Sexism in Fashion Related Imagery

Sexism in Fashion Related Imagery

Sexism in Fashion Related Imagery Written: 13th of April 2017 Submitted: 19th of April 2017 Sandra Kane FM2024

SEXISM IN FASHION RELATED IMAGERY

Abstract

ABSTRACT Are we truly in the midst of equality for men and woman in the fashion world or is objectification being dressed up as luxury and sexism passing as empowerment?

The fashion industry focuses highly on woman; fashion advertisements often use female nude models. Advertising anything from socks to sunglasses with explicit sexual imagery that borders on pornographic.

METHODOLOGY

Primary

Questionnaire: A survey was carried out via Survey

Monkey, to 28 individuals who were chosen to gather a wide range of opinions from different age groups and genders.

Interview: A fashion photographer, Adam Flowers,

was interviewed via email. The interviewee was selected because he mainly photographs semi-nude woman, he also occasionally covers their nipple when posting on Instagram using a star icon. The photographer once posted pictures of a topless male model using the same star icon over the nipple to shine light on the double standard.

Secondary Books: These books were read to gather research

about sexism, the modern feminist and advertising.

Provocateur: Images of Women and Minorities in Advertising and Living Dolls: Empowerment, Liberation, Choice.

Websites: Dozens of websites were used to find key information in writing this report, please see references.

Documentary: Miss Representation: Explores the

under-representation of women in positions of power and influence in America, and challenges the media's limited portrayal of what it means to be a powerful woman.

Contents 1.0 Introduction 1-2

An introduction into what will be discussed and what the aim of this report is.

2.3

3.0

Selling clothes or selling sex?

Summary & Conclusion

19-20 21-22 23-24 25-26 27-28

29-30

American Apparel Defaced Billboard Ad School Days The Founder The Rise and Fall

Conclusion to the report

CONTENTS

2.0

2.1

Liberation or Fashion Statement?

Is society shaping advertisements or are advertisements influencing society?

3-4 5-6 7-8

9-10 Sex Sells 11-14 Tom Ford, Banned Ads 15-16 Tom Ford, Response 17-18 Marketing Men

Free the Nipple campaign Celebrity Influence Act of Rebelling

4.0

5.0

Bibliography

Appendix

31-34

35-36 Interview Adam Flowers 37-40 Survey Results 41-42 References

All resources used

SEXISM IN FASHION RELATED IMAGERY

EXPLOITATION

Introduction FEMINISM 1

This report will discuss the way woman are portrayed in fashion photography, fashion advertisements and on image-sharing social networking sights.

Uncovering whether the imagery is sexist and exploiting woman or liberating and pushing feminist boundaries. This report will investigate and collect both sides of the argument. This report will also discuss the Free the Nipple campaign and modern feminism. Dicussing whether today’s woman want to be naked to feel empowered or if the media and influence has lead them to believe that is how they should feel, while distracting from the real issues.

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SEXISM IN FASHION RELATED IMAGERY

2.0

FREE THE NIPPLE

SEXISM IN FASHION RELATED IMAGERY

Mission Bay, New Zealand.

Liberation or

FASHION STATEMENT?

3

FREE THE NIPPLE

The global campaign is part of a large mission to reclaim women’s bodies and sexuality, with hopes to encourage equality and to see women being able to freely display their breast without judgement.

LIBERATION

4

FREE THE NIPPLE

The Free the Nipple campaign originated and is inspired by a film of the same name, the film is based on true events and was released in 2014. In the film, you follow a group of passionate women who are attempting to remove the censor of women’s breast in America.

SEXISM IN FASHION RELATED IMAGERY

Woman around the world have participated in the movement, in January of 2016 dozens of women ditched their bras for a topless picnic at Orleigh Park in Brisbane.

The same year in December dozens of women and even some men stripped down to just their bottoms at a beach in Mission Bay, New Zealand. They ended up attracting unwanted sexual attention by camera-ready tourists.

(Robb, 2016) (Moss, 2016) Many influential celebrities have embraced the Free the Nipple campaign but there has been a dispute on whether these celebrities are promoting a feminist agenda or if their focus is on following trends and making a fashion statement. When celebrities like Kim Kardashian and Kendall Jenner free the nipple is the focus on fashion and style, rather than freedom of expression. (Morgan, 2016)

Orleigh Park, Brisbane.

5

FREE THE NIPPLE

When Kim Kardashian came into question about why she often freed the nipple, she posted on her website and app: "I have always loved sheer—I just don't GAF, LOL." and her sister’s response wasn’t much more indepth, Kendall Jenner described her reasoning: “Lately, it’s like I’m either braless or I have my bra out, lol. I’m all about freeing the nipple!” she wrote. “I just think it’s cool to show off what’s under your shirt—whether that’s a cute bralette or just skin. ;)”

Neither of the sisters stated that they were freeing the nipple to promote feminism. (Morgan, 2016) (Anon., 2016)

Kim Kardashian, Love Magazine.

FASHION STATEMENT

6

LIBERATION

SEXISM IN FASHION RELATED IMAGERY

Kendal Jenner, NYC

7

FREE THE NIPPLE

The influence and reach from these celebrities is creating awareness of the movement, although it is worth mentioning that in the '60s and '70s woman ditched their bras to make a point about living in a male-dominated society and as an act of rebelling. They did not ditch them under sheer tops on purpose and care about growing their Instagram following.

WOMAN UNITE A survey was conducted and consumers were questioned on why celebrities like Kim Kardashian free the nipple: More than half (57.14%) responded with the answer that she uses it for publicity, while (32.14%) said she uses the movement for fashion and only a small percentage (10.71%) said it is used for feminist agendas.When questioned if woman should be topless in public, most people answered (32.14%) “No it’s degrading to woman and (32.14%) answered “Yes but I wouldn’t personally”. A smaller number (21.43%) answered “Yes absolutely” and (14.29) said they wouldn’t want their partner to.

Interviewee Adam Flowers thoughts on the free the nipple campaign: “I'm pro equality for every decent human being, and if people want to campaign for that though varying degrees of nudity I think that’s fine. There is nothing offensive about the human form.“

FASHION STATEMENT

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SEXISM IN FASHION RELATED IMAGERY

2.1

SEXISM IN FASHION RELATED IMAGERY

Is society shaping

EMPOWERMENT

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or are advertisements influencing society?

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D&G, Banned Advertisement

In today’s day and age, we are bombarded with ads at every turn we take. Advertising is said to influence society and shape the way people think. It is known that ads encourage consumers to buy into the latest products and trends. But could ads be more dangerous than that, could they influence the way today’s society think about woman? Many well-known fashion brands have been under fire for controversial photography used in advertising, it is no secret that sex sells.

ART

10

SEXISM IN FASHION RELATED IMAGERY

One of the most controversial brands being Tom Ford, Thomas Carlyle Ford is an American fashion designer, film director, screenwriter and film producer.

In 2007 Tom Ford released a series of advertisement promoting his latest fragrance that quickly became banned everywhere. The images were shot by Terry Richardson, a proud pervert who has had several accusations of sexual exploitation against him. One advert showed a woman with a completely shaved body, a fragrance bottle placed between her legs and her hand leading to the bottle and another showed a woman with surgically enlarged breasts and an open mouth. (Fishbourne, 2011)

SEXISM

Are these advertisements trying to send the message that if you buy this cologne, you also buy the woman?

In the photographs, it is hard to tell if it's a model or a sex doll, is she a real person or just an object?

There is this ideologist about the perfect woman, her perfectly shaved body and incredible figure. Most woman in real life don’t look that way. Woman measure themselves against an impossibly high standard and men shown images of perfect models are said to judge woman more harshly. (Miss Representation, 2014)

11

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A fragrance for men, we NEED a naked woman.....

A spokeswoman for Tom Ford beauty stated that

“the sharper, more graphic approach clearly communicated the bold and provocative mood of the fragrance.� (Marie Claire, 2007) 12

SEXISM IN FASHION RELATED IMAGERY

2008, Eyewear Banned Ad

The following year Italy’s advertising watchdog banned an ad Tom Ford released for Eyewear from their national media. The ad featured a woman wearing the brand’s sunglasses with her mouth open wide and a man’s finger in it, perhaps to insinuate oral sex. They deemed the ads to be “markedly vulgar” “transcends the limits of simple bad taste” and “evokes an offending and abusive act against women, which degrades the dignity of the person.” Perhaps the amount of publicity Tom Ford received the year prior led him to release similar set of advertisements, purposely causing controversy. (Blogs, 2008) Again, in 2010 Tom Ford released a S/S eyewear collection campaign. The campaign featured two actors, a fully clothed Nicolas Hoult sat down while a naked Carolyn Murphy combed his hair. Many advertisements feature a fully clothed man and a naked woman, do fashion adverts need a naked woman to promote their menswear fragrance, eyewear and clothesline?

13

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2010 S/S Eyewear Advertisement

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SEXISM IN FASHION RELATED IMAGERY

Thomas Carlyle Ford

15

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Tom Ford has been questioned about his bold way of advertising and in March of 2015 he spoke out. -

“I’ve been criticised for objectifying women. But I’m an equal opportunity objectifier – I’m just as happy to objectify men. The thing is, you can’t show male nudity in our culture in the way you can show female nudity. We’re very comfortable as a culture exploiting women, but not men. But I don’t think of it as exploitation [either way].”

"There’s nothing stronger and more powerful than a beautiful woman. I don’t think expressing what nature intended you to be is anything but powerful.

My women are not sitting there waiting for someone, they’re taking charge. Doesn’t matter whether they’re naked – they’re powerful, they’re smart, and you’re not going to get them if they don’t want you.”

(Akbareian, 2015)

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SEXISM IN FASHION RELATED IMAGERY

Does showing woman in this explicit way, even if you argue you would exploit men the same, convey to society that women are just sexual. Tom Ford is a homosexual male; he has previously said his adverts as artistic pieces. But in reality has he just worked out how to market to straight men, using entitlement and sexual dominance. Advertisers are showing woman in this way because it’s what sells. Survey results show that society still primarily see breasts as sexual, whether the photographers or brands say they are pushing feminist agendas or making art. They are still sexualising woman.

EXPLOITATION

Interviewee Adam Flowers was asked if he believes the models he photographs feel liberated, he responded: “Yes I do and I think that comes down to the vibe and mood I create on a shoot.” He explained “Lots of the really sexy images that I shoot are of models who maybe give the viewer the impression that they are really confident, hot, smoking, bad ass, sexy women; but in reality, their personalities and life style don't give them the opportunity to express those things.” “I really pride myself on making the entire team, including the model, feel really comfortable on set.”

Survey results show that over half (67.86%) of people do not believe that breasts will ever not be sexual, while (25%) said it could be a possibility in the future and (7.14%) said they do not see breasts as sexual.

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SEXISM IN FASHION RELATED IMAGERY

2.2

SEXISM IN FASHION RELATED IMAGERY

Selling clothes or

SELLING SEX?

American Apparel are a clothing manufacturer, designer, distributor, marketer and retailer based in Los Angeles, California.

The company is mainly known for its provocative and controversial advertising campaigns; they have often been branded as sexist and sleazy. The company is also well known for their dedication to manufacturing in Los Angeles, they take pride in the fact that their garment workers are the highest paid in the world. They have also been praised for not airbrushing their models, using curvier “regular girls� and encouraging a more realistic standard of beauty.

The brand has often released advertising campaigns that have gone on to receive a big majority of press coverage and of course, draw a lot of fire. Many of their ads are very similar, they feature a young and fresh faced model. The model usually has very little or no clothing and she is usually striking a provocative pose. The adverts look personal, as if they could have been taken by a partner with a polaroid camera.

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LIBERATION

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SEXISM IN FASHION RELATED IMAGERY

Many American Apparel advertisements have been banned, in 2008 the brand outraged onlookers with a billboard above an American Apparel store in downtown Toronto. The billboard featured a naked woman with her legs apart, bent over with a bare arched back.

The billboard was removed after two months, following being defaced with a spray-painted comment: "Gee, I wonder why women get raped?". (Gilbert, 2008)

"Gee, I wonder why women get raped?"

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Marsha Brady, one of American Apparel’s creative director’s response when questioned about the billboard advertisement:

"It is a little bit disconcerting to see what feminism has evolved into, when there’s a group of people attempting to shame female creativity, female beauty, female pride under the auspices of protecting women, it’s really, really scary."

Wendy Wright, the president of Concerned Women for America argued:

"The reality is that these ads and the so-called ‘creativity’ that birthed them casts women in an undignified manner, resulting in the opposite of what feminism purports to accomplish." (Gilbert, 2008) 22

FASHION

SEXISM IN FASHION RELATED IMAGERY

In 2013 American Apparel continued to cause controversy and have their advertisements banned, the UK’s Advertisement Standards Authority demanded two different ads "must not appear again in their current form". One ad was promoting bodysuits and thigh-high tights and the other a turtleneck sweater, both saw woman in provocative poses on a bed. The ASA ruled against the ads because it found them sexist The ASA reasoned: “We considered the images and the model's poses were gratuitous.""We considered the images were overtly sexual and that they demeaned women by emphasising the model's groin, buttocks and breasts and by not including her face.”

(Williams, 2013) The following year the brand released a “School Days” campaign and posted one photo on their UK Instagram featuring a young woman in a short pleated skirt, bending over to give the camera a very clear view of her underwear.

This advertisement is once again not including the models face, just her behind.

After the photograph gained backlash, it was taken down off their Instagram page but still circulates over social media and on the web.

Consumers have deemed the ad sexist, underage porn and dangerous. (Harris, 2014)

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American Apparel, ASA Banned Advertisements

FEMINIST

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SEXISM IN FASHION RELATED IMAGERY

The fundamental concern over these types of imagery is that it objectifies and endangers women rather than empowering them. The models in the photographs are looking vulnerable and submissive, not bold and confident. Studies have shown sexually explicit imagery in the media is linked to men’s acceptance of rape myths and sexual harassment. (Miss Representation, 2014) The brand has even gone as far as to feature several porn stars, one series of images of Sasha Grey show her lead topless appearing to be masturbating. To say this is supposed to be an advert for a clothing brand, the only thing she is wearing is thigh high socks. Is it truly necessary for the woman modelling socks to be naked? (Amarca, 2015)

Sasha Grey, American Apparel Advertisement

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The founder and former chief executive officer Dov Charney, has developed a reputation that has been parallel to that of photographer Terry Richardson, Charney is usually the photographer for American Apparel’s extreme photographs. He has been associated with several sexual harassment lawsuits involving ex-employees. It is famously known that he would walk around the factory floor in his underpants and he was alleged to have masturbated and received oral sex in the presence of a female journalist who later gave evidence against him in court. (Goldhill, 2014)

Dov Charney, American Apparel Founder

Dov Charney, 2008:

"Fashion is about sexuality, it’s hard to be fashionable and sanitize it and take the sexuality out of it. It's tasteful. It's utility — it's not Frederick's of Hollywood. It has to make you feel attractive. Sex makes you feel beautiful or handsome." (Anon., 2014)

SEX

26

SEXISM IN FASHION RELATED IMAGERY

The Rise &

FALL

American Apparel publicly suspended Charney in June 2014 and then terminated him as Chief Executive Officer in December that same year.

One year later in 2015 American Apparel filed a law-suit against Charney, in the court papers the company accused him of keeping videos on a company server of himself in sex acts with models and employees, with least one of these numerous encounters taking place in his office.

(Independent, 2015) In 2016 American Apparel filed for bankruptcy and closed all but one of its 13 UK stores with the loss of 150 jobs. Then in early 2017 a bankruptcy court in Delaware approved an eighty-eight-million-dollar sale of the brand’s intellectual property and manufacturing equipment to a Canadian apparel company, Gildan.

(Butler, 2016) (Lam, 2017)

27

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Dov Charney, 2016:

“The company is dead, they’re just tossing around a brand. It's like Polaroid or Sharper Image. The spirit of American Apparel is dead.”

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SEXISM IN FASHION RELATED IMAGERY

CONCLUSION

Summary

29

The most troubling aspect is that these adverts have become normal, people can pass them day to day without batting an eye.

Woman should have the right to their own body and be allowed to show their breast free from judgement, yes. But when they’re being shown for fashion, publicity or because a sleazy guy with a camera tells them to there’s no greater meaning behind it than sex. Rape and violence towards woman today is a huge problem and these adverts teach men that sexualisation of women is acceptable and that they are just objects.

In summary of this report, I believe consumers need to continue to be brave. If they see a sexist billboard, deface it. If they see a sexist advert, complain about it. Do not allow brands to get away with this outdated way of advertising.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Akbareian, E., 2015. Independent. [Online] Available at: http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/fashion/news/tom-ford-on-feminismand-objectifying-women-10127589.html [Accessed 23rd March 2017].

Amarca, N., 2015. Highsnobiety. [Online] Available at: http://www.highsnobiety.com/2015/10/07/american-apparel-ads/ [Accessed 23rd March 2017].

Anon., 2008. sunburntmirth. [Online] Available at: https://sunburntmirth.wordpress.com/2008/04/16/feminist-fashion-1-nws/ [Accessed 25th March 2017].

Anon., 2014. Hollywood Reporter. [Online] Available at: http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/american-apparels-dov-charneyfiring-713523 [Accessed 26th March 2017].

Anon., 2015. telltalesonline. [Online] Available at: http://www.telltalesonline.com/12566/kim-kardashian-nude-prada-explicitphoto-love-magazine/ [Accessed 23rd March 2017].

Anon., 2016. IOL. [Online] Available at: http://www.iol.co.za/lifestyle/people/kendall-jenner-im-all-about-freeing-thenipple-2071466 [Accessed 20th March 2017].

Anon., n.d. [Online].

Bell, G., 2015. what was it really like to work at american apparel under dov charney?.

[Online] Available at: http://www.nylon.com/articles/american-apparel-stories [Accessed 23rd March 2017].

Blogs, A., 2008. Adweek. [Online] Available at: http://www.adweek.com/creativity/italy-gives-finger-latest-tom-fordad-15947/ [Accessed 21st March 2017].

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BORECKA, N., 2017. Empowered Sexism, How Fashion Killed Feminism. [Online] Available at: https://lonewolfmag.com/fashion-killed-feminism/ [Accessed 23rd March 2017].

Butler, S., 2016. The Guardian. [Online] Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/business/2016/nov/08/american-appareluk-business-adminstration [Accessed 23rd March 2017].

Cortese, A. J., 2007. Provocateur. In: Provocateur: Images of Women and Minorities in Advertising 3rd addition. s.l.:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, p. 192.

Fishbourne, M., 2011. Branding Value Now. [Online] Available at: http://brandingvaluenow.com/a-socially-conscious-examination-of-tomford/ [Accessed 23rd March 2017].

Gilbert, K., 2008. Life Site News. [Online] Available at: https://www.lifesitenews.com/news/american-apparel-defendspornographic-billboards [Accessed 23rd March 2017].

Goldhill, O., 2014. Telegraph. [Online] Available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/ usa/10914924/Sacked-American-Apparel-boss-the-exploits-that-didnt-get-him-fired. html [Accessed 29th March 2017].

Harris, S. A., 2014. Express. [Online] Available at: http://www.express.co.uk/news/uk/506616/American-Apparel-back-toschool-adverts-banned [Accessed 17th March 2017].

Independent, 2015. Independent. [Online] Available at: http://www.independent.ie/business/world/american-apparel-detailsallegations-of-sexual-misconduct-by-ousted-ceo-31326108.html [Accessed 29th March 2017].

Lam, B., 2017. The Atlantic. [Online] Available at: https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2017/01/americanapparel-gildan/513128/ [Accessed 4th April 2017].

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Marie Claire, 2007. Marie Claire. [Online] Available at: http://www.marieclaire.co.uk/news/celebrity-news/tom-ford-revealscontroverisal-ad-campaign-208597 [Accessed 26th March 2017].

Marriott, H., 2016. America Apparel: at first artsy and subversive, then it got creepy.

[Online] Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/business/2015/aug/21/american-apparelarty-subversive-creepy [Accessed 27th March 2017].

Miss Representation. 2014. [Film] Directed by Jennifer Siebel Newsom. USA: Girls' Club Entertainment.

Morgan, D., 2016. Artnalism. [Online] Available at: http://artnalism.com/free-the-nipple-freedom-self-fashion-statement/ [Accessed 19th March 2017].

Moss, R., 2016. Huffington Post. [Online] Available at: http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2016/01/18/free-the-nipple-picnicbrisbane_n_9007130.html [Accessed 23rd March 2017].

OATMAN, M., 2011. Motherjones. [Online] Available at: http://www.motherjones.com/media/2011/10/miss-representation-docshows-ugly-side-women-media [Accessed 20th March 2017].

Peck, J., 2014. The Guardian. [Online] Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/jun/17/terryrichardson-new-york-magazine-model [Accessed 27th March 2017].

Robb, S., 2016. Metro. [Online] Available at: http://metro.co.uk/2016/12/18/women-at-free-the-nipple-event-fallvictim-to-unwanted-sexual-attention-6330164/ [Accessed 20th March 2017].

Sanghani, R., 2015. Telegraph. [Online] Available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/life/i-love-ugly-the-sexist-adcampaign-that-keeps-getting-it-wrong/ [Accessed 20th March 2017].

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Staff, B., 2013. Buzzfeed. [Online] Available at: https://www.buzzfeed.com/copyranter/15-controversial-fashion-ads-thatwere-banned?utm_term=.kjnkxm1g#.jqaDmP5Y [Accessed 15th March 2017].

TILDEN, E., n.d. Bust. [Online] Available at: http://bust.com/feminism/12820-american-apparel-ads-take-femaleobjectification-to-new-heights-and-skirt-lengths-to-an-all-time-low.html [Accessed 19th March 2017].

Walter, N., 2010. Living Dolls. In: Living Dolls: The Return of Sexism. s.l.:Virago, p. 273.

Williams, A., 2013. Daily Mail. [Online] Available at: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2306672/American-Appareladverts-banned-using-overtly-sexual-images-women.html [Accessed 22nd March 2017].

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SEXISM IN FASHION RELATED IMAGERY

ADAM FLOWERS Interview

Adam Flowers Photography

35

Do you think there is sexism in fashion photography?

I have actually been discussing this with some of my friends and I think its very subjective and depends upon what you consider to be "fashion photography". Sadly there are lots of types of discrimination in every walk of life and every profession. I am confident that there are some images that people consider to be within the category of fashion photography that are sexist, conversely I can image that other people may consider the same images not to be sexist.

How would you describe your own photography?

I have always described my photography as fun, young and sexy. But I think my style is evolving a bit at the moment, its probably more sexy, young and fun... in that order!

To be honest I think my work is becoming more diverse, I've started shooting more man and more commercial work using diffrent lighting in the last year.

Do you believe the woman you photograph feel liberated?

Yeah I do and I think that comes down to the vibe and mood I create on a shoot. Lots of the really sexy images that I shoot are of models who maybe give the viewer the impression that they are really confident, hot, smoking, bad ass, sexy women; but in reality their personalities and life style don't give them theopportunity to express those things.

I really pride my self on making the entire team, including the model, feel really comfortable on set.

What are your feelings on the Free the Nipple campaign?

I'm pro equality for every decent human being, and if people want to campaign for that though variing degrees of nudity I think thats fine. There is nothing offensive about the human form.

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Survey RESULTS

SURVEY RESULTS

A survey was carried out via Survey Monkey, to 28 individuals male and female who were chosen to gather a wide range of opinions from different age groups and genders.

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18 females, 10 males

AGED:

35-44 45-54 <18

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25-34 18-24

Should woman be topless in public?

32.14% “No it’s degrading to woman” 21.43% “Yes absolutely” 14.29% “No, I wouldn't want my partner to” 32.14% “Yes but I wouldn’t personally”

Do you believe in equality for men and woman?

92.86% YES 7.14% NO

Do you think there is a double standard with male and females showing their nipple?

85.71% YES 14.29% NO

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Do you think womans breast will ever not be sexual?

25.00% “Yes in the future"

“I don't see them as sexual” 67.86% “No” 7.14%

Why do you think celebrities like Kim Kardashian free the nipple?

Fashion

Publicity

Feminism Do you think the Free The Nipple campaign is important for feminism?

53.57% “Yes it promotes equality”

“No, it's a waste of time” 42.86% “I think that there are more important feminist issues” 3.57%

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REFERENCES

Akbareian, E., 2015. Independent. [Online] Available at: http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/fashion/news/tom-ford-on-feminismand-objectifying-women-10127589.html [Accessed 23rd March 2017].

Amarca, N., 2015. Highsnobiety. [Online] Available at: http://www.highsnobiety.com/2015/10/07/american-apparel-ads/ [Accessed 23rd March 2017].

Anon., 2014. Hollywood Reporter. [Online] Available at: http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/american-apparels-dov-charneyfiring-713523 [Accessed 26th March 2017].

Anon., 2016. IOL. [Online] Available at: http://www.iol.co.za/lifestyle/people/kendall-jenner-im-all-about-freeing-thenipple-2071466 [Accessed 20th March 2017].

Anon., n.d. [Online].

Blogs, A., 2008. Adweek. [Online] Available at: http://www.adweek.com/creativity/italy-gives-finger-latest-tom-fordad-15947/ [Accessed 21st March 2017].

Butler, S., 2016. The Guardian. [Online] Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/business/2016/nov/08/american-apparel-ukbusiness-adminstration [Accessed 23rd March 2017].

Fishbourne, M., 2011. Branding Value Now. [Online] Available at: http://brandingvaluenow.com/a-socially-conscious-examination-of-tom-ford/ [Accessed 23rd March 2017].

Gilbert, K., 2008. Life Site News. [Online] Available at: https://www.lifesitenews.com/news/american-apparel-defends-pornographicbillboards [Accessed 23rd March 2017].

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Goldhill, O., 2014. Telegraph. [Online] Available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/ usa/10914924/Sacked-American-Apparel-boss-the-exploits-that-didnt-get-him-fired. html [Accessed 29th March 2017].

Harris, S. A., 2014. Express. [Online] Available at: http://www.express.co.uk/news/uk/506616/American-Apparel-back-toschool-adverts-banned [Accessed 17th March 2017].

Independent, 2015. Independent. [Online] Available at: http://www.independent.ie/business/world/american-apparel-detailsallegations-of-sexual-misconduct-by-ousted-ceo-31326108.html [Accessed 29th March 2017].

Lam, B., 2017. The Atlantic. [Online] Available at: https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2017/01/americanapparel-gildan/513128/ [Accessed 4th April 2017].

Marie Claire, 2007. Marie Claire. [Online] Available at: http://www.marieclaire.co.uk/news/celebrity-news/tom-ford-revealscontroverisal-ad-campaign-208597 [Accessed 26th March 2017].

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Morgan, D., 2016. Artnalism. [Online] Available at: http://artnalism.com/free-the-nipple-freedom-self-fashion-statement/ [Accessed 19th March 2017].

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