoo d * Village/city 61

proximity to facilities and functions, access to green areas, building typology and morphology, transition between different urban areas and city boundaries.

* Land use zoning * Region * Nation

* At the building scale, examples include views, isolation and contact, internal and external arrangements, transition between public and private domains, and perceived density.

Sector

Sector(s) for which the option can provide a solution

*Critical Infrastructure (Transport: road, rail, air, Inland waterways, ocean and short-sea shipping and ports; Energy: electricity, oil, gas; Green infrastructure) , * 62

Check box (multiple category choice)

EC, 2013a; EC, 2013b; http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUr iServ/LexUriServ.d o?uri=OJ:L:2008:34 5:0075:0082:EN:PD F

Construction * Water * Waste * ICT * Industry * Health * Primary sector EFFECTIVENESS Dimension

Description

Variables

Units

Main element of concern

Which element of vulnerability does the option influence most?

*Magnitude of the Impact derived from the hazard * Exposure * Sensitivity * Adaptive capacity

Check box (single choice)

Time horizon

It refers to the requierd time to start being effective the option

* Short (<5 y), * Medium (5 to 10y), * Long term (>10)

Years

*Enduring *Long >10 *Medium >5 *Short <2

Years

Implementing It refers to the -time requierd time to implement the option

63

Reference: literature

ORGANIZATION Dimensio n

Descriptio n

Variables

Units

Responsibl Stakeholder * National e party responsible government for * Regional implementa administration * Municipality tion- It relates to * Company the * Governance Household/indiv and idual institutional * Water needs. board/water catchment management organisation Monitorin g: PERIODI C VULNER ABILITY ASSESSM ENTS

It refers to monitoring of adaptation measures implementa tion. The objective here is to quantify the outcome of an adaptation option on a

It is possible to distinguish between adaptation level to be monitored and the time interval: * Project level (Every 3-5 years) * Adaptation program or strategy (Every 5-10 years) 64

Reference: literature

Check Flรถrke et al., 2011; box http://climwatadapt.eu/invento (single ryofmeasures choice )

Years

Vulnerability Sourcebook, 2014

system’s sensitivity or adaptive capacity, and thus its vulnerabilit y.

COST-EFFICIENCY Dimension Descriptio n

Variables

Units

Investment Additional cost cost relative to the "base case" (the situation in which the adaptation measure has not been installed).

Provide the year that applies cost data, currency exchange rates

1_Direct cost: * Investment expenditure: adaptation equipment expenditure, installation expenditure * Annual operating and maintenance costs: energy costs, materials and services costs, labour costs. fixed operating/main tenance costs * Costs of administrative implementation of adaptation measures.

Numeric: Bosch & Pásztor, 2012; *€ ECONADAPT, 2015; http://base-adaptation.eu And if that is not available the option to provide a qualitative statement: * No extra costs * Moderate extra costs * High extra cost

65

Reference: literature

2_Indirect or external costs: * environmental and social costs, time saved, ...

Euros

66

http://base-adaptation.eu

8.2 List of cities Continent State

City

Documents / link city hall http://www.frankfurt.de/sixcms/detail.php? id=3077&_ffmpar[_id_inhalt]=54361 http://www.nature.com/nclimate/journal/v3 /n7/fig_tab/nclimate1943_F1.html

Frankfurt

http://www.stadtplanungsamtfrankfurt.de/start_1152.html?langfront=en &psid=1ced9ada8b0b7ac3b11ac4f13cf04c 27

Germany

Berlin

Europe

http://mayors-adapt.eu/wpcontent/uploads/2015/08/Frankfurt-amMain.pdf

http://adam-digital-compendium.pikpotsdam.de/learning-examples/thelearning-examples/urban-adaptation/ http://www.stadtentwicklung.berlin.de/plan en/planung/index_en.shtml https://www.london.gov.uk/priorities/envir onment

London

http://unhabitat.org/wpcontent/uploads/2012/06/GRHS2011CaseS tudyChapter06London.pdf https://www.london.gov.uk/priorities/plann ing

England

Bringhton

http://www.brightonhove.gov.uk/sites/brightonhove.gov.uk/files/downloads/sustainability/ Climate_Change_Action_Plan__draft_7.pdf 67

Birmingha m

Manchester

http://www.birminghamclimate.com/index. html http://www.birmingham.gov.uk/ccap http://www.manchester.gov.uk/info/50000 2/council_policies_and_strategies/3833/cli mate_change/3 http://www.ukcip.org.uk/planting-trees-tocool-an-urbanenvironment/#.VglAhrUs3To http://en.klimatilpasning.dk/media/568851/ copenhagen_adaption_plan.pdf

Denmark

Copenhage http://climaten adapt.eea.europa.eu/viewmeasure?ace_mea sure_id=4705 Stockholm http://www.sei-international.org/

Sweden

Malmo

http://www.grabseu.org/downloads/Climate_Adaptation_Str ategy_Malm__webb.pdf http://www.iamsterdam.com/en/searchresults?trm=enviromental

Netherlan ds

https://www.amsterdam.nl/gemeente/organ isatie/ruimte-economie/ruimteAmsterdam duurzaamheid/ruimteduurzaamheid/making-amsterdam/ http://unfccc.int/files/adaptation/nairobi_w ork_programme/private_sector_initiative/a pplication/pdf/psi_database_rhdhv_aas.pdf Rotterdam

Spain

Madrid

http://www.rotterdam.nl/urbanplanning http://www.madrid.es/UnidadWeb/Conteni dos/Publicaciones/TemaMedioAmbiente/S ustainable_Use_of_energy_web.pdf

Barcelona 68

Belgium

Brussels

http://www.brussels.be/artdet.cfm/4103

Paris

http://www.paris-green.com/en/regionalstrategy-climate-and-energy-framework/ http://parisactionclimat.paris.fr/fr/p/charte

France Nice

http://planclimat.nice.fr/library/userfiles/P CET_de_la_Ville_de_Nice_Adopte_le_2012-2012.pdf http://www.urbanistica.comune.roma.it/ro ma-resiliente.html

Italy

Rome

http://climateadapt.eea.europa.eu/countries/italy http://www.iclei-europe.org/topics/climatechange-adaptation/ http://www.csb.gov.tr/db/iklim/editordosya /IDEP_ENG.pdf

Turkey

Istanbul

http://www.ibb.gov.tr/enUS/Organization/birimler/cevrekorumamd/ Pages/AnaSayfa.aspx#.VgUGlLUs3To http://ipc.sabanciuniv.edu/en/

Norway

Oslo

http://www.c40.org/cities/oslo http://www.burohappold.com/projects/proj ect/rehabilitation-plan-of-theenvironmental-and-urban-status-of-southriyadh-198/

Riyadh Asia/Pacif ic

Saudi Arabian

Jeddah

http://www.arriyadh.com/Eng/ADA/Left/P lanProj/More/getdocument.aspx?f=/opensh are/Eng/ADA/Left/PlanProj/More/TotalStrategic-Plan-for-RiyadhCity.doc_cvt.htm http://www.researchgate.net/publication/27 7973133_Climate_Change_Adaptions_for _Urban_Water_Infrastructure_in_Jeddah_ 69

Kingdom_of_Saudi_Arabia http://www.burohappold.com/projects/proj ect/jeddah-strategic-development-plan195/ http://www.spacesyntax.com/project/jedda h-planning-framework/ Russian

Moscow

https://www.ci.moscow.id.us/records/City %20Reports/ghgbaselinereport.pdf

Quetar

Doha

http://unfccc.int/meetings/doha_nov_2012/ meeting/6815/php/view/decisions.php https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-pressoffice/2015/09/15/fact-sheet-us%E2%80%93-china-climate-leaderssummit

China

United Arab Emirates

http://www.bjghy.com/ghyEng/ghyEng4co Beijing(Pec nservation.aspx?menu=4&sideitem=41 hino) http://unhabitat.org/wpcontent/uploads/2012/06/GRHS2011CaseS tudyChapter05Beijing.pdf http://www.bjghw.gov.cn/web/static/catalo gs/catalog_abiti/abiti.html Shanghai

https://www.atse.org.au/Documents/Intern ational%20Colloboration/Workshops/Aust %20China%20Science%20and%20Tech/C limate%20Change/Zhan.pdf

Wuhan

http://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publi cation/30282/guidebook-climate-changeresilience.pdf

Abudabi

http://climate-l.iisd.org/news/leaders-planfor-climate-action-at-abu-dhabi-ascent/

Dubai

http://www.dubaiplan2021.ae/wpcontent/uploads/2015/06/DP2021_Booklet 70

_AE.pdf South Korea

Seoul Hong Kong

http://english.seoul.go.kr/policyinformation/environment-energy/ http://www.pland.gov.hk/pland_en/p_study /index.html http://www.kankyo.metro.tokyo.jp/en/clim ate/

Japan Tokyo

https://www.kankyo.metro.tokyo.jp/climat e/attachement/tokyo-climate-changestrategy_2007.6.1.pdf

Malasya

Kuala Lumpur

http://www.dbkl.gov.my/pskl2020/english/ environment/index.htm#15_4

Republic of Singapore

Singapore

Australia

Indonesia

http://www.ura.gov.sg/uol/DC.aspx#

https://www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/Sustain Melbourne ability/CouncilActions/Pages/AdaptingCli mateChange.aspx Sydney

http://www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/devel opment/planning-controls/localenvironmental-plans

Jakarta

http://www.deltacities.com/cities/jakarta/cl imate-change-adaptation http://adaptationmarketplace.org/data/librar y-documents/NCCAP_TechDoc.pdf

Philippine s

Manila

https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/ files/USL_140508_Urban%20Opportunitie s_rpt_0127.pdf http://climate.gov.ph/index.php/the-ccc

India

Mumbai

http://www.mca4climate.info/_assets/files/ Mumbai_final.pdf 71

http://steps-centre.org/wpcontent/uploads/Climate-Change-andCities.pdf

Delhi

Pakistan

Karachi

Bengala

Kolkata

Banglades h

Dhaka

Massachu setts

Boston

Illinois

Chicago

http://www.dda.org.in/planning/master_pla ns.htm http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol18/is s4/art48/

http://www.cityofboston.gov/climate/adapt ation/ http://www.grabseu.org/membersArea/files/chicago.pdf http://www.chicagoclimateaction.org/

New York

New York

http://www.nyc.gov/html/planyc/html/susta inability/climate-change.shtml http://www.harc.edu/work/COH_Sustainab ility_Action_Plan

North America

Houston

http://climatemayors.tumblr.com/ http://www.houstontx.gov/planning/PDHome-Page

Texas

http://greendallas.net/air-quality/climatechange/ Dallas

http://www.visionnorthtexas.org/implemen tation/Climate_Change_and_Urban_Planni ng.pdf

Pennsylva Philadelphi http://www.phila.gov/cityplanning/Pages/d nia a efault.aspx 72

http://www2.epa.gov/heat-islands http://www.phila.gov/green/PDFs/Attachm ent1_Philadelphia_Local_Action_Plan_Cli mate_Change.pdf Washingr on (state)

Maryland

Seattle

http://greenspace.seattle.gov/climateaction plan/#sthash.sLCp4YEn.E1QV9dj0.dpbs

http://ddot.dc.gov/sites/default/files/dc/site s/ddot/publication/attachments/ddot_climat Washingto e_adaptation_plan.pdf n http://www.mwcog.org/environment/climat e/about.asp San Francisco

http://www.sfenvironment.org/climatechange http://www.sfenvironment.org/sites/default /files/fliers/files/climateactionplan.pdf http://www.laregionalcollaborative.com/po licy-plans-climate-change/

California Los Angeles

http://environmentla.org/ead_GreenLACli mateLA.htm http://plan.lamayor.org/environment http://www.coolcalifornia.org/casestudy/city-of-los-angeles http://planning.lacounty.gov/CCAP

Oregon

Canada

Portland

https://www.portlandoregon.gov/bps/6556 0

Ottawa

http://ottawa.ca/en/city-hall/planning-anddevelopment/official-plan-and-masterplans/air-quality-and-climate-change

Toronto

http://www1.toronto.ca/wps/portal/content only?vgnextoid=4e4c295f69db1410VgnV CM10000071d60f89RCRD&vgnextchanne l=a201fbfa98491410VgnVCM10000071d6

Ontario

73

0f89RCRD

http://www.cleanairpartnership.org/pdf/fin alpaper_peck.pdf

Columbia Britannica

Chile

Vancouver

Santiago

http://vancouver.ca/greenvancouver/climate-change-adaptationstrategy.aspx http://vancouver.ca/files/cov/VancouverClimate-Change-Adaptation-Strategy2012-11-07.pdf http://www.ufz.de/climate-adaptationsantiago/index.php?en=19724 http://web.mit.edu/ebj/www/Santiago.pdf http://www.citiesalliance.org/sites/citiesalli ance.org/files/CA%20HABISP.pdf

SĂŁo Paulo Central&S outh America

Brasil

https://www.itdp.org/welcomedevelopments-in-sao-paulos-new-masterplan/ http://www.c40.org/blog_posts/climatechange-action-plan-s%C3%A3o-paulobrazil http://cidadeaberta.org.br/plano-diretor-pl6882013-final/

Rio de Janeiro

http://www.compactofmayors.org/pressrelease-rio-de-janeiro-first-fully-compliantcity-in-compact-of-mayors-tacklesclimate-change/ http://www.rio.rj.gov.br/dlstatic/10112/126 674/4134832/Resiliencia.pdf

Mexico

Mexico City

http://www.dac.dk/en/daccities/sustainable-cities/all-cases/socialcity/mexico-city-successful-environmental74

management/ http://citiesprogramme.com/wpcontent/uploads/2015/05/Case-StudyBogota-Climate-Change.pdf Colombia

Bogota

http://resilientcities.iclei.org/fileadmin/sites/resilientcities/files/Resilient_Cities_2014/PPTs/H/ H2_Tafur.pdf

Argentina

Buenos Aires

http://www.ibs.or.jp/sites/default/files/5_p ublish/11-Argentina.pdf

Gauteng Kenya

South Africa

Western Cape

http://www.joburg.org.za/index.php?option Johannesbu =com_content&view=article&id=8936&It rg emid=266 Nairobi

http://nairobiplanninginnovations.com/

https://www.capetown.gov.za/en/Environm entalResourceManagement/publications/D Cape Town ocuments/Framework_for_Adaptation_to_ Climate_Change_%28FAC4T%29_08_200 6_38200713832_465.pdf

8.3 Systematic review Tema: (climat* chang*) AND (urban*) AND (local) AND (adapt*) Refinado por: Bases de datos: ( WOS ) AND Tipos de documento: ( ARTICLE OR REVIEW ) AND Idiomas: ( ENGLISH ) AND Dominios de investigaciรณn: ( SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY OR SOCIAL SCIENCES ) 75

Período de tiempo: 2007-2015 Numero articulos: 315 Refinado por: Tema:(implement*) AND Áreas de investigación: ( ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES ECOLOGY OR URBAN STUDIES OR WATER RESOURCES ) Tipos de documento: ( ARTICLE ) Numero articulos: 54

Figure 3. Recap of case studies topic The trend graph of the publications is increasing. In 2005 and in 2006 there are fewer articles published on the topic.

76

Figure 4 Items published each year

Titles containing case studies (14): Reference (Authors, year, title)

Theme

Abunnasr, Yaser, Elisabeth M. Hamin, and Elizabeth Brabec. 2015. ‘Windows of Opportunity: Addressing Climate Uncertainty through Adaptation Plan Implementation’. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 58 (1): 135–55. doi:10.1080/09640568.2013.849233.

Urban planning

Andre, Karin, Louise Simonsson, Asa Gerger Swartling, and Bjorn-Ola Linner. 2012. ‘Method Development for Identifying and Analysing Stakeholders in Climate Change Adaptation Processes’. Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning 14 (3): 243–61. doi:10.1080/1523908X.2012.702562.

Policy/stakeholders

Boyd, Emily, and Aditya Ghosh. 2013. ‘Innovations for Enabling Urban Climate Governance: Evidence from Mumbai’. Environment and Planning C-Government and Policy 31 (5): 926–45. doi:10.1068/c12172.

Policy/governance

Brugger, Julie, and Michael Crimmins. 2015. ‘Designing Institutions to Support Local-Level Climate Change

Policy/water

77

Adaptation: Insights from a Case Study of the US Cooperative Extension System’. Weather Climate and Society 7 (1): 18–38. doi:10.1175/WCAS-D-1300036.1.

Cohen, Stewart Jay, Stephen Sheppard, Alison Shaw, David Flanders, Sarah Burch, Bill Taylor, David Hutchinson, et al. 2012. ‘Downscaling and Visioning of Mountain Snow Packs and Other Climate Change Implications in North Vancouver, British Columbia’.

Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 17 (1): 25–49. doi:10.1007/s11027-011-93079. de Groot-Reichwein, M. a. M., H. Goosen, and M. G. N. van Steekelenburg. 2014. ‘Climate Proofing the Zuidplaspolder: A Guiding Model Approach to Climate Adaptation’. Regional Environmental Change 14 (3): 909–18. doi:10.1007/s10113-013-0509-4.

Jonkman, Sebastiaan N., Marten M. Hillen, Robert J. Nicholls, Wim Kanning, and Mathijs van Ledden.

2013. ‘Costs of Adapting Coastal Defences to SeaLevel Rise-New Estimates and Their Implications’.

Journal of Coastal Research 29 (5): 1212–26. doi:10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-12-00230.1.

management

Urban planning / water management

Urban planning

Sea level risk(Water)

Kirshen, Paul, Lauren Caputo, Richard M. Vogel, Paul Mathisen, Ana Rosner, and Tom Renaud. 2015.

‘Adapting Urban Infrastructure to Climate Change: A Drainage Case Study’. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management 141 (4): 04014064. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)WR.1943-5452.0000443.

Drainages system (Water)

Kumar, Parveen, and Davide Geneletti. 2015. ‘How Are Climate Change Concerns Addressed by Spatial Plans? An Evaluation Framework, and an Application to Indian Cities’. Land Use Policy 42 (January): 210–

Urban planning

78

26. doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2014.07.016.

Laves, G., S. Kenway, D. Begbie, A. Roiko, R. W. Carter, and P. Waterman. 2014. ‘The Research-Policy Nexus in Climate Change Adaptation: Experience from the Urban Water Sector in South East Queensland, Australia’. Regional Environmental Change 14 (2): 449–61. doi:10.1007/s10113-013-0556-x.

Water sector

Lin, Brenda B., Yong Bing Khoo, Matthew Inman, ChiHsiang Wang, Sorada Tapsuwan, and Xiaoming Wang. 2014. ‘Assessing Inundation Damage and Timing of Adaptation: Sea Level Rise and the Complexities of Land Use in Coastal Communities’.

Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 19 (5): 551–68. doi:10.1007/s11027-0139448-0.

Sea level risk(Water)

Minoia, Paola, Alessandro Calzavara, Loris Lovo, and Gabriele Zanetto. 2009. ‘An Assessment of the Principle of Subsidiarity in Urban Planning to Face Climate Change The Case of Martellago, Venice Province The Case of Martellago, Venice Province’.

International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management 1 (1): 63–74. doi:10.1108/17568690910934408.

Urban planning

Ronco, P., V. Gallina, S. Torresan, A. Zabeo, E. Semenzin, A. Critto, and A. Marcomini. 2014. ‘The KULTURisk Regional Risk Assessment Methodology for Water-Related Natural Hazards - Part 1: PhysicalEnvironmental Assessment’. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 18 (12): 5399–5414. doi:10.5194/hess-18-5399-2014.

Water hazards

Zhang, Qian, Bing Liu, Weige Zhang, Gui Jin, and Zhaohua Li. 2015. ‘Assessing the Regional SpatioTemporal Pattern of Water Stress: A Case Study in Zhangye City of China’. Physics and Chemistry of the

Water stress

79

Earth 79-82: 20–28. doi:10.1016/j.pce.2014.10.007.

All items (54): Abunnasr, Yaser, Elisabeth M. Hamin, and Elizabeth Brabec. 2015. ‘Windows of Opportunity: Addressing Climate Uncertainty through Adaptation Plan Implementation’. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 58 (1): 135–55. doi:10.1080/09640568.2013.849233.

Ahammad, Ronju. 2011. ‘Constraints of pro-Poor Climate Change Adaptation in Chittagong City’. Environment and Urbanization 23 (2): 503–15. doi:10.1177/0956247811414633.

Andre, Karin, Louise Simonsson, Asa Gerger Swartling, and Bjorn-Ola Linner. 2012.

‘Method Development for Identifying and Analysing Stakeholders in Climate Change Adaptation Processes’. Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning 14 (3): 243–61. doi:10.1080/1523908X.2012.702562.

Berry, Pam M., Sally Brown, Minpeng Chen, Areti Kontogianni, Olwen Rowlands, Gillian Simpson, and Michalis Skourtos. 2015. ‘Cross-Sectoral Interactions of Adaptation and Mitigation Measures’. Climatic Change 128 (3-4): 381–93. doi:10.1007/s10584-014-1214-0.

Blenkinsop, S., Y. Zhao, J. Quinn, F. Berryman, J. Thornes, C. Baker, and H. J. Fowler. 2012. ‘Downscaling Future Wind Hazard for SE London Using the UKCP09 Regional Climate Model Ensemble’. Climate Research 53 (2): 141–56. doi:10.3354/cr01091.

Boarnet, Marlon G. 2011. ‘A Broader Context for Land Use and Travel Behavior, and a Research Agenda’. Journal of the American Planning Association 77 (3): 197– 213. doi:10.1080/01944363.2011.593483.

Bogardi, Janos J., David Dudgeon, Richard Lawford, Eva Flinkerbusch, Andrea Meyn, Claudia Pahl-Wostl, Konrad Vielhauer, and Charles Voeroesmarty. 2012. ‘Water Security for a Planet under Pressure: Interconnected Challenges of a Changing World Call for Sustainable Solutions’. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 4 (1): 35–43. doi:10.1016/j.cosust.2011.12.002.

Bos, Darren G., and Helen L. Brown. 2015. ‘Overcoming Barriers to Community Participation in a Catchment-Scale Experiment: Building Trust and Changing Behavior’. Freshwater Science 34 (3): 1169–75. doi:10.1086/682421.

80

Boyd, Emily, and Aditya Ghosh. 2013. ‘Innovations for Enabling Urban Climate Governance: Evidence from Mumbai’. Environment and Planning C-Government and Policy 31 (5): 926–45. doi:10.1068/c12172.

Broto, Vanesa Castan, Emily Boyd, and Jonathan Ensor. 2015. ‘Participatory Urban Planning for Climate Change Adaptation in Coastal Cities: Lessons from a Pilot Experience in Maputo, Mozambique’. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 13 (April): 11–18. doi:10.1016/j.cosust.2014.12.005.

Brugger, Julie, and Michael Crimmins. 2015. ‘Designing Institutions to Support LocalLevel Climate Change Adaptation: Insights from a Case Study of the US Cooperative Extension System’. Weather Climate and Society 7 (1): 18–38. doi:10.1175/WCAS-D-13-00036.1.

Chelleri, L., T. Schuetze, and L. Salvati. 2015. ‘Integrating Resilience with Urban Sustainability in Neglected Neighborhoods: Challenges and Opportunities of Transitioning to Decentralized Water Management in Mexico City’. Habitat International 48 (August): 122–30. doi:10.1016/j.habitatint.2015.03.016.

Chomaitong, Surawut, and Ranjith Perera. 2014. ‘Adoption of the Low Carbon Society Policy in Locally-Governed Urban Areas: Experience from Thai Municipalities’.

Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 19 (8): 1255–75. doi:10.1007/s11027-013-9472-0.

Cohen, Stewart Jay, Stephen Sheppard, Alison Shaw, David Flanders, Sarah Burch, Bill Taylor, David Hutchinson, et al. 2012. ‘Downscaling and Visioning of Mountain Snow Packs and Other Climate Change Implications in North Vancouver, British Columbia’. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 17 (1): 25–49. doi:10.1007/s11027-011-9307-9.

David, Asella, Justine Braby, Juliane Zeidler, Laudika Kandjinga, and Johnson Ndokosho. 2013. ‘Building Adaptive Capacity in Rural Namibia Community Information Toolkits on Climate Change’. International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management 5 (2): 215–29. doi:10.1108/17568691311327604. de Graaf, R. E., N. C. van de Giesen, and F. H. M. van de Ven. 2007. ‘The Closed City as a Strategy to Reduce Vulnerability of Urban Areas for Climate Change’. Water Science and Technology 56 (4): 165–73. doi:10.2166/wst.2007.548. de Groot-Reichwein, M. a. M., H. Goosen, and M. G. N. van Steekelenburg. 2014.

‘Climate Proofing the Zuidplaspolder: A Guiding Model Approach to Climate 81

Adaptation’. Regional Environmental Change 14 (3): 909–18. doi:10.1007/s10113-013-0509-4. de Oliveira, Jose A. Puppim. 2013. ‘Learning How to Align Climate, Environmental and Development Objectives in Cities: Lessons from the Implementation of Climate Co-Benefits Initiatives in Urban Asia’. Journal of Cleaner Production 58 (November): 7–14. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.08.009.

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